53:
696:
608:
the later folk songs and ballads, they are anonymous and objective, never betraying the feelings or attitudes of their authors." In contrast, the skaldic poetry tends to concern itself with contemporary events and personalities, although also sometimes dealing with or alluding to myth and legend; skaldic poetry avoids direct narration; and, it is often known who the authors of the skaldic verses are along with their dates, unlike the Eddic poetry.
1144:
2531:
1794:
1125:
1170:
stanza had eight lines, each having usually three lifts and almost invariably six syllables. Although other stress patterns appear, the verse is predominantly trochaic. The last two syllables in each line had to form a trochee (there are a few specific forms which utilize a stressed word at line-end,
909:
verse form, organized into four-line stanzas. The first and third lines were standard lines of
Germanic alliterative verse with four lifts and two or three alliterations, separated into two half-lines with cæsura; the second and fourth lines had three lifts and two alliterations, and no cæsura. This
755:
as a separate line. The Norse "couplet" is basically a single
Germanic line, a pair of half-lines joined by alliteration. Thus, a Norse fornyrðislag stanza of eight lines corresponds to four lines of Old-English alliterative verse. Another difference between the Norse system and the general Germanic
682:
verse form share similarities; such as, partial alliteration of stressed and grammatically important syllables, division of the verse into half lines or full lines and couplets, with fixed numbers of lines, line lengths determined by the number of stressed syllables (called "lifts"), and the linking
607:
Compared to the main skaldic style, the Eddic lays tend to be differentiated by three characteristics: the material deals with the mythology, ancient heroes, and ethics of the ancient Norse. Furthermore, the Eddic style is characterized by relative simplicity in terms of style and meter and, "like
542:
There are various types of Old Norse poetry which have been preserved. Of particular interest to scholars are the
Skaldic and Eddic lays, or poems. However, also of interest are occasional verse from other sources. Skaldic and Eddic works have many commonalities besides being written in Old Norse,
431:, after refined techniques for writing (such as the use of vellum, parchment paper, pens, and ink) were introduced—seemingly contemporaneously with the introduction of Christianity: thus, the general topic area of Old Norse poetry may be referred to as Old Icelandic poetry in literature.
1587:
rhyme in the first 2 syllables of the odd-lines (i.e., rhymes always coming at the fourth-syllable), and the even-lines never have rhyme on the fifth/sixth syllables (i.e.: they cannot harbor rhyme in these places because they extra-metrical), the following couplet shows the paradigm:
739:
formally consists of eight line stanzas. Each line of the stanza has two vocally stressed syllables, also known as "lifts", with a somewhat arbitrary number of other syllables. Through the use of alliteration, lines join into couplets. Generally, in the first line of
1443:
manifested here are also practically necessary in this complex and demanding form, as much to solve metrical difficulties as for the sake of vivid imagery. Intriguingly, the saga claims that Harald improvised these lines after he gave a lesser performance (in
1685:
The next form, which Snorri calls "ordinary/standard hrynhenda", is almost like a "combination" of the previous — alliteration always on the first metrical-position, and the rhymes in the odd-lines juxtaposed (all features in bold in this example):
1434:
In battle, we do not creep behind a shield before the din of weapons (so said the goddess of hawk-land , true of words). She who wore the necklace bade me to bear my head high in battle, when the battle-ice seeks to shatter
423:. Much Old Norse poetry was originally preserved in oral culture, but the Old Norse language ceased to be spoken and later writing tended to be confined to history rather than for new poetic creation, which is normal for an
1572:: The third line is, in fact, over-alliterated. There should be exactly two alliterants in the odd-numbered lines.) The metre gained some popularity in courtly poetry, as the rhythm may sound more majestic than dróttkvætt.
1024:
Eddic poems have other common characteristics besides verse form. The Eddic poetry lays are diverse; however, three important common characteristics can be described: mythology, ethics, and heroic lore.
1632:
Then, the variant-forms show unsurprising dróttkvætt patterns overall; the main difference being that the first trochee of the odd-lines are technically not reckoned as extrametrical since they harbor
471:. Poetry is referred to in such terms as 'the drink of the raven-god (= Odin)' even in the oldest preserved poetry, which is an indicator of its significance within the ancient Scandinavian culture.
744:, both "lifts", or stressed syllables alliterate. In the second line of any given couplet, only one of the two stressed syllables is alliterated, usually the first—this is the "head-stave" (or,
879:("meter of speeches"), which adds an unstressed syllable to each half-line, making six to eight (sometimes up to ten) unstressed syllables per line. This meter is similar to that used in the
559:
One major distinction between
Skaldic and Eddic poetry derives from the manuscript sources of the surviving known works. The large majority of works described as "Eddic" are found only in the
1448:); Harald judged that verse bad and then offered this one in the more demanding form. While the exchange may be fictionalized, the scene illustrates the regard in which the form was held.
2140:
520:. Eddaic poetry refers to poems on themes of mythology or ancient heroes, composed in simpler meters (see below) and with anonymous authors. Most of the Eddaic poems are preserved in the
1439:
The bracketed words in the poem ("so said the goddess of hawk-land, true of words") are syntactically separate but interspersed within the text of the rest of the verse. The elaborate
1560:
I ask the tester of monks (God) for a safe journey; the lord of the palace of the high ground (God — here we have a kenning in four parts) keep the seat of the falcon (hand) over me.
1166:
to its stanza structures. The resulting verse form goes well beyond the requirements of
Germanic alliterative verse and strongly resembles Celtic (Irish and Welsh) verse forms. The
1077:
In
Skaldic poetry, the structures used tend to be complex, evolved from the common Germanic poetic tradition. Around a hundred meters are known, many only from Snorri Sturluson's
1037:, however other types of mythology are also involved, including various other Germanic traditions, probable Christian ideas, and a wide range of other possibilities.
760:
where a thought begun on one line continues through the following lines; only seldom do they begin a new sentence in the second half-line. This example is from the
2133:
427:. Modern knowledge of Old Norse poetry is preserved by what was written down. Most of the Old Norse poetry that survives was composed or committed to writing in
419:
language, during the period from the 8th century to as late as the far end of the 13th century. Old Norse poetry is associated with the area now referred to as
751:
The word "line" and "couplet" need some clarification. Essentially, in fornyrðislag and many other forms, Norse poets treated each "half-line" of
Germanic
2126:
756:
pattern is that the Norse poets, unlike the Old
English poets, tended to treat each "couplet", or Germanic line, as a complete syntactic unit, avoiding
1061:
The skaldic forms were so called because of the existence of a socially-defined group of which the individual members were generally known by the term
530:. On the other hand, Skaldic poetry was usually written as praise for living kings and nobles, in more intricate meters and by known authors, known as
1016:("incantation meter"), which adds a fifth short (three-lift) line at the end of the stanza; in this form, the fifth line usually echoes the fourth.
595:", which is only found in later, paper manuscripts (rather than vellum). Together, all of these poems are grouped under the somewhat fluid term the
551:
Scholarly distinction between Eddic and
Skaldic works largely derives both from differing manuscript traditions and their typical matter and style.
1069:, or by similarly linguistically related terms, in Old Norse and particularly closely related languages. Basically, the skald was a type of poet.
375:
1782:
seems preferred (as well as keeping alliterative and rhyming syllables separated, which likely has to do with the syllabic-makeup of the line).
2080:
1579:: Snorri gives for certain at least three different variant-forms of hrynhenda. These long-syllabled lines are explained by Snorri as being
1648:, which is placing a rhyme on the first syllable of any line, is preferably avoided in all these forms: the rhymes are always preferred as
399:
1271:
The requirements of the verse form were so demanding that occasionally the text of the poems had to run parallel, with one thread of
361:
571:. Some poems not found in the early Eddic manuscripts are still considered to be "Eddic" due to their style. Examples include the "
1088:, a variant of fornyrðislag with alternating lines of 3 and 4 syllables, used in genealogical poems such as Þjóðólfr ór Hvíni's
1839:
2059:
2040:
158:
1727:
There is one more form which is a bit different though seemed to be counted among the previous group by Snorri, called
1053:
Eddic poetry is to indebted narratives describing heroes, which was part of a long oral tradition, as well as textual.
1656:
juxtaposed, and this is a key feature of its distinction (the significant features only are marked in bold below):
392:
17:
1033:
One major topic of Eddic poetry is mythology. The mythological topics of Eddic poetry most importantly include
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with eight syllables per line instead of six, with the similar rules of rhyme and alliteration, although each
200:
2570:
2565:
2000:
1866:, as did all poets ancient enough for that matter. This "breaking up of lines" was dictated by ear, not pen.
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metrical position (no longer "extra-metrical") while the rhyme remains the same (Snorri seems to imply that
276:
1275:
running through the on-side of the half-lines, and another running through the off-side. According to the
1227:
The first stressed syllable must alliterate with the alliterative stressed syllables of the previous line.
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2077:
385:
258:
543:
such as alliteration; however, scholars usually distinguish the two based on certain characteristics.
2555:
2444:
1735:(and, whether relevant to us or not, the second-syllable seems to be counted as the extra-metrical):
1294:
1093:
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1892:. University of Texas Press (Austin), 1962. ISBN 0-292-73061-6. General Introduction, pp. xiv–xv.
283:
662:
In Eddic, or Eddaic, poetry, the metric structures are for the most part either in the form of
1934:. University of Texas Press (Austin), 1962. ISBN 0-292-73061-6, General Introduction, p. xvii.
1636:, but the even-lines' extra-metrical feature is more or less as the same. The 2nd form is the
1175:
forms). In addition, specific requirements obtained for odd-numbered and even-numbered lines.
2351:
2118:
1008:
lends itself to dialogue and discourse. There were a number of variant stanza forms based on
130:
1921:. University of Texas Press (Austin), 1962. ISBN 0-292-73061-6, General Introduction, p. xv.
1178:
In the odd-numbered lines (equivalent to the a-verse of the traditional alliterative line):
2291:
2169:
1286:
306:
288:
177:
8:
2466:
2214:
451:
215:
2456:
2386:
2381:
2301:
1807:
1490:-variant shows particular subtleties. It is first attested around 985 in the so-called
762:
752:
647:
639:
627:
621:
482:
478:
347:
334:
36:
2326:
670:
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2431:
2421:
2194:
1148:
563:, while a few of the poems found in it also survive in independent recensions in the
321:
97:
84:
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In the even lines (equivalent to the b-verse of the traditional alliterative line):
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Old Norse poetry is conventionally, and somewhat arbitrarily, split into two types:
2401:
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2239:
2224:
2219:
1886:
1817:
475:
456:
424:
352:
316:
73:
1652:, "middle-of-the-line rhymes") — in the even-lines the rhyme and alliteration are
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Two of the stressed syllables share partial rhyme of consonants (which was called
567:
manuscript. Many verses from these Eddic poems are also quoted as evidence in the
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143:
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tells in fornyrðislag that two brothers were "the most rune-skilled brothers in
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2411:
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2234:
2209:
2199:
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As one can see, there is very often clashing stress in the middle of the line (
1137:
875:
517:
464:
435:
222:
170:
148:
90:
66:
2276:
2112:
1097:
890:, has only three syllables in its odd half-lines (but four in the even ones).
733:
is the more commonly used Eddic meter, and is often used for narrative poems.
592:
2549:
2535:
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2416:
2406:
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572:
339:
165:
78:
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1986:. Second Revision, revised. University of Texas Press, Austin (1962), p. xv
1960:. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln (1975) ISBN 0-8032-0855-3, p. 12-13
1947:. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln (1975) ISBN 0-8032-0855-3, p. 12-13
617:
564:
560:
527:
522:
494:
439:
1045:
Many of the Eddic lays can be characterized as focused on ethical topics.
2506:
2496:
2361:
2025:, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln (1975) ISBN 0-8032-0855-3, p. 107
1970:
1456:
1129:
1089:
722:
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manuscript, but a few others survive in manuscripts like the fragmentary
509:
445:
Poetry played an important role in the social and religious world of the
420:
240:
112:
102:
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757:
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247:
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http://www.library.wisc.edu/etext/jonas/Prosody/Prosody-I.html#Pro.I.B
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Because of its structure, which comprises clearly defined rhythmic
838:
498:
2115:
udvalg af norske og islandske skjaldekvad ved Finnur Jónsson, 1929
2021:
Hallberg, Peter, translated by Paul Schach and Sonja
Lindgrenson.
1956:
Hallberg, Peter, translated by Paul Schach and Sonja Lindgrenson.
1943:
Hallberg, Peter, translated by Paul Schach and Sonja Lindgrenson.
883:
713:
704:
428:
329:
2530:
1793:
2149:
1973:(ed.). A Companion to Old Norse-Icelandic Literature. P.267-268
1297:; the internal assonances and the alliteration are emboldened:
1272:
1124:
1001:
906:
902:
843:
546:
531:
468:
446:
2148:
2449:
1822:
1568:, who composed the poem asking God to keep him safe at sea. (
1494:
of which four lines survive (alliterants and rhymes bolded):
1282:
1231:
911:
502:
136:
460:
232:
207:
2047:
2028:
1182:
Two of the stressed syllables alliterate with each other.
501:, and an expansive vocabulary of poetic synonyms, termed
1583:
in most cases: the "main" form never has alliteration
434:
There are also around 122 verses preserved in Swedish
1858:
It must be kept in mind, that the Norse poets didn't
1482:('the flowing verse-form') is a later development of
638:('air of ancient utterings'), closely related to the
634:). They range from the ancient and relatively simple
1840:
Table of poems archived from dead link at abdn.ac.uk
1789:
1640:: in the odd-lines the alliteration is moved to the
1151:
contains a dróttkvætt poem in memory of a chieftain.
683:
of full lines or couplets by means of alliteration.
1996:
1455:poems that survive appear in one or another of the
415:encompasses a range of verse forms written in the
1162:metre", added internal rhymes and other forms of
2547:
1252:), not necessarily at the end of the word (e.g.
1203:), not necessarily at the end of the word (e.g.
1019:
2058:sfn error: no target: CITEREFClunies_Ross2005 (
2039:sfn error: no target: CITEREFClunies_Ross2005 (
1984:The Poetic Edda, Translated by Lee M. Hollander
1564:The author was said to be a Christian from the
774:
2134:
2074:Jónas Hallgrímsson: Selected Poetry and Prose
1969:Poole, Russell. 2005. Metre and Metrics. In:
1115:
393:
2053:
2034:
1466:
686:
547:Distinction between Skaldic and Eddic poetry
1905:Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers, 2023,
893:
474:Old Norse poetry developed from the common
2141:
2127:
626:Old Norse poetry has many metrical forms (
481:, and as such has many commonalities with
400:
386:
1903:The Poetic Edda: A Dual-Language Edition.
1056:
438:, 54 in Norwegian and 12 in Danish. (See
27:Range of verse forms written in Old Norse
2076:(1998), ch. III.1.B 'Skaldic Strophes',
1142:
1123:
694:
657:
14:
2548:
1084:One of the simpler skaldic meters was
2122:
554:
376:WikiProject Norse history and culture
982:Long is one night, long is the next;
922:
768:
2107:Den norsk-islandske skjaldedigtning
988:A month has often seemed less to me
602:
24:
2003:from the original on 28 March 2023
537:
25:
2582:
1907:https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0308
1833:
1575:We learn much about these in the
729:, which means "old story metre".
611:
2529:
2154:different cultures and languages
2072:Ringler, Dick (ed. and trans.).
1792:
1731:. The syllable-count changes to
991:than this half night of longing.
642:, to the innovative and complex
497:, poetic circumlocutions termed
51:
2089:
2066:
2015:
1989:
1189:) with dissimilar vowels (e.g.
1100:. Other Skaldic meters, sch as
886:. Conversely, another variant,
1976:
1963:
1950:
1937:
1924:
1911:
1895:
1880:
1852:
1230:Two of the stressed syllables
1072:
1048:
711:A verse form close to that of
668:("old story"/"epic meter") or
13:
1:
2109:ved Finnur Jónsson, 1912–1915
1873:
1020:Eddic topical characteristics
674:("song"/"chant meter"). Both
1028:
7:
1785:
1459:; several of the sagas are
459:, recounts the myth of how
10:
2587:
873:had a variant form called
856:that which dwarves forged
725:; in Norse, it was called
615:
259:First Grammatical Treatise
2525:
2160:
1755:Herda klett bana verdant.
1295:Battle of Stamford Bridge
1040:
926:
1845:
1745:Vægdarlaus feigum hausi.
894:Chant meter (Ljóðaháttr)
852:Yield up from the mound
2083:21 January 2013 at the
1664:ála kendi steykvilundum
1289:uttered these lines of
775:
654:'court-spoken meter').
651:
631:
1750:Hilmir lét höggum mæta
1152:
1140:
1128:Drawing of the copper
1057:Skaldic metrical forms
980:
835:
772:
708:
1997:"Wiktionary: "skald""
1740:Vápna hríd velta nádi
1550:ar dróttinn of mér st
1146:
1136:verse written in the
1127:
1094:Eyvindr Skáldaspillir
985:how can I bear three?
721:and in the Old Norse
698:
2571:Icelandic literature
2566:Old Norse literature
2023:Old Icelandic Poetry
1958:Old Icelandic Poetry
1945:Old Icelandic Poetry
1287:Harald III of Norway
1112:were more complex..
658:Eddic metrical forms
277:Proto-Indo-European
2561:Poetry by language
2098:, Snorri Sturluson
1982:Hollander, Lee M.
1930:Hollander, Lee M.
1917:Hollander, Lee M.
1808:Alliterative verse
1463:of skaldic poets.
1153:
1141:
848:your only daughter
763:Waking of Angantyr
753:alliterative verse
709:
622:Alliterative verse
555:Manuscript sources
493:poetry, including
479:alliterative verse
322:Greenlandic Norse
201:alliterative verse
2543:
2542:
2536:Poetry portal
2054:Clunies Ross 2005
2035:Clunies Ross 2005
1887:Hollander, Lee M.
1638:"troll-hrynjandi"
1618:veit þat) sóknar
1149:Karlevi Runestone
998:
997:
868:
867:
640:Old English meter
436:rune inscriptions
410:
409:
85:Greenlandic Norse
16:(Redirected from
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2113:Carmina Scaldica
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1718:iandi fram at s'
1492:Hafgerðingadrápa
1171:such as in some
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950:
934:
923:
910:example is from
830:
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769:
652:dróttkvæðr háttr
603:Matter and style
457:Snorri Sturluson
425:extinct language
413:Old Norse poetry
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364:Old Norse origin
362:English words of
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1353:orð), í bug skj
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18:Fornyrðislag
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1577:Hattatal
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1488:hrynhent
1441:kennings
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970:alfa
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806:augi
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449:. In
340:Norn
208:Sagas
2507:Urdu
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