Four occupations - Knowledge

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highly cultivated nature and manners of scholar-officials in order to appear more cultured and gain higher prestige and acceptance by the scholarly elite. They even purchased printed books that served as guides to proper conduct and behavior and which promoted merchant morality and business ethics. The social status of merchants rose to such significance that by the late Ming period, many scholar-officials were unabashed to declare publicly in their official family histories that they had family members who were merchants. The scholar-officials' dependence upon merchants received semi-legal standing when scholar-official Qiu Jun (1420–1495), argued that the state should only mitigate market affairs during times of pending crisis and that merchants were the best gauge in determining the strength of a nation's riches in resources. The Imperial court followed this guideline by granting merchants licenses to trade in salt in return for grain shipments to frontier garrisons in the north. The state realized that merchants could buy salt licenses with silver and in turn boost state revenues to the point where buying grain was not an issue.

1270: 1615: 1026: 202: 482: 776: 1824: 637: 832: 1967: 877: 794:—were much like farmers in the respect that they produced essential goods needed by themselves and the rest of society. Although they could not provide the state with much of its revenues since they often had no land of their own to be taxed, artisans and craftsmen were theoretically respected more than merchants. Since ancient times, the skilled work of artisans and craftsmen was handed down orally from father to son, although the work of architects and structural builders were sometimes codified, illustrated, and categorized in Chinese written works. 517:(221–206 BC) unified China under the Legalist system, the emperor assigned administration to dedicated officials rather than nobility, ending feudalism in China, replacing it with a centralized, bureaucratic government. The form of government created by the first emperor and his advisors was used by later dynasties to structure their own government. Under this system, the government thrived, as talented individuals could be more easily identified in the transformed society. However, the Qin became infamous for its oppressive measures, and so 1161: 1588:(c. 1617), eunuchs were often portrayed in starkly negative terms as enriching themselves through excessive taxation and indulging in cannibalism and debauched sexual practices. The eunuchs at the Forbidden City during the later Qing period were infamous for their corruption, stealing as much as they could. The position of eunuch at the Forbidden City offered such opportunities for theft and corruption that countless men willingly become eunuchs in order to live a better life. 6863: 1890: 767:(1368–1644), the socioeconomic class of farmers grew more and more indistinct from another social class in the four occupations: the artisan. Artisans began working on farms in peak periods and farmers often traveled into the city to find work during times of dearth. The distinction between what was town and country was blurred in Ming China, since suburban areas with farms were located just outside and in some cases within the walls of a city. 1554: 525: 680: 1760: 1138:)" under the daimyo, with 80% of peasants under the 5% samurai class, followed by craftsmen and merchants. However, various studies have revealed since about 1995 that the classes of peasants, craftsmen, and merchants under the samurai were equal, and the old hierarchy chart has been removed from Japanese history textbooks. In other words, peasants, craftsmen, and merchants are not a social pecking order, but a social classification. 20: 1713: 1240: 1452: 965: 1146:

official appointments. This century was a period of exceptional social mobility, with instances of merchants of samurai-descent or commoners becoming samurai. By the eighteenth century samurai and merchants had become interwoven intimately, despite general samurai hostility toward merchants who as their creditors were blamed for the financial difficulties of a debt-ridden samurai class.

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and charities, and advocating Confucian values of self-cultivation of integrity, frugality, and hard work. By the late imperial period, it was a trend in some regions for scholars to switch to careers as merchants. William Rowe's research of rural elites in late imperial Hanyang, Hubei shows that there was a very high level of overlap and mixing between the gentry and the merchants.

296:, writes that the classification of "four occupations" can be viewed as a mere rhetorical device that had no effect on government policy. However, he notes that although no statute in the Qin or Han law codes specifically mentions the four occupations, some laws did treat these broadly classified social groups as separate units with different levels of legal privilege. 1255:(chế độ Quân điền) and non-transferable, the court bureaucracy increasingly appropriated land which they leased to tenant farmers and hired labourers to till. It was unlikely for individuals of common background to become Mandarins, however, since they lacked access to classical education. Degree-holders were frequently clustered in certain clans. 1495:. Under the principle of the Mandate of Heaven, the right to rule was based on "virtue"; if a ruler was overthrown, this was interpreted as an indication that the ruler was unworthy, and had lost the mandate, and there would often be revolts following major disasters as citizens saw these as signs that the Mandate of Heaven had been withdrawn. 1225:, a class of privileged commoners who were petty bureaucrats, scribes, and specialists. The chungin were actually the least populous class, even smaller than the yangban. The yangban constituted 10% of the population. From the mid-Joseon period, military officers and civil officials were separately derived from different clans. 1809:"Proper" music was considered a fundamental aspect of nurturing of character and good government, but vernacular music, as defined as having "irregular movements" was criticised as corrupting for listeners. In spite of this, Chinese society idolized many musicians, even women musicians (who were seen as seductive) such as 928:

merchant families made fortunes worth over a hundred million cash, which was equivalent to the wealth acquired by the highest officials in government. Itinerant merchants who traded between a network of towns and cities were often rich as they had the ability to avoid registering as merchants (unlike the shopkeepers),

1384:), or sub-prefect, and below. Garbing themselves in the official robes of their rank in most ceremonial functions, these wealthy dignitaries would adopt the conduct of scholar-officials. Chinese language newspapers would list them exclusively as such and precedence at social functions would be determined by title. 1069:(Prime Minister, Council of Ministers and Administrative Departments). Yukatchu who failed the examinations or were otherwise deemed unsuitable for office would be transferred to obscure posts and their descendants would fade into insignificance. Ryukyuan students were also enrolled into the National Academy ( 4040:

Nguyẽn Khá̆c Kham , Yunesuko Higashi An introduction to Vietnamese culture Ajia Bunka Kenkyū Sentā (Tokyo, Japan) 1967 – Page 20 "The classification became more elaborate in 1247 with the Tam-khoi which divided the first category into three separate classes: Trang-nguyen (first prize winner in the

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complemented it with the establishment of a Confucian-style educational facilities and administration structures, extending for the first time to local areas. However, only aristocrats were permitted to sit for these examinations, and the sons of officials of at least 5th rank were exempt completely.

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encouraged economic cooperation and exchange. The distinction between gentry and merchants was not as clear or entrenched as in Japan and Europe, and merchants were even welcomed by gentry if they abided by Confucian moral duties. Merchants accepted and promoted Confucian society by funding education

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enhanced the spread of knowledge amongst the literate in society, enabling more people to become candidates and competitors vying for a prestigious degree. With a dramatically expanding population matching a growing amount of gentry, while the number of official posts remained constant, the graduates

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However, for those without formal education, the quickest way to power and the upper echelons of society was to join the military. Although the soldier was looked upon with a bit of disdain by scholar-officials and cultured people, military officers with successful careers could gain a considerable

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There were many social groups that were excluded from the four broad categories in the social hierarchy. These included soldiers and guards, religious clergy and diviners, eunuchs and concubines, entertainers and courtiers, domestic servants and slaves, prostitutes, and low class laborers other than

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of Imperial China, and were traditionally seen locally as upholders of the Confucian social order and peaceful coexistence under the Dutch colonial authorities. For much of its history, appointment to the Chinese officership was determined by family background, social standing and wealth, but in the

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By the late Ming dynasty, the officials often needed to solicit funds from powerful merchants to build new roads, schools, bridges, pagodas, or engage in essential industries, such as book-making, which aided the gentry class in education for the imperial examinations. Merchants began to imitate the

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spread to the rest of the world, Song dynasty China was able to maintain near-monopoly on manufacture by large scale industrialization, through the two-person draw loom, commercialized mulberry cultivation, and a factory production. The organization of silk weaving in 18th-century Chinese cities was

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The categorisation was sorted according to the principle of economic usefulness to state and society, that those who used mind rather than muscle (scholars) were placed first, with farmers, seen as the primary creators of wealth, placed next, followed by artisans, and finally merchants who were seen

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Walter H. Slote, George A. De Vos Confucianism & the Family 998 – Page 97 "1428–33) and his collaborators, especially Nguyen Trai (1380–1442) — who was himself a Confucianist — accepted ... of Trang Nguyen (Zhuang Yuan, or first laureate of the national examination with the highest recognition

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themselves were using intermediary agents to participate in trading. Since the Song government took over several key industries and imposed strict state monopolies, the government itself acted as a large commercial enterprise run by scholar-officials. The state also had to contend with the merchant

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of gold—equivalent to ten million cash coins—was considered a great merchant. Such a fortune was one hundred times larger than the average income of a middle class landowner-cultivator and dwarfed the annual 200,000 cash-coin income of a marquess who collected taxes from a thousand households. Some

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yet harsh philosophy of Legalism. This philosophy stressed stern punishments for those who disobeyed the publicly known laws while rewarding those who labored for the state and strove diligently to obey the laws. It was a means to diminish the power of the nobility, and was another force behind the

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Kings sometimes described as shamans, and may have been the original physicians, providing elixirs to treat patients, ever since Emperor Wu of Han established Confucianism as the state religion, the ruling classes have shown increasing prejudice against shamanism, preventing them from amassing too

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with stipend grants, and placing pressure on vassals to relocate into castle towns, away from independent power bases. Military commanders became rotated to avert the formation of strong personal loyalties from the troops. Artisans and merchants were solicited by these lords and sometimes received

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In Imperial China, the merchants, traders, and peddlers of goods were viewed by the scholarly elite as essential members of society, yet were esteemed least of the four occupations in society, due to the view that they were a threat to social harmony from acquiring disproportionally large incomes,

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onward, Confucianism had gradually begun to accept and even support business and trade as legitimate and viable professions, as long as merchants stayed away from unethical actions. Merchants in the meantime had also benefited from and utilized Confucian ethics in their business practices. By the

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The four occupations were not a hereditary system. The four occupations system differed from those of European feudalism in that people were not born into the specific classes, such that, for example, a son born to a gong craftsman was able to become a part of the shang merchant class, and so on.

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Vietnam and the Chinese Model: A Comparative Study of Vietnamese and Chinese Government in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century ACLS Humanities E-Book Volume 140 of East Asian Monograph Series Harvard East Asian monographs, ISSN 0073-0483 Volume 52 of Harvard East Asian series History e-book

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Vietnamese dynasties also adopted the examination degree system (khoa bảng 科榜) to recruit scholars for government service. The bureaucrats were similarly divided into nine grades and six ministries, and examinations were held annually at provincial level, and triennially at regional and national

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Artisans and craftsmen were either government-employed or worked privately. A successful and highly skilled artisan could often gain enough capital in order to hire others as apprentices or additional laborers that could be overseen by the chief artisan as a manager. Hence, artisans could create

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by exchanging border farmland or other privileges for service. However, in every instance, the policy would fail due to rampant desertion caused by the extremely low regard for violent occupations, and subsequently these armies had to be replaced with hired mercenaries or even peasant militia.

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Entertainers and courtiers were often dependents upon the wealthy or were associated with the often-perceived immoral pleasure grounds of urban entertainment districts. Musicians who played music as full-time work were of low status. To give them official recognition would have given them more

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Outside of China, the same values permeated and prevailed across other East Asian societies where China exerted considerable influence. Japan and Korea were heavily influenced by Confucian thought that the four occupational social hierarchy in those societies were modeled from that of China's.

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D. W. Sloper, Thạc Cán Lê Higher Education in Vietnam: Change and Response – 1995 Page 45 " For those successful in the court competitive examination four titles were awarded: trang nguyen, being the first- rank doctorate and first laureate, bang nhan, being a first-rank doctorate and second

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Truong Buu Lâm, New lamps for old: the transformation of the Vietnamese ... -Institute of Southeast Asian Studies – 1982 Page 11- "The provincial examinations consisted of three to four parts which tested the following areas: knowledge of the Confucian texts... The title of cu nhan or "person

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emperor attempted to ban slavery entirely but were not successful. Illegal enslavement of children frequently occurred under the guise of adoption from poor families. It has been speculated by researchers such as Sue Gronewold that up to 80% of late Qing era prostitutes may have been slaves.

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who served the royals were also viewed with some suspicion by the scholar-officials, since there were several instances in Chinese history where influential eunuchs came to dominate the emperor, his imperial court, and the whole of the central government. In an extreme example, the eunuch

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However from the fourth to twentieth centuries, Buddhist monks were frequently sponsored by the elite of society, sometimes even by Confucian scholars, with monasteries described as "in size and magnificence no prince's house could match". Despite the strong Buddhist sympathies of the

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From the 2nd century BC onward, soldiers along China's frontiers were also encouraged by the state to settle down on their own farm lots in order for the food supply of the military to become self-sufficient, under the Tuntian system (屯田), the Weisuo system (衛所) and the

1293:. With the consolidation of colonial rule, these became part of the civil bureaucracy in Portuguese, Dutch and British colonies, exercising both executive and judicial powers over local Chinese communities under the colonial authorities, examples being the title of 1544:

also revived the practice of granting titular "kingdoms" to Imperial clan members, although they were denied political control; only near the end of the dynasty were some permitted to partake in the examinations to qualify for government service as common scholars.

1921:, Tang dynasty, and to a partial extent Song dynasty society also contained a complex system of servile groups included under "mean people" (賤人) that formed intermediate standings between the four occupations and outright slavery. These were, in descending order: 1897:

Slavery was comparatively uncommon in Chinese history but was still practiced, largely as a judicial punishment for crimes. In the Han and Tang dynasties, it was illegal to trade in Chinese slaves (that were not criminals), but foreign slaves were acceptable. The

1735:). Soldiers traditionally came from farming families, while some were simply debtors who fled their land (whether owned or rented) to escape lawsuits by creditors or imprisonment for failing to pay taxes. Peasants were encouraged to join militias such as the 1673:

monkhood grew immensely popular from the fourth century, where the monastic life's exemption from tax proved alluring to poor farmers. 4,000 government-funded monasteries were established and maintained through the medieval period, eventually leading to

604:

Beyond serving in the administration and the judiciary, scholar-officials also provided government-funded social services, such as prefectural or county schools, free-of-charge public hospitals, retirement homes and paupers' graveyards. Scholars such as

754:(均田). Families were issued plots of land on the basis of how many able men, including slaves, they had; a woman would be entitled to a smaller plot. As government control weakened in the 8th century, land reverted into the hands of private owners. 707:

exacted on farmers' lots and landholders' property produced much of the state revenue for China's pre-modern ruling dynasties. Therefore, the farmer was a valuable member of society, and even though he was not considered one with the

1724:. The scholars did not want to legitimize those whose professions centered chiefly around violence, so to leave them out of the social hierarchy altogether was a means to keep them in an unrecognized and undistinguished social tier. 1251:

levels. The Vietnamese political elite consisted of educated landholders whose interests often clashed with the central government. Although all land theoretically was the ruler's, and was supposed to be distributed equitably by the

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From the late 8th century, succession wars in Silla, as well as frequent peasant uprisings, led to the dismantling of the bone-rank system. Head rank 6 leaders sojourned to China for study, while regional governance fell into the

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used in European textile industries between the 13th and 18th centuries. As the interregional silk trade grew, merchant houses began to organize manufacture to guarantee their supplies, providing silk to households for weaving as

427:

Gongzi Cheng, and just as he was about to shoot again, Gongzi Cheng said that it was unchivalrous to shoot twice without allowing him to return a shot. Hua Bao lowered his bow and was subsequently shot dead. In 624 BC a disgraced

1524:, the members of the Imperial clan were enfeoffed with vassal states, controlling military and political power: they often usurped the throne, intervened in Imperial succession, or fought civil wars. From the 8th century on, the 156:

class changed over time—from warriors to aristocratic scholars, and finally to scholar-bureaucrats. There was also a gradual fusion of the wealthy merchant and landholding gentry classes, culminating in the late Ming dynasty.

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was modified into a hereditary class, the samurai. In Korean it is called "Sa, nong, gong, sang" (사농공상), and in Vietnamese is called "Sĩ, nông, công, thương (士農工商). The main difference in adaptation was the definition of the

137:(merchants and traders). The four occupations were not always arranged in this order. The four categories were not socioeconomic classes; wealth and standing did not correspond to these categories, nor were they hereditary. 2521: 1468:

farmers and artisans. People who performed such tasks that were considered either worthless or "filthy" were placed in the category of mean people (賤人), not being registered as commoners and having some legal disabilities.

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Professional dancers of the period were of low social status and many entered the profession through poverty, although some such as Zhao Feiyan achieved higher status by becoming concubines. Another dancer was Wang Wengxu

1057:, and commoners may be admitted for meritorious service. The Ryukyu Kingdom's capital of Shuri also featured a university and school system, alongside a civil service examination system. The government was managed by the 1851:

Institutions were set up to oversee the training and performances of music and dances in the imperial court, such as the Great Music Bureau (太樂署) and the Drums and Pipes Bureau (鼓吹署) responsible for ceremonial music.

1041:, but yukatchu status was hereditary and could be bought from the government as the kingdom's finances were frequently deficient. Due to the growth of this class and the lack of government positions open for them, 813:

Although architects and builders were not as highly venerated as the scholar-officials, there were some architectural engineers who gained wide acclaim for their achievements. One example of this would be the

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who were not appointed to government would provide critical services in local communities, such as funding public works, running private schools, aiding in tax collection, maintaining order, or writing local

239:. However, it is now known that the classification of four occupations as Ban Gu understood it did not exist until the 2nd century BC. Ban explained the social hierarchy of each group in descending order: 4248:

The Mandarin-Capitalists from Nanyang: Overseas Chinese Enterprise in the Modernisation of China 1893-1911 Cambridge Studies in Chinese H Cambridge Studies in Chinese History, Literature and Institutions

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in late Ming and early Qing workshops in textile, paper and other industries, achieving large-scale production by using many small workshops, each with a small team of workers under a master craftsman.

735:) were privately cultivated by farmers and the center section (公田; gōngtián) was communally cultivated on behalf of the landowning aristocrat. When the system became economically untenable in the 459:

eventually became renowned not for their warrior's skills, but for their scholarship, abilities in administration, and sound ethics and morality supported by competing philosophical schools.

1727:

Soldiers were not highly respected members of society, specifically from the Song dynasty onward, due to the newly instituted policy of "Emphasizing the civil and downgrading the military" (

851:, designed purely for the European market and unpopular among locals as it lacked the symbolic significance of wares produced for the Chinese home market, was a highly popular trade good. 1324:

donated generously to the provision of defence and disaster relief programs in China in order to receive nominations to the Imperial Court for honorary official ranks. These ranged from

915:

However, the merchant class of China throughout all of Chinese history were usually wealthy and held considerable influence above its supposed social standing. The Confucian philosopher

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were distinguished by their right to ride and command battles from chariots, while they also served civil functions. Initially rising to power through controlling the new technology of

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for the training of musicians, dancers and actors. There were around 30,000 musicians and dancers at the imperial court during the reign of Emperor Xuanzong, with most specialising in

1817:(40–30 BC). Musical abilities were a prime consideration in marriage desirability. During the Ming dynasty, female musicians were so common that they even played for imperial rituals. 347: 1113:. No exams were needed as the positions were inherited. They constituted about 5% of the population and were allowed to have a proper surname. Older scholars believed that there were 935: 5419: 243:

Scholars, farmers, artisans, and merchants; each of the four peoples had their respective profession. Those who studied in order to occupy positions of rank were called the

703:, agriculture was a key element to the rise of China's civilization and every other civilization. The food that farmers produced sustained the whole of society, while the 644:

From the 11th to 13th century, the number of exam candidates participating in taking the exams increased dramatically from merely 30,000 to 400,000 by the dynasty's end.

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or castle-lords commanding private armies detached from the central regime. These factions coalesced, introducing a new national ideology that was an amalgamation of

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The system did not factor in all social groups present in premodern Chinese society, and its broad categories were more an idealization than a practical reality. The

2553: 440:, 597 BC, the routing chariot forces of Jin were bogged down in mud, but pursuing enemy troops stopped to help them get dislodged and allowed them to escape. 8026: 5939: 932:(d. 154 BC) states that they wore fine silks, rode in carriages pulled by fat horses, and whose wealth allowed them to associate with government officials. 961:; whenever the state requisitioned goods and assessed taxes it dealt with guild heads, who ensured fair prices and fair wages via official intermediaries. 83: 3937:

A Brief History of Korea, Volume 1 A Brief History of Korea Volume 1 of The spirit of Korean cultural roots Volume 1 of Uri munhwa ŭi ppuri rŭl chʻajasŏ

1103:, and marriage between people of unequal class was socially unacceptable. Originally a martial class, the samurai became civil administrators to their 1743:(團練), but full-time soldiers were usually hired from amnestied bandits or vagabonds, and peasant militia were generally regarded as the more reliable. 4984: 4678:

The Religious System of China: Its Ancient Forms, Evolution, History and Present Aspect, Manners, Customs and Social Institutions Connected Therewith

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as a social disturbance for excessive accumulation of wealth or erratic fluctuation of prices. Beneath the four occupations were the "mean people" (

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helped the growth of porcelain export and by allowing an organization of private maritime trade that assisted families who owned private kilns.

1407:

with legal and political jurisdiction over the colony's Chinese subjects. The officers were overwhelmingly recruited from old families of the '

854:

In China, silk-worm farming was originally restricted to women, and many women were employed in the silk-making industry. Even as knowledge of

2261: 1536:, imperial princes were assimilated into the scholars, and had to take the imperial examinations to serve in government, like commoners. The 1234: 828:(r. 1100–1126) for these government agencies to employ and was widely printed for the benefit of literate craftsmen and artisans nationwide. 597:(960–1279) that the recruitment of those who passed the exams and earned degrees was given greater emphasis and significantly expanded. The 1416:

twentieth century, attempts were made to elevate meritorious individuals to high rank in keeping with the colonial government's so-called

904:, a merchant, as Prime Minister. He cut taxes for merchants, built rest stops for merchants, and encouraged other lords to lower tariffs. 528:

Candidates gathering around the wall where the results are posted. This announcement was known as "releasing the roll" (放榜). (c. 1540, by

6899: 6667: 6542: 3220: 593:

and earned an official degree. Yet recruitment by recommendations to office was still prominent in both dynasties. It was not until the

6552: 1592:

argues that eunuchs represented the personal will of the Emperor, while the officials represented the alternate political will of the

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in battle dwindled as rulers sought men with actual military training, not just aristocratic background. This was also a period where

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class also became less aristocratic and more bureaucratic due to the highly competitive nature of the exams during the Song period.

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Although his royal family and noble extended family were also highly respected, they did not command the same level of authority.

6659: 6597: 1872:. All were under the administration of the Drums and Pipes Bureau and an umbrella organization called the Taichang Temple (太常寺). 1772:

amount of prestige. Despite the claim of moral high ground, scholar-officials often commanded troops and wielded military power.

884:

In Ancient pre-Imperial China, merchants were highly regarded as necessary for the circulation of essential goods. The legendary

293: 1411:' or the Chinese gentry of colonial Indonesia. Although appointed without state examinations, the Chinese officers emulated the 7537: 6639: 5970: 5616: 1995: 988:; pooling capital was popular as it distributed risk and eased the barriers to market entry. They formed partnerships known as 821: 8285: 6634: 5323: 4704: 4467: 4385: 3520: 3495: 3324: 3079: 3014: 2987: 2960: 2664: 2342: 2317: 1707: 1045:

allowed yukatchu to become merchants and artisans while keeping their high status. There were three classes of yukatchu, the

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there were many porcelain kilns created that led the Ming dynasty to be economically well off. The Qing emperors like the

8265: 6677: 1675: 700: 4160: 7123: 6825: 6805: 6784: 5540:

Steben, Barry D. "The Transmission of Neo-Confucianism to the Ryukyu (Liuqiu) Islands and its Historical Significance".

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Historians like Yu Yingshi and Billy So have shown that as Chinese society became increasingly commercialized from the

645: 2224: 1678:, a lot of the contention being over Buddhist monasteries' exemption from government taxation, but also because later 6789: 6672: 6515: 5578: 5534: 5496: 5482: 5464: 5449: 5428: 5406: 5383: 5275: 5229: 4882: 4616: 4561: 4326: 4292: 4170: 3996: 3969: 3919: 3849: 3376: 3259: 3195: 2168: 1427:

Federations across Southeast Asia, which were associations of Chinese settlers governed through direct democracy. On

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Perkawinan Strategis: Hubungan Keluarga Antara Opsir-opsir Tionghoa Dan 'Cabang Atas' Di Jawa Pada Abad Ke-19 Dan 20

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Chinese views of social classification, in James L. Watson, Class and Social stratification in post-Revolution China

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their own small enterprises in selling their work and that of others, and like the merchants, they formed their own

760:(950–1279) rural farmers engaged in the small-scale production of wine, charcoal, paper, textiles, and other goods. 731:(井田), whereby a square area of land was divided into nine identically-sized sections; the eight outer sections (私田; 201: 8280: 8096: 8016: 7996: 6537: 4131: 1955:

These performed a wide assortment of jobs in households, in agriculture, delivering messages or as private guards.

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Smits, Gregory (1999). "Visions of Ryukyu: Identity and Ideology in Early-Modern Thought and Politics". Honolulu:

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Chinese official positions, under various different native titles, go back to the courts of precolonial states of

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Lorge, Peter (2005). War, Politics and Society in Early Modern China, 900–1795: 1st Edition. New York: Routledge.

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Han dynasty writers mention merchants owning huge tracts of land. A merchant who owned property worth a thousand

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province such diverse skills as law, agriculture, calendrical calculation, medicine, astronomy, and metallurgy.

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Reflections of the Political Role of Spirit Mediums in Early China: The Wu Officials in the Zhou Li, volume 20

1823: 888:, prior to receiving the throne from his predecessor, was said to be a merchant. Archaeological artifacts and 560:

into mainstream governance installed a system of recommendation and nomination in government service known as

7986: 7497: 6820: 6592: 6587: 6071: 1698:

was still defined by Confucian canon as it alone covered political and legal policy necessary to government.

1175:, the scholar-officials, also known as head rank 6, 5, and 4 (두품), were strictly hereditary castes under the 1155: 95: 40: 8056: 7925: 6815: 6649: 6614: 6565: 6289: 4316: 443:

As chariot warfare became eclipsed by mounted cavalry and infantry units with effective crossbowmen in the

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Zheng Guanying: Merchant Reformer of Late Qing China and His Influence on Economics, Politics, and Society

3074:, Understanding China: New Viewpoints on History And Culture, Hong Kong University Press, pp. 17–18, 613:(1020–1101) dabbled in every known field of science, mathematics, music and statecraft, while others like 213:

From existing literary evidence, commoner categories in China were employed for the first time during the

7358: 6769: 6759: 6626: 5834: 5520: 4085:

John Kleinen Facing the Future, Reviving the Past: A Study of Social Change in ... – 1999 – Page 5, 31-32

2605: 2000: 1368:), prefect and circuit intendant respectively. The bulk of these sinecure purchases were at the level of 831: 566:, and a national academy whereby officials would select candidates to take part in an examination of the 1498:

The Mandate of Heaven does not require noble birth, depending instead on just and able performance. The

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periods further blurred the lines between these four occupations. The definition of the identity of the

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Hansson, Anders, Chinese Outcasts: Discrimination and Emancipation in Late Imperial China 1996, BRILL

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Wang, Richard G. (2008), "The Ming Prince and Daoism: Institutional Patronage of an Elite" OUP USA,

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The social category of the soldier was left out of the social hierarchy due to the gentry scholars'

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represented the pinnacle of traditional Chinese society, and was above that of the scholar-official.

636: 8116: 8066: 7875: 7165: 6719: 6709: 6066: 5878: 4011:

John Kleinen Facing the Future, Reviving the Past: A Study of Social Change in ... – 1999 – Page 71

2276: 1861: 1785: 1643:

China had some authority as religious leaders in society, as government officials during the early

1584: 1200: 1196: 1179:(골품제도), and their power was limited by the royal clan who monopolized the positions of importance. 893: 848: 436:

led a suicidal charge of chariots to redeem his reputation, turning the tide of the battle. In the

364: 8196: 7507: 6866: 6764: 6699: 1661: 1562: 1456: 825: 161: 7860: 739:, it was replaced by a system of private land ownership. It was first suspended in the state of 271:

described the four groups in a different order, with merchants before farmers. The Han-era text

7482: 7394: 6724: 6353: 6095: 5433: 4956: 4252: 4246: 3340: 2708:

Michael Loewe pp. 145, 148. 2011. Dong Zhongshu, a ‘Confucian’ Heritage and the Chunqiu Fanlu.

2127: 5339: 5263: 5192: 5166: 5139: 5066: 4284:

The Kapitan Cina of Batavia, 1837-1942: A History of Chinese Establishment in Colonial Society

3886: 3299: 3228: 3004: 2977: 2950: 2709: 2689: 8201: 8191: 8086: 7612: 7567: 7070: 6779: 6754: 6744: 6734: 6729: 6582: 5650: 5602: 5112: 4147: 4103: 4096: 2695: 2679:

Creel, H.G. (1949). Confucius: The Man and the Myth. New York: John Day Company. pp. 239–241

1857: 1853: 1695: 1614: 1533: 1488: 736: 724: 586: 476: 472: 444: 368: 214: 2694:

Griet Vankeerberghen 2001 pp. 20, 173. The Huainanzi and Liu An's Claim to Moral Authority.

1790:

Entertaining was considered to be of little use to society and was usually performed by the

8270: 8206: 8006: 7467: 6840: 6835: 6739: 6609: 6560: 5954: 5920: 5905: 5741: 5688: 4522:, translated by Christopher Rea and Bruce Rusk (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017). 3619:

Billy So, “Institutions in market economies of premodern maritime China.” In Billy So ed.,

1990: 1290: 1282: 7805: 7592: 7527: 4855: 4378:

Golddiggers, Farmers, and Traders in the "Chinese Districts" of West Kalimantan, Indonesia

4159:

Buxbaum, David C.; Association of Southeast Asian Institutions of Higher Learning (2013).

1008:(shareholding). Merchants had a tendency to invest their profits in vast swathes of land. 8: 8046: 7607: 7552: 7472: 7414: 7297: 7192: 6922: 6224: 6029: 6004: 5984: 5888: 4402: 3802:

Ryukyu Kingdom and Province Before 1945 (Scientific investigations in the Ryukyu Islands)

3319:, Harvard East Asian monographs, vol. 97, Harvard Univ Asia Center, pp. 50–52, 2306: 2199: 1845: 1828: 1596:. The clash between them would thus have been a clash of ideologies or political agenda. 1517: 1492: 1286: 1034: 909: 433: 289:

mentioned a quotation which stressed the ideal of equality between the four occupations.

1751:(府兵). Under these schemes, multiple dynasties attempted to create a hereditary military 876: 552:

introduced the first method of recruitment to civil service through examinations, while

8166: 7825: 7790: 7700: 7227: 7060: 7011: 6381: 6363: 6358: 6346: 6180: 5999: 5979: 5949: 5731: 5703: 5470: 5390: 4949: 4649: 4358: 3161: 2932: 2160: 1841: 1252: 1110: 860: 787: 751: 674: 649: 567: 549: 518: 7775: 1540:

favoured the Mongol tradition of distributing Khanates, and under this influence, the

1073:) in China, at Chinese government expense, and others studied privately at schools in 7955: 7855: 7820: 7645: 7622: 7617: 7492: 7108: 7098: 6947: 6932: 6908: 6386: 6304: 6041: 5994: 5932: 5761: 5584: 5574: 5564: 5530: 5492: 5478: 5460: 5445: 5424: 5402: 5379: 5319: 5271: 5225: 5198: 5172: 5145: 5118: 5072: 5045: 5015: 4990: 4960: 4878: 4765: 4700: 4692: 4657: 4612: 4557: 4550: 4463: 4445: 4381: 4322: 4288: 4256: 4166: 4107: 4066: 3992: 3965: 3940: 3915: 3890: 3879: 3845: 3820: 3780: 3755: 3712: 3668: 3516: 3491: 3394: 3372: 3320: 3280: 3255: 3075: 3010: 2983: 2956: 2936: 2660: 2447: 2393: 2338: 2313: 2164: 1682:

scholars saw Buddhism as an alien ideology and threat to the moral order of society.

1579: 1480: 1412: 1388: 953: 952:

Song period, merchants often colluded with the scholarly elite; as early as 955, the

728: 670: 590: 553: 259:(artisans). Those who transported valuable articles and sold commodities were called 7725: 7419: 5092: 3688:

Fang Liufang; Xia Yuantao; Sang Binxue; Danian Zhang (1989). "Chinese Partnership".

8211: 7885: 7845: 7835: 7785: 7770: 7760: 7720: 7680: 7670: 7547: 7517: 7477: 7363: 7199: 7177: 6967: 6957: 6704: 6604: 6434: 6242: 6132: 6083: 6056: 5809: 5804: 5657: 5543: 4641: 3153: 3098: 2924: 1884: 1795: 1728: 1679: 1623: 1609: 1476: 1460: 1436: 1333: 1176: 493: 481: 468: 376: 315:

Theoretically, any man could become an official through the Imperial examinations.

301: 87: 7880: 4762:

Praying for Power: Buddhism and the Formation of Gentry Society in Late-Ming China

1844:) who was forced to become a domestic singer-dancer but who later bore the future 1160: 8161: 8156: 7920: 7865: 7850: 7830: 7810: 7765: 7740: 7650: 7602: 7587: 7487: 7447: 7338: 7333: 7160: 7048: 6962: 6937: 6575: 6267: 6078: 5824: 5814: 5515: 5219: 4453: 4449: 3986: 3665:

Merchants and Society in Modern China: Rise of Merchant Groups China Perspectives

3102: 3094: 2817: 2654: 2390:

Merchants and Society in Modern China: Rise of Merchant Groups China Perspectives

1820:

Private theatre troupes in the homes of wealthy families were a common practice.

1571: 1432: 897: 392: 311:), outcasts from "humiliating" occupations such as entertainers and prostitutes. 4021:

presented" (for office) was conferred on those who succeeded in all four tests."

1374: 1358: 1338: 1141:

In the sixteenth century, lords began to centralise administration by replacing

455:, while intellectual pursuits became highly valued amongst statesmen. Thus, the 8216: 8106: 8036: 7935: 7910: 7780: 7750: 7710: 7675: 7532: 7457: 7442: 7437: 7328: 7318: 7028: 6979: 6532: 6476: 6315: 6272: 6200: 5944: 5915: 5840: 5794: 5736: 5693: 3458:

Nishijima (1986), 576–577; Ch'ü (1972), 114; see also Hucker (1975), 187.

2928: 2414: 1781: 1652:

much power and influence like military strongmen (one example of this would be

1575: 1484: 1417: 1317: 1298: 1278: 844: 116: 24: 5477:(2006). Cambridge: MA; London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 3687: 679: 8254: 8221: 7930: 7915: 7905: 7890: 7840: 7795: 7755: 7690: 7685: 7655: 7522: 7462: 7404: 7128: 6942: 6373: 6170: 5959: 5829: 5819: 5777: 5751: 5746: 5683: 5643: 5414: 4697:

A biographical dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23–220 AD)

4455:

The Cambridge History of China, Volume 7: The Ming Dynasty, 1368–1644, Part 1

4094: 3817:

Visions of Ryukyu: Identity and Ideology in Early-Modern Thought and Politics

3777:

Visions of Ryukyu: Identity and Ideology in Early-Modern Thought and Politics

3488:

Monetary Regimes and Inflation: History, Economic and Political Relationships

2540:將注豹．則關矣．曰．平公之靈．尚輔相余．豹射出其間．將注．則又關矣．曰．不狎鄙．抽矢．城射之．殪．張匄抽殳而下．射之．折股．扶伏而擊之．折軫．又射之．死． 2231: 2194: 1918: 1748: 1736: 1667:

Fortune-tellers such as geomancers and astrologers were not highly regarded.

1648: 1567: 1483:

to judicial and executive authority—was on a social and legal tier above the

1188: 816: 692: 396: 356: 273: 268: 141: 4193: 4102:(illustrated, reprint, revised ed.). Harvard Univ Asia Center. p. 3690:

Law and Contemporary Problems: The Emerging Framework of Chinese Civil Law:

3157: 3144:

Medley, Margaret (1987). "The Ming – Qing Transition in Chinese Porcelain".

1722:

embracing of intellectual cultivation (文 wén) and detest for violence (武 wǔ)

1528:

imperial clan was restricted to the capital and denied fiefdoms, and by the

943:

in the 7th century, becoming government-issued currency by the 11th century.

247:(scholars). Those who cultivated the soil and propagated grains were called 133: 127: 121: 111: 7900: 7895: 7870: 7800: 7735: 7695: 7665: 7660: 7572: 7562: 7452: 7187: 7182: 7170: 7091: 7077: 7001: 6406: 6333: 6112: 6102: 6021: 5771: 5678: 5628: 5437: 5344: 4661: 2688:

Xinzhong Yao 2003. p. 231. The Encyclopedia of Confucianism: 2-volume Set.

2236: 1972: 1814: 1691: 1644: 1541: 1537: 1529: 1525: 1503: 1392: 1321: 1310: 1099:

role, unlike the scholars in China, became a hereditary class known as the

948: 889: 885: 840: 764: 757: 720: 653: 594: 578: 541: 501: 437: 375:

were a knightly social order of low-level aristocratic lineage compared to

360: 279: 232: 149: 145: 99: 91: 4951:

Yellow Music: Media Culture and Colonial Modernity in the Chinese Jazz Age

4220:"The history of Kuala Lumpur's founding is not as clear cut as some think" 4041:

competitive examination at the king's court), Bang-nhan (second prize ..."

3964:(second ed.). Elizabeth, NJ: Hollym International. pp. 100–102. 3962:

Korea: Tradition and Transformation — A History of the Korean People

2915:

Zhufu, Fu (1981), "The economic history of China: Some special problems",

1221:

exams so they could dominate the bureaucracy. Below the yangban were the

8181: 7976: 7950: 7945: 7745: 7730: 7597: 7577: 7557: 7409: 7384: 7343: 7204: 7113: 7103: 7065: 7023: 6986: 6952: 6570: 6401: 6391: 6341: 6323: 6234: 6195: 5989: 5900: 5883: 5270:, Vol. 1, p. 154 – 156. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. 2271: 1985: 1899: 1865: 1687: 1628: 1605: 1593: 1513: 1499: 1440: 1408: 1264: 1142: 855: 806: 740: 574: 545: 514: 505: 399: 227: 218: 4362: 4128:

Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, From Angkor Wat to East Timor

3165: 8186: 8146: 7715: 7705: 7582: 7512: 7399: 7368: 7348: 7292: 7287: 7242: 7137: 6416: 5756: 5553:

Yuan, Zheng. "Local Government Schools in Sung China: A Reassessment",

4653: 4594:

Art, Myth, and Ritual: The Path to Political Authority in Ancient China

3348: 3317:

China's silk trade: traditional industry in the modern world, 1842–1937

2561: 2535: 2422: 2135: 2106: 1791: 1721: 1653: 1640: 1582:

and committed suicide. In popular culture texts such as Zhang Yingyu's

1428: 1306: 901: 865: 744: 626: 614: 585:

class would begin to present itself by means of the fully standardized

497: 236: 160:

In some manner, this system of social order was adopted throughout the

4162:

Family Law and Customary Law in Asia: A Contemporary Legal Perspective

3709:

The Art of Leadership: Perspectives from Distinguished Thought Leaders

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Edward A Kracke Jr, Civil Service in Early Sung China, 960-1067, p 253

2150: 2148: 1889: 1244: 8226: 8176: 7940: 7815: 7542: 7313: 7237: 7144: 7118: 7038: 6462: 6457: 6424: 6396: 6284: 6279: 6215: 6190: 6137: 6051: 5766: 5698: 1911: 1903: 1589: 1553: 1195:, laying the foundation for the formation of the new Goryeo Kingdom. 1192: 1070: 972:

of goods in the countryside, by Li Song (c. 1190–1225), dated 1210 AD

916: 658: 630: 622: 618: 557: 513:

class from warrior-aristocrats into merit-driven officials. When the

285: 6877: 5068:

And Man Created God: Kings, Cults and Conquests at the Time of Jesus

4645: 4632:

Schiffeler, John Wm. (1976). "The Origin of Chinese Folk Medicine".

1759: 1134: 1105: 524: 184:

class were equal social and occupational classifications, while the

8151: 7627: 7353: 7323: 7282: 7277: 7043: 7018: 6471: 6443: 6429: 6296: 6262: 6220: 6205: 6165: 5910: 5491:. Translated by H. M. Wright. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 4095:

Woodside, Alexander; American Council of Learned Societies (1988).

3181:

The Qing Opening to the Ocean: Chinese Maritime Policies, 1684–1757

2303: 2145: 2017: 1832: 1740: 1670: 1038: 929: 750:

From AD 485–763, land was equally distributed to farmers under the

716:

were usually landholders that often produced crops and foodstuffs.

704: 606: 562: 537: 529: 416: 342: 292:

Anthony J. Barbieri-Low, Professor of Early Chinese History at the

277:

placed merchants second after scholars, and the Warring States-era

103: 28: 3371:. Translated by H.M. Wright. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 1767:

rose from destitution to political power through military success.

1712: 1215:

class, which prevented the lower classes from taking the advanced

19: 7389: 7252: 7033: 6991: 6974: 6467: 6452: 6448: 6210: 6160: 6152: 6142: 6046: 6034: 5893: 5789: 5783: 5501:

Michael, Franz. "State and Society in Nineteenth-Century China",

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Women and Confucian Cultures in Premodern China, Korea, and Japan

5012:

Women and Confucian Cultures in Premodern China, Korea, and Japan

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The merchant and labour partnerships of China developed into the

1239: 1222: 1212: 1100: 969: 940: 835:

Workers in the porcelain and silk industries (early 18th century)

783: 610: 206: 181: 5489:

Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250–1276

3369:

Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250–1276

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suggest a high status was accorded to merchant activity. In the

8171: 7262: 7232: 7084: 6996: 6927: 6439: 6252: 6185: 6125: 6120: 5927: 5594: 3939:(illustrated, reprint ed.). Ewha Womans University Press. 2023: 1907: 1657: 1636: 1424: 1343: 1217: 1208: 1074: 1042: 684: 323: 222: 56: 5503:

World Politics: A Quarterly Journal of International Relations

5420:

The Confusions of Pleasure: Commerce and Culture in Ming China

5197:. City University of Hong Kong Press. 2007. pp. 458–460. 1451: 964: 7272: 7267: 7247: 7055: 6247: 6175: 5726: 1752: 1172: 1169: 1092: 958: 924: 820:

printed in 1103, an architectural building manual written by

799: 5217: 4552:

1587, A Year of No Significance: The Ming Dynasty in Decline

4520:

The Book of Swindles: Selections from a Late Ming Collection

4351:

Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society

3597:中國近世宗教倫理與商人精神. (Taipei: Lianjing Chuban Shiye Gongsi, 1987). 2682:

Creel, H.G. 1960. pp. 239–241. Confucius and the Chinese Way

7257: 6257: 5799: 3914:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 50–51. 2710:

https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQjJxvkY-34C&pg=PA145

2690:

https://books.google.com/books?id=P-c4CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA231

1893:

Contract for the purchase of a slave, Tang dynasty Xinjiang

404: 231:

that the four occupations for commoners had existed in the

4581:. Society for the study of Early China. pp. 282, 285. 3119: 2696:

https://books.google.com/books?id=zt-vBqHQzpQC&pg=PA20

1199:

introduced a civil service examination system in 958, and

391:

transitioned from foot knights to being primarily chariot

5302:

The Golden Peaches of Samarkand: A Study of T'ang Exotics

4144:

Personalized Politics: The Malaysian State Under Matahtir

3991:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 165–167. 3621:

The Economy of Lower Yangzi Delta in Late Imperial China.

1570:(1568–1627) had his critics from the orthodox Confucian ' 1211:

Korea, the Scholar occupation took the form of the noble

80: 5378:. Seattle & London: University of Washington Press. 4530: 4528: 2308:

Japan's invisible race: caste in culture and personality

1574:' tortured and killed while dominating the court of the 1273:

Tjong Ah Fie, a Chinese officer in the Dutch East Indies

5358:

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3608:

Prosperity, Region, and Institutions in Maritime China.

2634:

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2362: 2360: 2358: 2356: 2354: 5573:

Peers, C.J., Soldiers of the Dragon, Osprey, New York

5194:

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3097:(1978–2020). "Social stability and social change". In 8027:

The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction

4525: 3610:(Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2000), 253–279. 3434: 3425: 3254:. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 197. 727:, agricultural land was distributed according to the 5442:

East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History

5014:. University of california press. pp. 112–114. 4349:

Wang, Tai Peng (1979). "The Word "Kongsi": A Note".

2351: 1962: 1439:, which bitterly resisted Dutch colonisation in the 939:

The first banknotes originated in China as merchant

4877:. Beijing: Encyclopedia of China Publishing House. 3842:

Geographies of identity in nineteenth-century Japan

3595:

Zhongguo Jinshi Zongjiao Lunli yu Shangren Jingshen

3277:

An Economic History of the Silk Industry, 1830–1930

3023: 2788: 2520: 1928:

general bondsmen 雑戶, including Imperial tomb guards

5064: 5044:. University of california press. pp. 97–99. 5040:Ko, Dorothy; Kim, JaHyun; Pigott, Joan R. (2003). 5010:Ko, Dorothy; Kim, JaHyun; Pigott, Joan R. (2003). 4971:the social status of professional musicians china. 4948: 4727:. Association for Asian Studies. pp. 160–163. 4549: 4276: 4274: 4272: 3878: 3510: 3443: 2901: 2899: 2897: 2723: 2305: 5318:. Greenwood Publishing Group. 2011. p. 155. 3988:A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present 3416: 540:, who initiated four centuries of unification of 8252: 5304:, University of California Press, pp. 44–45 4798: 4796: 4794: 4792: 4790: 4576: 4211: 3183:. University of Hawai'i Press. pp. 116–136. 3053: 3051: 2948: 1328:, a candidate for the Imperial examinations, to 570:, from which Emperor Wu would select officials. 4380:. Cornell Southeast Asia Program Publications. 4308: 4269: 4152: 3839: 3279:. Cambridge university Press. pp. 14, 20. 2894: 2656:Divination, Mythology and Monarchy in Han China 1875:Professional artists had similarly low status. 1243:Vietnamese mandarins in the cabinet of emperor 1114: 968:Painting of a woman and children surrounding a 173: 5340:Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion 5250:The First Emperor of China by Li Yu-Ning(1975) 5101:Original text: 趙後腰骨纖細，善踽步而行，若人手持花枝，顫顫然，他人莫可學也。 3819:. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 38–39. 3485: 3461: 2478: 2446:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 20–21. 2182: 2180: 2080: 2078: 1925:the musicians of the Imperial Sacrifices 太常音聲人 1121: 786:and craftsmen—their class identified with the 167: 6893: 5610: 5475:China: A New History; Second Enlarged Edition 5185: 4841:The Military Collapse of China's Ming dynasty 4787: 4444: 3048: 2955:. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 136–. 2952:The Genesis of East Asia: 221 B.C. – A.D. 907 2885: 2775: 2256: 2254: 1532:were also denied any political power. By the 1235:Confucian court examination system in Vietnam 589:, of partial recruitment of those who passed 164:. In Japanese it is called "Shi, nō, kō, shō" 7135: 7089: 7075: 6514: 6294: 5557:(Volume 34, Number 2; Summer 1994): 193–213. 5423:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 5286: 5284: 4931: 4691: 3649: 3647: 3227:. London: B. T. Batsford Ltd. Archived from 3041: 3039: 3002: 2942: 2858: 2810: 2737: 2735: 2526: 2383: 2381: 2304:George De Vos and Hiroshi Wagatsuma (1966). 235:(c. 1050–771 BC) era, which he considered a 5168:China: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary 5039: 5009: 4982: 4596:. Harvard University Press. pp. 45–47. 4217: 4031:laureate; tham hoa, being a first-rank ..." 2975: 2849: 2571: 2552: 2492: 2490: 2471: 2469: 2467: 2465: 2463: 2226:第35回　教科書から『士農工商』が消えたー後編ー　令和3年広報うき「ウキカラ」8月号 2219: 2217: 2177: 2154: 2075: 1446: 980:Merchants banded in organisations known as 6900: 6886: 5617: 5603: 5505:(Volume 3, Number 3, April 1955): 419–433. 5457:The Cambridge Illustrated History of China 5258: 5256: 5221:The New Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 27 5114:A Cultural History of the Chinese Language 5110: 4918: 4764:. Harvard University Press. pp. 2–3. 4674: 4631: 3779:. University of Hawaii Press. p. 14. 3706: 3302:Justinian and the International Silk Trade 3249: 3009:. Vij Books India Pvt Ltd. pp. 103–. 2744: 2332: 2251: 2111:古者有四民：有士民，有商民、有農民、有工民。夫甲，非人人之所能為也。丘作甲，非正也。 1676:multiple persecutions of Buddhism in China 1258: 5459:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5355: 5316:Encyclopedia of Antislavery and Abolition 5281: 5268:Encyclopedia of Antislavery and Abolition 5035: 5033: 5031: 4909: 4403:"What Is the Mandate of Heaven in China?" 4218:Malhi, PhD., Ranjit Singh (May 5, 2017). 3752:Okinawan: The History of an Island People 3644: 3635: 3547: 3538: 3529: 3363: 3361: 3225:Porcelain: its nature art and manufacture 3187: 3093: 3036: 2996: 2969: 2840: 2753: 2732: 2628: 2378: 2092: 2090: 2059: 2057: 2055: 2053: 1664:against the Han government's authority). 1512:During the initial and end phases of the 556:(r. 141–87 BC), cemented the ideology of 453:philosophical schools flourished in China 326:, while the working class wore trousers. 6502: 5360:. Women and History. pp. 12–13, 32. 5224:. Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 289. 5141:Historical Dictionary of Chinese Theater 5104: 4722: 4718: 4716: 4375: 4060: 3707:Ho, Kwon Ping; De Meyer, Arnoud (2017). 3504: 3479: 3467:Ebrey, Walthall, and Palais (2006), 156. 3274: 3065: 3063: 2685:Creel, H.G. 1970, What Is Taoism?, 86–87 2580: 2506: 2504: 2502: 2487: 2460: 2299: 2297: 2214: 2155:Byres, Terence; Mukhia, Harbans (1985). 1888: 1822: 1758: 1711: 1613: 1552: 1450: 1268: 1238: 1159: 1024: 1000:(owner delegates control to a manager), 963: 934: 875: 830: 805:Researchers have pointed to the rise of 774: 719:From the ninth century BC (late Western 678: 635: 523: 480: 346: 336: 200: 102:and is considered a central part of the 18: 5389: 5299: 5253: 5158: 4737:Gernet, Jacques. Verellen, Franciscus. 4681:. Brill Publishers. pp. 1233–1242. 4400: 4314: 4280: 4251:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 3864: 3515:. Oxford University Press. p. 85. 3490:. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 53. 3128: 2437: 2435: 2121: 2119: 2066: 1557:Imperial court conference, Ming dynasty 1506:were founded by men of common origins. 1431:they established sovereign states, the 880:Depiction of a marketplace, Han dynasty 419:. In the battle of Zheqiu, 420 BC, the 402:bow, a double-edged sword known as the 294:University of California, Santa Barbara 251:(farmers). Those who manifested skill ( 8253: 5550:. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 5164: 5137: 5028: 4983:Nettl, Bruno; Rommen, Timothy (2016). 4640:(2). Asian Folklore Studies 35.1: 27. 4244: 3876: 3470: 3388: 3358: 3218: 3197:Beginner's Guide To Antique Collection 3193: 3143: 3031:Cambridge Illustrated History of China 2796:Cambridge Illustrated History of China 2606:"China's First Empire | History Today" 2087: 2050: 1996:Society and culture of the Han dynasty 1316:Overseas Chinese merchant families in 992:(silent investor and active partner), 621:(1019–1083) pioneered ideas in early 6907: 6881: 6501: 5858: 5598: 5218:Encyclopædia Britannica, inc (2003). 4989:. Taylor & Francis. p. 131. 4946: 4838: 4759: 4713: 4591: 4547: 3814: 3774: 3623:(New York: Routledge, 2013), 208–232. 3069: 3060: 2914: 2652: 2499: 2294: 2097: 1708:Military history of China before 1912 747:and other states soon followed suit. 5444:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. 5165:Dillon, Michael (24 February 1998). 4873:Liu, Zhaoxiang; et al. (2000). 4853: 4675:Groot, Jan Jakob Maria (1892–1910). 4611:. Yanjing xuebao 燕京學報. p. 535. 4606: 4556:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 4348: 4120: 3984: 3959: 3799: 3749: 3662: 3178: 2441: 2432: 2387: 2335:Japanese Fashion: A Cultural History 2157:Feudalism and Non European Societies 2116: 1599: 1033:A similar situation occurred in the 496:and the chief minister and reformer 462: 283:placed farmers before scholars. The 4872: 4065:(7 reprint ed.). Hachette UK. 3934: 3909: 3881:Japan Before Perry: A Short History 3511:Daniel R. Headrick (1 April 2009). 3339: 3221:"The Letters of Père D'Entrecolles" 2413: 2126: 519:collapsed into a state of civil war 423:Hua Bao shot at and missed another 13: 5860: 5859: 4725:The Traditional Chinese Clan Rules 3844:. University of California Press. 3314: 3137: 2616:from the original on 17 April 2017 2598: 2566:晉人或以廣隊．不能進．楚人惎之脫扃．少進．馬還．又惎之拔旆投衡．乃出 2312:. University of California Press. 1164:Korean envoys to the United States 1087:Japanese castes under the ritsuryō 131:(artisans and craftsmen), and the 14: 8297: 5374:Barbieri-Low, Anthony J. (2007). 4955:. Duke University Press. p. 4577:Von Falkenhausen, Lothar (1995). 3393:. Cambria Press. pp. 14–16. 1391:, the Dutch government appointed 1309:, arguably the founder of modern 1020: 687:wheel to lift a bucket, from the 205:Street scene in Bianjing (modern 109:(c. 1046–256 BC). These were the 98:scholars as far back as the late 8097:The Closing of the American Mind 8017:Civilization and Its Discontents 7997:A Vindication of Natural Society 6862: 6861: 5624: 5376:Artisans in Early Imperial China 5349: 5332: 5308: 5293: 5244: 5211: 5144:. Scarecrow Press. p. 223. 5131: 5085: 5058: 5003: 4976: 4940: 4900: 4891: 4875:History of Military Legal System 4866: 4847: 4832: 4823: 4814: 4805: 4778: 4753: 4744: 4731: 4685: 4668: 4625: 4600: 4585: 4570: 4541: 4512: 4503: 4494: 4485: 4476: 4438: 4420: 4394: 4369: 4342: 4238: 4186: 4136: 4088: 4079: 4063:Southeast Asia: Past and Present 4054: 4044: 4034: 4024: 4014: 4005: 3978: 3953: 3928: 3903: 3870: 3858: 3833: 3808: 3793: 2979:Medieval Chinese Warfare 300–900 1965: 1716:Ming dynasty troops in formation 1471: 1011: 587:civil service examination system 521:after the death of the Emperor. 322:and some wealthy merchants wore 318:From the fourth century BC, the 255:) and made utensils were called 16:Ancient classification of people 5171:. Routledge. pp. 224–225. 5071:. Atlantic Books. p. 142. 4699:. Leiden: Brill. p. 1058. 3768: 3743: 3734: 3725: 3711:. World Scientific Publishing. 3700: 3681: 3656: 3626: 3613: 3600: 3587: 3578: 3569: 3560: 3452: 3407: 3382: 3353:其商工之民，修治苦窳之器，聚弗靡之財，蓄積待時，而侔農夫之利。 3332: 3308: 3293: 3268: 3243: 3212: 3172: 3087: 2908: 2876: 2867: 2801: 2766: 2714: 2702: 2673: 2646: 2637: 2589: 2545: 2513: 2427:春秋曰：四民均則王道興而百姓寧；所謂四民者，士、農、工、商也。 2406: 2369: 2326: 1827:Depiction of a dancer from the 1775: 1522:Northern and Southern dynasties 6503: 5555:History of Education Quarterly 4428:"Gaozu Emperor of Han Dynasty" 4376:Heidhues, Mary Somers (2003). 3252:A handbook of Chinese ceramics 3194:Newton, Bettina (2014). "14". 3125:Needham, Volume 4, Part 3, 84. 3108:The Cambridge History of China 2659:. Cambridge University Press. 2189:「士農工商」や「四民平等」の用語が使われていないことについて 1694:rulers, the curriculum of the 1380: 1364: 1348: 1305:, the Malay court position of 1303:Sri Indra Perkasa Wijaya Bakti 115:(warrior nobles, and later on 75: 61: 52: 44: 1: 7987:Oration on the Dignity of Man 5367: 5117:. McFarland. pp. 24–25. 4538:London: Futura, 1987 page 73. 3250:Valenstein, Susan G. (1989). 2653:Loewe, Michael (1994-09-15). 2275:(in Japanese). Archived from 2235:(in Japanese). Archived from 2198:(in Japanese). Archived from 1295:Chao Praya Chodeuk Rajasrethi 1156:Society in the Joseon dynasty 1132:), craftsmen, and merchants ( 664: 577:(581–618) and the subsequent 488:, by Zhou Wenju, 10th century 196: 67:four categories of the people 8286:Ancient Chinese institutions 8057:The Society of the Spectacle 4739:Buddhism in Chinese Society. 2982:. Routledge. pp. 140–. 1794:known as the "mean people" ( 1037:with the scholarly class of 871: 683:A farmer (nong) operating a 548:(202 BC–AD 220). In 165 BC, 217:(403–221 BC). Despite this, 7: 5548:Buddhism in Chinese History 5521:The Search For Modern China 5510:University of Hawai'i Press 5300:Schafer, Edward H. (1963), 4723:Hui chen, Wang Liu (1959). 4245:Godley, Michael R. (2002). 4226:. The Star. The Star Online 4061:SarDesai, D R (2012). "2". 3566:Brook, 90–93, 129–130, 151. 3513:Technology: A World History 3440:Ch'u (1972), 115–117. 3431:Ch'ü (1972), 114–115. 3413:Ch'ü (1969), 113–114. 3275:Federico, Giovanni (1997). 3006:History of China's Military 2375:Barbieri-Low (2007), 36–37. 2001:Society of the Song dynasty 1958: 1701: 1621:, Buddhist artwork of five 1115: 770: 723:) to around the end of the 712:class, the families of the 536:The victor of this war was 447:, the participation of the 225:(AD 32–92) asserted in his 174: 10: 8302: 8266:Employment classifications 5709:Weberian (three-component) 5527:W. W. Norton & Company 5473:and Merle Goldman (1992). 4839:Swope, Kenneth M. (2009). 4829:Peers, pp. 128-130,180,199 4592:Chang, Kwang-Chih (1983). 4460:Cambridge University Press 3663:Tang, Lixing (2017). "2". 3113:Cambridge University Press 2929:10.1177/009770048100700101 2822:Wesleyan Juvenile Offering 2388:Tang, Lixing (2017). "1". 1910:emperor, and Qing dynasty 1882: 1779: 1705: 1603: 1548: 1262: 1232: 1228: 1153: 1084: 824:(1065–1110), sponsored by 668: 466: 371:(475-221 BC) periods, the 340: 331: 180:, and the three under the 144:of Chinese society in the 8235: 8139: 8127:Intellectuals and Society 8077:The Culture of Narcissism 7968: 7636: 7428: 7377: 7306: 7220: 7213: 7153: 6915: 6857: 6798: 6690: 6658: 6625: 6551: 6523: 6510: 6497: 6415: 6372: 6332: 6314: 6233: 6151: 6111: 6020: 6013: 5968: 5871: 5867: 5854: 5717: 5671: 5667: 5638: 5399:Stanford University Press 4986:Excursions in World Music 4947:Jones, Andrew F. (2001). 4194:"The Siamese Aristocracy" 3985:Seth, Michael J. (2010). 3347:(in Chinese) – via 2949:Charles Holcombe (2001). 2560:(in Chinese) – via 2534:(in Chinese) – via 2510:Peers, pp. 17, 20, 24, 31 2421:(in Chinese) – via 2134:(in Chinese) – via 2105:(in Chinese) – via 1981:Social structure of China 1878: 1799: 1732: 1373: 1357: 1337: 1122: 779:Ming era pottery workshop 504:was transformed by a new 500:(d. 338 BC), the ancient 351:Chariot archer, c. 300 BC 324:long flowing silken robes 305: 168: 70: 8117:The Malaise of Modernity 8067:The History of Sexuality 7166:Catholic social teaching 6831:Pre-industrial East Asia 5487:Gernet, Jacques (1962). 5397:, Stanford, California: 4843:. Routledge. p. 21. 3840:David L. Howell (2005). 3800:Kerr, George H. (1953). 3750:Kerr, George H. (2011). 3575:Brook, 128–129, 134–138. 3367:Gernet, Jacques (1962). 3219:Burton, William (1906). 2807:Fraser & Haber, 227. 2643:Borthwick 2006, pp. 9–10 2442:Kuhn, Philip A. (1984). 2366:Barbieri-Low (2007), 37. 2262: 2225: 2188: 2044: 1941:And in private service, 1786:History of Chinese dance 1447:Unclassified occupations 1395:, who held the ranks of 1201:King Seongjong of Goryeo 1197:King Gwangjong of Goryeo 1149: 1080: 996:(subsidiary companies), 894:Spring and Autumn period 849:Chinese export porcelain 701:Neolithic times in China 367:(770-481 BC), and early 125:(peasant farmers), the 27:with two courtesans, by 8281:Social history of China 8197:Philosophy of education 5879:Administrative detainee 5434:Ebrey, Patricia Buckley 5356:Gronewold, Sue (1982). 5065:Selina O'Grady (2012). 4760:Brook, Timothy (1993). 4432:Encyclopædia Britannica 4315:Haryono, Steve (2017). 3960:Nahm, Andrew C (1996). 3877:Totman, Conrad (1981). 3815:Smits, Gregory (1999). 3775:Smits, Gregory (1999). 3486:Peter Bernholz (2003). 3315:Li, Lillian M. (1981), 3158:10.3406/arasi.1987.1217 1457:Emperor Taizong of Tang 1307:Kapitan Cina Yap Ah Loy 1259:Maritime Southeast Asia 1128:of "samurai, peasants ( 1029:Envoys of Ryukyu to Edo 912:or exploiting farmers. 640:A Chinese School (1847) 162:Chinese cultural sphere 7136: 7090: 7076: 6295: 4634:Asian Folklore Studies 4607:Chen, Mengjia (1936). 4287:. Jakarta: Djambatan. 4281:Lohanda, Mona (1996). 3912:A New History of Korea 3449:Nishijima (1986), 576. 2729:Ebrey (1999), 145–146. 1931:musician households 樂戶 1894: 1836: 1768: 1717: 1632: 1627:and one attendant, by 1578:—Wei was dismissed by 1558: 1464: 1405:Luitenant der Chinezen 1274: 1247: 1165: 1030: 1004:(apprenticeship), and 973: 944: 881: 836: 780: 696: 641: 533: 509:transformation of the 489: 352: 265: 221:(AD 25–220) historian 210: 32: 8276:Social class in China 8202:Philosophy of history 8192:Philosophy of culture 8087:A Conflict of Visions 6836:Pre-industrial Europe 5395:The Meiji Restoration 5264:China and Antislavery 4741:1998. pp. 14, 318-319 4401:Szczepanski, Kallie. 3910:Lee, Ki-Baik (1984). 3804:. National Academies. 3300:Heleanor B. Feltham: 3070:Faure, David (2006), 3003:Dr R K Sahay (2016). 1945:personal retainers 部曲 1892: 1826: 1762: 1715: 1696:Imperial Examinations 1617: 1556: 1534:Southern Song dynasty 1454: 1283:Sultanates of Malacca 1272: 1242: 1163: 1028: 967: 938: 879: 834: 778: 737:Warring States period 725:Warring States period 682: 639: 527: 484: 477:Imperial Examinations 473:Mandarin (bureaucrat) 445:Warring States period 415:had a strict code of 350: 337:Ancient Warrior class 241: 215:Warring States period 204: 22: 8207:Political philosophy 8007:Democracy in America 6693: or countries 6504:By country or region 5742:Class discrimination 5455:__________. (1999). 5097:Chinese Text Project 3231:on 23 September 2015 2976:David Graff (2003). 2610:www.historytoday.com 2595:Ebrey (2006), 32–39. 2577:Ebrey (2006), 29–30. 1991:Estates of the realm 1937:government slaves 奴婢 1934:official bondsmen 官戶 1585:The Book of Swindles 387:, from 1300 BC, the 8047:One-Dimensional Man 6225:Vanniar (Chieftain) 5516:Spence, Jonathan D. 5471:Fairbank, John King 5391:Beasley, William G. 5111:Sharron Gu (2011). 4820:Peers, pp. 114, 130 4548:Huang, Ray (1981). 3935:신형식 (2005). "1-2". 3476:Bowman (2000), 105. 3179:Zhao, Gang (2013). 2828:: 108. October 1847 2333:Toby Slade (2009). 2202:on 30 November 2023 2163:pp. 213, 214. 1948:female retainers 客女 1906:, the Ming dynasty 1866:Pear Garden Academy 1846:Emperor Xuan of Han 1829:Eastern Han dynasty 1518:Western Jin dynasty 1191:, Confucianism and 910:market manipulation 896:, Hegemon of China 646:Widespread printing 377:dukes and marquises 355:During the ancient 62:Shì nóng gōng shāng 49:traditional Chinese 8167:Cultural pessimism 8162:Cultural criticism 7061:National character 6806:18th-century Spain 6660:Standard of living 6364:Upper middle class 6359:Lower middle class 5950:Political prisoner 5732:Chattering classes 5704:Spoon class theory 4906:Peers, pp. 175-179 4897:Peers, pp. 110-112 4854:Theobald, Ulrich. 4693:de Crespigny, Rafe 4446:Mote, Frederick W. 4224:www.thestar.com.my 2873:Fairbank, 101–106. 2846:Ebrey (2006), 160. 2818:"A Chinese School" 2741:Ebrey (2006), 159. 2161:Frank Cass and Co. 2063:Hansson, pp. 20-21 1895: 1837: 1769: 1718: 1633: 1559: 1465: 1459:(r. 626–649); the 1389:colonial Indonesia 1275: 1253:equal-field system 1248: 1166: 1111:Tokugawa shogunate 1031: 974: 945: 882: 861:putting-out system 859:compared with the 837: 781: 752:equal-field system 697: 675:Equal-field system 642: 568:Confucian classics 534: 490: 353: 211: 41:simplified Chinese 33: 8248: 8247: 7964: 7963: 7109:Spontaneous order 7099:Social alienation 6948:Cultural heritage 6909:Social philosophy 6875: 6874: 6853: 6852: 6849: 6848: 6686: 6685: 6493: 6492: 6489: 6488: 6485: 6484: 6387:Lumpenproletariat 5889:illegal immigrant 5850: 5849: 5762:Classless society 5544:Wright, Arthur F. 5436:, Anne Walthall, 5325:978-0-313-33143-5 5262:Hallet, Nicole. " 4706:978-90-04-15605-0 4491:Wang, R.G. p. xxi 4482:Wang, R.G., p. xx 4469:978-0-521-24332-2 4387:978-0-87727-733-0 4321:. Steve Haryono. 3522:978-0-19-988759-0 3497:978-1-84376-155-6 3422:Ch'ü (1972), 114. 3326:978-0-674-11962-8 3099:Fairbank, John K. 3081:978-962-209-784-1 3016:978-93-86019-90-5 2989:978-1-134-55353-2 2962:978-0-8248-2465-5 2882:Michael, 420–421. 2666:978-0-521-45466-7 2586:Ebrey (2006), 32. 2496:Ebrey (2006), 22. 2344:978-1-84788-252-3 2319:978-0-520-00306-4 2239:on 30 August 2023 1951:private slaves 家奴 1619:Luohan Laundering 1600:Religious workers 1493:scholar-officials 1413:scholar-officials 954:Scholar-officials 788:Chinese character 729:well-field system 671:Well-field system 486:A Literary Garden 463:Scholar-Officials 365:Spring and Autumn 142:commercialization 8293: 8261:Society of China 8212:Social criticism 8132: 8122: 8112: 8102: 8092: 8082: 8072: 8062: 8052: 8042: 8032: 8022: 8012: 8002: 7992: 7982: 7218: 7217: 7200:Frankfurt School 7178:Communitarianism 7141: 7095: 7081: 6902: 6895: 6888: 6879: 6878: 6865: 6864: 6692: 6593:Mexican-American 6521: 6520: 6512: 6511: 6499: 6498: 6300: 6243:Business magnate 6133:Knowledge worker 6018: 6017: 5906:dual or multiple 5869: 5868: 5856: 5855: 5810:Social exclusion 5805:Social cleansing 5719: 5669: 5668: 5658:Economic classes 5619: 5612: 5605: 5596: 5595: 5523:; Second Edition 5411: 5362: 5361: 5353: 5347: 5336: 5330: 5329: 5312: 5306: 5305: 5297: 5291: 5288: 5279: 5260: 5251: 5248: 5242: 5241: 5239: 5238: 5215: 5209: 5208: 5189: 5183: 5182: 5162: 5156: 5155: 5135: 5129: 5128: 5108: 5102: 5100: 5089: 5083: 5082: 5062: 5056: 5055: 5037: 5026: 5025: 5007: 5001: 5000: 4980: 4974: 4973: 4954: 4944: 4938: 4935: 4929: 4922: 4916: 4913: 4907: 4904: 4898: 4895: 4889: 4888: 4870: 4864: 4863: 4851: 4845: 4844: 4836: 4830: 4827: 4821: 4818: 4812: 4809: 4803: 4800: 4785: 4782: 4776: 4775: 4757: 4751: 4748: 4742: 4735: 4729: 4728: 4720: 4711: 4710: 4689: 4683: 4682: 4672: 4666: 4665: 4629: 4623: 4622: 4604: 4598: 4597: 4589: 4583: 4582: 4574: 4568: 4567: 4555: 4545: 4539: 4536:The Last Emperor 4532: 4523: 4516: 4510: 4507: 4501: 4500:Wang, R.G. p. 10 4498: 4492: 4489: 4483: 4480: 4474: 4473: 4450:Twitchett, Denis 4442: 4436: 4435: 4434:. 21 March 2024. 4424: 4418: 4417: 4415: 4413: 4398: 4392: 4391: 4373: 4367: 4366: 4357:(235): 102–105. 4346: 4340: 4339: 4337: 4335: 4312: 4306: 4305: 4303: 4301: 4278: 4267: 4266: 4242: 4236: 4235: 4233: 4231: 4215: 4209: 4208: 4206: 4204: 4190: 4184: 4183: 4181: 4179: 4156: 4150: 4140: 4134: 4124: 4118: 4117: 4092: 4086: 4083: 4077: 4076: 4058: 4052: 4051:in every copy)." 4048: 4042: 4038: 4032: 4028: 4022: 4018: 4012: 4009: 4003: 4002: 3982: 3976: 3975: 3957: 3951: 3950: 3932: 3926: 3925: 3907: 3901: 3900: 3884: 3874: 3868: 3862: 3856: 3855: 3837: 3831: 3830: 3812: 3806: 3805: 3797: 3791: 3790: 3772: 3766: 3765: 3747: 3741: 3738: 3732: 3729: 3723: 3722: 3704: 3698: 3697: 3685: 3679: 3678: 3660: 3654: 3651: 3642: 3639: 3633: 3630: 3624: 3617: 3611: 3604: 3598: 3593:Yu Yingshi 余英時, 3591: 3585: 3582: 3576: 3573: 3567: 3564: 3558: 3551: 3545: 3542: 3536: 3533: 3527: 3526: 3508: 3502: 3501: 3483: 3477: 3474: 3468: 3465: 3459: 3456: 3450: 3447: 3441: 3438: 3432: 3429: 3423: 3420: 3414: 3411: 3405: 3404: 3386: 3380: 3365: 3356: 3355: 3346: 3336: 3330: 3329: 3312: 3306: 3297: 3291: 3290: 3272: 3266: 3265: 3247: 3241: 3240: 3238: 3236: 3216: 3210: 3209: 3207: 3205: 3191: 3185: 3184: 3176: 3170: 3169: 3141: 3135: 3132: 3126: 3123: 3117: 3116: 3103:Twitchett, Denis 3095:Rowe, William T. 3091: 3085: 3084: 3067: 3058: 3055: 3046: 3043: 3034: 3027: 3021: 3020: 3000: 2994: 2993: 2973: 2967: 2966: 2946: 2940: 2939: 2912: 2906: 2905:Gernet, 102–103. 2903: 2892: 2889: 2883: 2880: 2874: 2871: 2865: 2862: 2856: 2853: 2847: 2844: 2838: 2837: 2835: 2833: 2814: 2808: 2805: 2799: 2792: 2786: 2779: 2773: 2770: 2764: 2757: 2751: 2748: 2742: 2739: 2730: 2727: 2721: 2718: 2712: 2706: 2700: 2677: 2671: 2670: 2650: 2644: 2641: 2635: 2632: 2626: 2625: 2623: 2621: 2602: 2596: 2593: 2587: 2584: 2578: 2575: 2569: 2568: 2559: 2549: 2543: 2542: 2533: 2524: 2517: 2511: 2508: 2497: 2494: 2485: 2484:Gernet, 129–130. 2482: 2476: 2473: 2458: 2457: 2439: 2430: 2429: 2420: 2410: 2404: 2403: 2385: 2376: 2373: 2367: 2364: 2349: 2348: 2330: 2324: 2323: 2311: 2301: 2292: 2291: 2289: 2287: 2281: 2268: 2258: 2249: 2248: 2246: 2244: 2221: 2212: 2211: 2209: 2207: 2184: 2175: 2174: 2152: 2143: 2142: 2133: 2123: 2114: 2113: 2104: 2094: 2085: 2082: 2073: 2070: 2064: 2061: 1975: 1970: 1969: 1968: 1885:Slavery in China 1864:established the 1862:Emperor Xuanzong 1801: 1734: 1639:and diviners in 1610:Chinese Buddhism 1481:heavenly mandate 1437:Lanfang Republic 1433:Kongsi republics 1393:Chinese officers 1382: 1377: 1366: 1361: 1350: 1341: 1177:bone-rank system 1127: 1125: 1124: 1118: 998:jingli fuzhe zhi 691:encyclopedia by 609:(1031–1095) and 494:Duke Xiao of Qin 469:Scholar-official 395:, fighting with 359:(1600–1046 BC), 307: 179: 177: 171: 170: 107:social structure 77: 72: 69:" (Chinese: 63: 54: 46: 37:four occupations 23:A painting of a 8301: 8300: 8296: 8295: 8294: 8292: 8291: 8290: 8251: 8250: 8249: 8244: 8231: 8157:Critical theory 8135: 8130: 8120: 8110: 8100: 8090: 8080: 8070: 8060: 8050: 8040: 8030: 8020: 8010: 8000: 7990: 7980: 7960: 7638: 7632: 7430: 7424: 7373: 7302: 7209: 7161:Budapest School 7149: 6938:Cosmopolitanism 6911: 6906: 6876: 6871: 6845: 6794: 6682: 6654: 6621: 6605:Underprivileged 6547: 6506: 6505: 6481: 6411: 6368: 6328: 6310: 6229: 6147: 6107: 6009: 5964: 5863: 5862: 5846: 5825:Social position 5815:Social mobility 5713: 5663: 5634: 5633: 5623: 5593: 5409: 5370: 5365: 5354: 5350: 5337: 5333: 5326: 5314: 5313: 5309: 5298: 5294: 5289: 5282: 5261: 5254: 5249: 5245: 5236: 5234: 5232: 5216: 5212: 5205: 5191: 5190: 5186: 5179: 5163: 5159: 5152: 5138:Tan Ye (2008). 5136: 5132: 5125: 5109: 5105: 5091: 5090: 5086: 5079: 5063: 5059: 5052: 5038: 5029: 5022: 5008: 5004: 4997: 4981: 4977: 4967: 4945: 4941: 4936: 4932: 4923: 4919: 4914: 4910: 4905: 4901: 4896: 4892: 4885: 4871: 4867: 4860:China knowledge 4852: 4848: 4837: 4833: 4828: 4824: 4819: 4815: 4810: 4806: 4801: 4788: 4783: 4779: 4772: 4758: 4754: 4749: 4745: 4736: 4732: 4721: 4714: 4707: 4690: 4686: 4673: 4669: 4646:10.2307/1177648 4630: 4626: 4619: 4605: 4601: 4590: 4586: 4575: 4571: 4564: 4546: 4542: 4533: 4526: 4517: 4513: 4508: 4504: 4499: 4495: 4490: 4486: 4481: 4477: 4470: 4452:, eds. (1988). 4443: 4439: 4426: 4425: 4421: 4411: 4409: 4407:About Education 4399: 4395: 4388: 4374: 4370: 4347: 4343: 4333: 4331: 4329: 4313: 4309: 4299: 4297: 4295: 4279: 4270: 4263: 4243: 4239: 4229: 4227: 4216: 4212: 4202: 4200: 4192: 4191: 4187: 4177: 4175: 4173: 4157: 4153: 4142:Hwang, In-Won. 4141: 4137: 4126:Ooi, Keat Gin. 4125: 4121: 4114: 4093: 4089: 4084: 4080: 4073: 4059: 4055: 4049: 4045: 4039: 4035: 4029: 4025: 4019: 4015: 4010: 4006: 3999: 3983: 3979: 3972: 3958: 3954: 3947: 3933: 3929: 3922: 3908: 3904: 3897: 3889:–140, 161–163. 3875: 3871: 3863: 3859: 3852: 3838: 3834: 3827: 3813: 3809: 3798: 3794: 3787: 3773: 3769: 3762: 3748: 3744: 3739: 3735: 3730: 3726: 3719: 3705: 3701: 3686: 3682: 3675: 3661: 3657: 3652: 3645: 3640: 3636: 3631: 3627: 3618: 3614: 3605: 3601: 3592: 3588: 3584:Brook, 215–216. 3583: 3579: 3574: 3570: 3565: 3561: 3552: 3548: 3543: 3539: 3534: 3530: 3523: 3509: 3505: 3498: 3484: 3480: 3475: 3471: 3466: 3462: 3457: 3453: 3448: 3444: 3439: 3435: 3430: 3426: 3421: 3417: 3412: 3408: 3401: 3389:Guo Wu (2010). 3387: 3383: 3366: 3359: 3338: 3337: 3333: 3327: 3313: 3309: 3298: 3294: 3287: 3273: 3269: 3262: 3248: 3244: 3234: 3232: 3217: 3213: 3203: 3201: 3192: 3188: 3177: 3173: 3146:Arts Asiatiques 3142: 3138: 3133: 3129: 3124: 3120: 3092: 3088: 3082: 3068: 3061: 3056: 3049: 3044: 3037: 3028: 3024: 3017: 3001: 2997: 2990: 2974: 2970: 2963: 2947: 2943: 2913: 2909: 2904: 2895: 2891:Hymes, 132–133. 2890: 2886: 2881: 2877: 2872: 2868: 2863: 2859: 2854: 2850: 2845: 2841: 2831: 2829: 2816: 2815: 2811: 2806: 2802: 2793: 2789: 2780: 2776: 2771: 2767: 2758: 2754: 2749: 2745: 2740: 2733: 2728: 2724: 2719: 2715: 2707: 2703: 2678: 2674: 2667: 2651: 2647: 2642: 2638: 2633: 2629: 2619: 2617: 2604: 2603: 2599: 2594: 2590: 2585: 2581: 2576: 2572: 2551: 2550: 2546: 2519: 2518: 2514: 2509: 2500: 2495: 2488: 2483: 2479: 2474: 2461: 2454: 2440: 2433: 2412: 2411: 2407: 2400: 2386: 2379: 2374: 2370: 2365: 2352: 2345: 2331: 2327: 2320: 2302: 2295: 2285: 2283: 2279: 2266: 2264: 2260: 2259: 2252: 2242: 2240: 2227: 2223: 2222: 2215: 2205: 2203: 2190: 2186: 2185: 2178: 2171: 2153: 2146: 2125: 2124: 2117: 2096: 2095: 2088: 2083: 2076: 2071: 2067: 2062: 2051: 2047: 1971: 1966: 1964: 1961: 1887: 1881: 1788: 1778: 1710: 1704: 1612: 1604:Main articles: 1602: 1572:Donglin Society 1551: 1474: 1449: 1291:Kingdom of Siam 1267: 1261: 1237: 1231: 1158: 1152: 1119: 1089: 1083: 1023: 1014: 898:Duke Huan of Qi 874: 856:silk production 839:In the late of 826:Emperor Huizong 773: 677: 667: 617:(1007–1072) or 479: 465: 363:(1046–771 BC), 345: 339: 334: 199: 165: 119:scholars), the 17: 12: 11: 5: 8299: 8289: 8288: 8283: 8278: 8273: 8268: 8263: 8246: 8245: 8243: 8242: 8236: 8233: 8232: 8230: 8229: 8224: 8219: 8217:Social science 8214: 8209: 8204: 8199: 8194: 8189: 8184: 8179: 8174: 8169: 8164: 8159: 8154: 8149: 8143: 8141: 8137: 8136: 8134: 8133: 8123: 8113: 8107:Gender Trouble 8103: 8093: 8083: 8073: 8063: 8053: 8043: 8037:The Second Sex 8033: 8023: 8013: 8003: 7993: 7983: 7972: 7970: 7966: 7965: 7962: 7961: 7959: 7958: 7953: 7948: 7943: 7938: 7933: 7928: 7923: 7918: 7913: 7908: 7903: 7898: 7893: 7888: 7883: 7878: 7873: 7868: 7863: 7858: 7853: 7848: 7843: 7838: 7833: 7828: 7823: 7818: 7813: 7808: 7803: 7798: 7793: 7788: 7783: 7778: 7773: 7768: 7763: 7758: 7753: 7748: 7743: 7738: 7733: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7708: 7703: 7698: 7693: 7688: 7683: 7678: 7673: 7668: 7663: 7658: 7653: 7648: 7642: 7640: 7634: 7633: 7631: 7630: 7625: 7620: 7615: 7610: 7605: 7600: 7595: 7590: 7585: 7580: 7575: 7570: 7565: 7560: 7555: 7550: 7545: 7540: 7535: 7530: 7525: 7520: 7515: 7510: 7505: 7500: 7495: 7490: 7485: 7480: 7475: 7470: 7465: 7460: 7455: 7450: 7445: 7440: 7434: 7432: 7426: 7425: 7423: 7422: 7417: 7412: 7407: 7402: 7397: 7392: 7387: 7381: 7379: 7375: 7374: 7372: 7371: 7366: 7361: 7356: 7351: 7346: 7341: 7336: 7331: 7326: 7321: 7316: 7310: 7308: 7304: 7303: 7301: 7300: 7295: 7290: 7285: 7280: 7275: 7270: 7265: 7260: 7255: 7250: 7245: 7240: 7235: 7230: 7224: 7222: 7215: 7211: 7210: 7208: 7207: 7202: 7197: 7196: 7195: 7185: 7180: 7175: 7174: 7173: 7163: 7157: 7155: 7151: 7150: 7148: 7147: 7142: 7133: 7132: 7131: 7121: 7116: 7111: 7106: 7101: 7096: 7087: 7082: 7073: 7068: 7063: 7058: 7053: 7052: 7051: 7041: 7036: 7031: 7029:Invisible hand 7026: 7021: 7016: 7015: 7014: 7004: 6999: 6994: 6989: 6984: 6983: 6982: 6972: 6971: 6970: 6965: 6960: 6950: 6945: 6940: 6935: 6930: 6925: 6919: 6917: 6913: 6912: 6905: 6904: 6897: 6890: 6882: 6873: 6872: 6870: 6869: 6858: 6855: 6854: 6851: 6850: 6847: 6846: 6844: 6843: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6826:Ottoman Empire 6823: 6818: 6813: 6811:Ancient Greece 6808: 6802: 6800: 6796: 6795: 6793: 6792: 6787: 6785:United Kingdom 6782: 6777: 6772: 6767: 6762: 6757: 6752: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6732: 6727: 6722: 6717: 6712: 6707: 6702: 6696: 6694: 6688: 6687: 6684: 6683: 6681: 6680: 6678:Home-ownership 6675: 6670: 6664: 6662: 6656: 6655: 6653: 6652: 6647: 6642: 6637: 6631: 6629: 6623: 6622: 6620: 6619: 6618: 6617: 6612: 6602: 6601: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6580: 6579: 6578: 6573: 6568: 6557: 6555: 6549: 6548: 6546: 6545: 6540: 6535: 6533:American Dream 6530: 6524: 6518: 6508: 6507: 6495: 6494: 6491: 6490: 6487: 6486: 6483: 6482: 6480: 6479: 6474: 6465: 6460: 6455: 6446: 6437: 6432: 6427: 6421: 6419: 6413: 6412: 6410: 6409: 6404: 6399: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6378: 6376: 6370: 6369: 6367: 6366: 6361: 6356: 6351: 6350: 6349: 6338: 6336: 6330: 6329: 6327: 6326: 6320: 6318: 6312: 6311: 6309: 6308: 6301: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6276: 6275: 6270: 6260: 6255: 6250: 6245: 6239: 6237: 6231: 6230: 6228: 6227: 6218: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6173: 6168: 6163: 6157: 6155: 6149: 6148: 6146: 6145: 6140: 6135: 6130: 6129: 6128: 6117: 6115: 6109: 6108: 6106: 6105: 6100: 6099: 6098: 6093: 6092: 6091: 6076: 6075: 6074: 6069: 6061: 6060: 6059: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6038: 6037: 6026: 6024: 6015: 6011: 6010: 6008: 6007: 6002: 5997: 5992: 5987: 5982: 5976: 5974: 5966: 5965: 5963: 5962: 5957: 5952: 5947: 5945:Migrant worker 5942: 5937: 5936: 5935: 5925: 5924: 5923: 5918: 5913: 5908: 5898: 5897: 5896: 5891: 5881: 5875: 5873: 5865: 5864: 5861:By demographic 5852: 5851: 5848: 5847: 5845: 5844: 5841:Status Anxiety 5837: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5817: 5812: 5807: 5802: 5797: 5795:Ranked society 5792: 5787: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5744: 5739: 5737:Class conflict 5734: 5729: 5723: 5721: 5720: topics 5715: 5714: 5712: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5694:Mudsill theory 5691: 5686: 5681: 5675: 5673: 5665: 5664: 5662: 5661: 5654: 5647: 5639: 5636: 5635: 5632: 5631: 5625: 5622: 5621: 5614: 5607: 5599: 5592: 5591: 5581: 5571: 5561: 5558: 5551: 5541: 5538: 5513: 5506: 5499: 5485: 5468: 5453: 5431: 5415:Brook, Timothy 5412: 5407: 5387: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5363: 5348: 5331: 5324: 5307: 5292: 5290:Hansson, p. 35 5280: 5252: 5243: 5230: 5210: 5204:978-9629371401 5203: 5184: 5178:978-0700704392 5177: 5157: 5151:978-0810855144 5150: 5130: 5124:978-0786466498 5123: 5103: 5084: 5078:978-1843546962 5077: 5057: 5050: 5027: 5020: 5002: 4996:978-1317213758 4995: 4975: 4965: 4939: 4930: 4924:Ebrey et al., 4917: 4908: 4899: 4890: 4883: 4865: 4846: 4831: 4822: 4813: 4804: 4802:Fairbank, 109. 4786: 4777: 4770: 4752: 4750:Wright, 88–94. 4743: 4730: 4712: 4705: 4684: 4667: 4624: 4617: 4599: 4584: 4569: 4562: 4540: 4524: 4518:Zhang Yingyu, 4511: 4509:Spence, 17–18. 4502: 4493: 4484: 4475: 4468: 4462:. p. 11. 4437: 4419: 4393: 4386: 4368: 4341: 4327: 4307: 4293: 4268: 4261: 4237: 4210: 4185: 4171: 4151: 4135: 4119: 4112: 4087: 4078: 4072:978-0813348384 4071: 4053: 4043: 4033: 4023: 4013: 4004: 3997: 3977: 3970: 3952: 3945: 3927: 3920: 3902: 3895: 3869: 3857: 3850: 3832: 3825: 3807: 3792: 3785: 3767: 3761:978-1462901845 3760: 3742: 3733: 3724: 3718:978-9813233485 3717: 3699: 3680: 3674:978-1351612999 3673: 3655: 3643: 3634: 3625: 3612: 3599: 3586: 3577: 3568: 3559: 3553:Ebrey et al., 3546: 3537: 3528: 3521: 3503: 3496: 3478: 3469: 3460: 3451: 3442: 3433: 3424: 3415: 3406: 3400:978-1604977059 3399: 3381: 3357: 3331: 3325: 3307: 3292: 3285: 3267: 3260: 3242: 3211: 3186: 3171: 3136: 3127: 3118: 3115:. p. 526. 3086: 3080: 3059: 3047: 3035: 3022: 3015: 2995: 2988: 2968: 2961: 2941: 2907: 2893: 2884: 2875: 2866: 2864:Fairbank, 104. 2857: 2848: 2839: 2809: 2800: 2787: 2781:Ebrey et al., 2774: 2772:Yuan, 193–199. 2765: 2759:Ebrey et al., 2752: 2743: 2731: 2722: 2713: 2701: 2699: 2698: 2692: 2686: 2683: 2672: 2665: 2645: 2636: 2627: 2597: 2588: 2579: 2570: 2544: 2522:"昭公二十一年" 2512: 2498: 2486: 2477: 2475:Hansson, 28-30 2459: 2452: 2431: 2405: 2399:978-1351612999 2398: 2377: 2368: 2350: 2343: 2325: 2318: 2293: 2282:on 6 June 2023 2250: 2213: 2176: 2169: 2144: 2115: 2086: 2084:Fairbank, 108. 2074: 2065: 2048: 2046: 2043: 2042: 2041: 2036: 2031: 2026: 2021: 2003: 1998: 1993: 1988: 1983: 1977: 1976: 1960: 1957: 1953: 1952: 1949: 1946: 1939: 1938: 1935: 1932: 1929: 1926: 1883:Main article: 1880: 1877: 1782:Music of China 1777: 1774: 1703: 1700: 1662:open rebellion 1601: 1598: 1580:the next ruler 1576:Tianqi Emperor 1550: 1547: 1504:Ming dynasties 1473: 1470: 1448: 1445: 1418:Ethical Policy 1378:; pinyin: 1372:(Chinese: 1362:; pinyin: 1356:(Chinese: 1318:British Malaya 1299:Chakri dynasty 1297:in Thailand's 1281:, such as the 1279:Southeast Asia 1260: 1257: 1230: 1227: 1154:Main article: 1151: 1148: 1085:Main article: 1082: 1079: 1035:Ryūkyū Kingdom 1022: 1021:Ryukyu Kingdom 1019: 1013: 1010: 873: 870: 845:Kangxi Emperor 772: 769: 689:Tiangong Kaiwu 666: 663: 591:standard exams 581:(618–907) the 464: 461: 408:, and armour. 369:Warring States 338: 335: 333: 330: 198: 195: 84:classification 73:; pinyin: 25:gentry scholar 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8298: 8287: 8284: 8282: 8279: 8277: 8274: 8272: 8269: 8267: 8264: 8262: 8259: 8258: 8256: 8241: 8238: 8237: 8234: 8228: 8225: 8223: 8222:Social theory 8220: 8218: 8215: 8213: 8210: 8208: 8205: 8203: 8200: 8198: 8195: 8193: 8190: 8188: 8185: 8183: 8180: 8178: 8175: 8173: 8170: 8168: 8165: 8163: 8160: 8158: 8155: 8153: 8150: 8148: 8145: 8144: 8142: 8138: 8129: 8128: 8124: 8119: 8118: 8114: 8109: 8108: 8104: 8099: 8098: 8094: 8089: 8088: 8084: 8079: 8078: 8074: 8069: 8068: 8064: 8059: 8058: 8054: 8049: 8048: 8044: 8039: 8038: 8034: 8029: 8028: 8024: 8019: 8018: 8014: 8009: 8008: 8004: 7999: 7998: 7994: 7989: 7988: 7984: 7979: 7978: 7974: 7973: 7971: 7967: 7957: 7954: 7952: 7949: 7947: 7944: 7942: 7939: 7937: 7934: 7932: 7929: 7927: 7924: 7922: 7919: 7917: 7914: 7912: 7909: 7907: 7904: 7902: 7899: 7897: 7894: 7892: 7889: 7887: 7884: 7882: 7879: 7877: 7876:Radhakrishnan 7874: 7872: 7869: 7867: 7864: 7862: 7859: 7857: 7854: 7852: 7849: 7847: 7844: 7842: 7839: 7837: 7834: 7832: 7829: 7827: 7824: 7822: 7819: 7817: 7814: 7812: 7809: 7807: 7804: 7802: 7799: 7797: 7794: 7792: 7789: 7787: 7784: 7782: 7779: 7777: 7774: 7772: 7769: 7767: 7764: 7762: 7759: 7757: 7754: 7752: 7749: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7699: 7697: 7694: 7692: 7689: 7687: 7684: 7682: 7679: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7669: 7667: 7664: 7662: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7652: 7649: 7647: 7644: 7643: 7641: 7637:20th and 21st 7635: 7629: 7626: 7624: 7621: 7619: 7616: 7614: 7611: 7609: 7606: 7604: 7601: 7599: 7596: 7594: 7591: 7589: 7586: 7584: 7581: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7571: 7569: 7566: 7564: 7561: 7559: 7556: 7554: 7551: 7549: 7546: 7544: 7541: 7539: 7536: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7526: 7524: 7521: 7519: 7516: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7506: 7504: 7501: 7499: 7496: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7486: 7484: 7481: 7479: 7476: 7474: 7471: 7469: 7466: 7464: 7461: 7459: 7456: 7454: 7451: 7449: 7446: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7435: 7433: 7429:18th and 19th 7427: 7421: 7418: 7416: 7413: 7411: 7408: 7406: 7403: 7401: 7398: 7396: 7393: 7391: 7388: 7386: 7383: 7382: 7380: 7376: 7370: 7367: 7365: 7362: 7360: 7357: 7355: 7352: 7350: 7347: 7345: 7342: 7340: 7337: 7335: 7332: 7330: 7327: 7325: 7322: 7320: 7317: 7315: 7312: 7311: 7309: 7305: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7291: 7289: 7286: 7284: 7281: 7279: 7276: 7274: 7271: 7269: 7266: 7264: 7261: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7251: 7249: 7246: 7244: 7241: 7239: 7236: 7234: 7231: 7229: 7226: 7225: 7223: 7219: 7216: 7212: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7194: 7191: 7190: 7189: 7186: 7184: 7181: 7179: 7176: 7172: 7169: 7168: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7158: 7156: 7152: 7146: 7143: 7140: 7139: 7134: 7130: 7127: 7126: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7110: 7107: 7105: 7102: 7100: 7097: 7094: 7093: 7088: 7086: 7083: 7080: 7079: 7074: 7072: 7069: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7050: 7047: 7046: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7025: 7022: 7020: 7017: 7013: 7010: 7009: 7008: 7005: 7003: 7000: 6998: 6995: 6993: 6990: 6988: 6985: 6981: 6978: 6977: 6976: 6973: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6955: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6920: 6918: 6914: 6910: 6903: 6898: 6896: 6891: 6889: 6884: 6883: 6880: 6868: 6860: 6859: 6856: 6842: 6839: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6804: 6803: 6801: 6797: 6791: 6790:United States 6788: 6786: 6783: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6771: 6768: 6766: 6763: 6761: 6758: 6756: 6753: 6751: 6748: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6731: 6728: 6726: 6723: 6721: 6718: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6701: 6698: 6697: 6695: 6691:Other regions 6689: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6665: 6663: 6661: 6657: 6651: 6648: 6646: 6643: 6641: 6638: 6636: 6633: 6632: 6630: 6628: 6624: 6616: 6613: 6611: 6608: 6607: 6606: 6603: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6585: 6584: 6581: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6563: 6562: 6559: 6558: 6556: 6554: 6550: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6525: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6516:United States 6513: 6509: 6500: 6496: 6478: 6475: 6473: 6469: 6466: 6464: 6461: 6459: 6456: 6454: 6450: 6447: 6445: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6426: 6423: 6422: 6420: 6418: 6414: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6379: 6377: 6375: 6371: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6355: 6352: 6348: 6345: 6344: 6343: 6340: 6339: 6337: 6335: 6331: 6325: 6322: 6321: 6319: 6317: 6313: 6307: 6306: 6302: 6299: 6298: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6265: 6264: 6261: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6249: 6246: 6244: 6241: 6240: 6238: 6236: 6232: 6226: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6194: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6167: 6164: 6162: 6159: 6158: 6156: 6154: 6150: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6127: 6124: 6123: 6122: 6119: 6118: 6116: 6114: 6110: 6104: 6101: 6097: 6094: 6090: 6087: 6086: 6085: 6082: 6081: 6080: 6077: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6065: 6064: 6062: 6058: 6055: 6054: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6040: 6036: 6033: 6032: 6031: 6028: 6027: 6025: 6023: 6019: 6016: 6012: 6006: 6003: 6001: 5998: 5996: 5993: 5991: 5988: 5986: 5983: 5981: 5978: 5977: 5975: 5972: 5967: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5955:Socioeconomic 5953: 5951: 5948: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5938: 5934: 5931: 5930: 5929: 5926: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5903: 5902: 5899: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5887: 5886: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5877: 5876: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5857: 5853: 5843: 5842: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5830:Social stigma 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5820:Social orphan 5818: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5796: 5793: 5791: 5788: 5786: 5785: 5780: 5779: 5778:Nouveau riche 5775: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5753: 5752:Class traitor 5750: 5748: 5747:Class society 5745: 5743: 5740: 5738: 5735: 5733: 5730: 5728: 5725: 5724: 5722: 5716: 5710: 5707: 5705: 5702: 5700: 5697: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5684:Gilbert model 5682: 5680: 5677: 5676: 5674: 5670: 5666: 5660: 5659: 5655: 5653: 5652: 5648: 5646: 5645: 5641: 5640: 5637: 5630: 5627: 5626: 5620: 5615: 5613: 5608: 5606: 5601: 5600: 5597: 5590: 5586: 5582: 5580: 5579:1-84603-098-6 5576: 5572: 5570: 5566: 5562: 5559: 5556: 5552: 5549: 5545: 5542: 5539: 5536: 5535:0-393-97351-4 5532: 5528: 5524: 5522: 5517: 5514: 5511: 5507: 5504: 5500: 5498: 5497:0-8047-0720-0 5494: 5490: 5486: 5484: 5483:0-674-01828-1 5480: 5476: 5472: 5469: 5466: 5465:0-521-66991-X 5462: 5458: 5454: 5451: 5450:0-618-13384-4 5447: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5432: 5430: 5429:0-520-22154-0 5426: 5422: 5421: 5416: 5413: 5410: 5408:0-8047-0815-0 5404: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5385: 5384:0-295-98713-8 5381: 5377: 5373: 5372: 5359: 5352: 5346: 5343:, p. 420, at 5342: 5341: 5335: 5327: 5321: 5317: 5311: 5303: 5296: 5287: 5285: 5277: 5276:0-313-33143-X 5273: 5269: 5265: 5259: 5257: 5247: 5233: 5231:0-85229-961-3 5227: 5223: 5222: 5214: 5206: 5200: 5196: 5195: 5188: 5180: 5174: 5170: 5169: 5161: 5153: 5147: 5143: 5142: 5134: 5126: 5120: 5116: 5115: 5107: 5098: 5094: 5088: 5080: 5074: 5070: 5069: 5061: 5053: 5047: 5043: 5036: 5034: 5032: 5023: 5017: 5013: 5006: 4998: 4992: 4988: 4987: 4979: 4972: 4968: 4962: 4958: 4953: 4952: 4943: 4934: 4927: 4921: 4912: 4903: 4894: 4886: 4884:7-5000-6303-2 4880: 4876: 4869: 4861: 4857: 4850: 4842: 4835: 4826: 4817: 4811:Peers, p. 128 4808: 4799: 4797: 4795: 4793: 4791: 4781: 4773: 4767: 4763: 4756: 4747: 4740: 4734: 4726: 4719: 4717: 4708: 4702: 4698: 4694: 4688: 4680: 4679: 4671: 4663: 4659: 4655: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4628: 4620: 4618:9787101112139 4614: 4610: 4603: 4595: 4588: 4580: 4573: 4565: 4563:0-300-02518-1 4559: 4554: 4553: 4544: 4537: 4534:Behr, Edward 4531: 4529: 4521: 4515: 4506: 4497: 4488: 4479: 4471: 4465: 4461: 4458:. Cambridge: 4457: 4456: 4451: 4447: 4441: 4433: 4429: 4423: 4408: 4404: 4397: 4389: 4383: 4379: 4372: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4345: 4330: 4328:9789090302492 4324: 4320: 4319: 4311: 4296: 4294:9789794282571 4290: 4286: 4285: 4277: 4275: 4273: 4264: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4249: 4241: 4225: 4221: 4214: 4199: 4195: 4189: 4174: 4172:9789401762168 4168: 4164: 4163: 4155: 4149: 4145: 4139: 4133: 4129: 4123: 4115: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4100: 4091: 4082: 4074: 4068: 4064: 4057: 4047: 4037: 4027: 4017: 4008: 4000: 3998:9780742567177 3994: 3990: 3989: 3981: 3973: 3971:1-56591-070-2 3967: 3963: 3956: 3948: 3942: 3938: 3931: 3923: 3921:0-674-61576-X 3917: 3913: 3906: 3898: 3892: 3888: 3883: 3882: 3873: 3866: 3861: 3853: 3851:0-520-24085-5 3847: 3843: 3836: 3828: 3822: 3818: 3811: 3803: 3796: 3788: 3782: 3778: 3771: 3763: 3757: 3753: 3746: 3737: 3728: 3720: 3714: 3710: 3703: 3695: 3691: 3684: 3676: 3670: 3667:. Routledge. 3666: 3659: 3650: 3648: 3638: 3629: 3622: 3616: 3609: 3603: 3596: 3590: 3581: 3572: 3563: 3556: 3550: 3541: 3532: 3524: 3518: 3514: 3507: 3499: 3493: 3489: 3482: 3473: 3464: 3455: 3446: 3437: 3428: 3419: 3410: 3402: 3396: 3392: 3385: 3378: 3377:0-8047-0720-0 3374: 3370: 3364: 3362: 3354: 3350: 3345: 3343: 3335: 3328: 3322: 3318: 3311: 3304: 3303: 3296: 3288: 3282: 3278: 3271: 3263: 3261:0-87099-514-6 3257: 3253: 3246: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3215: 3200:. Karan Kerry 3199: 3198: 3190: 3182: 3175: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3140: 3131: 3122: 3114: 3111:. Cambridge: 3110: 3109: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3090: 3083: 3077: 3073: 3066: 3064: 3057:Gernet, 88–94 3054: 3052: 3042: 3040: 3032: 3026: 3018: 3012: 3008: 3007: 2999: 2991: 2985: 2981: 2980: 2972: 2964: 2958: 2954: 2953: 2945: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2911: 2902: 2900: 2898: 2888: 2879: 2870: 2861: 2855:Fairbank, 94. 2852: 2843: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2813: 2804: 2797: 2791: 2784: 2778: 2769: 2762: 2756: 2747: 2738: 2736: 2726: 2717: 2711: 2705: 2697: 2693: 2691: 2687: 2684: 2681: 2680: 2676: 2668: 2662: 2658: 2657: 2649: 2640: 2631: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2601: 2592: 2583: 2574: 2567: 2563: 2558: 2556: 2548: 2541: 2537: 2532: 2530: 2523: 2516: 2507: 2505: 2503: 2493: 2491: 2481: 2472: 2470: 2468: 2466: 2464: 2455: 2449: 2445: 2438: 2436: 2428: 2424: 2419: 2417: 2409: 2401: 2395: 2392:. Routledge. 2391: 2384: 2382: 2372: 2363: 2361: 2359: 2357: 2355: 2346: 2340: 2336: 2329: 2321: 2315: 2310: 2309: 2300: 2298: 2278: 2274: 2273: 2265: 2257: 2255: 2238: 2234: 2233: 2232:Uki, Kumamoto 2228: 2220: 2218: 2201: 2197: 2196: 2195:Tokyo Shoseki 2191: 2183: 2181: 2172: 2170:0-7146-3245-7 2166: 2162: 2158: 2151: 2149: 2141: 2137: 2132: 2130: 2122: 2120: 2112: 2108: 2103: 2101: 2100:Guliang Zhuan 2093: 2091: 2081: 2079: 2069: 2060: 2058: 2056: 2054: 2049: 2040: 2037: 2035: 2032: 2030: 2027: 2025: 2022: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2004: 2002: 1999: 1997: 1994: 1992: 1989: 1987: 1984: 1982: 1979: 1978: 1974: 1963: 1956: 1950: 1947: 1944: 1943: 1942: 1936: 1933: 1930: 1927: 1924: 1923: 1922: 1920: 1919:Six dynasties 1916: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1891: 1886: 1876: 1873: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1859: 1858:Royal Academy 1855: 1854:Emperor Gaozu 1849: 1847: 1843: 1834: 1830: 1825: 1821: 1818: 1816: 1813:(c. 177) and 1812: 1807: 1803: 1797: 1793: 1787: 1783: 1773: 1766: 1761: 1757: 1754: 1750: 1749:Fubing system 1744: 1742: 1738: 1730: 1725: 1723: 1714: 1709: 1699: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1683: 1681: 1680:Neo-Confucian 1677: 1672: 1668: 1665: 1663: 1659: 1655: 1650: 1649:Shang dynasty 1646: 1642: 1638: 1630: 1626: 1625: 1620: 1616: 1611: 1607: 1597: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1586: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1569: 1568:Wei Zhongxian 1564: 1555: 1546: 1543: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1510: 1507: 1505: 1501: 1496: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1479:—embodying a 1478: 1472:Imperial clan 1469: 1462: 1458: 1455:The renowned 1453: 1444: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1421: 1419: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1385: 1383: 1376: 1371: 1367: 1360: 1355: 1351: 1345: 1340: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1314: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1280: 1271: 1266: 1256: 1254: 1246: 1241: 1236: 1226: 1224: 1220: 1219: 1214: 1210: 1205: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1189:Chan Buddhism 1186: 1180: 1178: 1174: 1171: 1162: 1157: 1147: 1144: 1139: 1137: 1136: 1131: 1117: 1116:Shi-nō-kō-shō 1112: 1108: 1107: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1088: 1078: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1027: 1018: 1012:Outside China 1009: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 991: 987: 983: 978: 971: 966: 962: 960: 955: 950: 942: 937: 933: 931: 926: 921: 918: 913: 911: 905: 903: 899: 895: 891: 887: 878: 869: 867: 862: 857: 852: 850: 846: 842: 833: 829: 827: 823: 819: 818: 817:Yingzao Fashi 811: 808: 803: 801: 795: 793: 789: 785: 777: 768: 766: 761: 759: 755: 753: 748: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 726: 722: 717: 715: 711: 706: 702: 694: 693:Song Yingxing 690: 686: 681: 676: 672: 662: 660: 655: 651: 647: 638: 634: 632: 628: 624: 620: 616: 612: 608: 602: 600: 596: 592: 588: 584: 580: 576: 571: 569: 565: 564: 559: 555: 551: 547: 543: 539: 531: 526: 522: 520: 516: 512: 507: 503: 499: 495: 487: 483: 478: 474: 470: 460: 458: 454: 450: 446: 441: 439: 435: 431: 426: 422: 418: 414: 409: 407: 406: 401: 398: 394: 390: 386: 385:bronzeworking 382: 378: 374: 370: 366: 362: 358: 349: 344: 329: 327: 325: 321: 316: 312: 310: 303: 297: 295: 290: 288: 287: 282: 281: 276: 275: 274:Guliang Zhuan 270: 269:Rites of Zhou 264: 262: 258: 254: 250: 246: 240: 238: 234: 230: 229: 224: 220: 216: 208: 203: 194: 192: 187: 183: 176: 163: 158: 155: 151: 147: 143: 138: 136: 135: 130: 129: 124: 123: 118: 114: 113: 108: 105: 101: 97: 93: 89: 88:ancient China 85: 82: 78: 68: 64: 58: 50: 42: 38: 30: 26: 21: 8125: 8115: 8105: 8095: 8085: 8075: 8065: 8055: 8045: 8035: 8025: 8015: 8005: 7995: 7985: 7975: 7395:Guicciardini 7378:Early modern 7214:Philosophers 7188:Conservatism 7183:Confucianism 7171:Distributism 7104:Social norms 7092:Sittlichkeit 7078:Ressentiment 7024:Institutions 7002:Human nature 6841:Soviet Union 6830: 6816:Ancient Rome 6673:Homelessness 6598:Upper Middle 6470: / 6451: / 6442: / 6407:Working poor 6303: 6290:Robber baron 6113:Intellectual 6103:Royal family 6067:Ancient Rome 5921:second-class 5839: 5782: 5781: / 5776: 5772:High society 5679:Elite theory 5656: 5649: 5642: 5629:Social class 5554: 5547: 5537:(Paperback). 5525:. New York: 5519: 5502: 5488: 5474: 5467:(paperback). 5456: 5441: 5438:James Palais 5418: 5394: 5375: 5357: 5351: 5345:Google Books 5338: 5334: 5315: 5310: 5301: 5295: 5267: 5246: 5235:. Retrieved 5220: 5213: 5193: 5187: 5167: 5160: 5140: 5133: 5113: 5106: 5096: 5087: 5067: 5060: 5041: 5011: 5005: 4985: 4978: 4970: 4950: 4942: 4937:Graff, 25–26 4933: 4925: 4920: 4911: 4902: 4893: 4874: 4868: 4859: 4849: 4840: 4834: 4825: 4816: 4807: 4780: 4761: 4755: 4746: 4738: 4733: 4724: 4696: 4687: 4677: 4670: 4637: 4633: 4627: 4608: 4602: 4593: 4587: 4578: 4572: 4551: 4543: 4535: 4519: 4514: 4505: 4496: 4487: 4478: 4454: 4440: 4431: 4422: 4410:. Retrieved 4406: 4396: 4377: 4371: 4354: 4350: 4344: 4332:. Retrieved 4317: 4310: 4298:. Retrieved 4283: 4247: 4240: 4228:. Retrieved 4223: 4213: 4201:. Retrieved 4197: 4188: 4176:. Retrieved 4165:. Springer. 4161: 4154: 4143: 4138: 4127: 4122: 4097: 4090: 4081: 4062: 4056: 4046: 4036: 4026: 4016: 4007: 3987: 3980: 3961: 3955: 3936: 3930: 3911: 3905: 3880: 3872: 3867:, p. 22 3865:Beasley 1972 3860: 3841: 3835: 3816: 3810: 3801: 3795: 3776: 3770: 3751: 3745: 3736: 3727: 3708: 3702: 3693: 3689: 3683: 3664: 3658: 3637: 3628: 3620: 3615: 3607: 3602: 3594: 3589: 3580: 3571: 3562: 3554: 3549: 3540: 3531: 3512: 3506: 3487: 3481: 3472: 3463: 3454: 3445: 3436: 3427: 3418: 3409: 3390: 3384: 3368: 3352: 3341: 3334: 3316: 3310: 3301: 3295: 3276: 3270: 3251: 3245: 3233:. Retrieved 3229:the original 3224: 3214: 3202:. Retrieved 3196: 3189: 3180: 3174: 3149: 3145: 3139: 3130: 3121: 3106: 3089: 3071: 3030: 3025: 3005: 2998: 2978: 2971: 2951: 2944: 2920: 2917:Modern China 2916: 2910: 2887: 2878: 2869: 2860: 2851: 2842: 2830:. Retrieved 2825: 2821: 2812: 2803: 2795: 2790: 2782: 2777: 2768: 2760: 2755: 2750:Gernet, 172. 2746: 2725: 2716: 2704: 2675: 2655: 2648: 2639: 2630: 2618:. 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Retrieved 2200:the original 2193: 2156: 2139: 2128: 2110: 2099: 2068: 1973:China portal 1954: 1940: 1917: 1896: 1874: 1869: 1850: 1838: 1819: 1815:Wang Zhaojun 1808: 1804: 1789: 1776:Entertainers 1770: 1763:Han dynasty 1745: 1726: 1719: 1692:Tang dynasty 1684: 1669: 1666: 1656:, who led a 1645:Zhou dynasty 1634: 1622: 1618: 1583: 1560: 1542:Ming dynasty 1538:Yuan dynasty 1530:Song dynasty 1526:Tang dynasty 1511: 1508: 1497: 1475: 1466: 1435:such as the 1422: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1386: 1379: 1369: 1363: 1353: 1347: 1329: 1325: 1322:Dutch Indies 1315: 1311:Kuala Lumpur 1302: 1294: 1276: 1249: 1216: 1206: 1184: 1181: 1167: 1140: 1133: 1129: 1104: 1096: 1090: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1032: 1015: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 979: 975: 949:Song dynasty 946: 922: 914: 906: 890:oracle bones 886:Emperor Shun 883: 853: 841:Ming dynasty 838: 815: 812: 804: 796: 791: 782: 765:Ming dynasty 762: 758:Song dynasty 756: 749: 732: 721:Zhou dynasty 718: 713: 709: 698: 688: 654:movable type 643: 603: 598: 595:Song dynasty 582: 579:Tang dynasty 572: 561: 542:China proper 535: 510: 506:meritocratic 502:State of Qin 491: 485: 456: 448: 442: 438:Battle of Bi 434:State of Jin 429: 424: 420: 412: 410: 403: 388: 380: 372: 361:Western Zhou 354: 328: 319: 317: 313: 308: 298: 291: 284: 278: 272: 266: 263:(merchants). 260: 256: 252: 248: 244: 242: 233:Western Zhou 226: 212: 190: 185: 159: 153: 139: 132: 126: 120: 110: 100:Zhou dynasty 74: 66: 60: 36: 34: 8271:Occupations 8182:Historicism 8011:(1835–1840) 7977:De Officiis 7701:de Beauvoir 7671:Baudrillard 7623:Vivekananda 7613:Tocqueville 7528:Kierkegaard 7344:Ibn Khaldun 7314:Alpharabius 7205:Personalism 7114:Stewardship 7071:Reification 7066:Natural law 6987:Familialism 6953:Culturalism 6760:New Zealand 6477:Untouchable 6402:Proletariat 6392:Pea-pickers 6342:Bourgeoisie 6030:Aristocracy 5916:naturalized 5911:native-born 4334:21 November 4300:21 November 3740:Steben, 47. 3653:Brook, 108. 3641:Brook, 102. 3544:Gernet, 88. 3535:Gernet, 77. 3045:Spence, 13. 2832:17 November 2272:Shimonoseki 2263:人権意識のアップデート 2140:農農、士士、工工、商商 1986:Edo society 1900:Xin dynasty 1856:set up the 1688:Sui dynasty 1647:, with the 1629:Lin Tinggui 1606:Wu (shaman) 1594:bureaucracy 1514:Han dynasty 1477:The emperor 1441:Kongsi Wars 1409:Cabang Atas 1265:Cabang Atas 1143:enfeoffment 1109:during the 994:lianhao zhi 807:wage labour 695:(1587–1666) 575:Sui dynasty 550:Emperor Wen 546:Han dynasty 515:Qin dynasty 228:Book of Han 219:Eastern-Han 8255:Categories 8187:Humanities 8147:Agnotology 7806:Kołakowski 7369:Ibn Tufayl 7349:Maimonides 7293:Thucydides 7288:Tertullian 7243:Lactantius 7138:Volksgeist 7119:Traditions 6933:Convention 6750:Luxembourg 6640:Inequality 6305:Superclass 6096:Hereditary 6072:Post-Roman 6063:Patrician 5933:adolescent 5757:Classicide 5589:9004105964 5569:0199767688 5440:. (2006). 5417:. (1998). 5368:References 5237:2011-01-11 5051:0520231384 5021:0520231384 4966:0822326949 4915:Lorge, 43. 4784:Wright, 86 4771:0674697758 4262:0521526957 4113:067493721X 3946:8973006193 3896:0520041348 3826:0824820371 3786:0824820371 3754:. Tuttle. 3731:Smits, 73. 3632:Brook, 161 3606:Billy So, 3349:Wikisource 3286:0521581982 2785:, 162–163. 2562:Wikisource 2536:Wikisource 2453:0521143845 2423:Wikisource 2159:. London: 2136:Wikisource 2107:Wikisource 2072:Brook, 72. 1835:tomb mural 1806:prestige. 1792:underclass 1780:See also: 1706:See also: 1660:sect into 1654:Zhang Jiao 1641:Bronze Age 1561:The court 1520:, and the 1429:Kalimantan 1289:, and the 1263:See also: 1233:See also: 902:Guan Zhong 900:appointed 866:piece work 745:Shang Yang 669:See also: 665:Nóng (农/農) 659:gazetteers 627:archeology 615:Ouyang Xiu 554:Emperor Wu 544:under the 498:Shang Yang 467:See also: 341:See also: 237:golden age 197:Background 175:shinōkōshō 90:by either 81:occupation 79:), was an 8227:Sociology 8177:Historism 7886:Santayana 7856:Oakeshott 7826:MacIntyre 7811:Kropotkin 7786:Heidegger 7639:centuries 7553:Nietzsche 7518:Jefferson 7503:Helvétius 7468:Condorcet 7431:centuries 7415:Montaigne 7238:Confucius 7228:Augustine 7145:Worldview 7039:Modernity 7012:Formation 6775:Sri Lanka 6668:Education 6635:Household 6528:Affluence 6463:Rat tribe 6425:Ant tribe 6397:Precariat 6382:Lazzaroni 6324:Bohemians 6285:Overclass 6280:Old money 6216:Spartiate 6191:Kshatriya 6181:Hashashin 6138:Professor 6079:Political 6052:Oligarchy 6042:Hanseaten 5960:Stateless 5940:Convicted 5872:By status 5835:Subaltern 5767:Euthenics 5699:New class 5093:"《趙飛燕別傳》" 4926:East Asia 4856:"Tuntian" 4609:商代的神話與巫術 4203:9 January 3555:East Asia 3379:pp. 68–69 3342:Han Feizi 3235:5 January 3204:6 January 3152:: 65–76. 3134:Guo, 4–6. 2937:220738994 2783:East Asia 2761:East Asia 2555:Zuo Zhuan 2529:Zuo Zhuan 2416:Shuo Yuan 1912:Yongzheng 1904:Wang Mang 1635:Although 1631:, 1178 AD 1590:Ray Huang 1491:-drafted 1370:t'ungchih 1326:chün-hsiu 1193:Feng Shui 1071:Guozijian 1063:Sanshikan 1051:satonushi 1002:xuetu zhi 990:huoji zhi 872:Shāng (商) 650:woodblock 631:philology 623:epigraphy 619:Zeng Gong 558:Confucius 432:from the 397:composite 286:Shuo Yuan 92:Confucian 31:, c. 1500 8240:Category 8152:Axiology 8140:See also 7931:Voegelin 7921:Spengler 7896:Shariati 7851:Nussbaum 7836:Maritain 7796:Irigaray 7776:Habermas 7741:Foucault 7726:Durkheim 7628:Voltaire 7593:de Staël 7568:Rousseau 7493:Franklin 7354:Muhammad 7339:Gelasius 7324:Avempace 7307:Medieval 7283:Polybius 7278:Plutarch 7044:Morality 7019:Ideology 7007:Identity 6916:Concepts 6867:Category 6799:Historic 6720:Colombia 6710:Cambodia 6645:Personal 6543:Mobility 6472:Freedman 6458:Plebeian 6444:Prisoner 6430:Commoner 6316:Creative 6297:Seigneur 6263:Nobility 6221:Vanniyar 6206:Pendekar 6166:Cossacks 5800:Snobbery 5672:Theories 5546:(1959). 5518:(1999). 5393:(1972), 4695:(2007). 4662:11614235 4412:April 4, 4363:41492844 4178:30 March 3166:43486524 3105:(eds.). 2923:(1): 7, 2620:17 April 2614:Archived 2337:. 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