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vannal fold is posterior to the postcubitus, but proximally it crosses the base of the first vannal vein. In the cicada, the vannal fold lies immediately behind the first vannal vein (lV). These small variations in the actual position of the vannal fold, however, do not affect the unity of action of the vannal veins, controlled by the flexor sclerite (3Ax), in the flexion of the wing. In the hindwings of most
Orthoptera, a secondary vena dividens forms a rib in the vannal fold. The vannus is usually triangular in shape, and its veins typically spread out from the third axillary like the ribs of a fan. Some of the vannal veins may be branched, and secondary veins may alternate with the primary veins. The vannal region is usually best developed in the hindwing, in which it may be enlarged to form a sustaining surface, as in Plecoptera and Orthoptera. The great fan-like expansions of the hindwings of Acrididae are clearly the vannal regions, since their veins are all supported on the third axillary sclerites on the wing bases, though Martynov (1925) ascribes most of the fan areas in Acrididae to the jugal regions of the wings. The true jugum of the acridid wing is represented only by the small membrane (Ju) mesad of the last vannal vein. The jugum is more highly developed in some other Orthoptera, as in the Mantidae. In most of the higher insects with narrow wings, the vannus becomes reduced, and the vannal fold is lost, but even in such cases, the flexed wing may bend along a line between the postcubitus and the first vannal vein.
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more generalized insects, the postcubitus is always associated proximally with the cubitus and is never intimately connected with the flexor sclerite (3Ax) of the wing base. In
Neuroptera, Mecoptera, and Trichoptera, the postcubitus may be more closely associated with the vannal veins, but its base is always free from the latter. The postcubitus is usually unbranched; primitively, it is two-branched. The vannal veins (lV to nV) are the anal veins immediately associated with the third axillary, and are directly affected by the movement of this sclerite that brings about the flexion of the wings. In number, the vannal veins vary from one to 12, according to the expansion of the vannal area of the wing. The vannal tracheae usually arise from a common tracheal stem in nymphal insects, and the veins are regarded as branches of a single anal vein. Distally, the vannal veins are either simple or branched. The jugal vein (J) of the jugal lobe of the wing is often occupied by a network of irregular veins, or it may be entirely membranous; sometimes it contains one or two distinct, small veins, the first jugal vein, or vena arcuata, and the second jugal vein, or vena cardinalis (2J).
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the basicosta. The coxa is attached to the body by an articular membrane, the coxal corium, which surrounds its base. These two articulations are perhaps the primary dorsal and ventral articular points of the subcoxo-coxal hinge. In addition, the insect coxa has often an anterior articulation with the anterior, ventral end of the trochantin, but the trochantinal articulation does not coexist with a sternal articulation. The pleural articular surface of the coxa is borne on a mesal inflection of the coxal wall. If the coxa is movable on the pleural articulation alone, the coxal articular surface is usually inflected to a sufficient depth to give leverage to the abductor muscles inserted on the outer rim of the coxal base. Distally the coxa bears an anterior and a posterior articulation with the trochanter. The outer wall of the coxa is often marked by a suture extending from the base to the anterior trochanteral articulation. In some insects, the coxal suture falls in line with the pleural suture. In such cases, the coxa appears to be divided into two parts corresponding to the episternum and epimeron of the pleuron. The coxal suture is absent in many insects.
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are normally radial to the base of the wing, allowing adjacent sections of a wing to be folded over or under each other. The commonest fold line is the jugal fold, situated just behind the third anal vein, although, most
Neoptera have a jugal fold just behind vein 3A on the forewings. It is sometimes also present on the hindwings. Where the anal area of the hindwing is large, as in Orthoptera and Blattodea, the whole of this part may be folded under the anterior part of the wing along a vannal fold a little posterior to the claval furrow. In addition, in Orthoptera and Blattodea, the anal area is folded like a fan along the veins, the anal veins being convex, at the crests of the folds, and the accessory veins concave. Whereas the claval furrow and jugal fold are probably homologous in different species, the vannal fold varies in position in different taxa. Folding is produced by a muscle arising on the pleuron and inserted into the third axillary sclerite in such a way that when it contracts, the sclerite pivots about its points of articulation with the posterior notal process and the second axillary sclerite.
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articular membrane contain several small articular sclerites, collectively known as the pteralia. The pteralia include an anterior humeral plate at the base of the costal vein, a group of axillaries (Ax) associated with the subcostal, radial, and vannal veins, and two less definite median plates (m, m') at the base of the mediocubital area. The axillaries are specifically developed only in wing-flexing insects, where they constitute the flexor mechanism of the wing operated by the flexor muscle arising on the pleuron. Characteristic of the wing base is also a small lobe on the anterior margin of the articular area proximal to the humeral plate, which, in the forewing of some insects, is developed into a large, flat, scale-like flap, the tegula, overlapping the base of the wing. Posteriorly, the articular membrane often forms an ample lobe between the wing and the body, and its margin is generally thickened and corrugated, giving the appearance of a ligament, the so-called axillary cord, continuous mesally with the posterior marginal scutellar fold of the tergal plate bearing the wing.
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meron. The meron may be greatly enlarged by an extension distally in the posterior wall of the coxa; in the
Neuroptera, Mecoptera, Trichoptera, and Lepidoptera, the meron is so large that the coxa appears to be divided into an anterior piece, the so-called "coxa genuina," and the meron, but the meron never includes the region of the posterior trochanteral articulation, and the groove delimiting it is always a part of the basicostal suture. A coxa with an enlarged meron has an appearance similar to one divided by a coxal suture falling in line with the pleural suture, but the two conditions are fundamentally quite different and should not be confused. The meron reaches the extreme of its departure from the usual condition in the Diptera. In some of the more generalized flies, as in the Tipulidae, the meron of the middle leg appears as a large lobe of the coxa projecting upward and posteriorly from the coxal base; in higher members of the order, it becomes completely separated from the coxa and forms a plate of the lateral wall of the mesothorax.
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insects, the media anterior has been lost, and the usual "media" is the four-branched media posterior with the common basal stem. In the
Ephemerida, according to present interpretations of the wing venation, both branches of the media are retained, while in Odonata, the persisting media is the primitive anterior branch. The stem of the media is often united with the radius, but when it occurs as a distinct vein, its base is associated with the distal median plate (m') or is continuously sclerotized with the latter. The cubitus, the sixth vein of the wing, is primarily two-branched. The primary forking takes place near the base of the wing, forming the two principal branches (Cu1, Cu2). The anterior branch may break up into several secondary branches, but commonly it forks into two distal branches. The second branch of the cubitus (Cu2) in Hymenoptera, Trichoptera, and Lepidoptera, was mistaken by Comstock and Needham for the first anal. Proximally, the main stem of the cubitus is associated with the distal median plate (m') of the wing base.
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branches. The concave vein will fork into two concave veins (with the interpolated vein being convex) and the regular alteration of the veins is preserved. The veins of the wing appear to fall into an undulating pattern according to whether they tend to fold up or down when the wing is relaxed. The basal shafts of the veins are convex, but each vein forks distally into an anterior convex branch and a posterior concave branch. Thus, the costa and subcosta are regarded as convex and concave branches of a primary first vein, Rs is the concave branch of the radius, posterior media is the concave branch of the media, Cu1 and Cu2 are respectively convex and concave, while the primitive postcubitus and the first vannal have each an anterior convex branch and a posterior concave branch. The convex or concave nature of the veins has been used as evidence in determining the identities of the persisting distal branches of the veins of modern insects, but it has not been demonstrated to be consistent for all wings.
1160:. The labrum is raised away from the mandibles by two muscles arising in the head and inserted medially into the anterior margin of the labrum. It is closed against the mandibles in part by two muscles arising in the head and inserted on the posterior lateral margins on two small sclerites, the tormae, and, at least in some insects, by a resilin spring in the cuticle at the junction of the labrum with the clypeus. Until recently, the labrum generally was considered to be associated with the first head segment. However, recent studies of the embryology, gene expression, and nerve supply to the labrum show it is innervated by the tritocerebrum of the brain, which is the fused ganglia of the third head segment. This is formed from the fusion of parts of a pair of ancestral appendages found on the third head segment, showing their relationship. Its ventral, or inner, surface is usually membranous and forms the lobe-like epipharynx, which bears mechanosensilla and chemosensilla.
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larvae it preserves the primitive form of a simple segment. The subsegments of the adult insect tarsus are usually freely movable on one another by inflected connecting membranes, but the tarsus never has intrinsic muscles. The tarsus of adult pterygote insects having fewer than five subsegments is probably specialized by the loss of one or more subsegments or by a fusion of adjoining subsegments. In the tarsi of
Acrididae, the long basal piece is composed of three united tarsomeres, leaving the fourth and the fifth. The basal tarsomere is sometimes conspicuously enlarged and is distinguished as the basitarsus. On the under surfaces of the tarsal subsegments in certain Orthoptera, there are small pads, the tarsal pulvilli, or euplantulae. The tarsus is occasionally fused with the tibia in larval insects, forming a tibiotarsal segment; in some cases, it appears to be eliminated or reduced to a rudiment between the tibia and the pretarsus.
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end of the second axillary, and posteriorly (b) with the posterior wing process of the tergum (PNP), or with a small fourth axillary when the latter is present. Distally, the third axillary is prolonged in a process always associated with the bases of the group of veins in the anal region of the wing, here termed the vannal veins (V). The third axillary, therefore, is usually the posterior hinge plate of the wing base and is the active sclerite of the flexor mechanism, which directly manipulates the vannal veins. The contraction of the flexor muscle (D) revolves the third axillary on its mesal articulations (b, f), and thereby lifts its distal arm; this movement produces the flexion of the wing. The fourth axillary sclerite is not a constant element of the wing base. When present, it is usually a small plate intervening between the third axillary and the posterior notal wing process and is probably a detached piece of the latter.
706:. The occipital suture is well-founded in species of Orthoptera, but not so much in other orders. Where found, the occipital suture is the arched, horseshoe-shaped groove on the back of the head ending at the posterior of each mandible. The postoccipital suture is a landmark on the posterior surface of the head, and is typically near the occipital foremen. In pterygotes, the postocciput forms the extreme posterior, often U-shaped, which forms the rim of the head extending to the postoccipital suture. In pterygotes, such as those of Orthoptera, the occipital foramen and the mouth are not separated. The three types of occipital closures, or points under the occipital foramen that separate the two lower halves of the postgena, are the hypostomal bridge, the postgenal bridge, and the gula. The hypostomal bridge is usually found in insects with hypognathous orientation. The postgenal bridge is found in the adults of species of higher
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the superlinguae (singular: superlingua). It divides the cavity into a dorsal food pouch, or cibarium, and a ventral salivarium into which the salivary duct opens. It is commonly found fused to the libium. Most of the hypopharynx is membranous, but the adoral face is sclerotized distally, and proximally contains a pair of suspensory sclerites extending upwards to end in the lateral wall of the stomodeum. Muscles arising on the frons are inserted into these sclerites, which distally are hinged to a pair of lingual sclerites. These, in turn, have inserted into them antagonistic pairs of muscles arising on the tentorium and labium. The various muscles serve to swing the hypopharynx forwards and back, and in the cockroach, two more muscles run across the hypopharynx and dilate the salivary orifice and expand the salivarium.
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vertical plane, giving a slight movement of production and reduction at the joint, though only a reductor muscle is present. In the
Odonata, both nymphs and adults, there are two trochanteral segments, but they are not movable on each other; the second contains the reductor muscle of the femur. The usual single trochanteral segment of insects, therefore, probably represents the two trochanters of other arthropods fused into one apparent segment since it is not likely that the primary coxotrochanteral hinge has been lost from the leg. In some of the Hymenoptera, a basal subdivision of the femur simulates a second trochanter, but the insertion of the reductor muscle on its base attests that it belongs to the femoral segment, since as shown in the odonate leg, the reductor has its origin in the true second trochanter.
1210:. Both cardo and stipes are loosely joined to the head by a membrane, so they are capable of movement. Distally on the stipes are two lobes, an inner lacinea, and an outer galea, one or both of which may be absent. More laterally on the stipes is a jointed, leglike palp made up of many segments; in Orthoptera, there are five. Anterior and posterior rotator muscles are inserted on the cardo, and ventral adductor muscles arising on the tentorium are inserted on both the cardo and stipes. Arising in the stipes are flexor muscles of the lacinea and galea and another lacineal flexor arises in the cranium, but neither the lacinea nor the galea has an extensor muscle. The palp has levator and depressor muscles arising in the stipes, and each segment of the palp has a single muscle causing flexion of the next segment.
1226:, but with the appendages of the two sides fused by the midline, so they come to form a median plate. The basal part of the labium, equivalent to the maxillary cardines and possibly including a part of the sternum of the labial segment, is called the postmentum. This may be subdivided into a proximal submentum and a distal mentum. Distal to the postmentum, and equivalent to the fused maxillary stipites, is the prementum. The prementum closes the preoral cavity from behind. Terminally, it bears four lobes, two inner glossae, and two outer paraglossae, which are collectively known as the ligula. One or both pairs of lobes may be absent or they may be fused to form a single median process. A palp arises from each side of the prementum, often being three-segmented.
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apex of which (e) is always associated with the base of the subcostal vein (Sc), though it is not united with the latter. The body of the sclerite articulates laterally with the second axillary. The second axillary sclerite (2Ax) is more variable in form than the first axillary, but its mechanical relations are no less definite. It is obliquely hinged to the outer margin of the body of the first axillary, and the radial vein (R) is always flexibly attached to its anterior end (d). The second axillary presents both a dorsal and ventral sclerotization in the wing base; its ventral surface rests upon the fulcral wing process of the pleuron. The second axillary, therefore, is the pivotal sclerite of the wing base, and it specifically manipulates the radial vein.
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with the humeral plate. The trachea of the costal vein is perhaps a branch of the subcostal trachea. Located after the costa is the third vein, the subcosta, which branches into two separate veins: the anterior and posterior. The base of the subcosta is associated with the distal end of the neck of the first axillary. The fourth vein is the radius, which is branched into five separate veins. The radius is generally the strongest vein of the wing. Toward the middle of the wing, it forks into a first undivided branch (R1) and a second branch, called the radial sector (Ra), which subdivides dichotomously into four distal branches (R2, R3, R4, R5). Basally, the radius is flexibly united with the anterior end of the second axillary (2Ax).
1171:, or an indentation hardness of about 30 kg/mm); thus, many termites and beetles have no physical difficulty in boring through foils made from such common metals as copper, lead, tin, and zinc. The cutting edges are typically strengthened by the addition of zinc, manganese, or rarely, iron, in amounts up to about 4% of the dry weight. They are typically the largest mouthparts of chewing insects, being used to masticate (cut, tear, crush, chew) food items. They open outwards (to the sides of the head) and come together medially. In carnivorous, chewing insects, the mandibles can be modified to be more knife-like, whereas in herbivorous chewing insects, they are more typically broad and flat on their opposing faces (e.g.,
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phragma) are plate-like apodemes that extend inwards below the antecostal sutures, marking the primary intersegmental folds between segments; phragmata provide attachment for the longitudinal flight muscles. Each alinotum (sometimes confusingly referred to as a "notum") may be traversed by sutures that mark the position of internal strengthening ridges and commonly divide the plate into three areas: the anterior prescutum, the scutum, and the smaller posterior scutellum. The lateral pleural sclerites are believed to be derived from the subcoxal segment of the ancestral insect leg. These sclerites may be separate, as in silverfish, or fused into an almost continuous sclerotic area, as in most winged insects.
1616:, thoracic segment, abutting the abdomen, is the metathorax, which bears the third pair of legs and the posterior wings. Each segment is delineated by an intersegmental suture. Each segment has four basic regions. The dorsal surface is called the tergum (or notum, to distinguish it from the abdominal terga). The two lateral regions are called the pleura (singular: pleuron), and the ventral aspect is called the sternum. In turn, the notum of the prothorax is called the pronotum, the notum for the mesothorax is called the mesonotum and the notum for the metathorax is called the metanotum. Continuing with this logic, there are also the mesopleura and metapleura, as well as the mesosternum and metasternum.
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1542:), the elongated and fused labial glossae form a hairy tongue, which is surrounded by the maxillary galeae and the labial palps to form a tubular proboscis containing a food canal. In feeding, the tongue is dipped into the nectar or honey, which adheres to the hairs, and then is retracted so the adhering liquid is carried into the space between the galeae and labial palps. This back-and-forth glossal movement occurs repeatedly. Movement of liquid to the mouth results from the action of the cibarial pump, facilitated by each retraction of the tongue pushing liquid up the food canal either for feeding requirements or to have a suitable media for laying their egg.
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hindwing articulates between the metanotum and metapleuron. The legs arise from the mesopleuron and metapleura. The mesothorax and metathorax each have a pleural suture (mesopleural and metapleural sutures) that runs from the wing base to the coxa of the leg. The sclerite anterior to the pleural suture is called the episternum (serially, the mesepisternum and metepisternum). The sclerite posterior to the suture is called the epimiron (serially, the mesepimiron and metepimiron). Spiracles, the external organs of the respiratory system, are found on the pterothorax, usually one between the pro- and mesopleoron, as well as one between the meso- and metapleuron.
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sac. The follicles connect to the vas deferens by the vas efferens, and the two tubular vasa deferentia connect to a median ejaculatory duct that leads to the outside. A portion of the vas deferens is often enlarged to form the seminal vesicle, which stores the sperm before they are discharged into the female. The seminal vesicles have glandular linings that secrete nutrients for nourishment and maintenance of the sperm. The ejaculatory duct is derived from an invagination of the epidermal cells during development and, as a result, has a cuticular lining. The terminal portion of the ejaculatory duct may be sclerotized to form the intromittent organ, the
1715:, hemolymph can flow into the wings. As the wing develops, the dorsal and ventral integumental layers become closely apposed over most of their area, forming the wing membrane. The remaining areas form channels, the future veins, in which the nerves and tracheae may occur. The cuticle surrounding the veins becomes thickened and more heavily sclerotized to provide strength and rigidity to the wing. Hairs of two types may occur on the wings: microtrichia, which are small and irregularly scattered, and macrotrichia, which are larger, socketed, and may be restricted to veins. The scales of Lepidoptera and Trichoptera are highly modified macrotrichia.
2212:. During the embryonic stage of many insects and the postembryonic stage of primitive insects, 11 abdominal segments are present. In modern insects there is a tendency toward reduction in the number of the abdominal segments, but the primitive number of 11 is maintained during embryogenesis. Variation in abdominal segment number is considerable. If the Apterygota are considered to be indicative of the ground plan for pterygotes, confusion reigns: adult Protura have 12 segments, Collembola have 6. The orthopteran family Acrididae has 11 segments, and a fossil specimen of Zoraptera has a 10-segmented abdomen.
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separated from each other by an oblique line (bf), which forms a prominent convex fold during flexion of the wing. The proximal plate (m) is usually attached to the distal arm of the third axillary and perhaps should be regarded as a part of the latter. The distal plate (m') is less constantly present as a distinct sclerite and may be represented by a general sclerotization of the base of the mediocubital field of the wing. When the veins of this region are distinct at their bases, they are associated with the outer median plate.
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of other insects (A, D); the larger inner squama (d) arises from the posterior scutellar margin of the tergum of the wing-bearing segment and forms a protective, hood-like canopy over the halter. In the flexed wing, the outer squama of the alula is turned upside down above the inner squama, the latter not being affected by the movement of the wing. In many
Diptera, a deep incision of the anal area of the wing membrane behind the single vannal vein sets off a proximal alar lobe distal to the outer squama of the alula.
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Activity of the same muscle in flight affects the power output of the wing and so it is also important in flight control. In orthopteroid insects, the elasticity of the cuticle causes the vannal area of the wing to fold along the veins. Consequently, energy is expended in unfolding this region when the wings are moved to the flight position. In general, wing extension probably results from the contraction of muscles attached to the basilar sclerite or, in some insects, to the subalar sclerite.
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the clypeus. Laterally it is limited by the fronto-genal sulcus, if present, and the boundary with the vertex, by the ecdysial cleavage line, if it is visible. If there is a median ocellus, it generally is on the frons, though in some insects such as many
Hymenoptera, all three ocelli appear on the vertex. A more formal definition is that it is the sclerite from which the pharyngeal dilator muscles arise, but in many contexts that too, is not helpful. In the anatomy of some taxa, such as many
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3082:) carry a bubble of air with them whenever they dive beneath the water surface. This bubble may be held under the elytra, or it may be trapped against the body using specialized hairs. The bubble usually covers one or more spiracles so the insect can breathe air from the bubble while submerged. An air bubble provides an insect with only a short-term supply of oxygen, but thanks to its unique physical properties, oxygen will diffuse into the bubble and displacing the nitrogen, called
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that are serially homologous with the distal part of the thoracic legs. And, mesally, one or two pairs of protrusible (or exsertile) vesicles on at least some abdominal segments. These vesicles are derived from the coxal and trochanteral endites (inner annulated lobes) of the ancestral abdominal appendages. Aquatic larvae and nymphs may have gills laterally on some to most abdominal segments. Of the rest of the abdominal segments consist of the reproductive and anal parts.
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2561:(element 30 in numbered diagram) in an insect's mouth produce saliva. The salivary ducts lead from the glands to the reservoirs and then forward through the head to an opening called the salivarium, located behind the hypopharynx. By moving its mouthparts (element 32 in numbered diagram) the insect can mix its food with saliva. The mixture of saliva and food then travels through the salivary tubes into the mouth, where it begins to break down. Some insects, like
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1932:. When the vannal fold has the usual position anterior to the group of anal veins, the remigium contains the costal, subcostal, radial, medial, cubital, and postcubital veins. In the flexed wing, the remigium turns posteriorly on the flexible basal connection of the radius with the second axillary, and the base of the mediocubital field is folded medially on the axillary region along the plica basalis (bf) between the median plates (m, m') of the wing base.
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the opposite direction. This forces the male to lie on its back in order for its genitalia to remain engaged with those of the female, or the torsion of the male genitals allows the male to mate while remaining upright. This leads to flies having more reproduction abilities than most insects and at a much quicker rate. Flies come in great populations due to their ability to mate effectively and in a short period of time especially during the mating season.
3399:) there are two separate places for insemination and oviposition, both occurring on the same sterna as the monotrysian type, 9/10. In most species the genitalia are flanked by two soft lobes, although they may be specialized and sclerotized in some species for ovipositing in area such as crevices and inside plant tissue. Hormones and the glands that produce them run the development of butterflies and moths as they go through their life cycle, called the
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1882:, which flex during flight. Between the flexion and the fold lines, the fundamental distinction is often blurred, as fold lines may permit some flexibility or vice versa. Two constants, found in nearly all insect wings, are the claval (a flexion line) and jugal folds (or fold line), forming variable and unsatisfactory boundaries. Wing folding can be very complicated, with transverse folding occurring in the hindwings of
794:). This can only be countered by increasing lens size and number. To see with a resolution comparable to our simple eyes, humans would require compound eyes that would each reach the size of their heads. Compound eyes fall into two groups: apposition eyes, which form multiple inverted images, and superposition eyes, which form a single erect image. Compound eyes grow at their margins with the addition of new ommatidia.
742:, singular), up to 30,000 in a single compound eye of, for example, large dragonflies. This type of eye gives less resolution than eyes found in vertebrates, but it gives an acute perception of movement and usually possesses UV- and green sensitivity, and may have additional sensitivity peaks in other regions of the visual spectrum. Often an ability to detect the E-vector of polarized light exists in
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2585:, increase the surface area of the wall and allow more nutrients to be absorbed; they tend to be close to the origin of the midgut. In some insects, the role of the microvilli and where they are located may vary. For example, specialized microvilli producing digestive enzymes may more likely be near the end of the midgut, and absorption near the origin or beginning of the midgut.
2884:. The base of the aedeagus may be the partially sclerotized phallotheca, also called the phallosoma or theca. In some species the phallotheca contains a space, called the endosoma (internal holding pouch), into which the tip end of the aedeagus may be withdrawn (retracted). The vas deferens is sometimes drawn into (folded into) the phallotheca together with a seminal vesicle.
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specific locations occurs. The more constant cross-veins are the humeral cross-vein (h) between the costa and subcosta, the radial cross-vein (r) between R and the first fork of Rs, the sectorial cross-vein (s) between the two forks of R8, the median cross-vein (m-m) between M2 and M3, and the mediocubital cross-vein (m-cu) between the media and the cubitus.
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the head when the insect is at rest and is extended only when feeding. The maxillary palpi are reduced or even vestigial. They are conspicuous and five-segmented in some of the more basal families and are often folded. The shape and dimensions of the proboscis have evolved to give different species wider and therefore more advantageous diets. There is an
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jugal area of the forewing is developed as a free lobe, it projects beneath the humeral angle of the hindwing and thus serves to yoke the two wings together. In the
Jugatae group of Lepidoptera, it bears a long finger-like lobe. The jugal region was termed the neala ("new wing") because it is a secondary and recently developed part of the wing.
3471:. There are three different tracheae supplying oxygen diffusing oxygen throughout the species body: The dorsal, ventral, and visceral. The dorsal tracheae supply oxygen to the dorsal musculature and vessels, while the ventral tracheae supply the ventral musculature and nerve cord, and the visceral tracheae supply the guts, fat bodies, and
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adjacent sterna or pleura by a membrane. Spiracles are located in the pleural area. Variation of this ground plan includes the fusion of terga or terga and sterna to form continuous dorsal or ventral shields or a conical tube. Some insects bear a sclerite in the pleural area called a laterotergite. Ventral sclerites are sometimes called
2830:, which vary in size and number by species. The number of eggs that the insect is able to make vary by the number of ovarioles with the rate that eggs can be developed being also influenced by ovariole design. In meroistic ovaries, the eggs-to-be divide repeatedly and most of the daughter cells become helper cells for a single
339:. This is chitinous and much thicker than the epicuticle and has two layers, the outer is the exocuticle while the inner is the endocuticle. The tough and flexible endocuticle is built from numerous layers of fibrous chitin and proteins, crisscrossing each other in a sandwich pattern, while the exocuticle is rigid and
2843:. Spermathecae are tubes or sacs in which sperm can be stored between the time of mating and the time an egg is fertilized. Paternity testing of insects has revealed that some, and probably many, female insects use the spermatheca and various ducts to control or bias sperm used in favor of some males over others.
1315:, which are enclosed by the labium. When mosquito bites, maxillae penetrate the skin and anchor the mouthparts, thus allowing other parts to be inserted. The sheath-like labium slides back, and the remaining mouthparts pass through its tip and into the tissue. Then, through the hypopharynx, the mosquito injects
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that has been modified (and streamlined) by natural selection for 200 million years. According to current dogma, the archedictyon contained six to eight longitudinal veins. These veins (and their branches) are named according to a system devised by John Comstock and George Needhamβthe Comstock-Needham system:
1206:, which are used to sense the characteristics of potential foods. The maxillae occupy a lateral position, one on each side of the head behind the mandibles. The proximal part of the maxilla consists of a basal cardo, which has a single articulation with the head, and a flat plate, the stipes, hinged to the
2745:
Body fluids enter through one-way valved ostia, which are openings situated along the length of the combined aorta and heart organ. Pumping of the haemolymph occurs by waves of peristaltic contraction, originating at the body's posterior end, pumping forwards into the dorsal vessel, out via the aorta
2401:
to the touch of a heated probe and an unheated one. The larvae reacted to the touch of the heated probe with a stereotypical rolling behavior that was not exhibited when the larvae were touched by the unheated probe. Although nociception has been demonstrated in insects, there is not a consensus that
2125:
The inflection of the coxal wall bearing the pleural articular surface divides the lateral wall of the basicoxite into a prearticular part and a postarticular part, and the two areas often appear as two marginal lobes on the base of the coxa. The posterior lobe is usually the larger and is termed the
2062:
When at rest, the wings are held over the back in most insects, which may involve longitudinal folding of the wing membrane and sometimes also transverse folding. Folding may sometimes occur along the flexion lines. Though fold lines may be transverse, as in the hindwings of beetles and earwigs, they
2018:
The humeral plate is usually a small sclerite on the anterior margin of the wing base, movable and articulated with the base of the costal vein. Odonata have their humeral plates greatly enlargened, with two muscles arising from the episternum inserted into the humeral plates and two from the edge of
1963:
The various movements of the wings, especially in insects that flex their wings horizontally over their backs when at rest, demand a more complicated articular structure at the wing base than a mere hinge of the wing with the body. Each wing is attached to the body by a membranous basal area, but the
1947:
At the posterior angle of the wing base in some Diptera, there is a pair of membranous lobes (squamae, or calypteres) known as the alula. The alula is well developed in the house fly. The outer squama (c) arises from the wing base behind the third axillary sclerite (3Ax) and represents the jugal lobe
1858:
The veins of insect wings are characterized by a convex-concave placement, such as those seen in mayflies (i.e., concave is "down" and convex is "up"), which alternate regularly and by their branching; whenever a vein forks there is always an interpolated vein of the opposite position between the two
1754:
The archedictyon is the name given to a hypothetical scheme of wing venation proposed for the very first winged insect. It is based on a combination of speculation and fossil data. Since all winged insects are believed to have evolved from a common ancestor, the archediction represents the "template"
1710:
Each of the wings consists of a thin membrane supported by a system of veins. The membrane is formed by two layers of integument closely apposed, while the veins are formed where the two layers remain separate and the cuticle may be thicker and more heavily sclerotized. Within each of the major veins
1647:
The ventral view or sternum follows the same convention, with the prosternum under the prothorax, the mesosternum under the mesothorax and the metasternum under the metathorax. The notum, pleura, and sternum of each segment have a variety of different sclerites and sutures, varying greatly from order
1643:
Because the mesothorax and metathorax hold the wings, they have a combined name called the pterothorax (pteron = wing). The forewing, which goes by different names in different orders (e.g., the tegmina in Orthoptera and elytra in Coleoptera), arises between the mesonotum and the mesopleuron, and the
746:
of light. There can also be an additional two or three ocelli, which help detect low light or small changes in light intensity. The image perceived is a combination of inputs from the numerous ommatidia, located on a convex surface, thus pointing in slightly different directions. Compared with simple
598:
of the vertex. The frons varies in size relative to the insect, and in many species, the definition of its borders is arbitrary, even in some insect taxa that have well-defined head capsules. In most species, though, the frons is bordered at its anterior by the frontoclypeal or epistomal sulcus above
386:
From the embryonic stages, a layer of columnar or cuboidal epithelial cells gives rise to the external cuticle and an internal basement membrane. The majority of insect material is inside of the endocuticle. The cuticle provides muscular support and acts as a protective shield as the insect develops.
2215:
Generally, the first seven abdominal segments of adults (the pregenital segments) are similar in structure and lack appendages. However, apterygotes (bristletails and silverfish) and many immature aquatic insects have abdominal appendages. Apterygotes possess a pair of styles; rudimentary appendages
1816:
The postcubitus (Pcu) is the first anal of the Comstock and Needham system. The postcubitus, however, has the status of an independent wing vein and should be recognized as such. In nymphal wings, its trachea arises between the cubital trachea and the group of vannal tracheae. In the mature wings of
1436:
In species of Lepidoptera, it consists of two tubes held together by hooks and separable for cleaning. Each tube is inwardly concave, thus forming a central tube through which moisture is sucked. Suction is affected by the contraction and expansion of a sac in the head. The proboscis is coiled under
3340:
being located below the genitals, or, in the case of 360Β° torsion, to the sperm duct being wrapped around the gut, despite the external organs being in their usual position. When flies mate, the male initially flies on top of the female, facing in the same direction, but then turns round to face in
2121:
strengthens the base of the coxa and is commonly enlarged on the outer wall to give insertion to muscles; on the mesal half of the coxa, however, it is usually weak and often confluent with the coxal margin. The trochanteral muscles that take their origin in the coxa are always attached distally to
2026:
The third axillary sclerite (3Ax) lies in the posterior part of the articular region of the wing. Its form is highly variable and often irregular, but the third axillary is the sclerite on which is inserted the flexor muscle of the wing (D). Mesally, it articulates anteriorly (f) with the posterior
1939:
The jugal region, or neala, is a region of the wing that is usually a small membranous area proximal to the base of the vannus strengthened by a few small, irregular vein-like thickenings; but when well developed, it is a distinct section of the wing and may contain one or two jugal veins. When the
1935:
The vannus is bordered by the vannal fold, which typically occurs between the postcubitus and the first vannal vein. In Orthoptera, it usually has this position. In the forewing of Blattidae, however, the only fold in this part of the wing lies immediately before the postcubitus. In Plecoptera, the
1512:
are a complex structure consisting of many grooves, called pseudotracheae, which sop up liquids. Salivary secretions from the labella assist in dissolving and collecting food particles so they can be more easily taken up by the pseudotracheae or laid their egg on the suitable media; this is thought
1507:
The mouthparts of insects that feed on fluids are modified in various ways to form a tube through which liquid can be drawn into the mouth and usually another through which saliva passes. The muscles of the cibarium or pharynx are strongly developed to form a pump. In nonbiting flies, the mandibles
1229:
The hypopharynx is a median lobe immediately behind the mouth, projecting forwards from the back of the preoral cavity; it is a lobe of uncertain origin, but perhaps associated with the mandibular segment; in apterygotes, earwigs, and nymphal mayflies, the hypopharynx bears a pair of lateral lobes,
574:
is made of the coronal, frontal, and epicranial sutures plus the ecdysial and cleavage lines, which vary among different species of insects. The ecdysial suture is longitudinally placed on the vertex, separating the epicranial halves of the head to the left and right sides. Depending on the insect,
530:
The head capsule bears most of the sensory organs, including the antennae, ocelli, and compound eyes, along with the mouthparts. In the adult insect, the head capsule appears unsegmented, though embryological studies show it to consist of six segments that bear the paired head appendages, including
3009:
diffuses out of the cell into the tracheole. While cockroaches do not have lungs and thus do not actively breathe in the vertebrate lung manner, in some very large species the body musculature may contract rhythmically to forcibly move air out and in the spiracles; this may be considered a form of
2871:
the two maturing testes are secondarily fused into one structure during the later stages of larval development, although the ducts leading from them remain separate. However, most male insects have a pair of testes, inside of which are sperm tubes or follicles that are enclosed within a membranous
2022:
The first axillary sclerite (lAx) is the anterior hinge plate of the wing base. Its anterior part is supported on the anterior notal wing process of the tergum (ANP); its posterior part articulates with the tergal margin. The anterior end of the sclerite is generally produced as a slender arm, the
1808:
The costa (C) is the leading marginal vein on most insects, although a small vein, the precosta, is sometimes found above the costa. In almost all extant insects, the precosta is fused with the costa; the costa rarely ever branches because it is at the leading edge, which is associated at its base
2700:
rather than physically taking in the oxygen. Some species of insect that are submerged also have adaptations to aid in respiration. As larvae, many insects have gills that can extract oxygen dissolved in water, while others need to rise to the water surface to replenish air supplies, which may be
2369:
The thoracic segments have one ganglion on each side, which are connected into a pair, one pair per segment. This arrangement is also seen in the abdomen but only in the first eight segments. Many species of insects have reduced numbers of ganglia due to fusion or reduction. Some cockroaches have
2137:
is the third segment of the insect leg, is usually the longest and strongest part of the limb, but it varies in size from the huge hind femur of leaping Orthoptera to a very small segment such as is present in many larval forms. The volume of the femur is generally correlated with the size of the
3390:
are complex and unclear. In females there are three types of genitalia based on the relating taxa: monotrysian, exoporian, and dytresian. In the monotrysian type there is an opening on the fused segments of the sterna 9 and 10, which act as insemination and oviposition. In the exoporian type (in
2253:
The organs concerned specifically with mating and the deposition of eggs are known collectively as the external genitalia, although they may be largely internal. The components of the external genitalia of insects are very diverse in form and often have considerable taxonomic value, particularly
2030:
The median plates (m, m') are also sclerites that are not so definitely differentiated as specific plates as are the three principal axillaries, but they are important elements of the flexor apparatus. They lie in the median area of the wing base distal to the second and third axillaries and are
1812:
The fifth vein of the wing is the media. In the archetype pattern (A), the media forks into two main branches, a media anterior (MA), which divides into two distal branches (MA1, MA2), and a median sector, or media posterior (MP), which has four terminal branches (M1, M2, M3, M4). In most modern
1022:
The insect mouthparts consist of the maxilla, labium, and in some species, the mandibles. The labrum is a simple, fused sclerite, often called the upper lip, and moves longitudinally. It is hinged to the clypeus. The mandibles (jaws) are a highly sclerotized pair of structures that move at right
617:
is a sclerite between the face and labrum, which is dorsally separated from the frons by the frontoclypeal suture in primitive insects. The clypeogenal suture laterally demarcates the clypeus, with the clypeus ventrally separated from the labrum by the clypeolabral suture. The clypeus differs in
3259:) have ears just beneath the pronotal shield or neck membrane. The ears of both families are to ultrasonic frequencies, with strong evidence that they function to detect the presence of bats via their ultrasonic echolocation. Even though beetles constitute a large order and live in a variety of
2534:
From there, the pharynx passes food to the esophagus, which could be just a simple tube passing it on to the crop and proventriculus, and then on ward to the midgut, as in most insects. Alternately, the foregut may expand into a very enlarged crop and proventriculus, or the crop could just be a
2257:
The terminalia of adult female insects include internal structures for receiving the male copulatory organ and his spermatozoa and external structures used for oviposition (egg-laying; section 5.8). Segments 8 and 9 bear the genitalia; segment 10 is visible as a complete segment in many "lower"
2154:
of insects corresponds to the penultimate segment of a generalized arthropod limb, which is the segment called the propodite in Crustacea. In adult insects, it is commonly subdivided into two to five subsegments, or tarsomeres, but in the Protura, some Collembola, and most holometabolous insect
2066:
As a result, the distal arm of the third axillary sclerite rotates upwards and inwards, so that finally its position is completely reversed. The anal veins are articulated with this sclerite in such a way that when it moves they are carried with it and become flexed over the back of the insect.
1619:
The tergal plates of the thorax are simple structures in apterygotes and many immature insects but are variously modified in winged adults. The pterothoracic nota each have two main divisions: the anterior, wing-bearing alinotum and the posterior, phragma-bearing postnotum. Phragmata (singular:
2207:
The ground plan of the abdomen of an adult insect typically consists of 11β12 segments and is less strongly sclerotized than the head or thorax. Each segment of the abdomen is represented by a sclerotized tergum, sternum, and perhaps a pleurite. Terga are separated from each other and from the
1854:
All the veins of the wing are subject to secondary forking and union by cross-veins. In some orders of insects, the cross-veins are so numerous, the whole venational pattern becomes a close network of branching veins and cross-veins. Ordinarily, however, a definite number of cross-veins having
2142:
is characteristically a slender segment in adult insects, only a little shorter than the femur or the combined femur and trochanter. Its proximal end forms a more or less distinct head bent toward the femur, a device allowing the tibia to be flexed close against the undersurface of the femur.
2129:
The trochanter is the basal segment of the telopodite; it is always a small segment in the insect leg, freely movable by a horizontal hinge on the coxa, but more or less fixed to the base of the femur. When movable on the femur the trochantero femoral hinge is usually vertical or oblique in a
1943:
The auxiliary region containing the axillary sclerites has, in general, the form of a scalene triangle. The base of the triangle (a-b) is the hinge of the wing with the body; the apex (c) is the distal end of the third axillary sclerite; the longer side is anterior to the apex. Point d on the
2721:
and fats) and skeletal function. It also plays an essential part in the moulting process. An additional role of the haemolymph in some orders, can be that of predatory defence. It can contain unpalatable and malodourous chemicals that will act as a deterrent to predators. Haemolymph contains
1432:
and is an adaption found in some insects for sucking. The muscles of the cibarium or pharynx are strongly developed and form the pump. In Hemiptera and many Diptera, which feed on fluids within plants or animals, some components of the mouthparts are modified for piercing, and the elongated
3287:
produces juvenile hormone III in close proximity to the neurohemal dorsal aorta. The digestive system of earwigs is like all other insects, consisting of a fore-, mid-, and hindgut, but earwigs lack gastric caecae which are specialized for digestion in many species of insect. Long, slender
391:). Enzymatic molting fluid is then released between the old cuticle and epidermis, which separates the exocuticle by digesting the endocuticle and sequestering its material for the new cuticle. When the new cuticle has formed sufficiently, the epicuticle and reduced exocuticle are shed in
3463:, where muscles contraction produces heat, which is transferred to the rest of the body when conditions are unfavorable. In lepidopteran species, hemolymph is circulated through the veins in the wings by some form of pulsating organ, either by the heart or by the intake of air into the
3419:, where it is also stored. Some glands are specialized to perform certain task such as producing silk or producing saliva in the palpi. While the corpora cardiaca produce PTTH, the corpora allata also produces juvenile hormones, and the prothorocic glands produce moulting hormones.
2838:
Accessory glands or glandular parts of the oviducts produce a variety of substances for sperm maintenance, transport, and fertilization, as well as for protection of eggs. They can produce glue and protective substances for coating eggs or tough coverings for a batch of eggs called
1023:
angles to the body, used for biting, chewing, and severing food. The maxillae are paired structures that can also move at right angles to the body and possess segmented palps. The labium (lower lip) is the fused structure that moves longitudinally and has a pair of segmented palps.
3335:
The genitalia of female flies are rotated to a varying degree from the position found in other insects. In some flies this is a temporary rotation during mating, but in others it is a permanent torsion of the organs that occurs during the pupal stage. This torsion may lead to the
2695:
is released in a continuous cycle. In discontinuous gas exchange, however, the insect takes in oxygen while it is active and small amounts of carbon dioxide are released when the insect is at rest. Diffusive ventilation is simply a form of continuous gas exchange that occurs by
2629:(element 20). It is then emptied directly into the alimentary canal, at the junction between the midgut and hindgut. The number of Malpighian tubules possessed by a given insect varies between species, ranging from only two tubules in some insects to over 100 tubules in others.
1735:, for instance, only the subcosta and part of the radius are present. Conversely, an increase in venation may occur by the branching of existing veins to produce accessory veins or by the development of additional, intercalary veins between the original ones, as in the wings of
1685:
can be rapid, maneuverable, and versatile, possibly due to the changing shape, extraordinary control, and variable motion of the insect wing. Insect orders use different flight mechanisms; for example, the flight of a butterfly can be explained using steady-state, nontransitory
850:
can have over 140. The general shape of the antennae is also quite variable, but the first segment (the one attached to the head) is always called the scape, and the second segment is called the pedicel. The remaining antennal segments or flagellomeres are called the flagellum.
635:, and forms the lateral and ventral parts of the occipital arch. The occipital arch is a narrow band forming the posterior edge of the head capsule arching dorsally over the foramen. The subgenal area is usually narrow, located above the mouthparts; this area also includes the
523:. The main exception is in those species whose larvae are not fully sclerotized, mainly some holometabola; but even most unsclerotized or weakly sclerotized larvae tend to have well-sclerotized head capsules, for example, the larvae of Coleoptera and Hymenoptera. The larvae of
4926:
2059:) the jugal lobe of the forewing covers a portion of the hindwing (jugal coupling), or the margins of the forewing and hindwing overlap broadly (amplexiform coupling), or the hindwing bristles, or frenulum, hook under the retaining structure or retinalucum on the forewing.
2158:
For the most part, the femur and tibia are the longest leg segments but variations in the lengths and robustness of each segment relate to their functions. For example, gressorial and cursorial, or walking and running type insects respectively, usually have well-developed
1508:
are absent and other structures are reduced; the labial palps have become modified to form the labellum, and the maxillary palps are present, although sometimes short. In Brachycera, the labellum is especially prominent and used for sponging liquid or semiliquid food. The
3344:
The female lays her eggs as close to the food source as possible, and development is very rapid, allowing the larva to consume as much food as possible in a short period of time before transforming into the adult. The eggs hatch soon after being laid, or the flies are
387:
However, since it cannot grow, the external sclerotized part of the cuticle is periodically shed in a process called "molting". As the time for molting approaches, most of the exocuticle material is reabsorbed. In molting, the old cuticle separates from the epidermis (
1634:
The pronotum of the prothorax may be simple in structure and small in comparison with the other nota, but in beetles, mantids, many bugs, and some Orthoptera, the pronotum is expanded, and in cockroaches, it forms a shield that covers part of the head and mesothorax.
3238:
are hearing organs. Such an organ is generally a membrane (tympanum) stretched across a frame backed by an air sac and associated sensory neurones. In the order Coleoptera, tympanal organs have been described in at least two families. Several species of the genus
3061:
in beetles contains all the types found in insects, varying between different species. With three thoracic and seven or eight abdominal ganglia can be distinguished to that in which all the thoracic and abdominal ganglia are fused to form a composite structure.
2624:
to form fecal pellets. The rectum absorbs 90% of the water in these fecal pellets, and the dry pellet is then eliminated through the anus (element 17), completing the process of digestion. The uric acid is formed using hemolymph waste products diffused from the
2523:(any part may be highly modified), which both store food and signify when to continue passing onward to the midgut. Here, digestion starts as partially chewed food is broken down by saliva from the salivary glands. As the salivary glands produce fluid and
1047:
The mouthparts and rest of the head can be articulated in at least three different positions: prognathous, opisthognathous, and hypognathous. In species with prognathous articulation, the head is vertically aligned with the body, such as species of
2834:
in the cluster. In panoistic ovaries, each egg-to-be produced by stem germ cells develops into an oocyte; there are no helper cells from the germ line. Production of eggs by panoistic ovaries tends to be slower than that by meroistic ovaries.
3207:
have well developed, like other carabid beetles, pygidial glands that empty from the lateral edges of the intersegment membranes between the seventh and eighth abdominal segments. The gland is made of two containing chambers. The first holds
643:. The vertex extends anteriorly above the bases of the antennae as a prominent, pointed, concave rostrum. The posterior wall of the head capsule is penetrated by a large aperture, the foramen. Through it passes the organ systems, such as the
212:
due to their shared evolutionary history. Three physical features separate insects from other arthropods: they have a body divided into three regions (called tagmata) (head, thorax, and abdomen), three pairs of legs, and mouthparts located
3005:, the tracheal tubes branching continually like a tree until their finest divisions, tracheoles, are associated with each cell, allowing gaseous oxygen to dissolve in the cytoplasm lying across the fine cuticle lining of the tracheole. CO
1213:
In mandibulate mouthparts, the labium is a quadrupedal structure, although it is formed from two fused secondary maxillae. It can be described as the floor of the mouth. With the maxillae, it assists with the manipulation of food during
1678:
have foldable wings, and their muscles act on the thorax wall and power the wings indirectly. These muscles can contract multiple times for each single nerve impulse, allowing the wings to beat faster than would ordinarily be possible.
1060:. The mouthparts vary greatly between insects of different orders, but the two main functional groups are mandibulate and haustellate. Haustellate mouthparts are used for sucking liquids and can be further classified by the presence of
2467:β each of which performs a different process of digestion. In addition to the alimentary canal, insects also have paired salivary glands and salivary reservoirs. These structures usually reside in the thorax, adjacent to the foregut.
1064:, which include piercing-sucking, sponging, and siphoning. The stylets are needle-like projections used to penetrate plant and animal tissues. The stylets and the feeding tube form the modified mandibles, maxilla, and hypopharynx.
2608:(mayflies and dragonflies) show a transition between apterygotes and neopterans, where the middle part of the midgut epithelium is derived from yolk cells and the anterior and posterior parts are formed through bipolar formation.
2146:
The terms profemur, mesofemur, and metafemur refer to the femora of the front, middle and hind legs of an insect, respectively. Similarly, protibia, mesotibia, and metatibia refer to the tibiae of the front, middle and hind legs.
1030:
The development of insect mouthparts from the primitive chewing mouthparts of a grasshopper in the center (A), to the lapping type (B) of a bee, the siphoning type (C) of a butterfly and the sucking type (D) of a female mosquito.
622:
forms the sclerotized area on each side of the head below the compound eyes extending to the gular suture. Like many parts making up the insect's head, the gena varies among species, with its boundaries difficult to establish. In
3439:, had midgut ceca, although this is lost in current butterflies and moths. Instead, all the digestive enzymes other than initial digestion, are immobilized at the surface of the midgut cells. In larvae, long-necked and stalked
3373:
take various forms, and in some cases develop inside a silk cocoon. After emerging from the pupa, the adult fly rarely lives more than a few days, and serves mainly to reproduce and to disperse in search of new food sources.
3715:
2819:, and ducts connecting these parts. The ovaries make eggs and accessory glands produce the substances to help package and lay the eggs. Spermathecae store sperm for varying periods of time and, along with portions of the
2746:
and then into the head where it flows out into the haemocoel. The haemolymph is circulated to the appendages unidirectionally with the aid of muscular pumps or accessory pulsatile organs usually found at the base of the
2254:
among species that appear structurally similar in other respects. The male external genitalia have been used widely to aid in distinguishing species, whereas the female external genitalia may be simpler and less varied.
1944:
anterior side of the triangle marks the articulation of the radial vein with the second axillary sclerite. The line between d and c is the plica basalis (bf), or fold of the wing at the base of the mediocubital field.
3434:
follows and leads to the posterior of the pharynx and in some species forms a form of crop. The midgut is short and straight, with the hindgut being longer and coiled. Ancestors of lepidopteran species, stemming from
2358:, or a cluster of nerve cells outside of the brain. The first three pairs of ganglia are fused into the brain, while the three following pairs are fused into a structure of three pairs of ganglia under the insect's
3447:
ions, which are absorbed from leaves ingested by the larvae. Most butterflies and moths display the usual digestive cycle, however species that have a different diet require adaptations to meet these new demands.
1151:
is a broad lobe forming the roof of the preoral cavity, suspended from the clypeus in front of the mouth and forming the upper lip. On its inner side, it is membranous and may be produced into a median lobe, the
2569:. Insects using extra-oral digestion expel digestive enzymes onto their food to break it down. This strategy allows insects to extract a significant proportion of the available nutrients from the food source.
2442:
before being used by cells of the body for energy, growth, or reproduction. This break-down process is known as digestion. The main structure of an insect's digestive system is a long-enclosed tube called the
2258:
insects but always lacks appendages. Most female insects have an egg-laying tube, or ovipositor; it is absent in termites, parasitic lice, many Plecoptera, and most Ephemeroptera. Ovipositors take two forms:
2101:. The coxa in its more symmetrical form, has the shape of a short cylinder or truncate cone, though commonly it is ovate and may be almost spherical. The proximal end of the coxa is girdled by a submarginal
410:
or laterals. Hardened plates in the exoskeleton are called sclerites, which are subdivisions of the major regions β tergites, sternites, and pleurites, for respective regions tergum, sternum, and pleuron.
252:
except the deep ocean. This article describes the basic insect body and some variations of the different body parts; in the process, it defines many of the technical terms used to describe insect bodies.
566:
are normally found. This is because the primary axis of the head is rotated 90Β° to become parallel to the primary axis of the body. In some species, this region is modified and assumes a different name.
2644:. Instead, the insect respiratory system uses a system of internal tubes and sacs through which gases either diffuse or are actively pumped, delivering oxygen directly to tissues that need it via their
1306:
Mouthparts can have multiple functions. Some insects combine piercing parts along with sponging ones which are then used to pierce through tissues of plants and animals. Female mosquitoes feed on blood
1524:
are of a chewing and lapping-sucking type. Lapping is a mode of feeding in which liquid or semiliquid food adhering to a protrusible organ, or "tongue", is transferred from substrate to mouth. In the
3136:. For means of finding a mate also, fireflies (Lampyridae) utilized modified fat body cells with transparent surfaces backed with reflective uric acid crystals to biosynthetically produce light, or
1928:, which is responsible for most of the flight, powered by the thoracic muscles. The posterior portion of the remigium is sometimes called the clavus; the two other posterior fields are the anal and
1167:. The mandibles cut and crush food, and may be used for defense; generally, they have an apical cutting edge, and the more basal molar area grinds the food. They can be extremely hard (around 3 on
2750:
or wings and sometimes in the legs, with pumping rates accelerating with periods of increased activity. Movement of haemolymph is particularly important for thermoregulation in orders such as
2648:(element 8 in numbered diagram). Since oxygen is delivered directly, the circulatory system is not used to carry oxygen, and is therefore greatly reduced. The insect circulatory system has no
2047:) is a row of small hooks on the forward margin of the hindwing, or "hamuli", which lock onto the forewing, keeping them held together (hamulate coupling). In some other insect species (e.g.,
4285:
Campbell, Frank L.; Priestly, June D. (1970). "Flagellar Annuli of Blattella germanica (Dictyoptera: Blattellidae).βChanges in Their Numbers and Dimensions during Postembryonic Development".
1674:
is not very well understood, relying on turbulent aerodynamic effects. The primitive insect groups use muscles that act directly on the wing structure. The more advanced groups making up the
2660:. Toward the thorax, the dorsal tube (element 14) divides into chambers and acts like the insect's heart. The opposite end of the dorsal tube is like the aorta of the insect circulating the
4689:
4619:
Agosta, Salvatore J.; Janzen, Daniel H. (2004). "Body size distributions of large Costa Rican dry forest moths and the underlying relationship between plant and pollinator morphology".
3722:
2939:
than to other cockroaches, and current research strongly supports this hypothesis of relationships. All species studied so far carry the obligate mutualistic endosymbiont bacterium
297:, and reproduction. Although the general function of the three body regions is the same across all insect species, there are major differences in basic structure, with wings, legs,
4715:
248:); have no eyes or many; well-developed wings or none; and legs modified for running, jumping, swimming, or even digging. These modifications allow insects to occupy almost every
2709:
Insect blood or haemolymph's main function is that of transport and it bathes the insect's body organs. Making up usually less than 25% of an insect's body weight, it transports
2179:
of one or more pairs of legs usually are modified for swimming (natatorial) with fringes of long, slender hairs. Many ground-dwelling insects, such as mole crickets (Orthoptera:
2274:
The terminal abdominal segments have excretory and sensory functions in all insects, besides the reproductive function in adults. The small segment 11 may be represented by an
1967:
The articular sclerites, or pteralia, of the wing base of the wing-flexing insects and their relations to the body and the wing veins, shown diagrammatically, are as follows:
747:
eyes, compound eyes possess very large view angles and better acuity than the insect's dorsal ocelli, but some stemmatal (= larval eyes), for example, those of sawfly larvae (
5543:
De Carlo; J. A. (1983). "Hemipteros acuΓ‘ticos y semiacuΓ‘ticos. Estudio en grupos en las partes de igual funciΓ³n de los aparatos genitales masculinos de especies estudiadas".
2410:
An insect uses its digestive system for all steps in food processing: digestion, absorption, and feces delivery and elimination. Most of this food is ingested in the form of
2531:), strong muscles in the pharynx pump fluid into the buccal cavity, lubricating the food like the salivarium does, and helping blood feeders, and xylem and phloem feeders.
2191:), have the tibiae of the forelegs (protibiae) enlarged and modified for digging (fossorial), whereas the forelegs of some predatory insects, such as mantispid lacewings (
1441:
scaling relationship between the body mass of Lepidoptera and length of the proboscis from which an interesting adaptive departure is the unusually long-tongued hawk moth
4964:
Eisemann, WK; Jorgensen, W. K.; Merritt, D. J.; Rice, M. J.; Cribb, B. W.; Webb, P. D.; Zalucki, M. P.; et al. (1984). "Do insects feel pain? β A biological view".
2199:), are specialized for seizing prey, or raptorial. The tibia and basal tarsomere of each hindleg of honey bees are modified for the collection and carriage of pollen.
2039:
In many insect species, the forewing and hindwing are coupled together, which improves the aerodynamic efficiency of flight. The most common coupling mechanism (e.g.,
3884:
2947:
2811:
Female insects are able make eggs, receive and store sperm, manipulate sperm from different males, and lay eggs. Their reproductive systems are made up of a pair of
679:
5230:"Revisiting the formation of midgut epithelium in Zygentoma (Insecta) from a developmental study of the firebrat Thermobia domestica (Packard, 1873) (Lepismatidae)"
2163:
and tibiae on all legs, whereas jumping (saltatorial) insects such as grasshoppers have disproportionately developed metafemora and metatibiae. In aquatic beetles (
2581:(element 13 in numbered diagram), also known as the mesenteron, where the majority of digestion takes place. Microscopic projections from the midgut wall, called
1311:) making them disease vectors. The mosquito mouthparts consist of the proboscis, paired mandibles and maxillae. The maxillae form needle-like structures, called
5899:"Physiology of insect diapause. II. Interaction between the pupal brain and prothoracic glands in the metamorphosis of the giant silkworm "Platysamia cecropia""
1052:; while in a hypognathous type, the head is aligned horizontally adjacent to the body. An opisthognathous head is positioned diagonally, such as in species of
2138:
tibial muscles contained within it, but it is sometimes enlarged and modified in shape for other purposes than that of accommodating the tibial muscles. The
531:
the mouthparts, each pair on a specific segment. Each such pair occupies one segment, though not all segments in modern insects bear any visible appendages.
2301:: a pair of appendages which articulate laterally on segment 11; typically, these are annulated and filamentous but have been modified (e.g. the forceps of
1433:
structures are called stylets. The combined tubular structures are referred to as the proboscis, although specialized terminology is used in some groups.
691:
687:
675:
3034:
species, the predatory larvae defecate enzymes on their prey, with digestion being extraorally. The alimentary canal basically comprises a short narrow
2288:: paired plate-like appendages also derived from the sternum at the side of the tip of the abdomen, often most apparent in certain basal orders such as
683:
4449:
3467:. Air is taken in through spiracles along the sides of the abdomen and thorax supplying the trachea with oxygen as it goes through the lepidopteran's
1179:, the mandibles are modified to such an extent as to not serve any feeding function but are instead used to defend mating sites from other males. In
571:
603:, the front of the head is fairly clearly distinguished and tends to be broad and sub-vertical; that median area commonly is taken to be the frons.
5883:
5403:
5364:
2209:
575:
the suture may come in different shapes: like either a Y, U or V. Those diverging lines that make up the ecdysial suture are called the frontal or
4693:
2901:
climates. Some species are in close association with human dwellings and widely found around garbage or in the kitchen. Cockroaches are generally
5562:
Andersen, N. MΓΈller (1991). "Marine insects: genital morphology, phylogeny and evolution of sea skaters, genus Halobates (Hemiptera: Gerridae)".
2951:, an Australian cave dwelling species without eyes, pigment or wings, and which recent genetic studies indicates are very primitive cockroaches.
2110:
1879:
1452:
predicted the existence and proboscis length of this moth before its discovery based on his knowledge of the long-spurred Madagascan star orchid
5276:
4198:
Okada, J; Toh, Y (2001). "Peripheral representation of antennal orientation by the scapal hair plate of the cockroach Periplaneta americana".
3628:
2964:, excluding the head. Thus cockroaches, like all insects, are not dependent on the mouth and windpipe to breathe. The valves open when the
2114:
2102:
1929:
4836:
4155:
Krause, A.F.; Winkler, A.; DΓΌrr, V. (2013). "Central drive and proprioceptive control of antennal movements in the walking stick insect".
4723:
2118:
2106:
2098:
1875:
636:
4746:
3220:. These chemicals mix and result in an explosive ejection, forming temperatures of around 100 C, with the breakdown of hydroquinone to H
1739:(grasshoppers and crickets). Large numbers of cross-veins are present in some insects, and they may form a reticulum as in the wings of
1925:
823:, sometimes called "feelers", are flexible appendages located on the insect's head which are used for sensing the environment. Insects
671:
628:
3843:
Smith, John Bernhard, Explanation of terms used in entomology Publisher: Brooklyn entomological society 1906 (May be downloaded from:
1612:. The middle segment is the mesothorax; its major features are the second pair of legs and the anterior wings, if any. The third, the
3858:
2738:
blood in that it does not contain any red blood cells and therefore is without high oxygen carrying capacity, and is more similar to
4233:
Staudacher, E.; Gebhardt, M.J.; DΓΌrr, V. (2005). "Antennal movements and mechanoreception: Neurobiology of active tactile sensors".
3074:, and is then taken into increasingly finer fibers. Pumping movements of the body force the air through the system. Some species of
3357:; in the more derived species, the head is not distinguishable from the rest of the body. Maggots are limbless, or else have small
5818:
5669:
1886:
and Coleoptera, and in some insects, the anal area can be folded like a fan. The four different fields found on insect wings are:
3311:. The lateral ducts are where the eggs leave the body, while the spermatheca is where sperm is stored. Unlike other insects, the
5979:
4336:
375:, it becomes much harder. The difference between the unmodified and modified forms is evident when comparing the body wall of a
6412:
3327:). In some species these long ovarioles branch off the lateral duct, while in others, short ovarioles appear around the duct.
5794:
5496:
5431:
5387:
5335:
5158:
5116:
4603:
4542:
4254:
3828:
3699:
4562:
5074:
1395:
1380:
3891:
3751:
Imms' General Textbook of Entomology: Volume 1: Structure, Physiology and Development Volume 2: Classification and Biology
3315:, or genital opening is behind the seventh abdominal segment. The ovaries are primitive in that they are polytrophic (the
1513:
to occur by capillary action. The liquid food is then drawn up from the pseudotracheae through the food channel into the
1222:, extends out to snatch prey back to the head, where the mandibles can eat it. The labium is similar in structure to the
2880:, which descend from the primordial pole cells very early during embryogenesis. The aedeagus can be quite pronounced or
1323:
to stop the blood from clotting. And finally, the labrum (upper lip) is used to suck up the blood. Species of the genus
6111:
4078:
Mayer, G. (2006). "Structure and development of onychophoran eyes: What is the ancestral visual organ in arthropods?".
3494:
1163:
Chewing insects have two mandibles, one on each side of the head. The mandibles are positioned between the labrum and
6007:
5867:
5830:
5527:
5310:
5197:
4819:
4572:
4484:
4459:
4423:
4139:
3758:
3676:
3612:
3365:. This lack of features is an adaptation to a food-rich environment, such as within rotting organic matter, or as an
3443:
are found in the anterior and posterior midgut regions, respectively. In insects, the goblet cells excrete positive
281:. The head is specialized for sensory input and food intake; the thorax, which is the anchor point for the legs and
5185:
2927:
that digest the cellulose, allowing them to extract the nutrients. The similarity of these symbionts in the genus
2876:. The remainder of the male reproductive system is derived from embryonic mesoderm, except for the germ cells, or
6106:
4500:
1551:
6225:
5049:
3499:
3263:, examples of hearing is surprisingly lacking in species, though it is likely that most are just undiscovered.
2447:(or gut), which runs lengthwise through the body. The alimentary canal directs food in one direction: from the
1168:
619:
3159:
A notable number of species have developed special glands that produce chemicals for deterring predators (see
751:) with an acuity of 4 degrees and very high polarization sensitivity, match the performance of compound eyes.
579:
sutures. Not all species of insects have frontal sutures, but in those that do, the sutures split open during
240:
There is enormous variation in body structure amongst insect species. Individuals can range from 0.3 mm (
6182:
3086:, however the volume of the bubble eventually diminishes, and the beetle will have to return to the surface.
2637:
2455:. The gut is where almost all of insects' digestion takes place. It can be divided into three sections β the
1164:
703:
335:, which is a thin, waxy, water-resistant outer layer that lacks chitin, and the layer under it is called the
4008:"Optics and phylogeny: is there an insight? The evolution of superposition eyes in the Decapoda (Crustacea)"
3104:
Different glands specialize for different pheromones produced for finding mates. Pheromones from species of
2679:
demonstrated by different groups of insects. Gas exchange patterns in insects can range from continuous and
1350:
618:
shape and size, such as species of Lepidoptera with a large clypeus with elongated mouthparts. The cheek or
6424:
6349:
6344:
6339:
1613:
1605:
1148:
699:
595:
591:
5229:
3249:
have ears on the dorsal surface of the first abdominal segment beneath the wing; two tribes in the family
3022:
of beetles is primarily based on plants, which they for the most part feed upon, with mostly the anterior
6354:
6139:
5626:"Evidence for Cocladogenesis Between Diverse Dictyopteran Lineages and Their Intracellular Endosymbionts"
1142:
1130:
695:
614:
491:
403:
5138:
1327:
are characterized by their long palpi (two parts with widening end), almost reaching the end of labrum.
6483:
6086:
3404:
2801:
2684:
2262:
The anal-genital part of the abdomen. which consists generally of segments 8 or 9 to the abdominal apex
2225:
2094:
1583:
164:
2734:(anterior) pulsations, which are located dorsally just under the surface of the body. It differs from
2495:(element 27 in numbered diagram), or stomodaeum. The foregut is lined with a cuticular lining made of
1608:
segment, closest to the head, is the prothorax; its major features are the first pair of legs and the
1366:
6462:
2600:), the midgut epithelium is derived entirely from yolk cells. In the majority of the flying insects (
835:
on the antennae allow insects to sense smells, temperature, humidity, pressure, and even potentially
516:
495:
Larva of beetle, family Cerambycidae, showing sclerotised epicranium; rest of body hardly sclerotised
359:, a derivative of glucose. In its unmodified form, chitin is translucent, pliable, and resilient. In
5325:
5096:
3922:
839:. Some insects, including bees and some groups of flies, can also detect sound with their antennae.
6101:
5695:
5280:
2626:
2480:
290:
138:
3116:
from eversible glands on the abdominal apex. Other species produce different types of pheromones.
2280:(usually a dorsal plate or filament above the anus of certain insects); other appendages include:
1202:
is a cupped or scoop-like structure, which sits over the outer edge of the labium. They also have
5752:
4837:"A New Method of Studying the Wing Veins of the Mayflies and Some Results Therefrom (Ephemerida)"
3098:
1125:. However, most adult Lepidoptera have siphoning mouthparts, while their larvae (commonly called
790:
impose a limit on the possible resolution that can be obtained (assuming they do not function as
660:
274:
5589:
Eggleton, P (2001). "Termites and trees: a review of recent advances in termite phylogenetics".
4598:. Gale virtual reference library. Vol. 4 (2nd ed.). Springer Reference. p. 4345.
2236:
831:) that cover them. However, touch is not the only thing that antennae can detect; numerous tiny
6429:
6334:
5279:. NC State University: Department of Entomology, NC State University. p. 1. Archived from
4847:
3149:
2363:
1454:
310:
183:
5357:
4589:
2668:, inside the body cavity. Air is taken in through openings on the sides of the abdomen called
6220:
6000:
4750:
3909:
3632:
3361:. The eyes and antennae are reduced or absent, and the abdomen also lacks appendages such as
3071:
3046:. After there is a midgut, that varies in dimensions between species, with a large amount of
2961:
2669:
2231:
1670:
to have developed flight capability, and this has played an important part in their success.
1560:
1509:
1089:
mouthparts lack stylets and are used to suck liquids and are commonly found among species of
803:
88:
17:
4913:
3430:
sucking pump as they need it for the food they eat, which are for the most part liquids. An
3279:, three thoracic ganglia, and six abdominal ganglia. Strong neurone connections connect the
3112:
lining the inner surface of the apical abdominal segments or amino acid-based pheromones of
1077:
mouthparts have stylets and are used to penetrate solid tissue and then suck up liquid food.
221:. This position of the mouthparts divides them from their closest relatives, the non-insect
6377:
6020:
5241:
4661:
4312:
4087:
4052:
3484:
3464:
3067:
2956:
2856:
2645:
1071:
mouthparts, among the most common in insects, are used for biting and grinding solid foods.
743:
201:
84:
6280:
5625:
3862:
2620:(element 16 in numbered diagram), or proctodaeum, undigested food particles are joined by
1485:
1198:. Maxillae can have hairs and "teeth" along their inner margins. At the outer margin, the
8:
6392:
6260:
6118:
6056:
6039:
5519:
5513:
3936:
Meyer-Rochow, V.B. (1974). "Structure and function of the larval eye of the sawfly larva
3383:
3191:
released from an opening at the end of the abdomen. While African carabid beetles (e.g.,
3160:
356:
6285:
5624:
Lo, Nathan; Claudio Bandi; Hirofumi Watanabe; Christine Nalepa; Tiziana Beninat (2003).
5245:
4665:
4091:
4056:
2656:, and instead consists of little more than a single, perforated dorsal tube that pulses
1248:
6407:
6295:
5946:"A temperature-induced switch from diffusive to convective ventilation in the honeybee"
5918:
5877:
5728:
5606:
5575:
5421:
5397:
5345:
5150:
5108:
5030:
4981:
4946:
4531:
4413:
4362:
4180:
4129:
3468:
3452:
3289:
3272:
3101:
of the beetle is driven by a tube-like heart attached to the top inside of the thorax.
2714:
2351:
1443:
1187:, the mandibles are elongated and toothed, used as hunting (and defensive) appendages.
1026:
808:
644:
538:
displays the greatest variety of features found in the heads of insects, including the
245:
5017:
5000:
4246:
3984:
2376:
has only two in the thorax and three in the abdomen. Some insects, like the house fly
1711:
is a nerve and a trachea, and, since the cavities of the veins are connected with the
606:
6453:
6303:
6237:
6123:
6069:
6049:
5926:
5863:
5826:
5790:
5733:
5650:
5523:
5492:
5427:
5383:
5331:
5306:
5257:
5193:
5154:
5112:
5022:
4815:
4674:
4649:
4634:
4599:
4568:
4538:
4480:
4455:
4419:
4340:
4250:
4215:
4172:
4168:
4135:
4103:
3988:
3957:
3953:
3844:
3824:
3754:
3695:
3672:
3608:
3489:
3213:
3204:
3141:
3083:
3051:
2784:
2747:
2076:
1357:
1183:, the mandibles also serve a defensive function (particularly in soldier castes). In
1083:
mouthparts are used to sponge and suck liquids, and lack stylets (e.g. most Diptera).
1017:
820:
550:, or the apex (dorsal region), is situated between the compound eyes of insects with
372:
298:
188:
50:
5610:
4184:
1494:
6447:
6382:
6177:
5993:
5957:
5910:
5723:
5715:
5640:
5598:
5571:
5249:
5146:
5104:
5034:
5012:
4973:
4938:
4669:
4630:
4294:
4242:
4207:
4164:
4095:
4060:
4019:
3980:
3949:
3460:
3416:
3400:
3280:
3260:
3167:'s (of Carabidae) defensive glands, located at the posterior, produce a variety of
2723:
2444:
2246:
1336:
1312:
1061:
547:
539:
249:
3408:
1275:
6205:
6189:
6172:
5898:
5784:
4621:
4593:
3602:
3396:
3137:
2941:
2390:
1697:
1429:
1219:
1199:
562:
insects, the vertex is not found between the compound eyes, but rather where the
555:
270:
5623:
4985:
1284:
343:. The exocuticle is greatly reduced in many soft-bodied insects, especially the
6457:
6275:
6247:
6232:
6210:
3504:
3412:
3407:(Prothoracicotropic hormone) operates the species life cycle and diapause (see
3284:
3235:
3058:
3039:
3002:
2965:
2790:
2713:, nutrients and wastes and has a role in, osmoregulation, temperature control,
2692:
2558:
2520:
2516:
2419:
2343:
2180:
1744:
1538:
1449:
1406:
1320:
1184:
836:
748:
340:
322:
261:
Insects, like all arthropods, have no interior skeleton; instead, they have an
5253:
4099:
4064:
4024:
4007:
2823:, can control sperm use. The ducts and spermathecae are lined with a cuticle.
772:
583:, which provides an opening for the new instar to emerge from the integument.
6477:
6318:
6255:
6160:
6155:
6076:
6034:
5326:
Richard W. Merritt, Kenneth W. Cummins, and Martin B. Berg (editors) (2007).
3992:
3975:
VΓΆlkel, R.; Eisner, M.; Weible, K.J. (2003). "Miniaturized imaging systems".
3346:
3164:
3113:
2877:
2718:
2589:
2504:
2411:
2321:
2241:
2176:
2151:
2090:
1682:
1671:
1657:
652:
208:. The terminology used to describe insects is similar to that used for other
175:
159:
154:
149:
5857:
5645:
4211:
1293:
954:
919:
908:
6402:
6313:
6308:
6044:
5930:
5737:
5719:
5654:
5261:
5228:
Mtow, Shodo; Tsutsumi, Tadaaki; Masumoto, Mika; Machida, Ryuichiro (2023).
5026:
4999:
Tracey, J; Wilson, RI; Laurent, G; Benzer, S; et al. (18 April 2003).
4298:
4219:
4176:
4107:
3366:
3255:
3209:
3153:
3140:. The light produce is highly efficient, as it is produced by oxidation of
2911:
2676:
2536:
2439:
2427:
2372:
2347:
2188:
1956:
1732:
1687:
1667:
965:
943:
930:
791:
735:
600:
551:
524:
508:
269:
that protects and supports the body. The insect body is divided into three
64:
5962:
5945:
4650:"Allometry and functional constraints on proboscis lengths in butterflies"
3961:
2935:
are such that it has been suggested that they are more closely related to
1723:
897:
875:
864:
6419:
6270:
6265:
6167:
5985:
3440:
3436:
3392:
3304:
3200:
3168:
3117:
2986:
2898:
2868:
2816:
2759:
2755:
2657:
2605:
2582:
2566:
2382:, have all the body ganglia fused into a single large thoracic ganglion.
2354:. The head capsule is made up of six fused segments, each with a pair of
2056:
2052:
2044:
2040:
1663:
1529:
1308:
1215:
1195:
1176:
1172:
1126:
1122:
1110:
1090:
998:
987:
976:
886:
843:
787:
760:
711:
656:
640:
559:
376:
368:
348:
282:
262:
109:
104:
32:
2954:
Cockroaches, like all insects, breathe through a system of tubes called
2393:. This was discovered in 2003 by studying the variation in reactions of
2324:), and a few fossil insects. A similar structure in nymphal stoneflies (
1666:
located on the second and third thoracic segments. Insects are the only
1476:
631:
is the area immediately posteriad, or posterior or lower on the gena of
519:
in most insects is enclosed in a hard, heavily sclerotized, exoskeletal
511:, without epicranium, almost without sclerotisation apart from its jaws.
5922:
5602:
4977:
4950:
4889:
4864:
3509:
3387:
3316:
3250:
3145:
3125:
3109:
3075:
3050:, with a hingut, with varying lengths. There are typically four to six
3031:
2902:
2864:
2735:
2597:
2484:
2435:
2431:
2398:
2386:
2325:
2317:
2192:
2164:
1883:
1867:
1748:
1736:
1601:
1597:
1153:
1118:
1106:
1102:
1057:
1049:
739:
719:
715:
535:
424:
336:
332:
234:
99:
94:
3070:. Air enters a series of tubes along the body through openings called
2730:. It is transported around the body by combined heart (posterior) and
1796:β fifth longitudinal vein, one to three branches reach the wing margin
1788:β fourth longitudinal vein, one to four branches reach the wing margin
1266:
1239:
6397:
6387:
6372:
6064:
5179:
5177:
5175:
3631:. The University of Nebraska Department of Entomology. Archived from
3456:
3444:
3431:
3423:
3308:
3241:
3105:
3090:
3027:
3019:
2975:
2916:
2827:
2727:
2697:
2680:
2661:
2621:
2593:
2546:
2512:
2359:
2184:
2168:
2048:
1780:β third longitudinal vein, one to five branches reach the wing margin
1629:
1593:
1525:
1514:
1438:
1425:
1386:
1114:
1053:
847:
648:
632:
504:
428:
360:
294:
286:
209:
76:
5914:
5825:(5 (illustrated) ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 55.
5377:
4942:
4339:. University of Minnesota (Department of Entomology). Archived from
2265:
substitutional, composed of extensible posterior abdominal segments.
1648:
to order, and they will not be discussed in detail in this section.
285:(if present), is specialized for locomotion; and the abdomen is for
3353:, have no true legs, and little demarcation between the thorax and
3324:
3312:
3276:
3217:
3172:
3129:
3030:) most digestion occurs in the crop by means of midgut enzymes. In
2979:
2924:
2920:
2873:
2860:
2710:
2601:
2378:
2355:
2276:
2196:
1772:β second longitudinal vein (behind the costa), typically unbranched
1712:
1675:
1569:
1467:
1411:
1342:
1157:
842:
The number of segments in an antenna varies amongst insects, with
832:
813:
723:
543:
499:
419:
388:
241:
222:
123:
70:
5217:(1 ed.). Stanford: Stanford University Press. pp. 24β29.
5172:
2475:
1743:(dragonflies and damselflies) and at the base of the forewings of
6016:
5447:
5445:
5443:
4418:(4th ed.). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
3427:
3426:, the anterior region of the foregut has been modified to form a
3354:
3300:
3180:
3133:
3043:
3035:
2936:
2932:
2840:
2820:
2812:
2763:
2751:
2722:
molecules, ions and cells; regulating chemical exchanges between
2617:
2578:
2562:
2528:
2508:
2500:
2492:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2415:
2289:
1740:
1691:
1223:
1191:
1098:
707:
667:
624:
580:
563:
407:
392:
364:
363:, however, it is often modified, becoming embedded in a hardened
352:
328:
278:
230:
226:
55:
4560:
627:, it is between the compound eyes, clypeus, and mouthparts. The
5451:
4749:. Department of Entomology, NC State University. Archived from
3362:
3358:
3350:
3320:
3176:
3063:
3023:
2852:
2831:
2688:
2653:
2524:
2496:
2394:
2302:
2297:
2160:
1589:
1533:
1316:
399:
380:
266:
205:
5693:
5440:
4918:
3349:, with the larva hatching inside the mother. Larval flies, or
1727:
Venation of insect wings, based on the Comstock-Needham system
5215:
A Contribution to The Biology of North American Vespine Wasps
4927:"Discontinuous respiration in insects: role of the spiracles"
4043:
Scourfield, a protochordate? from the Silurian of Scotland".
3472:
3296:
3283:
to the brain and frontal ganglion, where the closely related
3184:
3121:
3094:
3047:
2990:
2739:
2731:
2665:
2542:
2448:
2172:
2139:
2134:
1924:
Most veins and cross-veins occur in the anterior area of the
1609:
1207:
587:
398:
The four principal regions of an insect body segment are the
344:
4963:
4479:. Vol. 1 (1 ed.). Science Publishers. p. 48.
3292:
can be found between the junction of the mid- and hind gut.
2081:
1257:
5694:
Lo, N; Beninati, T; Stone, F; Walker, J; Sacchi, L (2007).
5486:
5227:
4134:(4th ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
3748:
3370:
3337:
3188:
3026:
performing digestion. However, in predatory species (e.g.,
2906:
2649:
2641:
2550:
2452:
1731:
In some minuscule insects, the venation may be reduced. In
1401:
1372:
1203:
828:
786:
Because the individual lenses are so small, the effects of
726:, which typically display prognathous-oriented mouthparts.
4612:
3657:(2nd ed.). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. p. 12.
3459:, or insect blood, is used to circulate heat in a form of
2851:
The main component of the male reproductive system is the
371:. In its pure form, it is leathery, but when encrusted in
4998:
3275:
is typical of insects. There is a brain, a subesophageal
2919:
themselves but have symbiotic relationships with various
2826:
The ovaries are made up of a number of egg tubes, called
2539:, or fluid filled structure, as in some Diptera species.
2423:
1662:
Most phylogenetically advanced insects have two pairs of
1521:
1180:
5489:
Borror and DeLong's introduction to the study of insects
5454:
Borror and DeLong's Introduction to the Study of Insects
4722:. University of Sydney. February 4, 2010. Archived from
2887:
2503:
as protection from tough food. The foregut includes the
2034:
5380:
An Introduction To The Aquatic Insects Of North America
5328:
An Introduction to the Aquatic Insects of North America
5001:"painless, a Drosophila gene essential for nociception"
4720:
School of Biological Sciences Online Learning Resources
4269:
2316:, which arises from the tip of the epiproct in certain
5476:(6th ed.). New Jersey USA: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
4232:
3216:, with the second holding just hydrogen peroxide plus
2971:
level in the insect rises to a high level; then the CO
527:
however, tend to have hardly any head capsule at all.
5858:
Hoell, H.V., Doyen, J.T. & Purcell, A.H. (1998).
5518:(3 ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. pp.
5075:"General Entomology β Digestive and Excritory system"
3295:
The reproductive system of females consist of paired
2726:, haemolymph is encased in the insect body cavity or
301:, and mouthparts being variable from group to group.
5860:
Introduction to Insect Biology and Diversity, 2nd ed
5700:
endosymbionts: the phylogenetically divergent genus
5423:
Essential Entomology; An order by order introduction
4331:
4329:
827:
feel with their antennae because of the fine hairs (
5561:
5511:
5300:
4914:
Amateur Entomologist's Society: epiproct definition
3744:
3742:
3600:
2479:Stylized diagram of insect digestive tract showing
4805:
4803:
4801:
4799:
4797:
4795:
4793:
4791:
4789:
4787:
4530:
3974:
3845:https://archive.org/details/explanationofter00smit
2370:just six ganglia in the abdomen, whereas the wasp
5491:(7th ed.). Australia: Thomson, Brooks/Cole.
5487:Triplehorn, Charles A; Johnson, Norman F (2005).
5137:Terra, Walter R.; Ferreira, ClΓ©lia (2009-01-01),
4785:
4783:
4781:
4779:
4777:
4775:
4773:
4771:
4769:
4767:
4561:Evans, Arthur V.; Bellamy, Charles (April 2000).
4326:
4154:
3929:
3818:
3814:
3812:
3810:
3808:
3806:
3804:
3802:
3800:
3798:
3796:
3794:
3792:
3790:
3671:(4th edition) Benjamin Cummings, New Work. p. 69
3001:, the tracheal system brings the air directly to
2491:The first section of the alimentary canal is the
6475:
5982:Overview of insect external and internal anatomy
5943:
5467:
5465:
5463:
5052:. Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety
4809:
4443:
4441:
4439:
4437:
4435:
4407:
4405:
4403:
4284:
4270:Servadei, A.; Zangheri, S.; Masutti, L. (1972).
3968:
3819:Resh, Vincent H.; Ring T. Carde (July 1, 2009).
3788:
3786:
3784:
3782:
3780:
3778:
3776:
3774:
3772:
3770:
3739:
5816:
5480:
5456:. Brooks / Thomson Cole: Brooks / Thomson Cole.
5145:, San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 273β281,
4401:
4399:
4397:
4395:
4393:
4391:
4389:
4387:
4385:
4383:
3152:(adenosine triphosphate) and oxygen, producing
2774:These glands are part of the endocrine system:
2389:, cells that detect and transmit sensations of
2019:the epimeron inserted into the axillary plate.
734:Most insects have one pair of large, prominent
5419:
5141:, in Resh, Vincent H.; CardΓ©, Ring T. (eds.),
4764:
4708:
4533:The Lepidoptera: Form, function, and diversity
4287:Annals of the Entomological Society of America
4123:
4121:
4119:
4117:
3882:
2960:. The tracheae of insects are attached to the
2430:. These macromolecules must be broken down by
2244:is enlarged into a "genital bulb", as seen in
1097:Mandibular mouthparts are found in species of
854:General insect antenna types are shown below:
6001:
5862:. Oxford University Press. pp. 493β499.
5823:Animal Physiology: Adaptation and Environment
5687:
5617:
5545:Revista de la Sociedad EntomolΓ³gica Argentina
5542:
5471:
5460:
5378:Merritt, RW, KW Cummins, and MB Berg (2007).
5136:
5094:
4454:(2 ed.). Springer-Verlag New York, LLC.
4432:
4411:
3767:
3596:
3594:
3592:
3590:
3588:
3586:
3584:
3582:
3580:
3578:
3576:
3574:
3572:
3570:
3568:
3566:
3564:
3562:
3560:
3558:
3556:
3554:
3552:
3550:
3548:
3546:
3544:
2978:out of the tracheae to the outside and fresh
2604:), it is derived from bipolar formation. The
1834:β run between adjacent branches of the radius
5944:Lighton, J. R. B.; Lovegrove, B. G. (1990).
5882:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5783:Gillot, C. (1995). "Butterflies and moths".
5402:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4924:
4618:
4380:
3935:
3607:(3 ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
3542:
3540:
3538:
3536:
3534:
3532:
3530:
3528:
3526:
3524:
2897:Cockroaches are most common in tropical and
2577:Once food leaves the crop, it passes to the
2097:, the femur, the tibia, the tarsus, and the
666:On the posterior aspect of the head are the
309:"Frons" redirects here. For other uses, see
45:Tagmata: A β Head, B β Thorax, C β Abdomen.
5505:
5095:Terra, Walter R.; Ferreira, ClΓ©lia (2009),
4477:Principles and Practices of Animal Taxonomy
4114:
2915:; these roaches are incapable of digesting
1874:Wing areas are delimited and subdivided by
1751:(katydids and grasshoppers, respectively).
729:
590:is that part of the head capsule that lies
27:Description of the physical form of insects
6015:
6008:
5994:
5789:(2 ed.). Springer. pp. 246β266.
5452:Triplehorn, C. A.; Johnson, N. F. (2005).
5415:
5413:
4834:
4360:
2867:insects have a single testis, and in some
1218:or chewing or, in the unusual case of the
5961:
5778:
5776:
5774:
5744:
5727:
5668:Leung, Chee Chee Leung (March 22, 2007).
5644:
5564:Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society
5363:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5330:(4th ed.). Kendall Hunt Publishers.
5192:(1 ed.). CRC Press. pp. 496pp.
5069:
5067:
5016:
4692:. University of Minnesota. Archived from
4673:
4524:
4522:
4520:
4518:
4367:Beetles (Coleoptera) and coleopterologist
4071:
4023:
3653:Resh, Vincent H.; CardΓ©, Ring T. (2009).
3652:
3521:
3195:some of which used to comprise the genus
2105:suture that forms internally a ridge, or
5896:
5588:
5143:Encyclopedia of Insects (Second Edition)
4682:
4556:
4554:
4447:
4305:
4197:
3850:
3837:
3823:(2 ed.). U. S. A.: Academic Press.
3089:Like other insect species, beetles have
2549:defecating. Note the contraction of the
2541:
2474:
2305:) or reduced in different insect orders.
2235:
2080:
1955:
1866:
1722:
1696:
1025:
816:, showing fine sensory hairs on antennae
807:
605:
498:
490:
418:
31:
5937:
5853:
5851:
5849:
5410:
4587:
4581:
4127:
4038:
3661:
2701:held or trapped in special structures.
1190:Situated beneath the mandibles, paired
14:
6476:
5817:Schmidt-Nielsen, Knut (Jan 15, 1997).
5782:
5771:
5319:
5212:
5183:
5064:
4528:
4515:
4474:
3749:Richards, O. W.; Davies, R.G. (1977).
2795:
2632:
2109:, and sets off a marginal flange, the
2089:The typical and usual segments of the
1878:, along which the wings can fold, and
351:). Chemically, chitin is a long-chain
5989:
5667:
5661:
5515:The Insects: An Outline of Entomology
5426:. New York: Oxford University Press.
5305:. New York: Oxford University Press.
5274:
5234:Arthropod Structure & Development
5050:"Sentience and pain in invertebrates"
5047:
4744:
4738:
4647:
4551:
4077:
4005:
3883:Volkel, R.; Eisner, M.; Weible, K.J.
3710:
3708:
3604:The Insects: An Outline of Entomology
3199:) employ the same chemicals as ants:
2888:Internal morphology of different taxa
2704:
2675:There are many different patterns of
2219:
2035:Coupling, folding, and other features
1804:β unbranched veins behind the cubitus
5846:
5512:Gullan, P.J.; P.S. Cranston (2005).
5301:Chown, S.L.; S.W. Nicholson (2004).
4966:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences
4865:"profemur, profemora β BugGuide.Net"
4315:. The Amateur Entomologists' Society
3601:Gullan, P.J.; P.S. Cranston (2005).
2588:In the wingless (apterygote) orders
1826:β run between the costa and subcosta
738:composed of units called ommatidia (
265:, a hard outer layer made mostly of
200:is the study and description of the
5382:. Kendall Hunt Publishing Company.
5294:
5275:Meyer, John R. (17 February 2006).
4415:The Insects: Structure and function
4131:The Insects: Structure and Function
4080:Arthropod Structure and Development
3861:. Lander University. Archived from
3856:
3386:of butterflies and moths, the male
2769:
2553:, which provides internal pressure.
2405:
2346:of an insect can be divided into a
2269:
1850:β run between the media and cubitus
1301:
24:
5750:
5576:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1991.tb00896.x
5190:Insect Physiology and Biochemistry
5184:Nation, James L. (November 2001).
5151:10.1016/b978-0-12-374144-8.00083-7
5109:10.1016/b978-0-12-374144-8.00083-7
4810:Snodgrass, R. E. (December 1993).
4567:. University of California Press.
4564:An Inordinate Fondness for Beetles
4361:Kirejtshuk, A.G. (November 2002).
3890:. SUSS MicroOptics. Archived from
3705:
3495:External morphology of Lepidoptera
3323:alternate along the length of the
2855:, suspended in the body cavity by
2687:. During continuous gas exchange,
2414:and other complex substances like
1842:β run between the radius and media
714:, while the gula is found on some
256:
25:
6495:
5973:
4745:Meyer, John R. (5 January 2007).
4272:Entomologia generale ed applicata
2337:
846:having 3-6 segments, while adult
327:The insect's outer skeleton, the
6452:
6443:
6442:
6085:
4925:Schneiderman, Howard A. (1960).
4675:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2007.01299.x
4635:10.1111/j.0030-1299.2005.13504.x
4475:Kapoor, V.C. C. (January 1998).
4448:Gilliott, Cedric (August 1995).
4169:10.1016/j.jphysparis.2012.06.001
3716:"external morphology of Insects"
2815:, accessory glands, one or more
1568:
1559:
1550:
1493:
1484:
1475:
1466:
1394:
1379:
1365:
1349:
1335:
1331:Diversity of piercing mouthparts
1292:
1283:
1274:
1265:
1256:
1247:
1238:
997:
986:
975:
964:
953:
942:
929:
918:
907:
896:
885:
874:
863:
804:Antenna (Biology) Β§ Insects
771:
759:
367:matrix, which forms much of the
5950:Journal of Experimental Biology
5890:
5810:
5633:Molecular Biology and Evolution
5582:
5555:
5536:
5371:
5268:
5221:
5206:
5139:"Chapter 74 β Digestive System"
5130:
5088:
5041:
4992:
4957:
4907:
4882:
4857:
4828:
4812:Principles of Insect Morphology
4641:
4493:
4468:
4354:
4278:
4263:
4226:
4200:Journal of Experimental Biology
4191:
4148:
4032:
3999:
3876:
3411:). This hormone is produced by
2402:insects feel pain consciously.
2240:The abdominal terminus of male
2183:), nymphal cicadas (Hemiptera:
2093:are divided into the coxa, one
2085:Diagram of a typical insect leg
659:, connecting the head with the
5103:, Elsevier, pp. 273β281,
4592:. In Capinera, John L. (ed.).
3885:"Miniaturized imaging systems"
3681:
3646:
3621:
3500:External morphology of Odonata
3377:
2664:, arthropods' fluid analog of
2525:carbohydrate-digesting enzymes
2483:, from an insect of the order
1764:β the leading edge of the wing
1638:
1136:
331:, consists of two layers; the
316:
135:nerve cord (abdominal ganglia)
126:(intestine, rectum & anus)
13:
1:
5753:"How do cockroaches breathe?"
5048:SΓΈmme, LS (14 January 2005).
5018:10.1016/S0092-8674(03)00272-1
4247:10.1016/S0065-2806(05)32002-9
4235:Advances in Insect Physiology
3985:10.1016/S0167-9317(03)00102-3
3515:
3266:
3156:, carbon dioxide, and light.
3013:
2332:
1011:
6425:Standard anatomical position
6350:Glossary of plant morphology
6345:Glossary of dinosaur anatomy
6340:Anatomical terms of location
5670:"Cave may hold missing link"
5303:Insect Physiological Ecology
4501:"Mosquito biting mouthparts"
4157:Journal of Physiology, Paris
4039:Ritchie, Alexander (1985). "
3954:10.1016/0022-1910(74)90087-0
3942:Journal of Insect Physiology
3130:fatty-acid-derived aldehydes
2892:
2434:into smaller molecules like
2385:At least a few insects have
2077:Arthropod leg Β§ Insects
1623:
1419:
7:
4648:Kunte, Krushnamegh (2007).
3977:Microelectronic Engineering
3857:Fox, Richard (6 Oct 2006).
3478:
3403:. The first insect hormone
3281:neurohemal corpora cardiaca
3038:, a widened expansion, the
2328:) is of uncertain homology.
1705:
1502:
1143:Mandible (insect mouthpart)
797:
625:dragonflies and damselflies
304:
10:
6500:
5474:Fundamentals of Entomology
4595:Encyclopedia of Entomology
4274:. CEDAM. pp. 492β530.
3330:
3232:propelling the excretion.
2905:with the exception of the
2802:Insect reproductive system
2799:
2685:discontinuous gas exchange
2611:
2470:
2229:
2226:Insect reproductive system
2223:
2202:
2074:
1701:Cross-section of wing vein
1655:
1627:
1584:Thorax (arthropod anatomy)
1581:
1140:
1015:
801:
778:Compound eye cross-section
534:Of all the insect orders,
320:
308:
6463:Index of anatomy articles
6438:
6365:
6327:
6294:
6246:
6198:
6148:
6132:
6094:
6083:
6027:
5254:10.1016/j.asd.2023.101237
4890:"protibia β BugGuide.Net"
4747:"External Anatomy: WINGS"
4100:10.1016/j.asd.2006.06.003
4065:10.1080/03115518508618961
4025:10.1163/18759866-06704001
2806:
2572:
1951:
1862:
1577:
928:
858:Types of insect antennae
837:sense themselves in space
218:
6112:morphological plasticity
6102:Bacterial cell structure
5897:Williams, C. M. (1947).
5213:Duncan, Carl D. (1939).
4503:. allmosquitos.com. 2011
4012:Contributions to Zoology
2945:, with the exception of
2909:-eating species such as
2777:1. Neurosecretory cells
2640:is accomplished without
2314:median appendix dorsalis
1718:
1651:
1592:has three segments: the
730:Compound eyes and ocelli
406:or ventral, and the two
244:) to 30 cm across (
169:fore-gut (crop, gizzard)
5696:"Cockroaches that lack
5420:McGavin, G. C. (2001).
5101:Encyclopedia of Insects
4590:"Butterflies and moths"
4588:Heppner, J. B. (2008).
4212:10.1242/jeb.204.24.4301
3821:Encyclopedia of Insects
3667:Campbell, N. A. (1996)
3655:Encyclopedia of Insects
3099:open circulatory system
3042:and a poorly developed
2985:diffuses in. Unlike in
2948:Nocticola australiensis
2846:
2397:of the common fruitfly
2310:central caudal filament
2187:), and scarab beetles (
2070:
1801:Anal veins (A1, A2, A3)
1194:manipulate food during
680:posterior tentorial pit
414:
6430:Transcendental anatomy
6335:Anatomical terminology
5720:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0614
5472:Elzinga, R.J. (2004).
4814:. Cornell Univ Press.
4537:. Oxford Univ. Press.
4412:Chapman, R.F. (1998).
4128:Chapman, R.F. (1998).
4006:Gaten, Edward (1998).
3917:Cite journal requires
3692:A Survey of Entomology
2742:found in vertebrates.
2554:
2488:
2364:subesophageal ganglion
2250:
2086:
1960:
1871:
1728:
1702:
1455:Angraecum sesquipedale
1234:Diversity of mandibles
1044:
817:
610:
512:
496:
488:
311:Frons (disambiguation)
194:
184:subesophageal ganglion
6107:cellular morphologies
5963:10.1242/jeb.154.1.509
5646:10.1093/molbev/msg097
5077:. NC state University
4696:on September 27, 2011
4041:Ainiktozoon loganense
3629:"O. Orkin Insect zoo"
3285:median corpus allatum
3273:neuroendocrine system
3228:+ quinone, with the O
3161:Defense and predation
2863:. The more primitive
2545:
2478:
2239:
2232:Lepidoptera genitalia
2084:
1959:
1870:
1726:
1700:
1029:
811:
766:Ocellus cross-section
609:
502:
494:
422:
35:
6378:Anatomical variation
6061:Microscopic anatomy
5819:"Insect Respiration"
5283:on 27 September 2009
5277:"Circulatory System"
4529:Scoble, MJ. (1992).
4299:10.1093/aesa/63.1.81
4206:(Pt 24): 4301β4309.
3753:. Berlin: Springer.
3485:Morphology (biology)
2780:2. Corpora cardiaca
2567:extra-oral digestion
1462:Siphoning mouthparts
1033:Legend: a β antennae
42:Legend of body parts
6393:Form classification
6261:Neanderthal anatomy
6119:Colonial morphology
6057:Comparative anatomy
6040:Superficial anatomy
5246:2023ArtSD..7301237M
4835:Spieth, HT (1932).
4666:2007FuEco..21..982K
4337:"Insect Morphology"
4092:2006ArtSD..35..231M
4057:1985Alch....9..117R
3409:the relates section
3384:reproductive system
3148:in the presence of
2796:Reproductive system
2633:Respiratory systems
2432:catabolic reactions
1546:Sponging mouthparts
859:
357:N-acetylglucosamine
117:dorsal tube (heart)
81:dorsal blood vessel
6408:History of anatomy
6095:Bacteria and fungi
5751:Kunkel, Joseph G.
5603:10.1007/pl00001766
5356:has generic name (
5097:"Digestive System"
4978:10.1007/BF01963580
4844:Entomological News
4654:Functional Ecology
3979:. 67β68: 461β472.
3859:"External Anatomy"
3469:respiratory system
3453:circulatory system
3290:malpighian tubules
3205:Bombardier beetles
3108:are produced from
3066:is obtained via a
3052:Malpighian tubules
2993:for transporting O
2785:Prothoracic glands
2717:, storage (water,
2705:Circulatory system
2638:Insect respiration
2627:Malpighian tubules
2596:(and the hexapods
2555:
2489:
2352:ventral nerve cord
2312:, prolongation or
2251:
2220:External genitalia
2087:
1961:
1899:Anal area (vannus)
1872:
1729:
1703:
1520:The mouthparts of
1444:Xanthopan morganii
1045:
857:
833:sensory structures
818:
611:
513:
497:
489:
471::maxillary palps;
379:(unmodified) to a
195:
87:tubes (trunk with
6484:Insect morphology
6471:
6470:
6304:Amphibian anatomy
6296:Other vertebrates
6238:Arthropod cuticle
6216:Insect morphology
6211:Gastropod anatomy
6124:Lichen morphology
6050:brain morphometry
5980:Insect Morphology
5796:978-0-306-44967-3
5757:The Cockroach FAQ
5498:978-0-03-096835-8
5433:978-0-19-850002-5
5389:978-0-7575-4128-5
5337:978-0-7575-5049-2
5160:978-0-12-374144-8
5118:978-0-12-374144-8
4605:978-1-4020-6242-1
4544:978-1-4020-6242-1
4313:"Insect antennae"
4256:978-0-12-024232-0
3830:978-0-12-374144-8
3700:978-0-595-22143-1
3490:Insect physiology
3214:hydrogen peroxide
3124:, and species of
3084:passive diffusion
2481:malpighian tubule
2320:, many mayflies (
1358:Cimex lectularius
1319:, which contains
1018:Insect mouthparts
1009:
1008:
688:hypostomal suture
676:occipital foramen
633:pterygote insects
373:calcium carbonate
198:Insect morphology
172:thoracic ganglion
114:mid-gut (stomach)
38:Insect morphology
16:(Redirected from
6491:
6456:
6446:
6445:
6383:Anatomical plane
6281:Elephant anatomy
6178:Plant morphology
6089:
6010:
6003:
5996:
5987:
5986:
5968:
5967:
5965:
5941:
5935:
5934:
5894:
5888:
5887:
5881:
5873:
5855:
5844:
5843:
5841:
5839:
5814:
5808:
5807:
5805:
5803:
5780:
5769:
5768:
5766:
5764:
5748:
5742:
5741:
5731:
5691:
5685:
5684:
5682:
5680:
5665:
5659:
5658:
5648:
5630:
5621:
5615:
5614:
5591:Insectes Sociaux
5586:
5580:
5579:
5559:
5553:
5552:
5540:
5534:
5533:
5509:
5503:
5502:
5484:
5478:
5477:
5469:
5458:
5457:
5449:
5438:
5437:
5417:
5408:
5407:
5401:
5393:
5375:
5369:
5368:
5361:
5355:
5351:
5349:
5341:
5323:
5317:
5316:
5298:
5292:
5291:
5289:
5288:
5272:
5266:
5265:
5225:
5219:
5218:
5210:
5204:
5203:
5181:
5170:
5169:
5168:
5167:
5134:
5128:
5127:
5126:
5125:
5092:
5086:
5085:
5083:
5082:
5071:
5062:
5061:
5059:
5057:
5045:
5039:
5038:
5020:
4996:
4990:
4989:
4972:(2): 1420β1423.
4961:
4955:
4954:
4922:
4916:
4911:
4905:
4904:
4902:
4900:
4886:
4880:
4879:
4877:
4875:
4861:
4855:
4854:
4852:
4846:. Archived from
4841:
4832:
4826:
4825:
4807:
4762:
4761:
4759:
4758:
4742:
4736:
4735:
4733:
4731:
4726:on April 9, 2011
4716:"Fly Mouthparts"
4712:
4706:
4705:
4703:
4701:
4686:
4680:
4679:
4677:
4645:
4639:
4638:
4616:
4610:
4609:
4585:
4579:
4578:
4558:
4549:
4548:
4536:
4526:
4513:
4512:
4510:
4508:
4497:
4491:
4490:
4472:
4466:
4465:
4445:
4430:
4429:
4409:
4378:
4377:
4375:
4374:
4358:
4352:
4351:
4349:
4348:
4333:
4324:
4323:
4321:
4320:
4309:
4303:
4302:
4282:
4276:
4275:
4267:
4261:
4260:
4230:
4224:
4223:
4195:
4189:
4188:
4163:(1β2): 116β129.
4152:
4146:
4145:
4125:
4112:
4111:
4075:
4069:
4068:
4036:
4030:
4029:
4027:
4003:
3997:
3996:
3972:
3966:
3965:
3948:(8): 1565β1591.
3933:
3927:
3926:
3920:
3915:
3913:
3905:
3903:
3902:
3896:
3889:
3880:
3874:
3873:
3871:
3870:
3854:
3848:
3841:
3835:
3834:
3816:
3765:
3764:
3746:
3737:
3736:
3734:
3733:
3727:
3721:. Archived from
3720:
3712:
3703:
3689:
3685:
3679:
3665:
3659:
3658:
3650:
3644:
3643:
3641:
3640:
3625:
3619:
3618:
3598:
3461:thermoregulation
3424:digestive system
3417:corpora cardiaca
3401:endocrine system
3301:lateral oviducts
3110:epithelial cells
3020:digestive system
2770:Endocrine system
2691:is taken in and
2683:ventilation, to
2445:alimentary canal
2406:Digestive system
2270:Other appendages
2247:Panorpa communis
2012:
2008:
1995:
1988:
1981:
1974:
1914:
1907:
1900:
1893:
1848:
1847:M-Cu cross-veins
1840:
1832:
1824:
1823:C-Sc cross-veins
1802:
1794:
1786:
1778:
1770:
1762:
1733:chalcidoid wasps
1572:
1563:
1554:
1497:
1488:
1479:
1470:
1430:maxillary galeae
1398:
1383:
1369:
1353:
1339:
1302:Piercing-sucking
1296:
1287:
1278:
1269:
1260:
1251:
1242:
1075:Piercing-sucking
1035:c β compound eye
1001:
990:
979:
968:
957:
946:
933:
922:
911:
900:
889:
878:
867:
860:
856:
775:
763:
684:postgenal bridge
250:ecological niche
246:great owlet moth
225:, which include
139:Malpighian tubes
69:brain (cerebral
21:
6499:
6498:
6494:
6493:
6492:
6490:
6489:
6488:
6474:
6473:
6472:
6467:
6434:
6361:
6355:leaf morphology
6323:
6290:
6286:Giraffe anatomy
6242:
6206:Decapod anatomy
6194:
6190:Soil morphology
6173:Plant life-form
6144:
6128:
6090:
6081:
6023:
6014:
5976:
5971:
5942:
5938:
5915:10.2307/1538279
5895:
5891:
5875:
5874:
5870:
5856:
5847:
5837:
5835:
5833:
5815:
5811:
5801:
5799:
5797:
5781:
5772:
5762:
5760:
5759:. UMass Amherst
5749:
5745:
5708:Biology Letters
5698:Blattabacterium
5692:
5688:
5678:
5676:
5666:
5662:
5628:
5622:
5618:
5587:
5583:
5560:
5556:
5551:(1/4): 149β154.
5541:
5537:
5530:
5510:
5506:
5499:
5485:
5481:
5470:
5461:
5450:
5441:
5434:
5418:
5411:
5395:
5394:
5390:
5376:
5372:
5362:
5353:
5352:
5343:
5342:
5338:
5324:
5320:
5313:
5299:
5295:
5286:
5284:
5273:
5269:
5226:
5222:
5211:
5207:
5200:
5182:
5173:
5165:
5163:
5161:
5135:
5131:
5123:
5121:
5119:
5093:
5089:
5080:
5078:
5073:
5072:
5065:
5055:
5053:
5046:
5042:
4997:
4993:
4962:
4958:
4943:10.2307/1539265
4923:
4919:
4912:
4908:
4898:
4896:
4888:
4887:
4883:
4873:
4871:
4863:
4862:
4858:
4850:
4839:
4833:
4829:
4822:
4808:
4765:
4756:
4754:
4753:on 16 July 2011
4743:
4739:
4729:
4727:
4714:
4713:
4709:
4699:
4697:
4688:
4687:
4683:
4646:
4642:
4617:
4613:
4606:
4586:
4582:
4575:
4559:
4552:
4545:
4527:
4516:
4506:
4504:
4499:
4498:
4494:
4487:
4473:
4469:
4462:
4446:
4433:
4426:
4410:
4381:
4372:
4370:
4359:
4355:
4346:
4344:
4335:
4334:
4327:
4318:
4316:
4311:
4310:
4306:
4283:
4279:
4268:
4264:
4257:
4231:
4227:
4196:
4192:
4153:
4149:
4142:
4126:
4115:
4076:
4072:
4037:
4033:
4004:
4000:
3973:
3969:
3934:
3930:
3918:
3916:
3907:
3906:
3900:
3898:
3894:
3887:
3881:
3877:
3868:
3866:
3855:
3851:
3842:
3838:
3831:
3817:
3768:
3761:
3747:
3740:
3731:
3729:
3725:
3718:
3714:
3713:
3706:
3687:
3686:
3682:
3666:
3662:
3651:
3647:
3638:
3636:
3627:
3626:
3622:
3615:
3599:
3522:
3518:
3481:
3397:Mnesarchaeoidea
3380:
3333:
3309:genital chamber
3269:
3236:Tympanal organs
3231:
3227:
3223:
3144:by the enzymes
3138:bioluminescence
3068:tracheal system
3016:
3008:
3000:
2996:
2989:that depend on
2983:
2974:
2969:
2942:Blattabacterium
2895:
2890:
2849:
2809:
2804:
2798:
2772:
2707:
2658:peristaltically
2635:
2614:
2575:
2559:salivary glands
2473:
2420:polysaccharides
2408:
2379:Musca domestica
2340:
2335:
2272:
2234:
2228:
2222:
2210:laterosternites
2205:
2195:) and mantids (
2079:
2073:
2037:
2010:
2006:
2005:Median plates (
2000:Fourth Axillary
1993:
1987:Second Axillary
1986:
1979:
1972:
1954:
1912:
1905:
1898:
1891:
1865:
1846:
1839:R-M cross-veins
1838:
1830:
1822:
1800:
1792:
1784:
1776:
1768:
1760:
1721:
1708:
1660:
1654:
1641:
1632:
1626:
1586:
1580:
1573:
1564:
1555:
1505:
1498:
1489:
1480:
1471:
1428:is formed from
1422:
1415:
1399:
1390:
1384:
1375:
1370:
1361:
1354:
1345:
1340:
1304:
1297:
1288:
1279:
1270:
1261:
1252:
1243:
1220:dragonfly nymph
1156:, bearing some
1145:
1139:
1042:
1040:
1038:
1036:
1034:
1032:
1020:
1014:
1002:
991:
980:
969:
958:
947:
934:
923:
912:
901:
890:
879:
868:
806:
800:
784:
783:
782:
781:
780:
779:
776:
768:
767:
764:
732:
572:ecdysial suture
556:opisthognathous
447::compound eye;
417:
325:
319:
314:
307:
259:
257:Anatomy summary
193:
46:
44:
40:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6497:
6487:
6486:
6469:
6468:
6466:
6465:
6460:
6450:
6439:
6436:
6435:
6433:
6432:
6427:
6422:
6417:
6416:
6415:
6405:
6400:
6395:
6390:
6385:
6380:
6375:
6369:
6367:
6366:Related topics
6363:
6362:
6360:
6359:
6358:
6357:
6347:
6342:
6337:
6331:
6329:
6325:
6324:
6322:
6321:
6316:
6311:
6306:
6300:
6298:
6292:
6291:
6289:
6288:
6283:
6278:
6273:
6268:
6263:
6258:
6252:
6250:
6244:
6243:
6241:
6240:
6235:
6233:Spider anatomy
6230:
6229:
6228:
6223:
6213:
6208:
6202:
6200:
6196:
6195:
6193:
6192:
6187:
6186:
6185:
6175:
6170:
6165:
6164:
6163:
6152:
6150:
6146:
6145:
6143:
6142:
6136:
6134:
6130:
6129:
6127:
6126:
6121:
6116:
6115:
6114:
6109:
6098:
6096:
6092:
6091:
6084:
6082:
6080:
6079:
6074:
6073:
6072:
6067:
6059:
6054:
6053:
6052:
6042:
6037:
6031:
6029:
6025:
6024:
6013:
6012:
6005:
5998:
5990:
5984:
5983:
5975:
5974:External links
5972:
5970:
5969:
5936:
5889:
5868:
5845:
5831:
5809:
5795:
5770:
5743:
5686:
5660:
5639:(6): 907β913.
5616:
5597:(3): 187β193.
5581:
5554:
5535:
5528:
5504:
5497:
5479:
5459:
5439:
5432:
5409:
5388:
5370:
5336:
5318:
5311:
5293:
5267:
5220:
5205:
5198:
5171:
5159:
5129:
5117:
5087:
5063:
5040:
5011:(2): 261β273.
4991:
4956:
4937:(3): 494β528.
4917:
4906:
4881:
4856:
4853:on 2011-09-30.
4827:
4820:
4763:
4737:
4707:
4681:
4660:(5): 982β987.
4640:
4629:(1): 183β193.
4611:
4604:
4580:
4573:
4550:
4543:
4514:
4492:
4485:
4467:
4460:
4431:
4424:
4379:
4353:
4325:
4304:
4277:
4262:
4255:
4225:
4190:
4147:
4140:
4113:
4086:(4): 231β245.
4070:
4031:
4018:(4): 223β236.
3998:
3967:
3928:
3919:|journal=
3875:
3849:
3836:
3829:
3766:
3759:
3738:
3704:
3680:
3660:
3645:
3620:
3613:
3519:
3517:
3514:
3513:
3512:
3507:
3505:Insect ecology
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3480:
3477:
3413:corpora allata
3379:
3376:
3332:
3329:
3268:
3265:
3245:in the family
3229:
3225:
3221:
3076:diving beetles
3059:nervous system
3015:
3012:
3006:
2998:
2994:
2981:
2972:
2967:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2848:
2845:
2808:
2805:
2800:Main article:
2797:
2794:
2791:Corpora allata
2771:
2768:
2706:
2703:
2693:carbon dioxide
2634:
2631:
2613:
2610:
2574:
2571:
2521:proventriculus
2472:
2469:
2412:macromolecules
2407:
2404:
2344:nervous system
2339:
2338:Nervous system
2336:
2334:
2331:
2330:
2329:
2306:
2293:
2271:
2268:
2267:
2266:
2263:
2224:Main article:
2221:
2218:
2204:
2201:
2181:Gryllotalpidae
2072:
2069:
2036:
2033:
2016:
2015:
2002:
1997:
1994:Third Axillary
1990:
1983:
1980:First Axillary
1976:
1973:Humeral plates
1953:
1950:
1922:
1921:
1916:
1909:
1902:
1895:
1864:
1861:
1852:
1851:
1843:
1835:
1827:
1806:
1805:
1797:
1789:
1781:
1773:
1765:
1745:Tettigonioidea
1720:
1717:
1707:
1704:
1656:Main article:
1653:
1650:
1640:
1637:
1628:Main article:
1625:
1622:
1579:
1576:
1575:
1574:
1567:
1565:
1558:
1556:
1549:
1547:
1539:Apis mellifera
1504:
1501:
1500:
1499:
1492:
1490:
1483:
1481:
1474:
1472:
1465:
1463:
1450:Charles Darwin
1421:
1418:
1417:
1416:
1414:for comparison
1407:Ixodes ricinus
1400:
1393:
1391:
1385:
1378:
1376:
1371:
1364:
1362:
1355:
1348:
1346:
1341:
1334:
1332:
1321:anticoagulants
1303:
1300:
1299:
1298:
1291:
1289:
1282:
1280:
1273:
1271:
1264:
1262:
1255:
1253:
1246:
1244:
1237:
1235:
1138:
1135:
1095:
1094:
1084:
1078:
1072:
1041:md β mandibles
1016:Main article:
1013:
1010:
1007:
1006:
995:
984:
973:
962:
951:
939:
938:
927:
916:
905:
894:
883:
872:
802:Main article:
799:
796:
777:
770:
769:
765:
758:
757:
756:
755:
754:
753:
749:Tenthredinidae
731:
728:
653:salivary ducts
467::labial palp;
459::pleurostoma;
416:
413:
347:stages (e.g.,
323:Insect cuticle
321:Main article:
318:
315:
306:
303:
258:
255:
192:
191:
186:
181:
180:salivary gland
178:
173:
170:
167:
162:
157:
152:
147:
144:
141:
136:
133:
130:
127:
121:
118:
115:
112:
107:
102:
97:
92:
82:
79:
74:
67:
62:
61:ocelli (upper)
59:
53:
47:
36:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6496:
6485:
6482:
6481:
6479:
6464:
6461:
6459:
6455:
6451:
6449:
6441:
6440:
6437:
6431:
6428:
6426:
6423:
6421:
6418:
6414:
6411:
6410:
6409:
6406:
6404:
6401:
6399:
6396:
6394:
6391:
6389:
6386:
6384:
6381:
6379:
6376:
6374:
6371:
6370:
6368:
6364:
6356:
6353:
6352:
6351:
6348:
6346:
6343:
6341:
6338:
6336:
6333:
6332:
6330:
6326:
6320:
6319:Shark anatomy
6317:
6315:
6312:
6310:
6307:
6305:
6302:
6301:
6299:
6297:
6293:
6287:
6284:
6282:
6279:
6277:
6276:Horse anatomy
6274:
6272:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6256:Human anatomy
6254:
6253:
6251:
6249:
6245:
6239:
6236:
6234:
6231:
6227:
6224:
6222:
6219:
6218:
6217:
6214:
6212:
6209:
6207:
6204:
6203:
6201:
6199:Invertebrates
6197:
6191:
6188:
6184:
6181:
6180:
6179:
6176:
6174:
6171:
6169:
6166:
6162:
6159:
6158:
6157:
6156:Plant anatomy
6154:
6153:
6151:
6147:
6141:
6138:
6137:
6135:
6131:
6125:
6122:
6120:
6117:
6113:
6110:
6108:
6105:
6104:
6103:
6100:
6099:
6097:
6093:
6088:
6078:
6077:Morphometrics
6075:
6071:
6068:
6066:
6063:
6062:
6060:
6058:
6055:
6051:
6048:
6047:
6046:
6043:
6041:
6038:
6036:
6035:Gross anatomy
6033:
6032:
6030:
6026:
6022:
6018:
6011:
6006:
6004:
5999:
5997:
5992:
5991:
5988:
5981:
5978:
5977:
5964:
5959:
5955:
5951:
5947:
5940:
5932:
5928:
5924:
5920:
5916:
5912:
5909:(2): 89β180.
5908:
5904:
5900:
5893:
5885:
5879:
5871:
5869:0-19-510033-6
5865:
5861:
5854:
5852:
5850:
5834:
5832:0-521-57098-0
5828:
5824:
5820:
5813:
5798:
5792:
5788:
5787:
5779:
5777:
5775:
5758:
5754:
5747:
5739:
5735:
5730:
5725:
5721:
5717:
5714:(3): 327β30.
5713:
5709:
5705:
5703:
5699:
5690:
5675:
5674:theage.com.au
5671:
5664:
5656:
5652:
5647:
5642:
5638:
5634:
5627:
5620:
5612:
5608:
5604:
5600:
5596:
5592:
5585:
5577:
5573:
5569:
5565:
5558:
5550:
5546:
5539:
5531:
5529:1-4051-1113-5
5525:
5521:
5517:
5516:
5508:
5500:
5494:
5490:
5483:
5475:
5468:
5466:
5464:
5455:
5448:
5446:
5444:
5435:
5429:
5425:
5424:
5416:
5414:
5405:
5399:
5391:
5385:
5381:
5374:
5366:
5359:
5354:|author=
5347:
5339:
5333:
5329:
5322:
5314:
5312:0-19-851549-9
5308:
5304:
5297:
5282:
5278:
5271:
5263:
5259:
5255:
5251:
5247:
5243:
5239:
5235:
5231:
5224:
5216:
5209:
5201:
5199:0-8493-1181-0
5195:
5191:
5187:
5180:
5178:
5176:
5162:
5156:
5152:
5148:
5144:
5140:
5133:
5120:
5114:
5110:
5106:
5102:
5098:
5091:
5076:
5070:
5068:
5056:September 30,
5051:
5044:
5036:
5032:
5028:
5024:
5019:
5014:
5010:
5006:
5002:
4995:
4987:
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4960:
4952:
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4936:
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4910:
4895:
4891:
4885:
4870:
4866:
4860:
4849:
4845:
4838:
4831:
4823:
4821:0-8014-8125-2
4817:
4813:
4806:
4804:
4802:
4800:
4798:
4796:
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4695:
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4632:
4628:
4624:
4623:
4615:
4607:
4601:
4597:
4596:
4591:
4584:
4576:
4574:0-520-22323-3
4570:
4566:
4565:
4557:
4555:
4546:
4540:
4535:
4534:
4525:
4523:
4521:
4519:
4502:
4496:
4488:
4486:1-57808-024-X
4482:
4478:
4471:
4463:
4461:0-306-44967-6
4457:
4453:
4452:
4444:
4442:
4440:
4438:
4436:
4427:
4425:0-521-57048-4
4421:
4417:
4416:
4408:
4406:
4404:
4402:
4400:
4398:
4396:
4394:
4392:
4390:
4388:
4386:
4384:
4368:
4364:
4357:
4343:on 2011-03-03
4342:
4338:
4332:
4330:
4314:
4308:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4288:
4281:
4273:
4266:
4258:
4252:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4229:
4221:
4217:
4213:
4209:
4205:
4201:
4194:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4151:
4143:
4141:0-521-57048-4
4137:
4133:
4132:
4124:
4122:
4120:
4118:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4074:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4042:
4035:
4026:
4021:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4002:
3994:
3990:
3986:
3982:
3978:
3971:
3963:
3959:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3932:
3924:
3911:
3897:on 2008-10-01
3893:
3886:
3879:
3865:on 2011-03-14
3864:
3860:
3853:
3846:
3840:
3832:
3826:
3822:
3815:
3813:
3811:
3809:
3807:
3805:
3803:
3801:
3799:
3797:
3795:
3793:
3791:
3789:
3787:
3785:
3783:
3781:
3779:
3777:
3775:
3773:
3771:
3762:
3760:0-412-61390-5
3756:
3752:
3745:
3743:
3728:on 2011-07-19
3724:
3717:
3711:
3709:
3701:
3697:
3694:. iUniverse.
3693:
3684:
3678:
3677:0-8053-1957-3
3674:
3670:
3664:
3656:
3649:
3635:on 2009-06-02
3634:
3630:
3624:
3616:
3614:1-4051-1113-5
3610:
3606:
3605:
3597:
3595:
3593:
3591:
3589:
3587:
3585:
3583:
3581:
3579:
3577:
3575:
3573:
3571:
3569:
3567:
3565:
3563:
3561:
3559:
3557:
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3553:
3551:
3549:
3547:
3545:
3543:
3541:
3539:
3537:
3535:
3533:
3531:
3529:
3527:
3525:
3520:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3482:
3476:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3449:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3433:
3429:
3425:
3420:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3389:
3385:
3375:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3347:ovoviviparous
3342:
3339:
3328:
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3293:
3291:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3264:
3262:
3258:
3257:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3243:
3237:
3233:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3210:hydroquinones
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3165:Ground beetle
3162:
3157:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3114:Melolonthinae
3111:
3107:
3102:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3087:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3011:
3004:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2977:
2970:
2963:
2959:
2958:
2952:
2950:
2949:
2944:
2943:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2914:
2913:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2885:
2883:
2879:
2878:spermatogonia
2875:
2870:
2869:lepidopterans
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2844:
2842:
2836:
2833:
2829:
2824:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2803:
2793:
2792:
2787:
2786:
2781:
2778:
2775:
2767:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2743:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2720:
2719:carbohydrates
2716:
2712:
2702:
2699:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2673:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2630:
2628:
2623:
2619:
2609:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2591:
2590:Archaeognatha
2586:
2584:
2580:
2570:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2538:
2532:
2530:
2526:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2505:buccal cavity
2502:
2498:
2494:
2486:
2482:
2477:
2468:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2441:
2440:simple sugars
2437:
2433:
2429:
2428:nucleic acids
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2403:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2383:
2381:
2380:
2375:
2374:
2367:
2365:
2362:, called the
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2327:
2323:
2322:Ephemeroptera
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2304:
2300:
2299:
2294:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2282:
2281:
2279:
2278:
2264:
2261:
2260:
2259:
2255:
2249:
2248:
2243:
2242:scorpionflies
2238:
2233:
2227:
2217:
2213:
2211:
2200:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2156:
2153:
2148:
2144:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2111:coxomarginale
2108:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2083:
2078:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2014:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1991:
1989:
1984:
1982:
1977:
1975:
1970:
1969:
1968:
1965:
1958:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1931:
1927:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1913:Axillary area
1910:
1908:
1903:
1901:
1896:
1894:
1889:
1888:
1887:
1885:
1881:
1880:flexion lines
1877:
1869:
1860:
1856:
1849:
1844:
1841:
1836:
1833:
1831:R cross-veins
1828:
1825:
1820:
1819:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1803:
1798:
1795:
1790:
1787:
1782:
1779:
1774:
1771:
1769:Subcosta (Sc)
1766:
1763:
1758:
1757:
1756:
1752:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1725:
1716:
1714:
1699:
1695:
1693:
1689:
1684:
1683:Insect flight
1680:
1677:
1673:
1672:Insect flight
1669:
1668:invertebrates
1665:
1659:
1658:Wing (insect)
1649:
1645:
1636:
1631:
1621:
1617:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1599:
1595:
1591:
1585:
1571:
1566:
1562:
1557:
1553:
1548:
1545:
1544:
1543:
1541:
1540:
1535:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1518:
1516:
1511:
1496:
1491:
1487:
1482:
1478:
1473:
1469:
1464:
1461:
1460:
1459:
1457:
1456:
1451:
1447:
1445:
1440:
1434:
1431:
1427:
1413:
1409:
1408:
1403:
1397:
1392:
1388:
1382:
1377:
1374:
1368:
1363:
1360:
1359:
1352:
1347:
1344:
1338:
1333:
1330:
1329:
1328:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1295:
1290:
1286:
1281:
1277:
1272:
1268:
1263:
1259:
1254:
1250:
1245:
1241:
1236:
1233:
1232:
1231:
1227:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1211:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1188:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1161:
1159:
1155:
1150:
1144:
1134:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1092:
1088:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1073:
1070:
1067:
1066:
1065:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1043:mx β maxillae
1028:
1024:
1019:
1005:
1000:
996:
994:
989:
985:
983:
978:
974:
972:
967:
963:
961:
956:
952:
950:
945:
941:
940:
937:
932:
926:
921:
917:
915:
910:
906:
904:
899:
895:
893:
888:
884:
882:
877:
873:
871:
866:
862:
861:
855:
852:
849:
845:
840:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
815:
812:Closeup of a
810:
805:
795:
793:
792:phased arrays
789:
774:
762:
752:
750:
745:
741:
737:
736:compound eyes
727:
725:
721:
717:
713:
710:and aculeate
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
664:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
621:
616:
608:
604:
602:
597:
593:
589:
584:
582:
578:
573:
568:
565:
561:
557:
553:
549:
545:
541:
537:
532:
528:
526:
522:
518:
510:
506:
501:
493:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
421:
412:
409:
405:
401:
396:
394:
390:
384:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
365:proteinaceous
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
324:
312:
302:
300:
296:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
254:
251:
247:
243:
238:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
211:
207:
203:
202:physical form
199:
190:
187:
185:
182:
179:
177:
174:
171:
168:
166:
163:
161:
158:
156:
153:
151:
148:
145:
142:
140:
137:
134:
131:
128:
125:
122:
119:
116:
113:
111:
108:
106:
103:
101:
98:
96:
93:
90:
86:
83:
80:
78:
75:
72:
68:
66:
63:
60:
57:
54:
52:
49:
48:
43:
39:
34:
30:
19:
6413:19th century
6403:Hertwig rule
6314:Fish anatomy
6309:Bird anatomy
6215:
6183:reproductive
6045:Neuroanatomy
5953:
5949:
5939:
5906:
5902:
5892:
5859:
5836:. Retrieved
5822:
5812:
5800:. Retrieved
5785:
5761:. Retrieved
5756:
5746:
5711:
5707:
5701:
5697:
5689:
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4859:
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3878:
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3863:the original
3852:
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3723:the original
3691:
3688:Gene Kritsky
3683:
3668:
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3637:. Retrieved
3633:the original
3623:
3603:
3450:
3441:goblet cells
3421:
3381:
3367:endoparasite
3343:
3334:
3294:
3288:(extratory)
3270:
3256:Scarabaeidae
3254:
3247:Cicindelidae
3246:
3240:
3234:
3197:Thermophilum
3196:
3192:
3169:hydrocarbons
3158:
3154:oxyluciferin
3103:
3088:
3079:
3056:
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2931:to those in
2929:Cryptocercus
2928:
2912:Cryptocercus
2910:
2896:
2881:
2850:
2837:
2825:
2817:spermathecae
2810:
2788:
2782:
2779:
2776:
2773:
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2677:gas exchange
2674:
2636:
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2537:diverticulum
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2373:Vespa crabro
2371:
2368:
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2309:
2296:
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2252:
2245:
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2167:) and bugs (
2157:
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2128:
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2088:
2065:
2061:
2038:
2029:
2025:
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1793:Cubitus (Cu)
1791:
1783:
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1767:
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1709:
1688:aerodynamics
1681:
1661:
1646:
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1537:
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1453:
1442:
1435:
1423:
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1356:
1324:
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1228:
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1189:
1177:stag beetles
1173:caterpillars
1162:
1146:
1127:caterpillars
1096:
1086:
1080:
1074:
1068:
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1021:
1003:
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981:
970:
959:
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844:higher flies
841:
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785:
744:polarization
733:
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612:
601:Cicadomorpha
585:
576:
569:
552:hypognathous
546:. Here, the
533:
529:
525:Cyclorrhapha
521:head capsule
520:
514:
509:Cyclorrhapha
507:, member of
484:
480:
476:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
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440:
436:
432:
397:
385:
383:(modified).
349:caterpillars
326:
273:: the head,
260:
239:
219:head capsule
214:
197:
196:
65:compound eye
41:
37:
29:
6420:Physiognomy
6271:Dog anatomy
6266:Cat anatomy
6168:Plant habit
5956:: 509β516.
5802:14 November
4899:10 December
4874:10 December
3437:Hymenoptera
3393:Hepialoidea
3378:Lepidoptera
3317:nurse cells
3305:spermatheca
3201:formic acid
3093:instead of
3010:breathing.
2987:vertebrates
2899:subtropical
2760:Hymenoptera
2756:Lepidoptera
2606:Palaeoptera
2436:amino acids
2387:nociceptors
2318:apterygotes
2057:Trichoptera
2055:, and some
2053:Lepidoptera
2045:Trichoptera
2041:Hymenoptera
1930:jugal areas
1690:, and thin
1639:Pterothorax
1588:The insect
1530:Hymenoptera
1309:hemophagous
1216:mastication
1196:mastication
1175:). In male
1137:Mandibulate
1123:Lepidoptera
1111:Hymenoptera
1091:Lepidoptera
1069:Mandibulate
1039:lr β labrum
1037:lb β labium
848:cockroaches
788:diffraction
712:Hymenoptera
657:musculature
641:pleurostoma
577:frontogenal
560:prognathous
505:Syrphid fly
463::mandible;
402:or dorsal,
377:caterpillar
369:exoskeleton
341:sclerotized
317:Exoskeleton
291:respiration
263:exoskeleton
143:tarsal pads
6328:Glossaries
6140:Structures
6021:morphology
5903:Biol. Bull
5786:Entomology
5763:7 December
5679:7 December
5287:2009-10-11
5166:2020-09-29
5124:2020-09-29
5081:2009-05-03
4931:Biol. Bull
4757:2011-03-21
4690:"Sponging"
4451:Entomology
4373:2011-03-21
4347:2011-03-21
4319:2011-03-21
4241:: 49β205.
4051:(2): 137.
4045:Alcheringa
3901:2011-03-20
3869:2011-03-20
3732:2011-03-20
3690:. (2002).
3639:2009-05-03
3516:References
3510:Entomology
3428:pharyngeal
3267:Dermaptera
3251:Dynastinae
3146:luciferase
3126:Elateridae
3118:Dermestids
3080:Dytiscidae
3032:Elateridae
3014:Coleoptera
2921:protozoans
2903:omnivorous
2882:de minimis
2865:apterygote
2736:vertebrate
2598:Entognatha
2583:microvilli
2485:Orthoptera
2399:Drosophila
2326:Plecoptera
2286:paraprocts
2230:See also:
2193:Neuroptera
2165:Coleoptera
2115:basicoxite
2103:basicostal
2095:trochanter
2091:insect leg
2075:See also:
1906:Jugal area
1884:Dermaptera
1876:fold lines
1777:Radius (R)
1749:Acridoidea
1737:Orthoptera
1602:metathorax
1598:mesothorax
1582:See also:
1439:allometric
1154:epipharynx
1141:See also:
1119:Orthoptera
1107:Coleoptera
1103:Neuroptera
1058:Coleoptera
1050:Formicidae
1012:Mouthparts
960:Moniliform
925:Geniculate
914:Flabellate
740:ommatidium
720:Neuroptera
716:Coleoptera
694:, and the
645:nerve cord
558:heads. In
536:Orthoptera
483::clypeus;
475::maxilla;
451::occiput;
435::antenna;
425:Orthoptera
361:arthropods
337:procuticle
333:epicuticle
242:fairyflies
235:Collembola
210:arthropods
189:mouthparts
165:trochanter
100:metathorax
95:mesothorax
6398:Gracility
6388:Body plan
6373:Allometry
6070:molecular
6065:histology
5878:cite book
5702:Nocticola
5398:cite book
5346:cite book
4730:April 17,
4700:April 17,
4507:April 17,
4293:: 81β88.
3993:0167-9317
3457:hemolymph
3445:potassium
3432:esophagus
3388:genitalia
3242:Cicindela
3218:catalases
3173:aldehydes
3142:luciferin
3106:Rutelinae
3091:hemolymph
3072:spiracles
3028:Carabidae
2962:spiracles
2917:cellulose
2893:Blattodea
2828:ovarioles
2728:haemocoel
2698:diffusion
2681:diffusive
2670:spiracles
2662:hemolymph
2622:uric acid
2594:Zygentoma
2547:Bumblebee
2513:esophagus
2507:(mouth),
2360:esophagus
2185:Cicadidae
2169:Hemiptera
2119:basicosta
2107:basicosta
2099:pretarsus
2049:Mecoptera
1785:Media (M)
1761:Costa (C)
1630:prothorax
1624:Prothorax
1614:posterior
1594:prothorax
1526:honey bee
1515:esophagus
1446:praedicta
1426:proboscis
1420:Siphoning
1325:Anopheles
1185:bull ants
1131:mandibles
1115:Blattodea
1087:Siphoning
1056:and some
1054:Blattodea
971:Pectinate
949:Lamellate
936:Setaceous
696:mandibles
649:esophagus
637:hypostoma
544:sclerites
503:Larva of
479::labrum;
443::vertex;
439::ocelli;
429:Acrididae
295:excretion
287:digestion
77:prothorax
6478:Category
6448:Category
6133:Protists
5931:20268135
5738:17376757
5655:12716997
5611:20011989
5262:36796137
5027:12705873
4369:. zin.ru
4220:11815654
4185:11851224
4177:22728470
4108:18089073
3479:See also
3325:ovariole
3313:gonopore
3307:, and a
3277:ganglion
3203:. While
3181:quinones
3134:acetates
3128:produce
3120:produce
2976:diffuses
2957:tracheae
2937:termites
2933:termites
2925:bacteria
2874:aedeagus
2861:fat body
2859:and the
2857:tracheae
2841:oothecae
2821:oviducts
2748:antennae
2715:immunity
2711:hormones
2654:arteries
2602:Neoptera
2529:amylases
2527:(mostly
2501:proteins
2416:proteins
2333:Internal
2277:epiproct
2197:Mantodea
1926:remigium
1892:Remigium
1713:hemocoel
1706:Internal
1694:theory.
1676:Neoptera
1610:pronotum
1606:anterior
1503:Sponging
1412:arachnid
1389:(female)
1387:horsefly
1343:Mosquito
1192:maxillae
1165:maxillae
1158:sensilla
1101:, adult
1081:Sponging
903:Filiform
881:Capitate
870:Aristate
821:Antennae
814:fire ant
798:Antennae
724:Isoptera
682:, gula,
672:postgena
629:postgena
596:anteriad
423:Head of
389:apolysis
305:External
299:antennae
223:hexapods
124:hind-gut
110:hindwing
105:forewing
89:spiracle
85:tracheal
6248:Mammals
6226:Odonata
6221:Diptera
6017:Anatomy
5923:1538279
5838:6 March
5729:2464682
5242:Bibcode
5035:1424315
4951:1539265
4662:Bibcode
4088:Bibcode
4053:Bibcode
3962:4854430
3669:Biology
3465:trachea
3451:In the
3422:In the
3359:prolegs
3355:abdomen
3351:maggots
3331:Diptera
3321:oocytes
3297:ovaries
3177:phenols
3163:). The
3044:gizzard
3036:pharynx
2813:ovaries
2764:Diptera
2752:Odonata
2724:tissues
2646:trachea
2618:hindgut
2616:In the
2612:Hindgut
2565:, have
2509:pharynx
2493:foregut
2471:Foregut
2465:hindgut
2457:foregut
2451:to the
2356:ganglia
2303:earwigs
2290:Odonata
2203:Abdomen
2175:and/or
2171:), the
1741:Odonata
1692:airfoil
1510:labella
1313:stylets
1224:maxilla
1129:) have
1099:Odonata
1062:stylets
1004:Stylate
993:Serrate
982:Plumose
892:Clavate
708:Diptera
704:maxilla
668:occiput
615:clypeus
592:ventrad
581:ecdysis
540:sutures
455::gena;
404:sternum
393:ecdysis
353:polymer
329:cuticle
279:abdomen
231:Diplura
227:Protura
217:of the
215:outside
206:insects
132:oviduct
71:ganglia
58:(lower)
51:antenna
6458:Portal
6149:Plants
6028:Fields
5929:
5921:
5866:
5829:
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4253:
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3473:gonads
3369:. The
3261:niches
3193:Anthia
3187:, and
3185:esters
3122:esters
3097:. The
3064:Oxygen
3024:midgut
2997:and CO
2853:testis
2832:oocyte
2807:Female
2689:oxygen
2579:midgut
2573:Midgut
2515:, and
2497:chitin
2461:midgut
2426:, and
2395:larvae
2350:and a
2173:tibiae
2161:femora
2152:tarsus
2117:. The
1952:Joints
1863:Fields
1604:. The
1600:, and
1590:thorax
1578:Thorax
1534:Apidae
1410:), an
1317:saliva
1149:labrum
1121:, and
722:, and
702:, and
700:labium
692:bridge
661:thorax
655:, and
564:ocelli
548:vertex
487::frons
408:pleura
400:tergum
381:beetle
345:larval
277:, and
275:thorax
267:chitin
233:, and
150:tarsus
56:ocelli
6161:fruit
5919:JSTOR
5629:(PDF)
5607:S2CID
5520:61β65
5031:S2CID
4982:S2CID
4947:JSTOR
4851:(PDF)
4840:(PDF)
4622:Oikos
4181:S2CID
3938:Perga
3895:(PDF)
3888:(PDF)
3726:(PDF)
3719:(PDF)
3371:pupae
3363:cerci
3189:acids
3095:blood
3048:cecum
3003:cells
2991:blood
2740:lymph
2732:aorta
2666:blood
2650:veins
2642:lungs
2563:flies
2449:mouth
2348:brain
2298:cerci
2177:tarsi
2140:tibia
2135:femur
2113:, or
1919:Alula
1719:Veins
1664:wings
1652:Wings
1208:cardo
1204:palps
1200:galea
829:setae
588:frons
355:of a
283:wings
271:parts
160:femur
155:tibia
146:claws
120:ovary
18:Frons
6019:and
5927:PMID
5884:link
5864:ISBN
5840:2010
5827:ISBN
5804:2010
5791:ISBN
5765:2013
5734:PMID
5681:2013
5651:PMID
5524:ISBN
5493:ISBN
5428:ISBN
5404:link
5384:ISBN
5365:link
5358:help
5332:ISBN
5307:ISBN
5258:PMID
5194:ISBN
5186:"15"
5155:ISBN
5113:ISBN
5058:2009
5023:PMID
5005:Cell
4986:3071
4901:2016
4876:2016
4816:ISBN
4732:2011
4702:2011
4600:ISBN
4569:ISBN
4539:ISBN
4509:2011
4481:ISBN
4456:ISBN
4420:ISBN
4251:ISBN
4216:PMID
4173:PMID
4136:ISBN
4104:PMID
3989:ISSN
3958:PMID
3923:help
3825:ISBN
3755:ISBN
3696:ISBN
3673:ISBN
3609:ISBN
3415:and
3405:PTTH
3395:and
3338:anus
3319:and
3271:The
3212:and
3132:and
3057:The
3040:crop
3018:The
2923:and
2907:wood
2847:Male
2762:and
2592:and
2557:The
2551:anus
2519:and
2517:Crop
2499:and
2463:and
2453:anus
2438:and
2424:fats
2391:pain
2342:The
2295:the
2284:the
2150:The
2133:The
2071:Legs
2043:and
1747:and
1522:bees
1424:The
1402:Tick
1373:Flea
1181:ants
1169:Mohs
1147:The
690:and
639:and
620:gena
613:The
586:The
570:The
554:and
542:and
517:head
515:The
415:Head
176:coxa
129:anus
5958:doi
5954:154
5911:doi
5724:PMC
5716:doi
5641:doi
5599:doi
5572:doi
5568:103
5250:doi
5147:doi
5105:doi
5013:doi
5009:113
4974:doi
4939:doi
4935:119
4670:doi
4631:doi
4627:108
4295:doi
4243:doi
4208:doi
4204:204
4165:doi
4161:107
4096:doi
4061:doi
4020:doi
3981:doi
3950:doi
3940:".
3382:In
3224:+ O
3150:ATP
2789:4.
2783:3.
2652:or
825:can
594:or
204:of
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