209:, and approximately equals 5 AU. The reason for the difference is that during the formation of the Solar System, the solar nebula was an opaque cloud where temperatures were lower close to the Sun, and the Sun itself was less energetic. After formation, the ice got buried by infalling dust and it has remained stable a few meters below the surface. If ice within 5 AU is exposed, e.g. by a crater, then it
221:, located between Mars and Jupiter, suggest that the water snow line during formation of the Solar System was located within this region. The outer asteroids are icy C-class objects (e.g. Abe et al. 2000; Morbidelli et al. 2000) whereas the inner asteroid belt is largely devoid of water. This implies that when planetesimal formation occurred the snow line was located at around 2.7 AU from the Sun.
265:
inwards to their current positions. Earth, which lies less than a quarter of the distance to the frost line but is not a giant planet, has adequate gravitation for keeping methane, ammonia, and water vapor from escaping it. Methane and ammonia are rare in the Earth's atmosphere only because of their
396:
Dartois, E.; Engrand, C.; Brunetto, R.; Duprat, J.; Pino, T.; Quirico, E.; Remusat, L.; Bardin, N.; Briani, G.; Mostefaoui, S.; Morinaud, G.; Crane, B.; Szwec, N.; Delauche, L.; Jamme, F.; Sandt, Ch.; Dumas, P. (2013). "UltraCarbonaceous
Antarctic micrometeorites, probing the Solar System beyond the
289:
have proposed that asteroid belts may tend to form in the vicinity of the frost line, due to nearby giant planets disrupting planet formation inside their orbit. By analysing the temperature of warm dust found around some 90 stars, they concluded that the dust (and therefore possible asteroid belts)
163:
Different volatile compounds have different condensation temperatures at different partial pressures (thus different densities) in the protostar nebula, so their frost lines will differ. The actual temperature and distance for the snow line of water ice depend on the physical model used to calculate
213:
on short timescales. However, out of direct sunlight ice can remain stable on the surface of asteroids (and the Moon and
Mercury) if it is located in permanently shadowed polar craters, where temperature may remain very low over the age of the Solar System (e.g. 30–40 K on the Moon).
334:
Qi, Chunhua; Oberg, Karin I.; Wilner, David J.; d'Alessio, Paola; Bergin, Edwin; Andrews, Sean M.; Blake, Geoffrey A.; Hogerheijde, Michiel R.; van
Dishoeck, Ewine F. (2013). "Imaging of the CO Snow Line in a Solar Nebula Analog by Chunhua Qi, Karin I. Oberg, et al".
290:
was typically found close to the frost line. The underlying mechanism may be the thermal instability of snow line on the timescales of 1,000 - 10,000 years, resulting in periodic deposition of dust material in relatively narrow circumstellar rings.
232:
of 2.77 AU lies almost exactly on the lower estimation for water snow line during the formation of the Solar System. Ceres appears to have an icy mantle and may even have a water ocean below the surface.
972:
The thermal structure and the location of the snow line in the protosolar nebula: axisymmetric models with full 3-D radiative transfer by M. Min, C.P. Dullemond, M. Kama, C. Dominik
314:
846:
Chambers, John (2007-07-01). "Planet
Formation with Type I and Type II Migration". 38. AAS/Division of Dynamical Astronomy Meeting. Bibcode 2007DDA....38.0604C.
484:"Structure of the Solar Nebula, Growth and Decay of Magnetic Fields and Effects of Magnetic and Turbulent Viscosities on the Nebula by Chushiro Hayashi"
147:), so it is important to always specify which material's frost line is referred to, though omission is common, especially for the water frost line. A
777:
O'Brien, D. P.; Travis, B. J.; Feldman, W. C.; Sykes, M. V.; Schenk, P. M.; Marchi, S.; Russell, C. T.; Raymond, C. A. (March 2015).
787:
883:
831:
720:
856:
D'Angelo, Gennaro; Durisen, Richard H.; Lissauer, Jack J. (December 2010). "Giant Planet
Formation". In Seager, Sara (ed.).
193:
The radial position of the condensation/evaporation front varies over time, as the nebula evolves. Occasionally, the term
257:
in the Solar System. However, giant planets have been found inside the frost line around several other stars (so-called
991:
483:
197:
is also used to represent the present distance at which water ice can be stable (even under direct sunlight). This
229:
210:
299:
899:
779:"The Potential for Volcanism on Ceres due to Crustal Thickening and Pressurization of a Subsurface Ocean"
712:
17:
1001:
701:
555:"On the Evolution of the Snow Line in Protoplanetary Discs by Rebecca G. Martin, Mario Livio (STScI)"
241:
The lower temperature in the nebula beyond the frost line makes many more solid grains available for
819:
242:
164:
it and on the theoretical solar nebula model: this tells us nothing for the temperature in degrees
91:
612:
D'Angelo, G.; Podolak, M. (2015). "Capture and
Evolution of Planetesimals in Circumjovian Disks".
59:
665:
Zhang, Yu; Jin, Liping (March 2015). "The
Evolution of the Snow Line in a Protoplanetary Disk".
823:
812:
113:; while within it, only heavier compounds can be accreted to form the typically much smaller
102:
compounds (which are much more abundant) can be quite easily condensed to allow formation of
518:
871:
749:
674:
631:
576:
514:
503:"A note on the snow line in protostellar accretion disks by M. PODOLAK and S. ZUCKER, 2010"
406:
354:
225:
181:
The location of the frost line changes over time, potentially reaching a maximum radius of
976:
8:
778:
262:
51:
875:
753:
678:
635:
580:
410:
358:
282:, which are chemically stable in such an atmosphere, form much of the surface of Earth.
938:
861:
647:
621:
594:
566:
532:
527:
502:
465:
445:
378:
344:
309:
304:
643:
879:
827:
716:
686:
651:
589:
554:
469:
370:
274:
whose biochemistry suggests plentiful methane and ammonia at one time, but of course
31:
598:
536:
382:
177:≈150 K for μm-size grains and ≈200 K for km-size bodies (D'Angelo and Podolak, 2015)
948:
757:
682:
639:
584:
522:
455:
414:
362:
434:"Jupiter's Composition Suggests its Core Assembled Exterior to the N_{2} Snowline"
418:
79:
487:
460:
433:
271:
75:
151:
may be used for materials that are otherwise difficult to detect; for example
996:
985:
977:
On the Snow Line in Dusty
Protoplanetary Disks by D. D. Sasselov and M. Lecar
953:
926:
246:
218:
699:
366:
374:
254:
206:
129:
114:
110:
95:
762:
737:
286:
258:
152:
133:
55:
148:
125:
139:
Each volatile substance has its own frost line (e.g. carbon monoxide,
279:
261:). They are thought to have formed outside the frost line, and later
107:
103:
47:
27:
943:
626:
450:
140:
121:
83:
971:
866:
571:
349:
250:
71:
67:
267:
188:
253:. The frost line therefore separates terrestrial planets from
776:
275:
144:
87:
63:
900:"Asteroid Belts of Just the Right Size are Friendly to Life"
395:
903:
855:
700:
Jewitt, D.; Chizmadia, L.; Grimm, R.; Prialnik, D. (2007).
171:
143 K at 3.2 AU to 150 K at 3 AU (Podolak and Zucker, 2010)
559:
Monthly
Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters
333:
132:, which describes the maximum depth from the surface that
99:
611:
185:
for a solar-mass star before decreasing after that.
605:
811:
931:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
860:. University of Arizona Press. pp. 319–346.
983:
707:. In Reipurth, B.; Jewitt, D.; Keil, K. (eds.).
770:
702:"Water in the Small Bodies of the Solar System"
431:
425:
272:results from life forms (largely green plants)
500:
189:Current snow line versus formation snow line
735:
552:
46:, is the minimum distance from the central
729:
397:nitrogen snow-line by E. Dartois, et al".
23:Distance from a young star where ice forms
952:
942:
865:
761:
693:
625:
588:
570:
553:Martin, Rebecca G.; Livio, Mario (2012).
526:
459:
449:
348:
809:
742:Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets
664:
849:
736:McCord, T. B.; Sotin, C. (2005-05-21).
548:
546:
984:
927:"Snow-lines can be thermally unstable"
788:Lunar and Planetary Science Conference
205:distance during the formation of the
924:
738:"Ceres: Evolution and current state"
543:
432:Öberg, K.I.; Wordsworth, R. (2019).
507:Meteoritics & Planetary Science
236:
13:
528:10.1111/j.1945-5100.2004.tb00081.x
14:
1013:
965:
590:10.1111/j.1745-3933.2012.01290.x
501:Podolak, M.; Zucker, S. (2004).
918:
892:
840:
803:
285:Researchers Rebecca Martin and
201:distance is different from the
174:3.1 AU (Martin and Livio, 2012)
168:170 K at 2.7 AU (Hayashi, 1981)
90:grains, which will allow their
658:
494:
476:
389:
327:
1:
810:Kaufmann, William J. (1987).
320:
98:. Beyond the line, otherwise
419:10.1016/j.icarus.2013.03.002
300:Circumstellar habitable zone
7:
713:University of Arizona Press
644:10.1088/0004-637X/806/2/203
293:
158:
18:Frost line (disambiguation)
10:
1018:
687:10.1088/0004-637X/802/1/58
15:
667:The Astrophysical Journal
614:The Astrophysical Journal
992:Concepts in astrophysics
820:W.H. Freeman and Company
814:Discovering the Universe
709:Protostars and Planets V
461:10.3847/1538-3881/ab46a8
438:The Astronomical Journal
925:Owen, James E. (2020).
519:2004M&PS...39.1859P
367:10.1126/science.1239560
954:10.1093/mnras/staa1309
270:-rich atmosphere that
155:for carbon monoxide.
763:10.1029/2004JE002244
715:. pp. 863–878.
217:Observations of the
124:from the notion of "
38:, also known as the
16:For other uses, see
876:2010exop.book..319D
754:2005JGRE..110.5009M
679:2015ApJ...802...58Z
636:2015ApJ...806..203D
581:2012MNRAS.425L...6M
411:2013Icar..224..243D
359:2013Sci...341..630Q
203:formation snow line
120:The term itself is
310:Solar System belts
305:Nebular hypothesis
266:instability in an
226:dwarf planet Ceres
62:compounds such as
58:is low enough for
1002:Planetary science
906:. 1 November 2012
885:978-0-8165-2945-2
833:978-0-7167-1784-3
722:978-0-8165-2654-3
224:For example, the
199:current snow line
32:planetary science
1009:
959:
958:
956:
946:
937:(3): 3160–3174.
922:
916:
915:
913:
911:
896:
890:
889:
869:
853:
847:
844:
838:
837:
817:
807:
801:
800:
798:
796:
783:
774:
768:
767:
765:
733:
727:
726:
706:
697:
691:
690:
662:
656:
655:
629:
609:
603:
602:
592:
574:
550:
541:
540:
530:
498:
492:
491:
486:. Archived from
480:
474:
473:
463:
453:
429:
423:
422:
393:
387:
386:
352:
331:
237:Planet formation
184:
1017:
1016:
1012:
1011:
1010:
1008:
1007:
1006:
982:
981:
968:
963:
962:
923:
919:
909:
907:
898:
897:
893:
886:
854:
850:
845:
841:
834:
808:
804:
794:
792:
781:
775:
771:
734:
730:
723:
704:
698:
694:
663:
659:
610:
606:
551:
544:
499:
495:
482:
481:
477:
430:
426:
394:
390:
343:(6146): 630–2.
332:
328:
323:
296:
249:and eventually
239:
230:semi-major axis
191:
182:
161:
80:carbon monoxide
24:
21:
12:
11:
5:
1015:
1005:
1004:
999:
994:
980:
979:
974:
967:
966:External links
964:
961:
960:
917:
891:
884:
848:
839:
832:
802:
791:. p. 2831
769:
748:(E5): E05009.
728:
721:
692:
657:
604:
542:
493:
490:on 2015-02-19.
475:
424:
405:(1): 243–252.
388:
325:
324:
322:
319:
318:
317:
312:
307:
302:
295:
292:
238:
235:
190:
187:
179:
178:
175:
172:
169:
160:
157:
76:carbon dioxide
22:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1014:
1003:
1000:
998:
995:
993:
990:
989:
987:
978:
975:
973:
970:
969:
955:
950:
945:
940:
936:
932:
928:
921:
905:
901:
895:
887:
881:
877:
873:
868:
863:
859:
852:
843:
835:
829:
825:
821:
816:
815:
806:
790:
789:
780:
773:
764:
759:
755:
751:
747:
743:
739:
732:
724:
718:
714:
710:
703:
696:
688:
684:
680:
676:
673:(1). id. 58.
672:
668:
661:
653:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
628:
623:
619:
615:
608:
600:
596:
591:
586:
582:
578:
573:
568:
564:
560:
556:
549:
547:
538:
534:
529:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
497:
489:
485:
479:
471:
467:
462:
457:
452:
447:
443:
439:
435:
428:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
392:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
360:
356:
351:
346:
342:
338:
330:
326:
316:
313:
311:
308:
306:
303:
301:
298:
297:
291:
288:
283:
281:
277:
273:
269:
264:
260:
256:
255:giant planets
252:
248:
247:planetesimals
244:
234:
231:
227:
222:
220:
219:asteroid belt
215:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
186:
176:
173:
170:
167:
166:
165:
156:
154:
150:
146:
142:
137:
135:
131:
127:
123:
118:
116:
115:rocky planets
112:
109:
105:
101:
97:
96:planetesimals
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
19:
934:
930:
920:
908:. Retrieved
894:
857:
851:
842:
813:
805:
793:. Retrieved
785:
772:
745:
741:
731:
708:
695:
670:
666:
660:
617:
613:
607:
562:
558:
513:(11): 1859.
510:
506:
496:
488:the original
478:
441:
437:
427:
402:
398:
391:
340:
336:
329:
315:Solar nebula
284:
276:liquid water
259:hot Jupiters
240:
223:
216:
207:Solar System
202:
198:
194:
192:
183:17.4 AU
180:
162:
138:
136:can freeze.
130:soil science
119:
52:solar nebula
43:
39:
35:
25:
620:(1): 29pp.
287:Mario Livio
153:diazenylium
134:groundwater
56:temperature
986:Categories
944:2005.03665
910:3 November
858:Exoplanets
822:. p.
627:1504.04364
451:1909.11246
321:References
211:sublimates
149:tracer gas
126:frost line
54:where the
36:frost line
867:1006.5486
652:119216797
572:1207.4284
565:(1): L6.
470:202749962
350:1307.7439
243:accretion
195:snow line
92:accretion
48:protostar
40:snow line
28:astronomy
599:54691025
537:55193644
383:23271440
375:23868917
294:See also
263:migrated
159:Location
141:nitrogen
122:borrowed
84:condense
60:volatile
44:ice line
872:Bibcode
795:1 March
750:Bibcode
675:Bibcode
632:Bibcode
577:Bibcode
515:Bibcode
407:Bibcode
355:Bibcode
337:Science
251:planets
100:gaseous
72:methane
68:ammonia
882:
830:
719:
650:
597:
535:
468:
399:Icarus
381:
373:
268:oxygen
143:, and
111:giants
34:, the
939:arXiv
862:arXiv
786:46th
782:(PDF)
705:(PDF)
648:S2CID
622:arXiv
595:S2CID
567:arXiv
533:S2CID
466:S2CID
446:arXiv
444:(5).
379:S2CID
345:arXiv
245:into
228:with
145:argon
128:" in
94:into
88:solid
86:into
64:water
50:of a
997:Cold
912:2012
904:NASA
880:ISBN
828:ISBN
797:2015
717:ISBN
371:PMID
278:and
106:and
78:and
949:doi
935:495
758:doi
746:110
683:doi
671:802
640:doi
618:806
585:doi
563:425
523:doi
456:doi
442:158
415:doi
403:224
363:doi
341:341
280:ice
108:ice
104:gas
82:to
42:or
30:or
26:In
988::
947:.
933:.
929:.
902:.
878:.
870:.
826:.
824:94
818:.
784:.
756:.
744:.
740:.
711:.
681:.
669:.
646:.
638:.
630:.
616:.
593:.
583:.
575:.
561:.
557:.
545:^
531:.
521:.
511:39
509:.
505:.
464:.
454:.
440:.
436:.
413:.
401:.
377:.
369:.
361:.
353:.
339:.
117:.
74:,
70:,
66:,
957:.
951::
941::
914:.
888:.
874::
864::
836:.
799:.
766:.
760::
752::
725:.
689:.
685::
677::
654:.
642::
634::
624::
601:.
587::
579::
569::
539:.
525::
517::
472:.
458::
448::
421:.
417::
409::
385:.
365::
357::
347::
20:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.