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3645:—where the cells do not connect with each other. Cutting the dough releases the gas in the bubbles that are cut, but the gas in the rest of the dough cannot escape. When dough is allowed to rise too far, it becomes an open-cell foam, in which the gas pockets are connected; cutting the dough surface at that point would cause a large volume of gas to escape, and the dough to collapse. Recent research has indicated that the pore structure in bread is 99% interconnected into one large vacuole, thus the closed-cell foam of the moist dough is transformed into an open cell solid foam in the bread.
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1981:
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1967:
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4666:, the term refers to "a light frothy mass of fine bubbles formed in or on the surface of a liquid or from a liquid", giving the examples of those produced by "salivating or sweating", ones stably produced to fight fires, ones that are the product of gas bubbles introduced during manufacturing, and then the further broad examples of sea foam, and then anything resembling the foregoing. Finally, the general definition includes actions to produce all of the above. See
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The general use of the term, which includes both noun and verb forms, is both narrower and broader than the one from material science described here. In general use, it is narrower, in that it most often refers to liquid foams; it is broader in that it includes all manners of such, and the actions to
3065:
cellular solids, as the foam is compressed, first it behaves elastically as the cell walls bend, then as the cell walls buckle there is yielding and breakdown of the material until finally the cell walls crush together and the material ruptures. This is seen in a stress-strain curve as a steep linear
3946:
Closed-cell foams do not have interconnected pores. The closed-cell foams normally have higher compressive strength due to their structures. However, closed-cell foams are also, in general more dense, require more material, and as a consequence are more expensive to produce. The closed cells can be
2020:
Also, surface stretching makes the surface tension of the indented spot greater than the surrounding area. Consequentially—since diffusion time for the surfactants is large—the
Marangoni effect has time to take place. The difference in surface tension creates a gradient, which instigates fluid flow
998:
One of the ways foam is created is through dispersion, where a large amount of gas is mixed with a liquid. A more specific method of dispersion involves injecting a gas through a hole in a solid into a liquid. If this process is completed very slowly, then one bubble can be emitted from the orifice
462:—differ somewhat between liquid and solid foams in that the former are dynamic (e.g., in their being "continuously deformed"), as a result of gas diffusing between cells, liquid draining from the foam into a bulk liquid, etc. Theories regarding liquid foams have as direct analogs theories regarding
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is large while the other radius of curvature is small. As the stem of the bubble grows in length, it becomes more unstable as one of the radius grows and the other shrinks. At a certain point, the vertical length of the stem exceeds the circumference of the stem and due to the buoyancy forces the
3981:
The random or "stochastic" geometry of these foams makes them good for energy absorption, as well. In the late 20th century to early 21st century, new manufacturing techniques have allowed for geometry that results in excellent strength and stiffness per weight. These new materials are typically
3930:
Open-cell-structured foams contain pores that are connected to each other and form an interconnected network that is relatively soft. Open-cell foams fill with whatever gas surrounds them. If filled with air, a relatively good insulator results, but, if the open cells fill with water, insulation
3608:
of the cellular structure and the absorption of fluids can also have an impact on the mechanical properties of a foam. If there is anisotropy present, then the materials response to stress will be directionally dependent, and thus the stress-strain curve, modulus, and energy absorption will vary
3438:
where the only difference is the exponent in the density dependence. However, in real materials, a closed-cell foam has more material at the cell edges which makes it more closely follow the equation for open-cell foams. The ratio of the density of the honeycomb structure compared with the solid
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Solid foams, both open-cell and closed-cell, are considered as a sub-class of cellular structures. They often have lower nodal connectivity as compared to other cellular structures like honeycombs and truss lattices, and thus, their failure mechanism is dominated by bending of members. Low nodal
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Another important property which can be deduced from the stress strain curve is the energy that the foam is able to absorb. The area under the curve (specified to be before rapid densification at the peak stress), represents the energy in the foam in units of energy per unit volume. The maximum
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filled with a specialized gas to provide improved insulation. The closed-cell structure foams have higher dimensional stability, low moisture absorption coefficients, and higher strength compared to open-cell-structured foams. All types of foam are widely used as core material in
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500:. In closed-cell foam, the gas forms discrete pockets, each completely surrounded by the solid material. In open-cell foam, gas pockets connect to each other. A bath sponge is an example of an open-cell foam: water easily flows through the entire structure, displacing the air. A
2016:
For the
Marangoni effect to occur, the foam must be indented as shown in the first picture. This indentation increases local surface area. Surfactants have a larger diffusion time than the bulk of the solution—so the surfactants are less concentrated in the indentation.
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The earliest known engineering use of cellular solids is with wood, which in its dry form is a closed-cell foam composed of lignin, cellulose, and air. From the early 20th century, various types of specially manufactured solid foams came into use. The low
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Schematic stress-strain curve of an elastomeric foam, demonstrating the three regions which are linear elastic, cell-wall buckling, and cell-wall fracture, where the area under the curve specified represents the energy per unit volume the foam can
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is the radius of the orifice. As more air is pushed into the bubble, the buoyancy force grows quicker than the surface tension force. Thus, detachment occurs when the buoyancy force is large enough to overcome the surface tension force.
2955:. Meaning that from the top of the bubble to the bottom of the bubble the radius of curvature increases. Therefore, without neglecting gravity the bubbles cannot be spherical. In addition, as z increases, this causes the difference in R
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depending on the direction of applied force. Also, open-cell structures which have connected pores can allow water or other liquids to flow through the structure, which can also affect the rigidity and energy absorption capabilities.
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are the radii of curvature also treated as positive. Here the hydrostatic pressure in the liquid has to take in account z, the distance from the top to the stem of the bubble. The new hydrostatic pressure at the stem of the bubble is
1002:
One of the theories for determining the separation time is shown below; however, while this theory produces theoretical data that matches the experimental data, detachment due to capillarity is accepted as a better explanation.
2012:
The
Marangoni effect depends on the liquid that is foaming being impure. Generally, surfactants in the solution decrease the surface tension. The surfactants also clump together on the surface and form a layer as shown below.
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4016:. In the open-mold process, two reactive components are mixed and poured into an open mold. The mold is then closed and the mixture is allowed to expand and cure. Examples of items produced using this process include
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is the density for a gas and liquid respectively. The difference in hydrostatic pressure at the top of the bubble is 0, while the difference in hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the bubble across the interface is
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elastic regime, a linear regime with a shallow slope after yielding (plateau stress), and an exponentially increasing regime. The stiffness of the material can be calculated from the linear elastic regime where the
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This equation is derived from assuming an idealized foam with engineering approximations from experimental results. Most energy absorption occurs at the plateau stress region after the steep linear elastic regime.
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However, since the density and viscosity of a liquid is much greater than the gas, the density and viscosity of the gas can be neglected, which yields the new equation for velocity of bubbles rising as:
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Reyes-Labarta, J.A.; Marcilla, A. (2012). "Thermal
Treatment and Degradation of Crosslinked Ethylene Vinyl Acetate-Polyethylene-Azodicarbonamide-ZnO Foams. Complete Kinetic Modelling and Analysis".
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Solid foams are a class of lightweight cellular engineering materials. These foams are typically classified into two types based on their pore structure: open-cell-structured foams (also known as
3667:
or foaming is a means of mass killing farm animals by spraying foam over a large area to obstruct breathing and ultimately cause suffocation. It is usually used to attempt to stop disease spread.
5465:
Reyes-Labarta, J.A.; Marcilla, A. (2008). "Differential
Scanning Calorimetry Analysis of the Thermal Treatment of Ternary Mixtures of Ethylene Vinyl Acetate, Polyethylene and Azodicarbonamide".
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and capillary pressure, which affect the assumption that the bubbles are spherical. For laplace pressure of a curved gas liquid interface, the two principal radii of curvature at a point are R
1085:
5502:
Reyes-Labarta, J.A.; Olaya, M.M.; Marcilla, A. (2006). "DSC Study of the
Transitions Involved in the Thermal Treatment of Foamable Mixtures of PE and EVA Copolymer with Azodicarbonamide".
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The open structure of an over-risen dough is easy to observe: instead of consisting of discrete gas bubbles, the dough consists of a gas space filled with threads of the flour-water paste.
277:
lead fails to summarise, instead presenting novel content (dispersed media, quantum foam, and allusions to foam as polydisperse, colloidal, and as suds, beer head, bath sponges, etc., all
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material. The foam "may contain more or less liquid according to circumstances", although in the case of gas-liquid foams, the gas occupies most of the volume. The word derives from the
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is the surface tension. The bubble shown below is a gas (phase 1) in a liquid (phase 2) and point A designates the top of the bubble while point B designates the bottom of the bubble.
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Witold
Rybczynski and Jacques Hadamard developed an equation to calculate the velocity of bubbles that rise in foam with the assumption that the bubbles are spherical with a radius
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Kooistra, Gregory W.; Deshpande, Vikram S.; Wadley, Haydn N.G. (August 2004). "Compressive behavior of age hardenable tetrahedral lattice truss structures made from aluminium".
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The strength of foams can be impacted by the density, the material used, and the arrangement of the cellular structure (open vs closed and pore isotropy). To characterize the
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the formal and key matter of defining what this form of material is, with distinction between liquid and solid foams, is not accomplished by the current unsourced essay.
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from areas of lower surface tension to areas of higher surface tension. The second picture shows the film at equilibrium after the
Marangoni effect has taken place.
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structure has a large impact on the modulus of the material. Overall, foam strength increases with density of the cell and stiffness of the matrix material.
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connectivity and the resulting failure mechanism ultimately lead to their lower mechanical strength and stiffness compared to honeycombs and truss lattices.
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properties would be reduced. Recent studies have put the focus on studying the properties of open-cell foams as an insulator material. Wheat gluten/TEOS
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have been produced, showing similar insulator properties as for those foams obtained from oil-based resources. Foam rubber is a type of open-cell foam.
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Since, the density of the gas is less than the density of the liquid the left hand side of the equation is always positive. Therefore, the inverse of R
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Reyes-Labarta, J.A.; Marcilla, A. (2008). "Kinetic Study of the
Decompositions Involved in the Thermal Degradation of Commercial Azodicarbonamide".
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3908:) and closed-cell foams. At high enough cell resolutions, any type can be treated as continuous or "continuum" materials and are referred to as
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Examining this phenomenon from a capillarity viewpoint for a bubble that is being formed very slowly, it can be assumed that the pressure
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causes drainage of liquid to the foam base, which
Rybczynski and Hadamar include in their theory; however, foam also destabilizes due to
2215:{\displaystyle u={\frac {2gr^{2}}{9\eta _{2}}}(\rho _{2}-\rho _{1})\left({\frac {3\eta _{1}+3\eta _{2}}{3\eta _{1}+2\eta _{2}}}\right)\!}
1871:{\displaystyle (\rho _{2}-\rho _{1})gz=\gamma \left({\frac {1}{R_{1}}}+{\frac {1}{R_{2}}}-{\frac {1}{R_{3}}}-{\frac {1}{R_{4}}}\right)\!}
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861:
An even lower scale is the liquid–air interface at the surface of the film. Most of the time this interface is stabilized by a layer of
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4609:
5064:"A rate-sensitive constitutive model for anisotropic cellular materials - Application to a transversely isotropic polyurethane foam"
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and have a variety of bubble sizes. At larger sizes, the study of idealized foams is closely linked to the mathematical problems of
4150:
5655:
A treatise termed a classic by Weaire & Hutzler (1999), on solid foams, and the reason they limit their focus to liquid foams.
5368:
Wu, Qiong; Andersson, Richard L.; Holgate, Tim; Johansson, Eva; Gedde, Ulf W.; Olsson, Richard T.; Hedenqvist, Mikael S. (2014).
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are used to measure their strength and ability to absorb energy since this is an important factor in foam based technologies.
289:
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Hannelore Dittmar-Ilgen: Metalle lernen schwimmen. In: Dies.: Wie der Kork-Krümel ans Weinglas kommt. Hirzel, Stuttgart 2006,
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Open-cell foams can be used to filter air. For example, a foam embedded with catalyst has been shown to catalytically convert
5720:
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2982:, These effects can lead to rearrangement of the foam structure at scales larger than the bubbles, which may be individual (
2441:. With a curved interface, the pressure in one phase is greater than the pressure in another phase. The capillary pressure P
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4143:
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The unique property of gas-liquid foams having very high specific surface area is exploited in the chemical processes of
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At equilibrium, the difference in capillary pressure must be balanced by the difference in hydrostatic pressure. Hence,
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4624:
519:)—separated by liquid regions that may form films, thinner and thinner when the liquid phase drains out of the system
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causes drainage from the lamellas to the Plateau borders due to internal concentration differences in the foam, and
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causes diffusion of gas from small to large bubbles due to pressure difference. In addition, films can break under
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523:. When the principal scale is small, i.e., for a very fine foam, this dispersed medium can be considered a type of
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and flotation devices and their lightness and compressibility make them ideal as packing materials and stuffings.
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5323:"Catalytic Surgical Smoke Filtration Unit Reduces Formaldehyde Levels in a Simulated Operating Room Environment"
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Wang, Shuo; Austin, Peter; Chakrabati-Bell, Sumana (2011). "It's a maze: The pore structure of bread crumbs".
5704:
Thomas Hipke, Günther Lange, René Poss: Taschenbuch für Aluminiumschäume. Aluminium-Verlag, Düsseldorf 2007,
5370:"Highly porous flame-retardant and sustainable biofoams based on wheat gluten and in situ polymerized silica"
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608:
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3429:{\displaystyle \left({\frac {E^{*}}{E_{s}}}\right)_{f}=C_{f}\left({\frac {\rho ^{*}}{\rho _{s}}}\right)^{3}}
3182:{\displaystyle \left({\frac {E^{*}}{E_{s}}}\right)_{f}=C_{f}\left({\frac {\rho ^{*}}{\rho _{s}}}\right)^{2}}
1463:. The change in pressure across the interface from gas to liquid is equal to the capillary pressure; hence,
740:
140:
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4897:
Queheillalt, Douglas T.; Wadley, Haydn N.G. (January 2005). "Cellular metal lattices with hollow trusses".
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1719:{\displaystyle p-p_{0}-(\rho _{2}-\rho _{1})gz=\gamma \left({\frac {1}{R_{3}}}+{\frac {1}{R_{4}}}\right)\!}
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961:
5771:
4362:
4247:
832:
854:. Ideally, the lamellae connect in triads and radiate 120° outward from the connection points, known as
5103:"The effect of moisture absorption on thephysical properties of polyurethane shapememory polymer foams"
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3978:, where it plays a role in the formation of air bubbles by breaking down into gas at high temperature.
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is the density of the solid. The elastic modulus for closed cell foams can be described similarly by:
747:
147:
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5662:; Cohen-Addad, S; Elias, F; Graner, F; Höhler, R; Pitois, O; Rouyer, F & Saint-Jalmes, A (2013).
4613:; Cohen-Addad, S; Elias, F; Graner, F; Höhler, R; Pitois, O; Rouyer, F & Saint-Jalmes, A (2013).
2937:{\displaystyle gz(\rho _{2}-\rho _{1})=2\gamma \left({\frac {1}{R_{A}}}-{\frac {1}{R_{B}}}\right)\!}
447:, in reference to the "frothy head forming in the glass once the beer has been freshly poured" (cf.
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5885:
5003:
M. Liu et al. Multiscale modeling of effective elastic properties of fluid-filled porous materials
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that states a Knowledge editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.
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that states a Knowledge editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic.
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3586:{\displaystyle {\frac {W_{max}}{E_{s}}}=0.05\left({\frac {\rho ^{*}}{\rho _{s}}}\right)^{2}\left}
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2333:
However, through experiments it has been shown that a more accurate model for bubbles rising is:
1998:
1914:
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Finally, the difference in the top and bottom pressure equal the change in hydrostatic pressure:
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729:
220:
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3016: with: as thorough a treatment as is included in the solid foam subsection. You can help by
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At the stem of the bubble, the shape of the bubble is nearly cylindrical; consequently, either R
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4008:, is a type of foam with a high-density skin and a low-density core. It can be formed in an
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to benign substances when formaldehyde polluted air passes through the open cell structure.
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as well as in the gas. At the bottom of the bubble at point B, the hydrostatic pressure is:
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systems where a gas is disbursed in a second, non-gaseous material, specifically, in which
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This article is about the substance formed from trapped gas bubbles. For other uses, see
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inside is constant everywhere. The hydrostatic pressure in the liquid is designated by
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How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity and Fractional Dimension
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39:"Foaming" and "Foamy" redirect here. For a method of mass killing farm animals, see
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1546:{\displaystyle p-p_{0}=\gamma \left({\frac {1}{R_{1}}}+{\frac {1}{R_{2}}}\right)\!}
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2822:{\displaystyle P_{c}=2\gamma \left({\frac {1}{R_{A}}}-{\frac {1}{R_{B}}}\right)\!}
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At the top of the bubble at point A, the pressure in the liquid is assumed to be p
2556:
1598:. The hydrostatic pressure balances the capillary pressure, which is shown below:
1138:
is the density of the liquid. The force working against the buoyancy force is the
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is reported in one primary philosophical source to be the best possible (optimal)
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5622:. Cambridge Solid State Science. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
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2522:{\displaystyle P_{c}=\gamma \left({\frac {1}{R_{1}}}+{\frac {1}{R_{2}}}\right)\!}
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5261:"'They're cooking them alive': calls to ban 'cruel' killing methods on US farms"
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are the radii of curvature and are set as positive. At the stem of the bubble, R
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too, which means the bubble deviates more from its shape the larger it grows.
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is substituted in to the equation above, separation occurs at the moment when
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Several conditions are needed to produce foam: there must be mechanical work,
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is large, with thin films of liquid or solid separating the regions of gas. A
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4038:(RIM), injects the mixed components into a closed mold under high pressures.
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2734:). Assuming that the radii of curvature at point A are equal and denoted by R
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412:
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2742:, then the difference in capillary pressure between point A and point B is:
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energy stored by the foam prior to rupture is described by the equation:
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foams, which can be considered a network of interconnected films called
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is the density for a gas and liquid respectively in units of g/cm and ῃ
1928: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
947:, and the formation of foam faster than its breakdown. To create foam,
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911: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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2419:{\displaystyle u={\frac {2gr^{2}}{9\eta _{2}}}(\rho _{2}-\rho _{1})\!}
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is written like draft academic essay/treatment, from sources unstated,
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and that the radii of curvature at point B are equal and denoted by R
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3756:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
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causing bread to rise via tiny bubbles of gas that become the bread
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1406:{\displaystyle R^{3}={\frac {3r\gamma }{2g(\rho _{2}-\rho _{1})}}\!}
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227:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed.
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Benson, E.R.; Alphin, R.L.; Dawson, M.D.; Malone, G.W. (May 2009).
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of the gas and liquid respectively in units of g/cm·s and g is the
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In addition, if the bubble is treated as a sphere with a radius of
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International Journal of Solids and Structures (2019) 162, 36-44
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3626:, such as those that are used in extinguishing fires, especially
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At lower scale than the bubble is the thickness of the film for
454:
Theories regarding foam formation, structure, and properties—in
5222:"Use of water-based foam to depopulate ducks and other species"
2002:
533:
can also refer to something that is analogous to foam, such as
471:
432:
5101:
Yu, Y. J.; Hearon, K.; Wilson, T. S.; Maitland, D. J. (2011).
4760:
Morgan, F. (2008). "Existence of Least-perimeter Partitions".
6002:
5612:
A modern treatise almost exclusively focused on liquid foams.
5321:
Carroll, Gregory T.; Kirschman, David L. (January 23, 2023).
4747:
Anionic Surfactants – Physical Chemistry of Surfactant Action
3638:
3634:
436:
401:
2027:
a foam solidifies it, making it indefinitely stable at STP.
647:
is written like student essay summarising an unstated source
5880:
5813:
5367:
4883:
Wilson, A.J, "Principles of Foam Formation and Stability."
2323:{\displaystyle u={\frac {gr^{2}}{3\eta _{2}}}(\rho _{2})\!}
405:
5615:
5572:
5501:
4557:
1277:{\displaystyle Vg(\rho _{2}-\rho _{1})>2r\pi \gamma \!}
601:
needs attention from an expert in physics or chemistry
5166:
504:
is an example of a product composed of closed-cell foam.
478:
428:
5542:
Polyurethane and related foams: chemistry and technology
5219:
3637:
has traditionally been understood as a closed-cell foam—
2966:
Foam destabilization occurs for several reasons. First,
4931:
3070:
for open celled foams can be defined by the equation:
5736:
Andrew M. Kraynik, Douglas A. Reinelt, Frank van Swol
5100:
4745:
Lucassen, J. (1981). Lucassen-Reijnders, E. H. (ed.).
5464:
5437:
5400:
3456:
3334:
3305:
3278:
3251:
3224:
3197:
3087:
2841:
2751:
2644:
2577:
2539:
2454:
2342:
2262:
2064:
2041:
1738:
1607:
1472:
1442:
1422:
1336:
1313:
1293:
1222:
1198:
1151:
1116:
1096:
1027:
964:
511:. In general, gas is present, so it divides into gas
4696:
Compendium of Chemical Terminology (The "Gold Book")
489:
are examples of foams; soap foams are also known as
4553:
4551:
4549:
4547:
4545:
2225:
with velocity in units of centimeters per second. ρ
2009:, which acts as a restoring force to the lamellae.
121:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
4605:
4603:
4032:. The closed-mold process, more commonly known as
3585:
3428:
3318:
3291:
3264:
3237:
3210:
3181:
2936:
2821:
2696:
2629:
2545:
2521:
2418:
2322:
2214:
2047:
1870:
1718:
1545:
1455:
1428:
1405:
1319:
1299:
1276:
1204:
1180:
1122:
1102:
1079:
984:
843:describe how soap-films form structures in foams.
710:
4896:
4521:Reversibly assembled cellular composite materials
2933:
2818:
2693:
2626:
2518:
2415:
2319:
2211:
1867:
1715:
1542:
1402:
1273:
1177:
1076:
981:
6132:
5320:
4811:New York, Springer-Verlag, 1973. ch 2. sec 24–25
4803:
4801:
4730:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
4542:
2986:) or collective (even of the "avalanche" type).
800:A foam is, in many cases, a multi-scale system.
5701:Note, this source also focuses on liquid foams.
5440:Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research
4860:Foam Engineering: Fundamentals and Applications
4720:. Archived from the original on March 10, 2012.
4652:Note, this source also focuses on liquid foams.
4600:
4597:Note, this source focuses only on liquid foams.
3966:An example of the use of azodicarbonamide as a
3959:of these foams makes them excellent as thermal
3299:is the density of the honeycomb structure, and
1080:{\displaystyle F_{b}=Vg(\rho _{2}-\rho _{1})\!}
807:Order and disorder of bubbles in a surface foam
5068:International Journal of Solids and Structures
5017:"The Mechanical Properties of Cellular Solids"
4165:
5779:
5300:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
5195:"New weapon in war on bird flu: tiny bubbles"
4798:
4151:
4131:
5695:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5668:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
5649:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5606:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
5579:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
5062:Li, Pei; Guo, Y. B.; Shim, V. P. W. (2020).
4807:Bikerman, J.J. "Formation and Structure" in
4646:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4619:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
4591:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4564:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.
719:introducing citations to additional sources
5258:
3982:referred to as engineered cellular solids.
3715:Learn how and when to remove these messages
3272:is a constant having a value close to one,
3245:is the modulus of the honeycomb structure,
2697:{\displaystyle P_{B},2=p_{0}+g\rho _{2}z\!}
2630:{\displaystyle P_{B},1=p_{0}+g\rho _{1}z\!}
579:Learn how and when to remove these messages
84:Learn how and when to remove these messages
5786:
5772:
4377:Giant bubbles, coloured bubbles, freezing
4158:
4144:
3912:, with predictable mechanical properties.
1890:bubble separates and the process repeats.
515:of different sizes (i.e., the material is
5619:Cellular Solids: Structure and Properties
5523:
5486:
5422:
5385:
5298:Cellular Solids: Structure and Properties
5291:
5289:
5134:
5061:
4982:. Waveland Press, Inc. pp. 686–713.
4856:
4773:
3892:Learn how and when to remove this message
3874:Learn how and when to remove this message
3772:Learn how and when to remove this message
3599:
1993:The stabilization of a foam is caused by
1944:Learn how and when to remove this message
1130:is the acceleration due to gravity, and ρ
1018:force acts to raise the bubble, which is
999:at a time as shown in the picture below.
980:
927:Learn how and when to remove this message
788:Learn how and when to remove this message
675:Learn how and when to remove this message
381:Learn how and when to remove this message
363:Learn how and when to remove this message
308:Learn how and when to remove this message
243:Learn how and when to remove this message
181:Learn how and when to remove this message
5742:
4977:
4885:Foams: Physics, Chemistry, and Structure
4744:
3937:
3914:
3442:
3072:
2989:
2555:
1005:
802:
709:Relevant discussion may be found on the
411:
400:
392:
5559:from the original on February 17, 2017.
4887:. New York, Springer-Verlag, 1989, ch 1
3218:is the modulus of the solid component,
14:
6133:
5793:
5538:
5295:
5286:
4759:
4679:from the original on December 9, 2014.
615:may be able to help recruit an expert.
5767:
5738:Structure of random monodisperse foam
5259:Bolotnikova, Marina (March 8, 2022).
5014:
4973:
4971:
4689:
4139:
3996:
1181:{\displaystyle F_{s}=2r\pi \gamma \!}
985:{\displaystyle W=\gamma \Delta A\,\!}
3812:adding citations to reliable sources
3783:
3721:
3680:
2998:
1926:adding citations to reliable sources
1897:
1192:where γ is the surface tension, and
909:adding citations to reliable sources
880:
686:
631:
585:
544:
319:
254:
192:
119:adding citations to reliable sources
90:
49:
6072:The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis
5616:Gibson, LJ & Ashby, MF (1997).
5573:Weaire, D & Hutzler, S (1999).
4857:Stevenson, Paul (January 3, 2012).
4558:Weaire, D & Hutzler, S (1999).
3056:
1997:between the molecules in the foam,
839:of a perfectly ordered foam, while
24:
5566:
5504:Journal of Applied Polymer Science
5467:Journal of Applied Polymer Science
5403:Journal of Applied Polymer Science
4968:
4662:produce them, hence, according to
2030:
974:
496:Solid foams can be closed-cell or
25:
6157:
5730:
4700:Blackwell Scientific Publications
4192:Experiments and characterization
3985:
3696:This section has multiple issues.
3617:
873:), or more complex associations.
560:This section has multiple issues.
431:cells are enclosed by a distinct
65:This article has multiple issues.
5894:
5374:Journal of Materials Chemistry A
5327:ACS Chemical Health & Safety
4980:Mechanical Behavior of Materials
4114:
4099:
4084:
4067:
4048:
3788:
3726:
3685:
3670:
3003:
1979:
1965:
1956:
1902:
995:where γ is the surface tension.
885:
702:relies largely or entirely on a
691:
636:
590:
549:
324:
259:
197:
95:
54:
5532:
5495:
5458:
5431:
5394:
5361:
5314:
5252:
5213:
5187:
5160:
5151:
5094:
5055:
5008:
4996:
4925:
4890:
4877:
3970:is found in the manufacture of
3799:needs additional citations for
3704:or discuss these issues on the
3659:
3612:
2994:
2560:Bubble for hydrostatic pressure
1913:needs additional citations for
896:needs additional citations for
568:or discuss these issues on the
106:needs additional citations for
73:or discuss these issues on the
5107:Smart Materials and Structures
5080:10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2020.08.007
4850:
4831:. January 2009. Archived from
4814:
4762:Philosophical Magazine Letters
4753:
4738:
4683:
4655:
3036:
2874:
2848:
2412:
2386:
2316:
2303:
2134:
2108:
1986:Marangoni effect of a film (2)
1765:
1739:
1653:
1627:
1396:
1370:
1255:
1229:
1073:
1047:
951:(W) is needed to increase the
943:(surfactants) that reduce the
13:
1:
5665:Foams: Structure and Dynamics
5545:. CRC Press. pp. 79–81.
5127:10.1088/0964-1726/20/8/085010
4954:10.1016/j.actamat.2004.05.039
4919:10.1016/j.actamat.2004.09.024
4616:Foams: Structure and Dynamics
4536:
3949:sandwich-structured composite
2445:is given by the equation of:
1110:is the volume of the bubble,
477:In most foams, the volume of
4978:Courtney, Thomas H. (2005).
3622:Liquid foams can be used in
1893:
876:
540:
7:
4474:
3752:the claims made and adding
1134:is the density of the gas ρ
603:. The specific problem is:
223:the claims made and adding
10:
6162:
5539:Ashida, Kaneyoshi (2006).
5021:Metallurgical Transactions
4166:Foam scales and properties
4132:Foam scales and properties
4041:
4035:reaction injection molding
3989:
3674:
2429:Deviations are due to the
1972:Marangoni effect of a film
1010:Rising bubble from orifice
38:
31:
6102:
6052:D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson
5995:
5903:
5892:
5801:
5743:Moriarty, Philip (2010).
5181:10.1016/j.jcs.2011.05.004
5169:Journal of Cereal Science
4863:. John Wiley & Sons.
4792:10.1080/09500830801992849
4749:. NY, USA: Marcel Dekker.
4171:
3319:{\displaystyle \rho _{s}}
3292:{\displaystyle \rho ^{*}}
2951:must be larger than the R
941:surface active components
865:structure, often made of
811:One scale is the bubble:
5757:University of Nottingham
5339:10.1021/acs.chas.2c00071
3942:A closed-cell metal foam
1999:electrical double layers
474:is enclosed by another.
273:may need to be rewritten
4708:10.1351/goldbook.E02065
4481:Aluminium foam sandwich
3919:An open-cell metal foam
2546:{\displaystyle \gamma }
2247:acceleration of gravity
833:Weaire–Phelan structure
487:head on a glass of beer
443:and otherwise obsolete
275:. The reason given is:
5296:Gibson, Ashby (1999).
4092:Industrial CT scanning
3943:
3920:
3633:The dough of leavened
3600:Directional dependence
3587:
3430:
3320:
3293:
3266:
3239:
3212:
3183:
3079:
3049:of foams, compressive
2938:
2823:
2698:
2631:
2561:
2547:
2523:
2420:
2324:
2216:
2049:
1872:
1720:
1547:
1457:
1430:
1407:
1321:
1301:
1278:
1206:
1182:
1124:
1104:
1081:
1011:
986:
823:and three-dimensional
808:
655:by rewriting it in an
507:Foams are examples of
417:
409:
398:
343:by rewriting it in an
45:Foamy (disambiguation)
43:. For other uses, see
5886:Widmanstätten pattern
5238:10.3382/ps.2008-00268
5090:– via Elsevier.
5015:Ashby, M. F. (1983).
4321:double bubble theorem
4195:Transport properties
3941:
3918:
3675:Further information:
3588:
3443:Energy of deformation
3431:
3321:
3294:
3267:
3265:{\displaystyle C_{f}}
3240:
3238:{\displaystyle E^{*}}
3213:
3211:{\displaystyle E_{s}}
3184:
3076:
3047:mechanical properties
2990:Mechanical properties
2939:
2824:
2699:
2632:
2559:
2548:
2524:
2421:
2325:
2217:
2050:
2005:surfactants, and the
1873:
1721:
1548:
1458:
1456:{\displaystyle p_{0}}
1431:
1408:
1322:
1302:
1279:
1207:
1183:
1125:
1105:
1082:
1009:
987:
806:
613:WikiProject Chemistry
470:systems in which one
415:
404:
396:
34:Foam (disambiguation)
5576:The Physics of Foams
4838:on December 12, 2013
4561:The Physics of Foams
4372:double bubble theory
3808:improve this article
3454:
3332:
3303:
3276:
3249:
3222:
3195:
3085:
3051:stress-strain curves
2839:
2749:
2642:
2575:
2537:
2452:
2340:
2260:
2062:
2039:
1995:van der Waals forces
1922:improve this article
1736:
1605:
1470:
1440:
1420:
1334:
1311:
1291:
1220:
1196:
1149:
1114:
1094:
1025:
962:
905:improve this article
815:foams are typically
715:improve this article
397:Top of a foamy drink
115:improve this article
6120:Mathematics and art
6110:Pattern recognition
6080:Aristid Lindenmayer
5380:(48). 20996–21009.
5119:2011SMaS...20h5010Y
5033:1983MTA....14.1755A
4946:2004AcMat..52.4229K
4911:2005AcMat..53..303Q
4784:2008PMagL..88..647M
4285:disjoining pressure
4014:closed-mold process
3624:fire retardant foam
2980:disjoining pressure
2243:dynamic viscosity
609:WikiProject Physics
6058:On Growth and Form
5958:Logarithmic spiral
5795:Patterns in nature
5387:10.1039/C4TA04787G
5041:10.1007/bf02645546
4002:Integral skin foam
3997:Integral skin foam
3944:
3921:
3737:possibly contains
3654:foam fractionation
3583:
3426:
3316:
3289:
3262:
3235:
3208:
3179:
3080:
2934:
2819:
2694:
2627:
2562:
2543:
2519:
2416:
2320:
2249:in units of cm/s.
2212:
2045:
1868:
1716:
1543:
1453:
1426:
1403:
1317:
1297:
1274:
1202:
1178:
1120:
1100:
1077:
1012:
982:
871:Pickering emulsion
809:
657:encyclopedic style
460:physical chemistry
418:
410:
399:
345:encyclopedic style
208:possibly contains
6128:
6127:
6085:Benoît Mandelbrot
5985:Self-organization
5921:Natural selection
5911:Pattern formation
5721:978-3-7776-1440-3
5710:978-3-87017-285-5
5552:978-1-58716-159-9
5516:10.1002/app.23969
5479:10.1002/app.28802
5452:10.1021/ie3006935
5446:(28): 9515–9530.
5415:10.1002/app.26922
4940:(14): 4229–4237.
4768:(9–10): 647–650.
4717:978-0-9678550-9-7
4471:
4470:
4466:
4465:
4309:Thin film balance
4106:Polystyrene foam
4010:open-mold process
3906:reticulated foams
3902:
3901:
3894:
3884:
3883:
3876:
3858:
3782:
3781:
3774:
3739:original research
3719:
3665:Foam depopulation
3572:
3520:
3485:
3414:
3362:
3167:
3115:
3034:
3033:
2926:
2906:
2811:
2791:
2511:
2491:
2384:
2301:
2205:
2106:
2048:{\displaystyle r}
1954:
1953:
1946:
1860:
1840:
1820:
1800:
1708:
1688:
1535:
1515:
1429:{\displaystyle p}
1400:
1320:{\displaystyle V}
1300:{\displaystyle R}
1205:{\displaystyle r}
1123:{\displaystyle g}
1103:{\displaystyle V}
937:
936:
929:
798:
797:
790:
780:
779:
765:
685:
684:
677:
630:
629:
583:
391:
390:
383:
373:
372:
365:
318:
317:
310:
290:lead layout guide
253:
252:
245:
210:original research
191:
190:
183:
165:
88:
41:Foam depopulation
16:(Redirected from
6153:
5936:Sexual selection
5898:
5788:
5781:
5774:
5765:
5764:
5760:
5700:
5694:
5686:
5684:
5682:
5654:
5648:
5640:
5638:
5636:
5611:
5605:
5597:
5595:
5593:
5561:
5560:
5536:
5530:
5529:
5527:
5510:(3): 2015–2025.
5499:
5493:
5492:
5490:
5473:(5): 3217–3224.
5462:
5456:
5455:
5435:
5429:
5428:
5426:
5398:
5392:
5391:
5389:
5365:
5359:
5358:
5318:
5312:
5311:
5293:
5284:
5283:
5281:
5279:
5256:
5250:
5249:
5217:
5211:
5210:
5208:
5206:
5191:
5185:
5184:
5164:
5158:
5155:
5149:
5148:
5138:
5098:
5092:
5091:
5059:
5053:
5052:
5027:(9): 1755–1769.
5012:
5006:
5000:
4994:
4993:
4975:
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4965:
4929:
4923:
4922:
4894:
4888:
4881:
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4777:
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4750:
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4736:
4735:
4729:
4721:
4687:
4681:
4680:
4659:
4653:
4651:
4645:
4637:
4635:
4633:
4607:
4598:
4596:
4590:
4582:
4580:
4578:
4555:
4447:light scattering
4442:light scattering
4431:, bubble model,
4418:light scattering
4300:surface rheology
4252:surface rheology
4231:Surface rheology
4174:
4173:
4160:
4153:
4146:
4137:
4136:
4118:
4103:
4088:
4078:penetration seal
4071:
4052:
4004:, also known as
3897:
3890:
3879:
3872:
3868:
3865:
3859:
3857:
3816:
3792:
3784:
3777:
3770:
3766:
3763:
3757:
3754:inline citations
3730:
3729:
3722:
3711:
3689:
3688:
3681:
3592:
3590:
3589:
3584:
3582:
3578:
3577:
3573:
3571:
3570:
3561:
3560:
3551:
3531:
3530:
3525:
3521:
3519:
3518:
3509:
3508:
3499:
3486:
3484:
3483:
3474:
3473:
3458:
3435:
3433:
3432:
3427:
3425:
3424:
3419:
3415:
3413:
3412:
3403:
3402:
3393:
3386:
3385:
3373:
3372:
3367:
3363:
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3360:
3351:
3350:
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3325:
3323:
3322:
3317:
3315:
3314:
3298:
3296:
3295:
3290:
3288:
3287:
3271:
3269:
3268:
3263:
3261:
3260:
3244:
3242:
3241:
3236:
3234:
3233:
3217:
3215:
3214:
3209:
3207:
3206:
3188:
3186:
3185:
3180:
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3177:
3172:
3168:
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3165:
3156:
3155:
3146:
3139:
3138:
3126:
3125:
3120:
3116:
3114:
3113:
3104:
3103:
3094:
3057:Elastomeric foam
3029:
3026:
3007:
2999:
2976:Laplace pressure
2972:osmotic pressure
2943:
2941:
2940:
2935:
2932:
2928:
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2912:
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2587:
2586:
2552:
2550:
2549:
2544:
2528:
2526:
2525:
2520:
2517:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2509:
2497:
2492:
2490:
2489:
2477:
2464:
2463:
2431:Marangoni effect
2425:
2423:
2422:
2417:
2411:
2410:
2398:
2397:
2385:
2383:
2382:
2381:
2368:
2367:
2366:
2350:
2329:
2327:
2326:
2321:
2315:
2314:
2302:
2300:
2299:
2298:
2285:
2284:
2283:
2270:
2221:
2219:
2218:
2213:
2210:
2206:
2204:
2203:
2202:
2187:
2186:
2173:
2172:
2171:
2156:
2155:
2142:
2133:
2132:
2120:
2119:
2107:
2105:
2104:
2103:
2090:
2089:
2088:
2072:
2054:
2052:
2051:
2046:
2007:Marangoni effect
1983:
1969:
1949:
1942:
1938:
1935:
1929:
1906:
1898:
1877:
1875:
1874:
1869:
1866:
1862:
1861:
1859:
1858:
1846:
1841:
1839:
1838:
1826:
1821:
1819:
1818:
1806:
1801:
1799:
1798:
1786:
1764:
1763:
1751:
1750:
1725:
1723:
1722:
1717:
1714:
1710:
1709:
1707:
1706:
1694:
1689:
1687:
1686:
1674:
1652:
1651:
1639:
1638:
1623:
1622:
1552:
1550:
1549:
1544:
1541:
1537:
1536:
1534:
1533:
1521:
1516:
1514:
1513:
1501:
1488:
1487:
1462:
1460:
1459:
1454:
1452:
1451:
1435:
1433:
1432:
1427:
1412:
1410:
1409:
1404:
1401:
1399:
1395:
1394:
1382:
1381:
1362:
1351:
1346:
1345:
1326:
1324:
1323:
1318:
1306:
1304:
1303:
1298:
1283:
1281:
1280:
1275:
1254:
1253:
1241:
1240:
1211:
1209:
1208:
1203:
1187:
1185:
1184:
1179:
1161:
1160:
1142:force, which is
1129:
1127:
1126:
1121:
1109:
1107:
1106:
1101:
1086:
1084:
1083:
1078:
1072:
1071:
1059:
1058:
1037:
1036:
991:
989:
988:
983:
932:
925:
921:
918:
912:
889:
881:
821:minimal surfaces
793:
786:
775:
772:
766:
764:
723:
695:
687:
680:
673:
669:
666:
660:
640:
639:
632:
625:
622:
616:
594:
593:
586:
575:
553:
552:
545:
386:
379:
368:
361:
357:
354:
348:
328:
327:
320:
313:
306:
302:
299:
293:
286:improve the lead
263:
262:
255:
248:
241:
237:
234:
228:
225:inline citations
201:
200:
193:
186:
179:
175:
172:
166:
164:
123:
99:
91:
80:
58:
57:
50:
21:
6161:
6160:
6156:
6155:
6154:
6152:
6151:
6150:
6131:
6130:
6129:
6124:
6098:
5991:
5899:
5890:
5797:
5792:
5733:
5727:
5688:
5687:
5680:
5678:
5676:
5642:
5641:
5634:
5632:
5630:
5599:
5598:
5591:
5589:
5587:
5569:
5567:Further reading
5564:
5553:
5537:
5533:
5500:
5496:
5463:
5459:
5436:
5432:
5399:
5395:
5366:
5362:
5319:
5315:
5308:
5294:
5287:
5277:
5275:
5257:
5253:
5226:Poultry Science
5218:
5214:
5204:
5202:
5201:. June 10, 2007
5193:
5192:
5188:
5165:
5161:
5156:
5152:
5099:
5095:
5060:
5056:
5013:
5009:
5001:
4997:
4990:
4976:
4969:
4934:Acta Materialia
4930:
4926:
4899:Acta Materialia
4895:
4891:
4882:
4878:
4871:
4855:
4851:
4841:
4839:
4835:
4824:
4820:
4819:
4815:
4806:
4799:
4758:
4754:
4743:
4739:
4723:
4722:
4718:
4688:
4684:
4673:Merriam-Webster
4667:
4664:Merriam-Webster
4660:
4656:
4639:
4638:
4631:
4629:
4627:
4608:
4601:
4584:
4583:
4576:
4574:
4572:
4556:
4543:
4539:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4429:Surface Evolver
4390:Liquid fraction
4277:Surface tension
4240:Langmuir trough
4167:
4164:
4134:
4127:
4119:
4110:
4104:
4095:
4094:of a foam ball
4089:
4080:
4072:
4063:
4053:
4044:
3999:
3994:
3988:
3910:cellular solids
3898:
3887:
3886:
3885:
3880:
3869:
3863:
3860:
3817:
3815:
3805:
3793:
3778:
3767:
3761:
3758:
3743:
3731:
3727:
3690:
3686:
3679:
3673:
3662:
3650:froth flotation
3620:
3615:
3602:
3566:
3562:
3556:
3552:
3550:
3546:
3536:
3532:
3526:
3514:
3510:
3504:
3500:
3498:
3494:
3493:
3479:
3475:
3463:
3459:
3457:
3455:
3452:
3451:
3445:
3420:
3408:
3404:
3398:
3394:
3392:
3388:
3387:
3381:
3377:
3368:
3356:
3352:
3346:
3342:
3340:
3336:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3329:
3310:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3300:
3283:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3273:
3256:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3246:
3229:
3225:
3223:
3220:
3219:
3202:
3198:
3196:
3193:
3192:
3173:
3161:
3157:
3151:
3147:
3145:
3141:
3140:
3134:
3130:
3121:
3109:
3105:
3099:
3095:
3093:
3089:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3082:
3059:
3039:
3030:
3024:
3021:
3014:needs expansion
3008:
2997:
2992:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2920:
2916:
2911:
2900:
2896:
2891:
2890:
2886:
2868:
2864:
2855:
2851:
2840:
2837:
2836:
2805:
2801:
2796:
2785:
2781:
2776:
2775:
2771:
2756:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2746:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2726:
2714:
2710:
2684:
2680:
2668:
2664:
2649:
2645:
2643:
2640:
2639:
2617:
2613:
2601:
2597:
2582:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2572:
2567:
2538:
2535:
2534:
2505:
2501:
2496:
2485:
2481:
2476:
2475:
2471:
2459:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2449:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2406:
2402:
2393:
2389:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2362:
2358:
2351:
2349:
2341:
2338:
2337:
2310:
2306:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2269:
2261:
2258:
2257:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2198:
2194:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2167:
2163:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2141:
2137:
2128:
2124:
2115:
2111:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2084:
2080:
2073:
2071:
2063:
2060:
2059:
2040:
2037:
2036:
2033:
2031:Destabilization
1991:
1990:
1989:
1988:
1987:
1984:
1975:
1974:
1973:
1970:
1959:
1950:
1939:
1933:
1930:
1919:
1907:
1896:
1888:
1884:
1854:
1850:
1845:
1834:
1830:
1825:
1814:
1810:
1805:
1794:
1790:
1785:
1784:
1780:
1759:
1755:
1746:
1742:
1737:
1734:
1733:
1702:
1698:
1693:
1682:
1678:
1673:
1672:
1668:
1647:
1643:
1634:
1630:
1618:
1614:
1606:
1603:
1602:
1593:
1586:
1579:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1559:
1529:
1525:
1520:
1509:
1505:
1500:
1499:
1495:
1483:
1479:
1471:
1468:
1467:
1447:
1443:
1441:
1438:
1437:
1421:
1418:
1417:
1390:
1386:
1377:
1373:
1363:
1352:
1350:
1341:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1331:
1312:
1309:
1308:
1307:and the volume
1292:
1289:
1288:
1249:
1245:
1236:
1232:
1221:
1218:
1217:
1197:
1194:
1193:
1156:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1140:surface tension
1137:
1133:
1115:
1112:
1111:
1095:
1092:
1091:
1067:
1063:
1054:
1050:
1032:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1022:
963:
960:
959:
945:surface tension
933:
922:
916:
913:
902:
890:
879:
856:Plateau borders
794:
783:
782:
781:
776:
770:
767:
724:
722:
708:
696:
681:
670:
664:
661:
653:help improve it
650:
641:
637:
626:
620:
617:
607:
595:
591:
554:
550:
543:
509:dispersed media
441:medieval German
416:Cleaning sponge
387:
376:
375:
374:
369:
358:
352:
349:
341:help improve it
338:
329:
325:
314:
303:
297:
294:
283:
264:
260:
249:
238:
232:
229:
214:
202:
198:
187:
176:
170:
167:
124:
122:
112:
100:
59:
55:
48:
37:
30:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6159:
6149:
6148:
6143:
6126:
6125:
6123:
6122:
6117:
6112:
6106:
6104:
6100:
6099:
6097:
6096:
6095:
6094:
6082:
6077:
6076:
6075:
6063:
6062:
6061:
6049:
6047:Wilson Bentley
6044:
6042:Joseph Plateau
6039:
6034:
6029:
6028:
6027:
6015:
6010:
6005:
5999:
5997:
5993:
5992:
5990:
5989:
5988:
5987:
5982:
5980:Plateau's laws
5977:
5975:Fluid dynamics
5972:
5962:
5961:
5960:
5955:
5950:
5940:
5939:
5938:
5933:
5928:
5923:
5913:
5907:
5905:
5901:
5900:
5893:
5891:
5889:
5888:
5883:
5878:
5873:
5868:
5867:
5866:
5861:
5856:
5851:
5841:
5836:
5831:
5826:
5821:
5816:
5811:
5805:
5803:
5799:
5798:
5791:
5790:
5783:
5776:
5768:
5762:
5761:
5745:"Foam Physics"
5740:
5732:
5731:External links
5729:
5725:
5724:
5713:
5702:
5675:978-0199662890
5674:
5656:
5628:
5613:
5585:
5568:
5565:
5563:
5562:
5551:
5531:
5494:
5457:
5430:
5409:(1): 339–346.
5393:
5360:
5313:
5306:
5285:
5251:
5232:(5): 904–910.
5212:
5186:
5175:(2): 203–210.
5159:
5150:
5093:
5054:
5007:
4995:
4988:
4967:
4924:
4905:(2): 303–313.
4889:
4876:
4869:
4849:
4813:
4797:
4752:
4737:
4716:
4690:IUPAC (1997).
4682:
4654:
4626:978-0199662890
4625:
4599:
4570:
4540:
4538:
4535:
4534:
4533:
4528:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4508:
4503:
4498:
4493:
4491:Chaotic bubble
4488:
4486:Ballistic foam
4483:
4476:
4473:
4469:
4468:
4464:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4449:
4444:
4435:
4415:
4410:
4402:, avalanches,
4397:
4387:
4385:
4379:
4378:
4375:
4373:
4370:
4365:
4356:
4354:
4349:
4343:
4341:Plateau's laws
4337:
4335:
4329:
4328:
4325:
4323:
4318:
4313:
4311:
4305:Interferometry
4302:
4293:
4287:
4274:
4271:
4265:
4264:
4262:
4260:
4258:
4256:
4254:
4237:
4228:
4226:
4217:
4215:
4209:
4208:
4205:
4202:
4199:
4196:
4193:
4190:
4187:
4184:
4181:
4178:
4172:
4169:
4168:
4163:
4162:
4155:
4148:
4140:
4133:
4130:
4129:
4128:
4120:
4113:
4111:
4105:
4098:
4096:
4090:
4083:
4081:
4073:
4066:
4064:
4054:
4047:
4043:
4040:
4006:self-skin foam
3998:
3995:
3992:Syntactic foam
3990:Main article:
3987:
3986:Syntactic foam
3984:
3900:
3899:
3882:
3881:
3796:
3794:
3787:
3780:
3779:
3734:
3732:
3725:
3720:
3694:
3693:
3691:
3684:
3677:Polymeric foam
3672:
3669:
3661:
3658:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3601:
3598:
3581:
3576:
3569:
3565:
3559:
3555:
3549:
3545:
3542:
3539:
3535:
3529:
3524:
3517:
3513:
3507:
3503:
3497:
3492:
3489:
3482:
3478:
3472:
3469:
3466:
3462:
3444:
3441:
3423:
3418:
3411:
3407:
3401:
3397:
3391:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3359:
3355:
3349:
3345:
3339:
3313:
3309:
3286:
3282:
3259:
3255:
3232:
3228:
3205:
3201:
3176:
3171:
3164:
3160:
3154:
3150:
3144:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3124:
3119:
3112:
3108:
3102:
3098:
3092:
3058:
3055:
3038:
3035:
3032:
3031:
3011:
3009:
3002:
2996:
2993:
2991:
2988:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2945:
2944:
2931:
2923:
2919:
2915:
2910:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2889:
2885:
2882:
2879:
2876:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2847:
2844:
2830:
2829:
2816:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2795:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2774:
2770:
2767:
2764:
2759:
2755:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2724:
2712:
2708:
2705:
2704:
2692:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2676:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2660:
2657:
2652:
2648:
2637:
2625:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2609:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2593:
2590:
2585:
2581:
2565:
2542:
2531:
2530:
2516:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2495:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2474:
2470:
2467:
2462:
2458:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2427:
2426:
2414:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2354:
2348:
2345:
2331:
2330:
2318:
2313:
2309:
2305:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2268:
2265:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2226:
2223:
2222:
2209:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2190:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2159:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2140:
2136:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2076:
2070:
2067:
2044:
2032:
2029:
1985:
1978:
1977:
1976:
1971:
1964:
1963:
1962:
1961:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1952:
1951:
1910:
1908:
1901:
1895:
1892:
1886:
1882:
1879:
1878:
1865:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1844:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1824:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1804:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1783:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1770:
1767:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1727:
1726:
1713:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1692:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1671:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1658:
1655:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1626:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1610:
1591:
1584:
1577:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1554:
1553:
1540:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1519:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1498:
1494:
1491:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1475:
1450:
1446:
1425:
1414:
1413:
1398:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1369:
1366:
1361:
1358:
1355:
1349:
1344:
1340:
1316:
1296:
1285:
1284:
1272:
1269:
1266:
1263:
1260:
1257:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1201:
1190:
1189:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1164:
1159:
1155:
1135:
1131:
1119:
1099:
1088:
1087:
1075:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1046:
1043:
1040:
1035:
1031:
993:
992:
979:
976:
973:
970:
967:
935:
934:
893:
891:
884:
878:
875:
841:Plateau's laws
827:, also called
796:
795:
778:
777:
713:. Please help
699:
697:
690:
683:
682:
644:
642:
635:
628:
627:
598:
596:
589:
584:
558:
557:
555:
548:
542:
539:
423:are two-phase
389:
388:
371:
370:
332:
330:
323:
316:
315:
268:The article's
267:
265:
258:
251:
250:
205:
203:
196:
189:
188:
103:
101:
94:
89:
63:
62:
60:
53:
29:Form of matter
28:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6158:
6147:
6144:
6142:
6139:
6138:
6136:
6121:
6118:
6116:
6113:
6111:
6108:
6107:
6105:
6101:
6093:
6092:
6088:
6087:
6086:
6083:
6081:
6078:
6074:
6073:
6069:
6068:
6067:
6064:
6060:
6059:
6055:
6054:
6053:
6050:
6048:
6045:
6043:
6040:
6038:
6037:Ernst Haeckel
6035:
6033:
6032:Adolf Zeising
6030:
6026:
6025:
6021:
6020:
6019:
6016:
6014:
6011:
6009:
6006:
6004:
6001:
6000:
5998:
5994:
5986:
5983:
5981:
5978:
5976:
5973:
5971:
5968:
5967:
5966:
5963:
5959:
5956:
5954:
5951:
5949:
5946:
5945:
5944:
5941:
5937:
5934:
5932:
5929:
5927:
5924:
5922:
5919:
5918:
5917:
5914:
5912:
5909:
5908:
5906:
5902:
5897:
5887:
5884:
5882:
5879:
5877:
5876:Vortex street
5874:
5872:
5869:
5865:
5862:
5860:
5857:
5855:
5854:Quasicrystals
5852:
5850:
5847:
5846:
5845:
5842:
5840:
5837:
5835:
5832:
5830:
5827:
5825:
5822:
5820:
5817:
5815:
5812:
5810:
5807:
5806:
5804:
5800:
5796:
5789:
5784:
5782:
5777:
5775:
5770:
5769:
5766:
5758:
5754:
5750:
5749:Sixty Symbols
5746:
5741:
5739:
5735:
5734:
5728:
5722:
5718:
5714:
5711:
5707:
5703:
5698:
5692:
5677:
5671:
5667:
5666:
5661:
5657:
5652:
5646:
5631:
5625:
5621:
5620:
5614:
5609:
5603:
5588:
5582:
5578:
5577:
5571:
5570:
5558:
5554:
5548:
5544:
5543:
5535:
5526:
5521:
5517:
5513:
5509:
5505:
5498:
5489:
5484:
5480:
5476:
5472:
5468:
5461:
5453:
5449:
5445:
5441:
5434:
5425:
5420:
5416:
5412:
5408:
5404:
5397:
5388:
5383:
5379:
5375:
5371:
5364:
5356:
5352:
5348:
5344:
5340:
5336:
5332:
5328:
5324:
5317:
5309:
5307:9781316025420
5303:
5299:
5292:
5290:
5274:
5270:
5266:
5262:
5255:
5247:
5243:
5239:
5235:
5231:
5227:
5223:
5216:
5200:
5196:
5190:
5182:
5178:
5174:
5170:
5163:
5154:
5146:
5142:
5137:
5132:
5128:
5124:
5120:
5116:
5112:
5108:
5104:
5097:
5089:
5085:
5081:
5077:
5073:
5069:
5065:
5058:
5050:
5046:
5042:
5038:
5034:
5030:
5026:
5022:
5018:
5011:
5004:
4999:
4991:
4989:1-57766-425-6
4985:
4981:
4974:
4972:
4963:
4959:
4955:
4951:
4947:
4943:
4939:
4935:
4928:
4920:
4916:
4912:
4908:
4904:
4900:
4893:
4886:
4880:
4872:
4870:9781119961093
4866:
4862:
4861:
4853:
4834:
4830:
4823:
4817:
4810:
4804:
4802:
4793:
4789:
4785:
4781:
4776:
4771:
4767:
4763:
4756:
4748:
4741:
4733:
4727:
4719:
4713:
4709:
4705:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4686:
4678:
4674:
4670:
4665:
4658:
4649:
4643:
4628:
4622:
4618:
4617:
4612:
4606:
4604:
4594:
4588:
4573:
4567:
4563:
4562:
4554:
4552:
4550:
4548:
4546:
4541:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4504:
4502:
4499:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4478:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4443:
4439:
4436:
4434:
4430:
4426:
4425:conductimetry
4422:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4398:
4395:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4380:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4368:Interferences
4366:
4364:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4353:
4350:
4348:
4344:
4342:
4338:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4330:
4326:
4324:
4322:
4319:
4317:
4316:Interferences
4314:
4312:
4310:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4297:
4294:
4291:
4288:
4286:
4282:
4278:
4275:
4273:Frankel's law
4272:
4270:
4267:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4259:
4257:
4255:
4253:
4249:
4245:
4241:
4238:
4236:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4225:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4210:
4206:
4204:Applications
4203:
4200:
4197:
4194:
4191:
4188:
4185:
4182:
4179:
4176:
4175:
4170:
4161:
4156:
4154:
4149:
4147:
4142:
4141:
4138:
4126:
4123:
4117:
4112:
4109:
4102:
4097:
4093:
4087:
4082:
4079:
4076:
4075:Silicone foam
4070:
4065:
4062:(memory) foam
4061:
4057:
4051:
4046:
4045:
4039:
4037:
4036:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4015:
4011:
4007:
4003:
3993:
3983:
3979:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3968:blowing agent
3964:
3962:
3958:
3952:
3950:
3940:
3936:
3934:
3928:
3926:
3917:
3913:
3911:
3907:
3896:
3893:
3878:
3875:
3867:
3864:December 2020
3856:
3853:
3849:
3846:
3842:
3839:
3835:
3832:
3828:
3825: –
3824:
3820:
3819:Find sources:
3813:
3809:
3803:
3802:
3797:This section
3795:
3791:
3786:
3785:
3776:
3773:
3765:
3762:December 2020
3755:
3751:
3747:
3741:
3740:
3735:This section
3733:
3724:
3723:
3718:
3716:
3709:
3708:
3703:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3683:
3682:
3678:
3668:
3666:
3657:
3655:
3651:
3646:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3631:
3629:
3625:
3610:
3607:
3597:
3593:
3579:
3574:
3567:
3563:
3557:
3553:
3547:
3543:
3540:
3537:
3533:
3527:
3522:
3515:
3511:
3505:
3501:
3495:
3490:
3487:
3480:
3476:
3470:
3467:
3464:
3460:
3449:
3440:
3436:
3421:
3416:
3409:
3405:
3399:
3395:
3389:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3357:
3353:
3347:
3343:
3337:
3327:
3311:
3307:
3284:
3280:
3257:
3253:
3230:
3226:
3203:
3199:
3189:
3174:
3169:
3162:
3158:
3152:
3148:
3142:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3110:
3106:
3100:
3096:
3090:
3075:
3071:
3069:
3064:
3054:
3052:
3048:
3043:
3028:
3019:
3015:
3012:This section
3010:
3006:
3001:
3000:
2987:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2973:
2969:
2964:
2929:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2908:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2887:
2883:
2880:
2877:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2856:
2852:
2845:
2842:
2835:
2834:
2833:
2814:
2806:
2802:
2798:
2793:
2786:
2782:
2778:
2772:
2768:
2765:
2762:
2757:
2753:
2745:
2744:
2743:
2730:
2727: −
2723:
2719:
2690:
2685:
2681:
2677:
2674:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2658:
2655:
2650:
2646:
2638:
2623:
2618:
2614:
2610:
2607:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2591:
2588:
2583:
2579:
2571:
2570:
2569:
2558:
2554:
2540:
2514:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2493:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2472:
2468:
2465:
2460:
2456:
2448:
2447:
2446:
2432:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2394:
2390:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2352:
2346:
2343:
2336:
2335:
2334:
2311:
2307:
2295:
2291:
2287:
2280:
2276:
2272:
2266:
2263:
2256:
2255:
2254:
2250:
2248:
2244:
2207:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2188:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2157:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2138:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2116:
2112:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2074:
2068:
2065:
2058:
2057:
2056:
2042:
2028:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1996:
1982:
1968:
1957:Stabilization
1948:
1945:
1937:
1927:
1923:
1917:
1916:
1911:This section
1909:
1905:
1900:
1899:
1891:
1863:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1842:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1822:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1802:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1781:
1777:
1774:
1771:
1768:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1747:
1743:
1732:
1731:
1730:
1711:
1703:
1699:
1695:
1690:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1669:
1665:
1662:
1659:
1656:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1635:
1631:
1624:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1608:
1601:
1600:
1599:
1597:
1590:
1587: −
1583:
1576:
1538:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1517:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1496:
1492:
1489:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1473:
1466:
1465:
1464:
1448:
1444:
1423:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1378:
1374:
1367:
1364:
1359:
1356:
1353:
1347:
1342:
1338:
1330:
1329:
1328:
1314:
1294:
1270:
1267:
1264:
1261:
1258:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1237:
1233:
1226:
1223:
1216:
1215:
1214:
1199:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1157:
1153:
1145:
1144:
1143:
1141:
1117:
1097:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1055:
1051:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1033:
1029:
1021:
1020:
1019:
1017:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
977:
971:
968:
965:
958:
957:
956:
954:
950:
946:
942:
931:
928:
920:
910:
906:
900:
899:
894:This section
892:
888:
883:
882:
874:
872:
869:, particles (
868:
864:
859:
857:
853:
849:
844:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
825:tessellations
822:
818:
814:
805:
801:
792:
789:
774:
763:
760:
756:
753:
749:
746:
742:
739:
735:
732: –
731:
727:
726:Find sources:
720:
716:
712:
706:
705:
704:single source
700:This section
698:
694:
689:
688:
679:
676:
668:
658:
654:
648:
645:This section
643:
634:
633:
624:
614:
610:
606:
602:
599:This section
597:
588:
587:
582:
580:
573:
572:
567:
566:
561:
556:
547:
546:
538:
536:
532:
528:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
505:
503:
499:
494:
492:
488:
484:
480:
475:
473:
469:
465:
461:
457:
452:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
414:
407:
403:
395:
385:
382:
367:
364:
356:
346:
342:
336:
333:This article
331:
322:
321:
312:
309:
301:
291:
288:and read the
287:
282:
280:
274:
271:
266:
257:
256:
247:
244:
236:
233:December 2020
226:
222:
218:
212:
211:
206:This article
204:
195:
194:
185:
182:
174:
171:February 2012
163:
160:
156:
153:
149:
146:
142:
139:
135:
132: –
131:
127:
126:Find sources:
120:
116:
110:
109:
104:This article
102:
98:
93:
92:
87:
85:
78:
77:
72:
71:
66:
61:
52:
51:
46:
42:
35:
27:
19:
6089:
6070:
6056:
6022:
5948:Chaos theory
5871:Tessellation
5818:
5748:
5726:
5679:. Retrieved
5664:
5633:. Retrieved
5618:
5590:. Retrieved
5575:
5541:
5534:
5507:
5503:
5497:
5470:
5466:
5460:
5443:
5439:
5433:
5406:
5402:
5396:
5377:
5373:
5363:
5333:(1): 21–28.
5330:
5326:
5316:
5297:
5276:. Retrieved
5265:The Guardian
5264:
5254:
5229:
5225:
5215:
5203:. Retrieved
5198:
5189:
5172:
5168:
5162:
5153:
5110:
5106:
5096:
5071:
5067:
5057:
5024:
5020:
5010:
4998:
4979:
4937:
4933:
4927:
4902:
4898:
4892:
4884:
4879:
4859:
4852:
4840:. Retrieved
4833:the original
4828:
4816:
4808:
4765:
4761:
4755:
4746:
4740:
4695:
4685:
4672:
4657:
4630:. Retrieved
4615:
4575:. Retrieved
4560:
4433:Potts' model
4382:
4327:Giant films
4244:ellipsometry
4033:
4013:
4009:
4005:
4001:
4000:
3980:
3976:EVA-PE foams
3965:
3953:
3945:
3929:
3925:formaldehyde
3922:
3903:
3888:
3870:
3861:
3851:
3844:
3837:
3830:
3818:
3806:Please help
3801:verification
3798:
3768:
3759:
3736:
3712:
3705:
3699:
3698:Please help
3695:
3663:
3660:Depopulation
3647:
3632:
3621:
3618:Liquid foams
3613:Applications
3603:
3594:
3450:
3446:
3437:
3328:
3190:
3081:
3060:
3044:
3040:
3022:
3018:adding to it
3013:
2995:Liquid foams
2965:
2946:
2831:
2728:
2721:
2717:
2706:
2563:
2532:
2428:
2332:
2251:
2224:
2034:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
1992:
1940:
1931:
1920:Please help
1915:verification
1912:
1880:
1728:
1595:
1588:
1581:
1574:
1555:
1415:
1286:
1191:
1089:
1013:
1001:
997:
994:
953:surface area
938:
923:
914:
903:Please help
898:verification
895:
860:
845:
810:
799:
784:
768:
758:
751:
744:
737:
725:
701:
671:
662:
646:
618:
604:
600:
576:
569:
563:
562:Please help
559:
535:quantum foam
530:
529:
517:polydisperse
506:
502:sleeping mat
495:
490:
476:
466:, two-phase
453:
448:
444:
420:
419:
408:foam bubbles
377:
359:
350:
334:
304:
295:
284:Please help
278:
276:
272:
270:lead section
239:
230:
207:
177:
168:
158:
151:
144:
137:
125:
113:Please help
108:verification
105:
81:
74:
68:
67:Please help
64:
26:
6066:Alan Turing
6024:Liber Abaci
5943:Mathematics
5849:in crystals
5839:Soap bubble
5834:Phyllotaxis
5753:Brady Haran
5525:10045/24680
5488:10045/13312
5424:10045/24682
5278:January 21,
5205:January 21,
4842:December 9,
4531:Soft matter
4400:Coalescence
4213:Surfactants
4198:Irisations
4180:Generation
3972:vinyl (PVC)
3951:materials.
3671:Solid foams
3063:elastomeric
3037:Solid foams
3025:August 2024
2968:gravitation
2001:created by
1934:August 2024
917:August 2024
867:surfactants
863:amphiphilic
771:August 2024
665:August 2024
621:August 2024
483:bath sponge
353:August 2024
298:August 2024
6135:Categories
6013:Empedocles
6008:Pythagoras
5926:Camouflage
5864:in biology
5859:in flowers
5829:Parastichy
5681:August 30,
5635:August 30,
5629:0521499119
5592:August 30,
5586:0198510977
4822:"The Foam"
4698:. Oxford:
4692:"Emulsion"
4632:August 30,
4577:August 30,
4571:0198510977
4537:References
4526:Foam party
4506:Metal foam
4501:Foam glass
4404:coarsening
4394:metastable
4352:T1 process
4292:, bursting
4235:adsorption
4186:Stability
4183:Structure
4108:cushioning
4056:Micrograph
4030:mattresses
4026:shoe soles
4022:baby seats
3961:insulators
3834:newspapers
3746:improve it
3701:improve it
2984:T1 process
848:metastable
829:honeycombs
817:disordered
741:newspapers
565:improve it
449:ausgefeimt
217:improve it
141:newspapers
70:improve it
6115:Emergence
6018:Fibonacci
5691:cite book
5660:Cantat, I
5645:cite book
5602:cite book
5355:255047115
5347:1871-5532
5273:0261-3077
5088:225310568
5074:: 43–58.
5049:135765088
4775:0711.4228
4726:cite book
4642:cite book
4611:Cantat, I
4587:cite book
4460:Aquafoams
4438:acoustics
4421:acoustics
4359:acoustics
4296:Marangoni
4290:dewetting
4018:arm rests
3933:bio-foams
3750:verifying
3707:talk page
3628:oil fires
3564:ρ
3558:∗
3554:ρ
3541:−
3512:ρ
3506:∗
3502:ρ
3406:ρ
3400:∗
3396:ρ
3348:∗
3308:ρ
3285:∗
3281:ρ
3231:∗
3159:ρ
3153:∗
3149:ρ
3101:∗
2909:−
2884:γ
2866:ρ
2862:−
2853:ρ
2794:−
2769:γ
2682:ρ
2615:ρ
2541:γ
2469:γ
2404:ρ
2400:−
2391:ρ
2375:η
2308:ρ
2292:η
2196:η
2180:η
2165:η
2149:η
2126:ρ
2122:−
2113:ρ
2097:η
1894:Stability
1843:−
1823:−
1778:γ
1757:ρ
1753:−
1744:ρ
1666:γ
1645:ρ
1641:−
1632:ρ
1625:−
1612:−
1493:γ
1477:−
1388:ρ
1384:−
1375:ρ
1360:γ
1271:γ
1268:π
1247:ρ
1243:−
1234:ρ
1175:γ
1172:π
1065:ρ
1061:−
1052:ρ
975:Δ
972:γ
877:Formation
837:unit cell
711:talk page
611: or
571:talk page
541:Structure
498:open-cell
464:emulsions
281:in lead).
221:verifying
76:talk page
6146:Colloids
5844:Symmetry
5802:Patterns
5755:for the
5723:, S. 74.
5557:Archived
5246:19359675
5199:NBC News
5145:21949469
4962:13958881
4829:IHC News
4677:Archived
4516:Sea foam
4511:Nanofoam
4496:Defoamer
4475:See also
4456:topology
4413:rheology
4408:drainage
4363:electric
4347:drainage
4220:Micelles
4189:Dynamic
4125:aluminum
3606:isotropy
1016:buoyancy
852:lamellae
813:material
485:and the
468:material
425:material
6103:Related
5970:Crystal
5965:Physics
5953:Fractal
5931:Mimicry
5916:Biology
5824:Meander
5136:3176498
5115:Bibcode
5029:Bibcode
4942:Bibcode
4907:Bibcode
4780:Bibcode
4452:Packing
4406:, foam
4339:shape,
4333:Bubbles
4042:Gallery
3957:density
3848:scholar
3744:Please
3078:absorb.
3068:modulus
2707:where ρ
2241:is the
2003:dipolar
1556:where R
755:scholar
651:Please
525:colloid
513:bubbles
456:physics
339:Please
215:Please
155:scholar
5996:People
5904:Causes
5719:
5708:
5672:
5626:
5583:
5549:
5353:
5345:
5304:
5271:
5244:
5143:
5133:
5086:
5047:
4986:
4960:
4867:
4714:
4669:"Foam"
4623:
4568:
4201:Maths
4177:Scale
4122:Foamed
4060:temper
4028:, and
3850:
3843:
3836:
3829:
3823:"Foam"
3821:
3191:where
2533:where
2025:Curing
1090:where
955:(ΔA):
831:. The
757:
750:
743:
736:
730:"Foam"
728:
472:liquid
433:liquid
157:
150:
143:
136:
130:"Foam"
128:
6141:Foams
6003:Plato
5809:Crack
5351:S2CID
5113:(8).
5084:S2CID
5045:S2CID
4958:S2CID
4836:(PDF)
4825:(PDF)
4809:Foams
4770:arXiv
4396:state
4345:foam
4269:Films
4012:or a
3855:JSTOR
3841:books
3643:pores
3639:yeast
3635:bread
3538:0.975
2959:and R
2711:and ρ
2437:and R
2237:and ῃ
2229:and ρ
1568:and R
1560:and R
762:JSTOR
748:books
521:films
437:solid
421:Foams
162:JSTOR
148:books
18:Froth
5881:Wave
5819:Foam
5814:Dune
5717:ISBN
5706:ISBN
5697:link
5683:2024
5670:ISBN
5651:link
5637:2024
5624:ISBN
5608:link
5594:2024
5581:ISBN
5547:ISBN
5343:ISSN
5302:ISBN
5280:2024
5269:ISSN
5242:PMID
5207:2024
5141:PMID
4984:ISBN
4865:ISBN
4844:2013
4732:link
4712:ISBN
4648:link
4634:2024
4621:ISBN
4593:link
4579:2024
4566:ISBN
4454:and
4383:Foam
4281:DLVO
4248:Xray
4207:Fun
3974:and
3827:news
3652:and
3604:The
3491:0.05
3061:For
1885:or R
1259:>
1014:The
949:work
734:news
531:Foam
491:suds
458:and
445:veim
406:Soap
279:only
134:news
5520:hdl
5512:doi
5508:102
5483:hdl
5475:doi
5471:110
5448:doi
5419:hdl
5411:doi
5407:107
5382:doi
5335:doi
5234:doi
5177:doi
5131:PMC
5123:doi
5076:doi
5072:206
5037:doi
5025:14A
4950:doi
4915:doi
4788:doi
4704:doi
4224:HLB
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