Gadsden Purchase - Knowledge

746:

miles (13 km) north of El Paso. The treaty was based on an 1847 copy (the Disturnell Map) of a twenty-five-year-old map which was incorporated into the treaty. However, surveys revealed that El Paso was 36 miles (58 km) further south and 100 miles (160 km) further west than the map showed. Mexico favored the map, but the United States put faith in the results of the survey. The disputed territory involved a few thousand square miles and about 3,000 residents; more significantly, it included the Mesilla Valley. Bordering the Rio Grande River, the valley consisted of flat desert land measuring about 50 miles (80 km), north to south, by 200 miles (320 km), east to west. This valley was thought to be essential for construction of a transcontinental railroad using a southern route.

219: 1269:, Mariano Samaniego, and Leopoldo Carillo families, remained primarily Mexican American until the coming of the railroad in the 1880s. When the Sonora Exploring and Mining Company opened silver mines in southern Arizona, it sought to employ educated, middle-class Americans who shared a work ethic and leadership abilities to operate the mines. A biographical analysis of some 200 of its employees, classed as capitalists, managers, laborers, and general service personnel, reveals that the resulting work force included Europeans, Americans, Mexicans, and Indians. This mixture failed to stabilize the remote area, which lacked formal social, political, and economic organization in the years from the Gadsden Purchase to the Civil War. 756:, the United States negotiator, agreed to allow Mexico to retain the Mesilla Valley by setting the point at which the boundary commenced toward the west from the Rio Grande River at 32° 22′ N. This point was north of the American claim of 31° 52′ N and, at the easternmost part, also north of the Mexican-claimed boundary at 32° 15′ N, both also on the Rio Grande River). Bartlett's agreement to 32° 22′ N was in exchange for a boundary westward from the river that did not turn north until 110° W in order to include the Santa Rita del Corbe Mountains (sometimes referred to simply as the Corbe Mountains) located in current New Mexico east of current-day Silver City. This area was believed to have rich 1614: 1224:

until 1856 were troops stationed in the troubled region. In June 1857 it established Fort Buchanan south of the Gila at the head of the Sonoita Creek Valley. The fort protected the area until it was evacuated and destroyed in July 1861. The new stability brought miners and ranchers. By the late 1850s mining camps and military posts had not only transformed the Arizona countryside; they had also generated new trade linkages to the state of Sonora, Mexico. Magdalena, Sonora, became a supply center for Tubac; wheat from nearby Cucurpe fed the troops at Fort Buchanan; and the town of Santa Cruz sustained the Mowry mines, just miles to the north.

244: 1403:). Acquiring trackage rights over the SP, from Deming to Benson, the Santa Fe then built a line southwest to Guaymas, Sonora, Mexico, completed October 1882, as its first outlet to the Pacific. This line was later sold to the Southern Pacific. The Southern Pacific continued building east from El Paso, completing a junction with the Texas & Pacific in December 1881, and finally in 1883, its own southern transcontinental, the Sunset Route, California to New Orleans, Atlantic waters to the Pacific. These railroads caused an early 1880s mining boom in such locales as 714: 982: 1059: 875: 1278:

Arizona and established the range cattle industry there. The Texans contributed their proven range methods to the new grass country of Arizona, but also brought their problems as well. Texas rustlers brought lawlessness, poor management resulted in overstocking, and carelessness introduced destructive diseases. But these difficulties did force laws and associations in Arizona to curb and resolve them. The Anglo-American cattleman frontier in Arizona was an extension of the Texas experience.

47: 4133: 1360: 1607: 4450: 846:

Treaty did not require any compensation nor did it require any greater effort to protect Mexicans than was expended in protecting its own citizens. During the Fillmore administration, Mexico claimed damages of $ 40 million (equivalent to $ 1.1 billion in 2023) but offered to allow the U.S. to buy-out Article XI for $ 25 million ($ 670 million) while President Fillmore proposed a settlement that was $ 10 million less ($ 270 million).

1900: 1914: 1167:, who saw the purchase as acquisition of more slave territory. Even the sale of a relatively small strip of land angered the Mexican people, who saw Santa Anna's actions as a betrayal of their country. They watched in dismay as he squandered the funds generated by the Purchase. Contemporary Mexican historians continue to view the deal negatively and believe that it has defined the American–Mexican relationship in a deleterious way. 406:, a Southerner from Mississippi, saw an opportunity to acquire land for the railroad, as well as to acquire significant other territory from northern Mexico. In those years, the debate over slavery in the United States entered into many other debates, as the acquisition of new territory opened the question of whether it would be slave or free territory; in this case, the debate over slavery ended progress on construction of a 786: 424: 391: 954:

build the railroads. Some southerners, however, worried that northern and central interests would leap ahead in construction and opposed any direct aid to private developers on constitutional grounds. Other southerners preferred the isthmian proposals. An amendment was added to the Rusk bill to prohibit direct aid, but southerners still split their vote in Congress and the amendment failed.

1289:—created from the easternmost portion of Pima County in January 1881—were subject to ongoing border-related conflicts. The area was characterized by rapidly growing boom towns, ongoing Apache raids, smuggling and cattle rustling across the United States-Mexico border, growing ranching operations, and the expansion of new technologies in mining, railroading, and telecommunications. 902:, the minister to Mexico, to negotiate a treaty to protect Hargous' rights. The United States' proposal gave Mexicans a 20% discount on shipping, guaranteed Mexican rights in the zone, allowed the United States to send in military if necessary, and gave the United States most-favored-nation status for Mexican cargo fees. This treaty, however, was never finalized. 1371:, proposed building a transcontinental railroad linking the Atlantic at Charleston with the Pacific at San Diego. Federal and private surveys by Lt. John G. Parke and Andrew B Gray proved the feasibility of the southern transcontinental route, but sectional strife and the Civil War delayed construction of the proposed railroad. The 535:, and was $ 3 million (equivalent to $ 85 million in 2023) in debt. Gadsden wanted to connect all Southern railroads into one sectional network. He was concerned that the increasing railroad construction in the North was shifting trade in lumber, farm and manufacturing goods from the traditional north–south route based on the 1836:, was north of both the Mexican and American land claims before the Gadsden Purchase, though the proposed Bartlett–Conde compromise of 1851 would have left Deming in Mexico, or stated in positive terms, the negotiations for the Gadsden Purchase resolved the border disputes with Mexico, as well as transferred this land to the U.S. 675:

then-current transportation networks met the plantation system's needs. There was little home market for an intra-South trade. In the short term, the best use for capital was to invest it in more slaves and land rather than in taxing it to support canals, railroads, roads, or in dredging rivers. Historian Jere W. Roberson wrote:

399:

railroad routes tended to veer to the north as they proceeded eastward, which would favor connections with northern railroads and ultimately favor northern seaports. Southerners saw that to avoid the mountains, a route with a southeastern terminus might need to swing south into what was still Mexican territory.

591:, in an attempt to divide California into northern and southern portions and proposed that the southern part allow slavery. Gadsden planned to establish a slave-holding colony there based on rice, cotton, and sugar, and wanted to use slave labor to build a railroad and highway that originated in either 1315:

reported that both U.S. and Mexican bandits were stealing horses from the Santa Cruz Valley and selling them in Sonora. Arizona Territorial Governor Frémont investigated the Mexican government's allegations and accused them in turn of allowing outlaws to use Sonora as a base of operations for raiding

1046:

with 50 troops and annex Sonora. Gadsden disavowed any government backing of Walker, who retreated to the U.S. and was placed on trial as a criminal. Santa Anna worried that the US would allow further aggression against Mexican territory. Santa Anna needed to get as much money for as little territory

2033:; thence in a straight line to a point on the Colorado River twenty English miles below the junction of the Gila and Colorado rivers; thence up the middle of the said Colorado river until it intersects the present line between the United States and Mexico". The new border included a few miles of the 1350:

and its ancestral lands by the new international border. This disrupted traditional migratory practices and transportation of materials and goods essential for their spirituality, economy and traditional culture. Nine communities are on the Mexican side of this boundary. Conflicts have arisen mainly

858:

in southern Mexico. The idea of building a railroad here had been considered for a long time, connecting the Gulf of Mexico with the Pacific Ocean. In 1842 Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna sold the rights to build a railroad or canal across the isthmus. The deal included land grants 300

674:

By 1850, however, the majority of the South was not interested in exploiting its advantages in developing a transcontinental railroad or railroads in general. Businessmen like Gadsden, who advocated economic diversification, were in the minority. The Southern economy was based on cotton exports, and

599:

valley. The railway or highway would transport people to the California gold fields. Toward this end, on December 31, 1851, Gadsden asked Green to secure from the California state legislature a large land grant located between the 34th and 36th parallels, along the proposed dividing line for the two

1308:

and brazenly stole cattle in broad daylight, scaring off the legitimate cowboys watching the herds. Bandits used the border between the United States and Mexico to raid across in one direction and take sanctuary in the other. In December 1878, and again the next year, Mexican authorities complained

1223:

The residents of the area gained full US citizenship and slowly assimilated into American life over the next half-century. The principal threat to the peace and security of settlers and travelers in the area was raids by Apache Indians. The US Army took control of the purchase lands in 1854 but not

1107:

The unfortunate debates in 1854 left an indelible mark on the course of national politics and the Pacific railroad for the remainder of the antebellum period. It was becoming increasingly difficult, if not outright impossible, to consider any proposal that could not somehow be construed as relating

1099:

This version of the treaty successfully passed the US Senate April 25, 1854, by a vote of 33 to 12. The reduction in territory was an accommodation of northern senators who opposed the acquisition of additional slave territory. In the final vote, northerners split 12 to 12. Gadsden took the revised

1014:

gave Gadsden clear instructions: he was to secure the Mesilla Valley for the purposes of building a railroad through it, convince Mexico that the US had done its best regarding the Indian raids, and elicit Mexican cooperation in efforts by US citizens to build a canal or railroad across the Isthmus

917:

and a committee of New Orleans businessmen joined with Hargous and secured a charter from the Louisiana legislature to create the Tehuantepec Railroad Company. The new company sold stock and sent survey teams to Mexico. Hargous started to acquire land even after the Mexican legislature rejected the

909:

between the United States and the United Kingdom, which guaranteed the neutrality of any such canal, was finalized in April 1850. Mexican negotiators refused the treaty because it would eliminate Mexico's ability to play the US and Britain against each other. They eliminated the right of the United

768:

which had not yet been mined. Southerners opposed retention of the Mesilla Valley by Mexico because of its implication for the railroad, but President Fillmore supported it. Southerners in Congress prevented any action on the approval of this separate border treaty and eliminated further funding to

745:

The treaty provided for a joint commission, made up of a surveyor and commissioner from each country, to determine the final boundary between the United States and Mexico. The treaty specified that the boundary, after following the Rio Grande River from the sea, would turn west from the river eight

398:

As the railroad age evolved, business-oriented Southerners saw that a railroad linking the South with the Pacific Coast would expand trade opportunities. They thought the topography of the southern portion of the original boundary line was too mountainous to allow a direct route. Projected southern

1545:

would have been required for rails built here, rather than the final alignment; railroads prefer 1% or less grade for better operation. This rugged terrain above the Gila River confirms the engineering, technical wisdom of acquiring the Gadsden Purchase for a southern transcontinental railroad. To

1292:

In the 1860s conflict between the Apaches and the Americans was at its height. Until 1886, almost constant warfare existed in the region adjacent to the Mexican border. The illegal cattle operations kept beef prices in the border region lower and provided cheap stock that helped small ranchers get

1209:

was established in 1889 to maintain the border. Pursuant to still later treaties, the IBWC expanded its duties to allocation of river waters between the two nations, and provided for flood control and water sanitation. Once viewed as a model of international cooperation, in recent decades the IBWC

953:

of Texas introduced a bill to create two railroads, one with a northern route, and one with a southern route starting below Memphis on the Mississippi River. Under the Rusk legislation, the President would be authorized to select the specific termini and routes as well as the contractors who would

845:

estimated that five times that amount would be necessary to police the border. Mexican officials, frustrated with the failure of the United States to effectively enforce its guarantee, demanded reparations for the losses inflicted on Mexican citizens by the raids. The United States argued that the

1844:

Geologist Harold L. James stated in 1969 about the Gadsden Purchase: "Although the boundary controversy did not teach any lessons or impart any wisdom, it did lead to the purchase of an extremely valuable strip of territory that has more than paid for itself in subsequent mineral and agricultural

1277:

From the late 1840s into the 1870s, Texas stockmen drove their beef cattle through southern Arizona on the Texas–California trail. Texans were impressed with the grazing possibilities offered by the Gadsden Purchase country of Arizona. In the last third of the century, they moved their herds into

1563:

do not follow the northern boundary of the Gadsden Purchase, but six counties in Arizona do have most of their populations within the land of the Gadsden Purchase. Four of these also contain areas north of the Gadsden Purchase, but these areas have low population densities, with the exception of

1070:

The treaty needed a two-thirds vote in favor of ratification in the US Senate, where it met strong opposition. Anti-slavery senators opposed further acquisition of slave territory. Lobbying by speculators gave the treaty a bad reputation. Some Senators objected to furnishing Santa Anna financial

1066:

Pierce and his cabinet began debating the treaty in January 1854. Although disappointed in the amount of territory secured and some of the terms, Pierce signed it, and submitted it to the Senate on February 10. Gadsden, however, suggested that northern Senators would block the treaty to deny the

1038:"Gadsden's antagonistic manner" alienated Santa Anna. Gadsden had advised Santa Anna that "the spirit of the age" would soon lead the northern Mexican states to secede so he might as well sell them now. Mexico balked at any large-scale sale of territory. The Mexican President felt threatened by 1422:

The portion of the Southern Pacific in Arizona was originally largely in the Gadsden Purchase but the western part was later rerouted north of the Gila River to serve the city of Phoenix (as part of the agreement in purchasing the EP&SW). The portion in New Mexico runs largely through the

1030:

Marcy and Pierce responded with new instructions. Gadsden was authorized to purchase any of six parcels of land with a price fixed for each. The price would include the settlement of all Indian damages and relieve the United States from any further obligation to protect Mexicans. $ 50 million

1009:

of Kentucky. Meriwether was given orders to stay out of the Mesilla Valley until negotiations with Mexico could be completed. With the encouragement of Davis, Pierce also appointed James Gadsden as minister to Mexico, with specific instructions to negotiate with Mexico over the acquisition of

882:

The Memphis commercial convention of 1849 recommended that the United States pursue the trans-isthmus route, since it appeared unlikely that a transcontinental railroad would be built anytime soon. Interests in Louisiana were especially adamant about this option, as they believed that any

555:

earlier that fall which discussed a northern route. The Memphis convention overwhelmingly advocated the construction of a route beginning there, to connect with an El Paso, Texas to San Diego, California line. Disagreement arose only over the issue of financing. The convention president,

1458:

During the early twentieth century, a number of short-lines usually associated with mining booms were built in the Gadsden Purchase to Ajo, Silverbell, Twin Buttes, Courtland, Gleeson, Arizona, Shakespeare, New Mexico, and other mine sites. Most of these railroads have been abandoned.

992:

A treaty initiated in the Fillmore administration that would provide joint Mexican and United States protection for the Sloo grant was signed in Mexico on March 21, 1853. At the same time that this treaty was received in Washington, Pierce learned that New Mexico Territorial Governor

921:

Mexico sold the canal franchise, without the land grants, to A. G. Sloo and Associates in New York for $ 600,000 (equivalent to $ 17 million in 2023). In March 1853 Sloo contracted with a British company to build a railroad and sought an exclusive contract from the new

679:

Southerners might have gained a great deal under the 1850 land grant act had they concentrated their efforts. But continued opposition to Federal aid, filibustering, an unenthusiastic President, the spirit of "Young America", and efforts to build railroads and canals across

1018:

The Mexican government was going through political and financial turmoil. In the process, Santa Anna had been returned to power about the same time that Pierce was inaugurated. Santa Anna was willing to deal with the United States because he needed money to rebuild the

1078:. On April 17, after much debate, the Senate voted 27 to 18 in favor of the treaty, falling three votes short of the necessary two-thirds majority. After this defeat, Secretary Davis and southern Senators pressed Pierce to add more provisions to the treaty including: 543:

rivers to an east–west axis that would bypass the South. He also saw Charleston, his home town, losing its prominence as a seaport. In addition, many Southern business interests feared that a northern transcontinental route would exclude the South from trade with the

918:

treaty, a move that led to the Mexicans canceling Hargous' contract to use the right of way. Hargous put his losses at $ 5 million (equivalent to $ 142 million in 2023) and asked the United States government to intervene. President Fillmore refused to do so.

883:

transcontinental railroad would divert commercial traffic away from the Mississippi and New Orleans, and they at least wanted to secure a southern route. Also showing interest was Peter A. Hargous of New York who ran an import-export business between New York and

823:

Comanche, Apache, and other tribal warriors had been punishing Spanish, Mexican, and American intruders into their stark homeland for three centuries and been given no incentive to let up their murderous marauding and pillaging, horse stealing in particular. The

1091:

a reduction of the territory to be acquired by more than 10,000 square miles (26,000 km) to the final size of 29,640-square-mile (76,800 km), and dropping the price to $ 10 million (equivalent to $ 270 million in 2023) from $ 15 million ($

1027:. He initially insisted on reparations for the damages caused by American Indian raids, but agreed to let an international tribunal resolve this. Gadsden realized that Santa Anna needed money and passed this information along to Secretary Marcy. 859:

miles (480 km) wide along the right-of-way for future colonization and development. In 1847 a British bank bought the rights, raising U.S. fears of British colonization in the hemisphere, in violation of the precepts of the

973:-based railroad that planned to build a link to Texas to join up with the southern route. Davis argued that the southern route would have an important military application in the likely event of future troubles with Mexico. 997:

had issued a proclamation claiming the Mesilla Valley as part of New Mexico, leading to protests from Mexico. Pierce was also aware of efforts by France, through its consul in San Francisco, to acquire the Mexican state of

611:

for permanent citizenship and permission to establish a rural district that would be farmed by "not less than Two Thousand of their African Domestics". The petition stimulated some debate, but it finally died in committee.

1398:

was building across New Mexico and met the Southern Pacific at Deming, New Mexico March 7, 1881, completing the second transcontinental railroad (the first, the central transcontinental, was completed May 10, 1869 at

828:

had posted nearly 8,000 of its total of 11,000 soldiers along the southwestern boundary, but they could not halt the 75,000 or so native nomads in the region from attacking swiftly and taking refuge among the hills,

370:

The financially strapped government of Santa Anna agreed to the sale, which netted Mexico $ 10 million (equivalent to $ 270 million in 2023). After the devastating loss of Mexican territory to the U.S. in the

1248:

out of the western half of the New Mexico Territory. The new American Arizona Territory also included most of the lands acquired in the Gadsden Purchase. This territory would be admitted into the Union as the

1112:

had taken such a firm, unrelenting hold on the nation that completion of an antebellum Pacific railroad was prohibited. Money, interest, and enthusiasm were devoted to emotion-filled topics, not the Pacific

887:. Hargous purchased the rights to the route for $ 25,000 (equivalent to $ 700,000 in 2023), but realized that the grant had little value unless it was supported by the Mexican and American governments. 1103:

While the land was available for construction of a southern railroad, the issue had become too strongly associated with the sectional debate over slavery to receive federal funding. Roberson wrote:

692:

divided their forces, leaving a lot of time for the Pacific railroad. Moreover, the Compromise of 1850 encouraged Southerners not to antagonize opponents by resurrecting the railroad controversy.

946:. Pierce's Secretary of War, Jefferson Davis, was already on record as favoring a southern route for a transcontinental railroad, so southern rail enthusiasts had every reason to be encouraged. 580:

was admitted to the Union as a free state in 1850, he advocated secession by South Carolina. Gadsden considered slavery "a social blessing" and abolitionists "the greatest curse of the nation".

1035:

and a large portion of the northwestern Mexican states while $ 15 million ($ 430 million) was to buy the 38,000 square miles (98,000 km) of desert necessary for the railroad plans.

382:, some historians argue that Santa Anna may have calculated it was better to yield territory by treaty and receive payment rather than have the territory simply seized by the United States. 2002:; thence due west one hundred miles; thence south to the parallel of 31° 20' north latitude; thence along the said parallel of 31° 20' to the 111th meridian of longitude west of Greenwich 636:

since all territory for the railroad was now organized and would allow for federal land grants as a financing measure. Competing northern or central routes championed, respectively, by

3856:

Terrazas, Marcela (2001). "The Regional Conflict, the Contractors, and the Construction Projects of a Road to the Pacific at the End of the War Between Mexico and the United States".

1015:

of Tehuantepec. Supporting the Sloo interests was not part of the instructions. Gadsden met with Santa Anna in Mexico City on September 25, 1853, to discuss the terms of the treaty.

4354: 1423:

territory that had been disputed between Mexico and the United States after the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo had gone into effect, and before the time of the Gadsden Purchase. The

667:

railroad to be financed by "federal land grants for the specific purpose of railroad construction". To satisfy Southern opposition to the general principle of federally supported

1541:

and the Arizona Eastern Railway railheads on each side of this gap. This highway is well north of the Gadsden Purchase. Given the elevations of those three places, at least a 3%

3351:

Slavery, Scandal, and Steel Rails: The 1854 Gadsden Purchase and the Building of the Second Transcontinental Railroad Across Arizona and New Mexico Twenty-Five Years Later

938:

to Spain to negotiate the acquisition of Cuba. Pierce appointed expansionists John Y. Mason of Virginia and Solon Borland of Arkansas as ministers, respectively, to

4222: 841:

In the five years after approval of the Treaty, the United States spent $ 12 million (equivalent to $ 330 million in 2023) in this area, and General-in-Chief

1537:(this road segment is east of Phoenix, in the Tonto National Forest passing through a mountainous region), takes an alternate route (17.4 road miles) between the 1419:, to El Paso by 1905, then to a link with the Rock Island line to form the Golden State Route. The EP&SW was sold to the Southern Pacific in the early 1920s. 777:, later replaced Bartlett. Mexico asserted that the commissioners' determinations were valid and prepared to send in troops to enforce the unratified agreement. 910:

States to unilaterally intervene militarily. The United States Senate approved the treaty in early 1851, but the Mexican Congress refused to accept the treaty.

4512: 671:, the land grants would first be transferred to the appropriate state or territorial government, which would oversee the final transfer to private developers. 803:

Article XI of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo contained a guarantee that the United States would protect Mexicans by preventing cross-border raids by local

3530: 4507: 4298: 1244:, including in the new territory mainly areas acquired by the Gadsden Purchase. In 1863, using a north-to-south dividing line, the Union created its own 4522: 4226: 1971:

The Purchase treaty defines the new border as "up the middle of that river to the point where the parallel of 31° 47' north latitude crosses the same

1546:

William H. Emory of the U. S. Army Corps of Topographical Engineers who surveyed the region in the 1840s–1850s, it was a good route "to the Pacific."

4214: 926:

Administration to deliver mail from New York to San Francisco. However, Sloo soon defaulted on bank loans and the contract was sold back to Hargous.

3925: 965:

and supported by the railroad interests, for new surveys for possible routes. Gwin expected that a southern route would be approved—both Davis and

443:

with the first plan to construct a transcontinental railroad. Although Congress took no action on his proposal, a commercial convention of 1845 in

4567: 3749: 4468: 4542: 3936:

Map of proposed Arizona Territory. From explorations by A. B. Gray & others, to accompany memoir by Lieut. Mowry U.S. Army, Delegate elect.

564:, preferred strict private financing, whereas John Bell and others thought that federal land grants to railroad developers would be necessary. 1131:

As originally envisioned, the purchase would have encompassed a much larger region, extending far enough south to include most of the current

1088:

permission for the United States to intervene unilaterally "when it may feel sanctioned and warranted by the public or international law"; and

347:

took final approval action on June 8, 1854, when the treaty took effect. The purchase was the last substantial territorial acquisition in the

1853:

The consequences of the Gadsden Purchase for Mexicans and Native Americans living in the region form the background of the story in the film

1047:

as possible. When the United Kingdom rejected Mexican requests to assist in the negotiations, Santa Anna opted for the $ 15 million package.

3651: 3178:

North, Diane (1984). "'A Real Class of People' in Arizona: a Biographical Analysis of the Sonora Exploring and Mining Company, 1856–1863".

4275: 1206: 471:

of South Carolina was influential in the convention's recommending a southern route for the proposed railroad. The route was to begin in

3963: 3495: 934:

The Pierce administration, which took office in March 1853, had a strong pro-southern, pro-expansion mindset. It sent Louisiana Senator

407: 4021: 3249: 483:. Southerners hoped that such a route would ensure Southern prosperity, while opening the "West to southern influence and settlement". 339:, president of Mexico. The U.S. Senate voted in favor of ratifying it with amendments on April 25, 1854, and then sent it to President 4562: 4182: 1764:

The northernmost point of the Gadsden Purchase, and also along the national border during the period of 1848–53, is at approximately

528: 3939: 1415:, the latter two world class copper producers. From Bisbee, a third sub-transcontinental was built across the Gadsden Purchase, the 4552: 4264: 4203: 3951: 1372: 1050:

Santa Anna and Gadsden signed the treaty on December 30, 1853, and the treaty was presented to the U.S. Senate for confirmation.

325: 3947: 1182:

in present-day southern Arizona on November 17, 1856. The difficulty of governing the new areas from the territorial capital at

729:(1848) ended the Mexican–American War, but left issues affecting both sides that still needed to be resolved: possession of the 4572: 2980: 1006: 659:

established a precedent for using federal land grants when he signed a bill promoted by Douglas that allowed a south to north,

4122: 1210:

has been heavily criticized as an institutional anachronism, by-passed by modern social, environmental, and political issues.

1096:

The land area included in the treaty is shown in the map at the head of the article, and in the national map in this section.

854:

During negotiations of the treaty, Americans had failed to secure the right of transit across the 125-mile-wide (201 km)

4527: 4249: 3697: 1942: 1424: 1395: 1319:

In the 1870s and 1880s there was considerable tension in the region—between the rural residents, who were for the most part

548:. Other Southerners argued for diversification from a plantation economy to keep the South independent of northern bankers. 3093:

McCarthy, Robert J. (May 12, 2011). "Adaptive Treaty Interpretation, and the International Boundary and Water Commission".

2110: 2040: 1974: 1863: 1502: 486:

Southern interest in railroads in general, and the Pacific railroad in particular, accelerated after the conclusion of the

410:

until the early 1880s, although the preferred land became part of the nation and was used as intended after the Civil War.

375:(1846–48) and the continued unauthorized military expeditions in the zone led by New Mexico territorial governor and noted 3966:

showing small version of northeast boundary of Purchase – i.e. claiming more territory for US pre-Purchase.

2180: 2145: 2075: 4333: 4270: 4012: 1767: 3942: 1190:

out of the southern portion. Many of the early settlers in the region were, however, pro-slavery and sympathetic to the

4537: 3908: 3818: 3763: 3739: 3569: 3333: 3062: 3049: 2920: 2635: 2247: 2269: 3622: 3450: 3379: 3010: 1416: 1164: 305: 224: 1170:

The purchased lands were initially appended to the existing New Mexico Territory. To help control the new land, the

4117: 3830: 2005: 1324: 1320: 1201:

would cause a later dispute over the boundary between Purchase lands and those of the state of Texas, known as the

1187: 789: 456: 3279:

Ball, Larry D. (Autumn 1973). "Pioneer Lawman: Crawley P. Dake and Law Enforcement on the Southwestern Frontier".

3118:

Americanization and Mexicanization: The Mexican Elite and Anglo-Americans in the Gadsden Purchase Lands, 1853–1880

1473: 1085:

a requirement that Mexico "protect with its whole power the prosecution, preservation, and security of the work ";

4293: 2365: 1947: 1845:

resources. Despite the comedy of errors, chaos, and misunderstanding, the Southwest must therefore be grateful."

648: 633: 352: 3538: 4577: 4206: 4107: 3977: 3598: 1328: 796: 1815: 1023:

for defense against the United States. He initially rejected the extension of the border further south to the

718: 336: 4557: 4285: 4175: 1237: 815:

had believed that the United States had both the commitment and resources to enforce this promise. Historian

4369: 4102: 3971: 1937: 1871: 608: 93: 4582: 1560: 1332: 1108:

to slavery and, therefore, sectional issues. Although few people fully realized it at the close of 1854,

1039: 726: 531:

in 1839; about a decade later, the company had laid 136 miles (219 km) of track extending west from

2948: 1613: 4411: 4364: 2139: 1829: 1705: 1518: 1123:

The effect was such that railroad development, which accelerated in the North, stagnated in the South.

532: 3467: 4389: 4379: 4349: 3874:

Truett, Samuel (2004). "The Ghosts of Frontiers Past: Making and Unmaking Space in the Borderlands".

1927: 1534: 1514: 1281:

When the Arizona Territory was formed in 1863 from the southern portion of the New Mexico Territory,

1032: 906: 551:

In October 1849, the southern interests held a convention in Memphis, in response to a convention in

321: 2037:

at the western end; the remaining land portion consisted of line segments between points, including

4453: 4417: 4168: 1832:, was in the disputed area before the Gadsden Purchase, and Deming, New Mexico, the county seat of 1811: 1577: 1569: 1522: 1254: 1132: 487: 372: 348: 144: 4052: 2863: 1580:

also extends south into the area of the Gadsden Purchase, but this area is also thinly populated.

1347: 4532: 4318: 4005: 3647: 1866:

issued a postage stamp commemorating 100 years since the Gadsden Purchase, on December 30, 1953.

1833: 1621: 1463: 1368: 1286: 1075: 1024: 237: 1100:

treaty back to Santa Anna, who accepted the changes. The treaty went into effect June 30, 1854.

898:

that a railroad across the isthmus was a "feasible and practical" idea. Clayton then instructed

4547: 4517: 4384: 4303: 4092: 4037: 1642: 1538: 1448: 1412: 1301: 1205:. Pursuant to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, the Gadsden Treaty and subsequent treaties, the 1191: 1175: 970: 855: 734: 685: 596: 588: 557: 440: 3102: 2910: 2237: 1327:

from the industrial Northeast and Midwest. The tension culminated in what has been called the

4112: 4097: 3990: 3689: 3504: 3371: 3365: 3054: 2625: 1825: 1684: 1565: 950: 863:. United States interest in the right-of-way increased in 1848 after the gold strikes in the 749: 668: 376: 344: 3257: 1447:

in August 1883. These two transcontinental railroads, the Southern Pacific (now part of the

4259: 3443: 3436: 1726: 1663: 1467: 1282: 1202: 1183: 868: 834: 637: 629: 573: 292:"La Mesilla sale") is a 29,640-square-mile (76,800 km) region of present-day southern 8: 4328: 4254: 4087: 3957: 3201:

Wilson, James A. (1967). "West Texas Influence on the Early Cattle Industry of Arizona".

2270:"Land sale still thorn to Mexico: Historians say United States imperialism behind treaty" 1932: 1855: 1241: 1140: 891: 499: 3808: 2439: 4374: 4042: 3998: 3883: 3835: 3409: 3284: 2956: 2912:

The Encyclopedia of the Mexican-American War: A Political, Social, and Military History

2274: 1952: 1510: 1440: 1404: 1384: 1340: 1294: 1233: 1171: 957:

This rejection led to legislative demands, sponsored by William Gwin of California and

825: 770: 640: 621: 516: 502:

had conducted surveys that demonstrated the feasibility of a railroad's originating in

452: 444: 364: 3531:"Grades and curves: Railroading's weapons in the battle against gravity and geography" 3155:

Sheridan, Thomas E. (1984). "Peacock in the Parlor: Frontier Tucson's Mexican Elite".

1323:

from the agricultural South, and town residents and business owners, who were largely

1062:

Territorial enlargement of the United States, the Gadsden Purchase shown in red-orange

328:

later completed in 1881–1883. The purchase also aimed to resolve other border issues.

4077: 4032: 3904: 3897: 3861: 3814: 3795: 3778: 3759: 3735: 3729: 3693: 3565: 3446: 3375: 3329: 3206: 3183: 3160: 3137: 3098: 3058: 3006: 2916: 2631: 2243: 1796: 1689: 1573: 1526: 1432: 1245: 1148: 994: 914: 899: 540: 394:

Shaded relief map of Arizona, Basin and Range region to the south, in shades of green

379: 1359: 713: 4432: 4313: 4148: 4057: 3985: 2069: 1800: 1710: 1647: 1444: 1436: 1428: 1400: 1011: 981: 966: 656: 495: 464: 285: 131: 86: 3970: 3224: 1194:, resulting in an impasse in Congress as to how best to reorganize the territory. 913:

In the meantime, Hargous proceeded as if the treaty would be approved eventually.

4323: 4191: 4082: 4067: 3929: 3828:

Roberson, Jere W. (April 1974). "The South and the Pacific Railroad, 1845–1855".

3753: 3683: 3599:"History of the United States-Mexican boundary survey – 1848–1955" 3021: 1668: 1626: 1581: 1506: 1408: 1380: 1136: 1043: 958: 923: 895: 884: 860: 708: 681: 660: 603:

A few months later, Gadsden and 1,200 potential settlers from South Carolina and

584: 511: 460: 448: 403: 356: 340: 112: 2346: 1309:

about the "Cowboy" outlaws who stole Mexican beef and resold it in Arizona. The

1058: 935: 929: 837:

in a landscape where one's enemies could be spotted twenty or thirty miles away.

402:

The administration of President Pierce, strongly influenced by Secretary of War

4439: 4047: 3725: 3302: 2351: 2034: 1905: 1530: 1462:

The remainder of the Gila Valley pre-Purchase border area was traversed by the

1388: 1311: 842: 816: 812: 792: 730: 625: 521: 503: 3657: 969:, former Secretary of the Treasury, supported it. Both were stockholders in a 874: 312:, which took effect on June 8, 1854. The purchase included lands south of the 4501: 4483: 4470: 4062: 3865: 3210: 3187: 3164: 3141: 2195: 2182: 2160: 2147: 2125: 2112: 2090: 2077: 2055: 2042: 2020: 2007: 1989: 1976: 1919: 1880: 1782: 1769: 1731: 1542: 1488: 1475: 1351:

in the 21st century with stronger enforcement of customs laws at the border.

1266: 1179: 986: 864: 468: 428: 360: 332: 301: 33: 3799: 3782: 1156: 4359: 3679: 3562:

Rival Rails, the Race to Build America's Greatest Transcontinental Railroad

2279: 1885: 1452: 1265:

After the Gadsden Purchase, southern Arizona's social elite, including the

1109: 1020: 753: 733:, protection for Mexico from Indian raids, and the right of transit in the 4132: 3283:. Vol. 14, no. 3. Arizona Historical Society. pp. 243–256. 2981:"Gadsden Purchase: How the US gave up a Vermont (and got part of it back)" 1074:

The treaty reached the Senate as that body focused on the debate over the

949:

The South as a whole, however, remained divided. In January 1853, Senator

46: 4405: 3986:

Map of North America at the time of the Gadsden Purchase at omniatlas.com

1606: 1376: 1297:

residents looked the other way when it was "only Mexicans" being robbed.

592: 436: 3887: 3288: 480: 2174: 1819: 1336: 1305: 1198: 1160: 577: 536: 491: 317: 313: 297: 270: 3839: 3655: 4244: 943: 587:, a lawyer in San Francisco since 1851, and California state senator 552: 476: 390: 2774:

The Gadsden Treaty: The Diplomacy of Transcontinental Transportation

2104: 1144: 804: 652: 644: 583:

When the secession proposal failed, Gadsden worked with his cousin

561: 507: 413: 385: 4160: 3503:(Map). Scale not given. Austin, TX: DeskMapSystems. Archived from 3132:

Sacks, Ben (1965). "The Origins of Fort Buchanan: Myth and Fact".

2672: 2670: 1250: 1118:

Jere W. Roberson, "The South and the Pacific Railroad, 1845–1855"

1031:(equivalent to $ 1.4 billion in 2023) would have bought the 785: 774: 697:

Jere W. Roberson, "The South and the Pacific Railroad, 1845–1855"

664: 604: 293: 265: 811:

tribes. At the time the treaty was ratified, Secretary of State

423: 367:

are on territory acquired by the U.S. in the Gadsden Purchase.

2908: 2386:. Vol. 3. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 1–2. 1152: 999: 939: 808: 761: 757: 689: 545: 4020: 3005:

Pierce, Franklin & Marcy, William L. (December 30, 1853).

2667: 2909:

Tucker, Spencer; Arnold, James R.; et al., eds. (2013).

1391:

in May 1881, the first railroad across the Gadsden Purchase.

930:

Final negotiations and ratification of the treaty of purchase

830: 472: 3656:

The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon (December 12, 2012),

2138:, the eastern corners of the New Mexico southern boot heel ( 1814:(population 14,267 in 2010), a suburb of El Paso, Texas, in 1869:

In 2012, the Gadsden Purchase was featured in a segment on

1331:, and the Earp-Clanton feud, which ended with the historic 962: 765: 2442:. Amistad, Texas: National Park Service. February 24, 2015 1455:), are among the busiest rail lines in the United States. 655:, would still need to go through unorganized territories. 3731:

Seizing Destiny: How America Grew From Sea to Shining Sea

3810:

The California Gold Rush and the Coming of the Civil War

3475:(Map). Scale not given. Chandler: Arizona Railway Museum 3328:. Seattle: University of Washington Press. p. 16. 16:

Land purchased from Mexico by the United States in 1854

3758:. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press. 2627:

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo: A Legacy of Conflict

2623: 1888:

is named "Gadsden Drake" after the Gadsden Purchase.

1470:

by 1904. Excluded was a 20-mile (32 km) section

1346:

The Gadsden purchase resulted in the division of the

1163:. The Mexican people opposed such boundaries, as did 3120:(PhD dissertation). Case Western Reserve University. 1895: 331:

The first draft was signed on December 30, 1853, by

4299:

List of federal judges appointed by Franklin Pierce

3870:

stresses railroad speculation and corruption themes

3792:

Franklin Pierce: Young Hickory of the Granite Hills

3755:

The Southern Dream of a Caribbean Empire, 1854–1861

3659:

The Gadsden Purchase (Late Night with Jimmy Fallon)

3082:(Thesis). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania. 2866:. U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian 819:, however, described the difficulties of the task: 4123:Acquisition of the Northern Mariana Islands (1986) 3896: 3895:Vázquez, Josefina Z. & Meyer, Lorenzo (1985). 3435: 2384:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture 2344: 2340: 2338: 2336: 1213: 1005:Pierce recalled Lane in May and replaced him with 615: 418: 3960:, Office of the Historian, US Department of State 3410:"Second Transcontinental Line brings competition" 2334: 2332: 2330: 2328: 2326: 2324: 2322: 2320: 2318: 2316: 4499: 1126: 447:took up the issue. Prominent attendees included 414:Southern route for the transcontinental railroad 386:Desire for a southern transcontinental rail line 3775:Ordeal of the Union: A House Dividing 1852–1857 3493: 3442:. Berkeley, California: Howell North. pp. 3438:Railroads of Arizona, vol 1, the Southern Roads 3370:. Berkeley, California: Howell North. pp. 3367:Railroads of Arizona, vol 1, the Southern Roads 2345:Johnston, Louis; Williamson, Samuel H. (2023). 1828:(population 2,797 in 2010), the county seat of 567: 3860:. Vol. 35, no. 2. pp. 161–169. 3182:. Vol. 26, no. 3. pp. 261–274. 3159:. Vol. 25, no. 3. pp. 245–264. 2407: 2405: 2313: 1367:In 1846, James Gadsden, then president of the 702: 431:, U.S. Army, later American minister to Mexico 4513:States and territories disestablished in 1854 4176: 4006: 3834:. Vol. 5, no. 2. pp. 163–186. 3303:"Tohono O'odham Nation - History and Culture" 3136:. Vol. 7, no. 3. pp. 207–226. 1584:is the largest city in the Gadsden Purchase. 3894: 3592: 3590: 3205:. Vol. 71, no. 1. pp. 26–36. 2902: 2630:. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 57. 2483: 2481: 2422: 2420: 2382:Deeds, Susan M. (1996). "Gadsden Purchase". 985:The Gadsden Purchase historical marker near 3623:"Map & pioneer group: Gadsden Purchase" 3004: 2402: 1799:, about 30 miles (48 km) southwest of 1253:on February 14, 1912, the last area of the 1207:International Boundary and Water Commission 632:, would facilitate a southern route to the 4508:States and territories established in 1853 4183: 4169: 4022:Territorial expansion of the United States 4013: 3999: 3611:– via New Mexico Geological Society. 2846: 2844: 2707: 2705: 2231: 2229: 2227: 2225: 529:South Carolina Canal and Rail Road Company 45: 4523:History of the Southwestern United States 3587: 3528: 3323: 3115: 2478: 2417: 2303: 2301: 2299: 2297: 1878:A supporting character in the 2021 novel 1010:additional territory. Secretary of State 976: 878:Isthmus of Tehuantepec in southern Mexico 849: 520:, and Gadsden both publicized within the 345:General Congress or Congress of the Union 4265:1852 United States presidential election 3855: 3827: 3806: 3672: 3559: 3465: 3242: 3154: 3092: 2835: 2799: 2787: 2759: 2723: 2696: 2676: 2661: 2599: 2563: 2551: 2535: 2523: 2511: 2487: 2472: 2460: 2440:"The Southern Transcontinental Railroad" 2411: 2263: 2261: 2259: 1358: 1057: 980: 873: 784: 780: 712: 527:Gadsden had become the president of the 524:the benefits of building this railroad. 422: 389: 4118:Treaty of the Danish West Indies (1917) 3928:USGS Public Lands Survey Map including 3789: 3053:. New York: Harper Torchbooks. p. 2935: 2890: 2841: 2827: 2815: 2776:(PhD dissertation). Indiana University. 2702: 2624:Griswold del Castillo, Richard (1990). 2222: 1354: 1272: 324:along a deep southern route, which the 69:76,768 km (29,640 sq mi) 4568:Treaties involving territorial changes 4500: 3873: 3772: 3724: 3433: 3363: 3348: 3200: 3077: 3046: 3034: 2978: 2896: 2850: 2831: 2803: 2747: 2735: 2711: 2692: 2680: 2657: 2611: 2587: 2575: 2547: 2499: 2426: 2396: 2307: 2294: 2267: 1396:Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railroad 166:• Treaty approved by U.S. Senate 4543:History of United States expansionism 4164: 3994: 3596: 3564:. New York: Random House. p. 8. 3217: 3177: 3131: 2878: 2771: 2381: 2268:Ibarra, Ignacio (February 12, 2004). 2256: 1943:Historic regions of the United States 1848: 1839: 1260: 108:• March 4, 1853 – March 4, 1857 3954:railroad finally built in the 1880s. 3678: 3529:McGonical, Robert S. (May 1, 2006). 3278: 3272: 2235: 1864:United States Post Office Department 1525:about 20 miles (32 km) between 1503:San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation 1451:) and the Santa Fe (now part of the 51:The Gadsden Purchase and main cities 4334:1856 Democratic National Convention 4271:1852 Democratic National Convention 4190: 4103:Treaty of Cession of Tutuila (1900) 3938:with some proposed railroad routes 3748: 2884: 1186:led to efforts as early as 1856 to 795:(1791–1868), who later became 15th 408:southern transcontinental rail line 13: 4108:Treaty of Cession of Manuʻa (1904) 3848: 2778:DAI 1992 52(9): 3405-A. DA9205951. 1197:The shifting of the course of the 335:, U.S. minister to Mexico, and by 14: 4594: 3919: 3203:Southwestern Historical Quarterly 3011:United States Department of State 2979:Cranor, David (August 17, 2023). 2949:"Pacific Railroad: Southern Plan" 2103:, near Arizona-New Mexico-Mexico 1427:also completed a railroad across 1417:El Paso and Southwestern Railroad 1394:At the same time, 1879–1881, the 890:In Mexico, topographical officer 773:, a pro-railroad politician from 740: 320:where the U.S. wanted to build a 225:Second Federal Republic of Mexico 4563:Pre-statehood history of Arizona 4449: 4448: 4131: 3831:The Western Historical Quarterly 3020:– via The Avalon Project, 1912: 1898: 1612: 1605: 1379:reached Yuma, Arizona, in 1877, 1242:Confederate Territory of Arizona 769:survey the disputed borderland. 242: 217: 4294:Inauguration of Franklin Pierce 3903:. University of Chicago Press. 3717: 3640: 3615: 3578: 3553: 3522: 3487: 3459: 3427: 3402: 3388: 3357: 3342: 3317: 3295: 3194: 3171: 3148: 3125: 3109: 3086: 3071: 3040: 3028: 2998: 2972: 2941: 2929: 2856: 2821: 2809: 2793: 2781: 2765: 2753: 2741: 2729: 2717: 2686: 2651: 2617: 2605: 2593: 2581: 2569: 2557: 2541: 2529: 2517: 2505: 2493: 2466: 2454: 2366:Gross Domestic Product deflator 2239:Documents of American Democracy 2068:at the Colorado River, west of 1965: 1218: 1214:Growth of the region after 1854 1053: 894:reported to Secretary of State 616:Stephen Douglas and land grants 419:Southern commercial conventions 4207:President of the United States 3978:New International Encyclopedia 3790:Nichols, Roy Franklin (1969). 3281:The Journal of Arizona History 3116:Goldstein, Marcy Gail (1977). 3050:The Impending Crisis 1848–1861 2772:Mauck, Jeffrey Gordon (1991). 2432: 2390: 2375: 1818:, is the largest community of 1082:protection for the Sloo grant; 797:President of the United States 343:. Mexico's government and its 1: 4573:Presidency of Franklin Pierce 4113:Annexation of Oklahoma (1906) 3972:"Gadsden Purchase, The" 3813:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 3807:Richards, Leonard L. (2007). 3734:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 2864:"Gadsden Purchase, 1853–1854" 2347:"What Was the U.S. GDP Then?" 2215: 1806: 1549: 1238:Confederate States of America 1127:Post-ratification controversy 4528:History of the American West 4098:Tripartite Convention (1899) 3899:The United States and Mexico 3122:DAI 1977 38(3): 1572-1573-A. 2236:Kemp, Roger L., ed. (2010). 1938:Gadsden Purchase half dollar 1872:Late Night with Jimmy Fallon 1227: 607:submitted a petition to the 568:James Gadsden and California 7: 4553:Mexico–United States border 4088:Annexation of Hawaii (1898) 3958:Gadsden Purchase, 1853–1854 3950:Map including route of the 3326:The West the Railroads Made 2173:, and the west bank of the 1948:Mexico–United States border 1891: 1816:Doña Ana County, New Mexico 1333:Gunfight at the O.K. Corral 1300:Outlaws derisively called " 727:Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 719:Antonio López de Santa Anna 703:Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo 353:Mexico–United States border 337:Antonio López de Santa Anna 10: 4599: 4365:Franklin Pierce University 4215:Senator from New Hampshire 3964:3-cent commemorative stamp 3858:Journal of Popular Culture 3324:Schwantes, Carlos (2008). 3250:"Tombstones O.K. Corral 2" 3225:"History of Old Tombstone" 3157:Journal of Arizona History 3078:Garber, Paul Neff (1923). 2242:. McFarland. p. 195. 1554: 706: 533:Charleston, South Carolina 490:in 1848. During that war, 439:of New York presented the 4538:1853 in the United States 4427: 4398: 4390:Statue of Franklin Pierce 4380:Pierce County, Washington 4350:Franklin Pierce Homestead 4342: 4284: 4237: 4198: 4140: 4129: 4043:Louisiana Purchase (1803) 4028: 3597:James, Harold L. (1969). 3560:Borneman, Walter (2010). 3047:Potter, David N. (1977). 3007:"Gadsden Purchase Treaty" 2915:. ABC-CLIO. p. 255. 1928:Butterfield Overland Mail 1822:in the Gadsden Purchase. 1611: 1604: 1425:Santa Fe Railroad Company 1373:Southern Pacific Railroad 1033:Baja California Peninsula 510:and ending in San Diego. 326:Southern Pacific Railroad 322:transcontinental railroad 289: 258: 196: 192: 188: 184: 174: 164: 154: 141: 137: 126: 122: 118: 106: 102: 92: 80: 73: 63: 55: 44: 39: 31: 23: 4418:Benjamin Kendrick Pierce 4078:Guano Islands Act (1856) 4053:Adams–Onís Treaty (1819) 4048:Red River Cession (1818) 4033:Thirteen Colonies (1776) 3876:Journal of the Southwest 3494:DeskMap Systems (2005). 3254:The Old West History Net 1958: 1188:organize a new territory 355:. The Arizona cities of 349:contiguous United States 176:• Treaty in effect 24:Gadsden Purchase of 1854 4073:Gadsden Purchase (1853) 4058:Texas Annexation (1845) 3497:Arizona Eastern Railway 3466:Pearsall, Marc (2002). 2126:31.332099°N 109.05047°W 2056:32.49399°N 114.813043°W 1990:31.78333°N 106.528194°W 1568:including the towns of 1559:The boundaries of most 1519:Needle's Eye Wilderness 1464:Arizona Eastern Railway 1401:Promontory Summit, Utah 1369:South Carolina Railroad 790:U.S. Secretary of State 238:Territory of New Mexico 130:Westward expansion and 4385:Pierce County, Georgia 4304:Young America movement 4093:Treaty of Paris (1898) 4083:Alaska Purchase (1867) 4068:Mexican Cession (1848) 4038:Treaty of Paris (1783) 3773:Nevins, Allan (1947). 3690:Hodder & Stoughton 3434:Myrick, David (1975). 3364:Myrick, David (1975). 3353:. New York: iUniverse. 3349:Devine, David (2004). 2196:31.78377°N 106.52864°W 2161:31.78378°N 108.20854°W 2091:31.33214°N 111.07423°W 1783:33.39167°N 112.38333°W 1539:Magma Arizona Railroad 1449:Union Pacific Railroad 1413:Santa Rita, New Mexico 1387:in December 1880, and 1364: 1257:to receive statehood. 1165:anti-slavery Americans 1121: 1063: 1042:'s attempt to capture 1025:Sierra Madre Mountains 989: 977:Gadsden and Santa Anna 879: 856:Isthmus of Tehuantepec 850:Isthmus of Tehuantepec 839: 800: 735:Isthmus of Tehuantepec 722: 717:President and General 700: 686:Isthmus of Tehuantepec 609:California legislature 589:Thomas Jefferson Green 558:Matthew Fontaine Maury 441:United States Congress 432: 395: 156:• Treaty drafted 4578:Purchased territories 4355:Franklin Pierce House 4250:9th Infantry Regiment 3948:National Park Service 2985:Nothing More Powerful 2131:31.332099; -109.05047 2061:32.49399; -114.813043 1995:31.78333; -106.528194 1826:Lordsburg, New Mexico 1362: 1348:Tohono Oʼodham Nation 1105: 1061: 984: 951:Thomas Jefferson Rusk 907:Clayton–Bulwer Treaty 877: 821: 788: 781:Native American raids 716: 677: 669:internal improvements 426: 393: 4558:New Mexico Territory 4484:32.1318°N 110.5535°W 4260:Battle of Churubusco 4063:Oregon Treaty (1846) 3926:US Geological Survey 3692:. pp. 105–106. 3469:Railroads of Arizona 3180:Arizona and the West 3134:Arizona and the West 2695:, pp. 493–494; 2660:, pp. 491–492; 2201:31.78377; -106.52864 2166:31.78378; -108.20854 2096:31.33214; -111.07423 1788:33.39167; -112.38333 1513:at the mouth of the 1468:Copper Basin Railway 1355:Railroad development 1304:" frequently robbed 1273:Economic development 1232:In 1861, during the 1203:Country Club Dispute 869:California Gold Rush 630:New Mexico Territory 624:, which created the 488:Mexican–American War 453:Clement C. Clay, Sr. 373:Mexican–American War 145:Mexican–American War 4480: / 4329:Topeka Constitution 4319:Kansas–Nebraska Act 4255:Battle of Contreras 4223:U.S. Representative 3037:, pp. 502–503. 2899:, pp. 498–499. 2853:, pp. 497–498. 2790:, pp. 170–171. 2738:, pp. 494–495. 2368:figures follow the 2192: / 2157: / 2122: / 2087: / 2052: / 2017: / 1986: / 1933:Confederate Arizona 1856:Conquest of Cochise 1779: / 1561:counties in Arizona 1485: / 1329:Cochise County feud 1141:Baja California Sur 1076:Kansas–Nebraska Act 867:, which led to the 760:deposits, and some 600:California states. 585:Isaac Edward Holmes 290:Venta de La Mesilla 26:Venta de La Mesilla 4583:Eponymous treaties 4489:32.1318; -110.5535 4433:← Millard Fillmore 4375:Pierceton, Indiana 4276:Old North Cemetery 3627:U.S. Stamp Gallery 3080:The Gadsden Treaty 2957:The New York Times 2463:, pp. 163–164 2275:Arizona Daily Star 2021:31.333°N 111.000°W 1953:Republic of Sonora 1859:(Columbia, 1953). 1849:In popular culture 1840:Cost effectiveness 1405:Tombstone, Arizona 1385:Deming, New Mexico 1365: 1295:Tombstone, Arizona 1261:Social development 1234:American Civil War 1092:400 million). 1067:South a railroad. 1064: 990: 880: 801: 771:Robert B. Campbell 723: 721:, photo circa 1853 649:Thomas Hart Benton 622:Compromise of 1850 572:Gadsden supported 433: 396: 351:, and defined the 4463: 4462: 4158: 4157: 3699:978-1-52-936572-6 1762: 1761: 1521:. The section of 1246:Arizona Territory 915:Judah P. Benjamin 900:Robert P. Letcher 435:In January 1845, 380:William Carr Lane 310:Treaty of Mesilla 296:and southwestern 278: 277: 254: 253: 250: 249: 230: 229: 82: • Type 4590: 4495: 4494: 4492: 4491: 4490: 4485: 4481: 4478: 4477: 4476: 4473: 4452: 4451: 4440:James Buchanan → 4314:Ostend Manifesto 4309:Gadsden Purchase 4230: 4218: 4210: 4185: 4178: 4171: 4162: 4161: 4149:Manifest destiny 4135: 4015: 4008: 4001: 3992: 3991: 3982: 3974: 3952:Southern Pacific 3940:Medium-sized JPG 3914: 3902: 3891: 3869: 3843: 3824: 3803: 3794:(2nd ed.). 3786: 3769: 3745: 3711: 3710: 3708: 3706: 3676: 3670: 3669: 3668: 3666: 3644: 3638: 3637: 3635: 3633: 3619: 3613: 3612: 3610: 3608: 3603: 3594: 3585: 3582: 3576: 3575: 3557: 3551: 3550: 3548: 3546: 3537:. Archived from 3526: 3520: 3519: 3517: 3515: 3509: 3502: 3491: 3485: 3484: 3482: 3480: 3474: 3463: 3457: 3456: 3441: 3431: 3425: 3424: 3422: 3420: 3406: 3400: 3399: 3392: 3386: 3385: 3361: 3355: 3354: 3346: 3340: 3339: 3321: 3315: 3314: 3312: 3310: 3299: 3293: 3292: 3276: 3270: 3269: 3267: 3265: 3260:on June 16, 2011 3256:. Archived from 3246: 3240: 3239: 3237: 3235: 3229:Discover Arizona 3221: 3215: 3214: 3198: 3192: 3191: 3175: 3169: 3168: 3152: 3146: 3145: 3129: 3123: 3121: 3113: 3107: 3106: 3095:Water Law Review 3090: 3084: 3083: 3075: 3069: 3068: 3044: 3038: 3032: 3026: 3025: 3019: 3017: 3002: 2996: 2995: 2993: 2991: 2976: 2970: 2969: 2967: 2965: 2960:. April 25, 1854 2953: 2945: 2939: 2933: 2927: 2926: 2906: 2900: 2894: 2888: 2882: 2876: 2875: 2873: 2871: 2860: 2854: 2848: 2839: 2825: 2819: 2813: 2807: 2797: 2791: 2785: 2779: 2777: 2769: 2763: 2757: 2751: 2745: 2739: 2733: 2727: 2721: 2715: 2709: 2700: 2690: 2684: 2674: 2665: 2655: 2649: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2621: 2615: 2609: 2603: 2597: 2591: 2585: 2579: 2573: 2567: 2561: 2555: 2545: 2539: 2538:, p. . 127. 2533: 2527: 2521: 2515: 2509: 2503: 2497: 2491: 2485: 2476: 2470: 2464: 2458: 2452: 2451: 2449: 2447: 2436: 2430: 2424: 2415: 2409: 2400: 2394: 2388: 2387: 2379: 2373: 2363: 2361: 2359: 2342: 2311: 2305: 2292: 2291: 2289: 2287: 2278:. Archived from 2265: 2254: 2253: 2233: 2209: 2207: 2206: 2204: 2203: 2202: 2197: 2193: 2190: 2189: 2188: 2185: 2172: 2171: 2169: 2168: 2167: 2162: 2158: 2155: 2154: 2153: 2150: 2137: 2136: 2134: 2133: 2132: 2127: 2123: 2120: 2119: 2118: 2115: 2102: 2101: 2099: 2098: 2097: 2092: 2088: 2085: 2084: 2083: 2080: 2067: 2066: 2064: 2063: 2062: 2057: 2053: 2050: 2049: 2048: 2045: 2032: 2031: 2029: 2028: 2027: 2026:31.333; -111.000 2022: 2018: 2015: 2014: 2013: 2010: 2001: 2000: 1998: 1997: 1996: 1991: 1987: 1984: 1983: 1982: 1979: 1969: 1922: 1917: 1916: 1915: 1908: 1903: 1902: 1901: 1794: 1793: 1791: 1790: 1789: 1784: 1780: 1777: 1776: 1775: 1772: 1616: 1609: 1587: 1586: 1535:Top-of-the-World 1517:, including the 1500: 1499: 1497: 1496: 1495: 1490: 1486: 1483: 1482: 1481: 1478: 1466:by 1899 and the 1429:Northern Arizona 1363:Gadsden Purchase 1251:State of Arizona 1119: 1012:William L. Marcy 1007:David Meriwether 967:Robert J. Walker 892:George W. Hughes 698: 657:Millard Fillmore 514:, the editor of 496:William H. Emory 465:Edmund P. Gaines 316:and west of the 282:Gadsden Purchase 246: 245: 234: 233: 221: 220: 214: 213: 198: 197: 160:30 December 1853 132:Manifest Destiny 87:Federal republic 83: 49: 21: 20: 4598: 4597: 4593: 4592: 4591: 4589: 4588: 4587: 4498: 4497: 4488: 4486: 4482: 4479: 4474: 4471: 4469: 4467: 4466: 4464: 4459: 4423: 4412:Benjamin Pierce 4394: 4338: 4324:Bleeding Kansas 4280: 4233: 4221: 4213: 4202: 4194: 4192:Franklin Pierce 4189: 4159: 4154: 4136: 4127: 4024: 4019: 3969: 3932:(6 mile) lines. 3930:survey township 3922: 3917: 3911: 3851: 3849:Further reading 3846: 3821: 3766: 3742: 3726:Kluger, Richard 3720: 3715: 3714: 3704: 3702: 3700: 3677: 3673: 3664: 3662: 3652:Wayback Machine 3645: 3641: 3631: 3629: 3621: 3620: 3616: 3606: 3604: 3601: 3595: 3588: 3583: 3579: 3572: 3558: 3554: 3544: 3542: 3541:on July 9, 2018 3527: 3523: 3513: 3511: 3510:on June 3, 2006 3507: 3500: 3492: 3488: 3478: 3476: 3472: 3464: 3460: 3453: 3432: 3428: 3418: 3416: 3408: 3407: 3403: 3394: 3393: 3389: 3382: 3362: 3358: 3347: 3343: 3336: 3322: 3318: 3308: 3306: 3301: 3300: 3296: 3277: 3273: 3263: 3261: 3248: 3247: 3243: 3233: 3231: 3223: 3222: 3218: 3199: 3195: 3176: 3172: 3153: 3149: 3130: 3126: 3114: 3110: 3091: 3087: 3076: 3072: 3065: 3045: 3041: 3033: 3029: 3022:Yale University 3015: 3013: 3003: 2999: 2989: 2987: 2977: 2973: 2963: 2961: 2951: 2947: 2946: 2942: 2934: 2930: 2923: 2907: 2903: 2895: 2891: 2883: 2879: 2869: 2867: 2862: 2861: 2857: 2849: 2842: 2836:Roberson (1974) 2834:, p. 496; 2830:, p. 266; 2826: 2822: 2814: 2810: 2802:, p. 172; 2800:Roberson (1974) 2798: 2794: 2788:Roberson (1974) 2786: 2782: 2770: 2766: 2760:Roberson (1974) 2758: 2754: 2746: 2742: 2734: 2730: 2724:Roberson (1974) 2722: 2718: 2710: 2703: 2697:Roberson (1974) 2691: 2687: 2679:, p. 182; 2677:Roberson (1974) 2675: 2668: 2662:Roberson (1974) 2656: 2652: 2642: 2640: 2638: 2622: 2618: 2610: 2606: 2600:Roberson (1974) 2598: 2594: 2586: 2582: 2574: 2570: 2564:Roberson (1974) 2562: 2558: 2552:Roberson (1974) 2550:, p. 487; 2546: 2542: 2536:Richards (2007) 2534: 2530: 2524:Richards (2007) 2522: 2518: 2512:Roberson (1974) 2510: 2506: 2498: 2494: 2488:Richards (2007) 2486: 2479: 2473:Roberson (1974) 2471: 2467: 2461:Roberson (1974) 2459: 2455: 2445: 2443: 2438: 2437: 2433: 2425: 2418: 2412:Roberson (1974) 2410: 2403: 2395: 2391: 2380: 2376: 2357: 2355: 2343: 2314: 2306: 2295: 2285: 2283: 2266: 2257: 2250: 2234: 2223: 2218: 2213: 2212: 2200: 2198: 2194: 2191: 2186: 2183: 2181: 2179: 2178: 2165: 2163: 2159: 2156: 2151: 2148: 2146: 2144: 2143: 2130: 2128: 2124: 2121: 2116: 2113: 2111: 2109: 2108: 2095: 2093: 2089: 2086: 2081: 2078: 2076: 2074: 2073: 2060: 2058: 2054: 2051: 2046: 2043: 2041: 2039: 2038: 2025: 2023: 2019: 2016: 2011: 2008: 2006: 2004: 2003: 1994: 1992: 1988: 1985: 1980: 1977: 1975: 1973: 1972: 1970: 1966: 1961: 1918: 1913: 1911: 1904: 1899: 1897: 1894: 1851: 1842: 1809: 1787: 1785: 1781: 1778: 1773: 1770: 1768: 1766: 1765: 1578:Maricopa County 1570:Apache Junction 1557: 1552: 1515:San Pedro River 1507:San Carlos Lake 1505:, from today's 1493: 1491: 1487: 1484: 1479: 1476: 1474: 1472: 1471: 1409:Bisbee, Arizona 1383:in March 1880, 1381:Tucson, Arizona 1357: 1312:Arizona Citizen 1293:by. Many early 1275: 1263: 1255:Lower 48 States 1230: 1221: 1216: 1137:Baja California 1129: 1120: 1117: 1056: 1044:Baja California 995:William C. Lane 979: 959:Salmon P. Chase 932: 924:Franklin Pierce 896:John M. Clayton 861:Monroe Doctrine 852: 783: 743: 711: 709:Mexican Cession 705: 699: 696: 682:Central America 641:Stephen Douglas 618: 570: 449:John C. Calhoun 421: 416: 404:Jefferson Davis 388: 341:Franklin Pierce 243: 218: 177: 167: 157: 147: 113:Franklin Pierce 109: 81: 66: 50: 27: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4596: 4586: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4570: 4565: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4540: 4535: 4533:1853 in Mexico 4530: 4525: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4461: 4460: 4458: 4457: 4444: 4443: 4436: 4428: 4425: 4424: 4422: 4421: 4415: 4409: 4402: 4400: 4396: 4395: 4393: 4392: 4387: 4382: 4377: 4372: 4367: 4362: 4357: 4352: 4346: 4344: 4340: 4339: 4337: 4336: 4331: 4326: 4321: 4316: 4311: 4306: 4301: 4296: 4290: 4288: 4282: 4281: 4279: 4278: 4273: 4268: 4262: 4257: 4252: 4247: 4241: 4239: 4235: 4234: 4232: 4231: 4219: 4211: 4199: 4196: 4195: 4188: 4187: 4180: 4173: 4165: 4156: 4155: 4153: 4152: 4141: 4138: 4137: 4130: 4128: 4126: 4125: 4120: 4115: 4110: 4105: 4100: 4095: 4090: 4085: 4080: 4075: 4070: 4065: 4060: 4055: 4050: 4045: 4040: 4035: 4029: 4026: 4025: 4018: 4017: 4010: 4003: 3995: 3989: 3988: 3983: 3967: 3961: 3955: 3945: 3943:Zoom navigator 3933: 3921: 3920:External links 3918: 3916: 3915: 3910:978-0226850238 3909: 3892: 3882:(2): 309–350. 3871: 3852: 3850: 3847: 3845: 3844: 3825: 3820:978-0307265203 3819: 3804: 3787: 3770: 3765:978-0807100516 3764: 3750:May, Robert E. 3746: 3741:978-0375413414 3740: 3721: 3719: 3716: 3713: 3712: 3698: 3671: 3639: 3614: 3586: 3584:2010 US Census 3577: 3571:978-1400065615 3570: 3552: 3521: 3486: 3458: 3451: 3426: 3401: 3387: 3380: 3356: 3341: 3335:978-0295987699 3334: 3316: 3294: 3271: 3241: 3216: 3193: 3170: 3147: 3124: 3108: 3085: 3070: 3064:978-0061319297 3063: 3039: 3027: 2997: 2971: 2940: 2938:, p. 325. 2936:Nichols (1969) 2928: 2922:978-1851098538 2921: 2901: 2889: 2877: 2855: 2840: 2838:, p. 183. 2828:Nichols (1969) 2820: 2818:, p. 265. 2816:Nichols (1969) 2808: 2806:, p. 490. 2792: 2780: 2764: 2762:, p. 170. 2752: 2740: 2728: 2726:, p. 182. 2716: 2714:, p. 494. 2701: 2699:, p. 182. 2685: 2683:, p. 493. 2666: 2664:, p. 171. 2650: 2637:978-0806122403 2636: 2616: 2614:, p. 491. 2604: 2602:, p. 169. 2592: 2590:, p. 488. 2580: 2578:, p. 487. 2568: 2566:, p. 168. 2556: 2554:, p. 169. 2540: 2528: 2526:, p. 126. 2516: 2514:, p. 166. 2504: 2502:, p. 485. 2492: 2490:, p. 125. 2477: 2475:, p. 165. 2465: 2453: 2431: 2429:, p. 504. 2416: 2414:, p. 180. 2401: 2389: 2374: 2370:MeasuringWorth 2364:United States 2352:MeasuringWorth 2312: 2310:, p. 492. 2293: 2282:on May 3, 2007 2255: 2249:978-0786456741 2248: 2220: 2219: 2217: 2214: 2211: 2210: 2140:Hidalgo County 2035:Colorado River 1963: 1962: 1960: 1957: 1956: 1955: 1950: 1945: 1940: 1935: 1930: 1924: 1923: 1909: 1906:Arizona portal 1893: 1890: 1850: 1847: 1841: 1838: 1830:Hidalgo County 1808: 1805: 1760: 1759: 1756: 1753: 1750: 1747: 1744: 1743: 1740: 1737: 1734: 1729: 1723: 1722: 1719: 1716: 1713: 1708: 1702: 1701: 1698: 1695: 1692: 1687: 1681: 1680: 1677: 1674: 1671: 1666: 1660: 1659: 1656: 1653: 1650: 1645: 1639: 1638: 1635: 1632: 1629: 1624: 1618: 1617: 1610: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1594: 1591: 1556: 1553: 1551: 1548: 1489:33.1°N 110.6°W 1356: 1353: 1316:into Arizona. 1287:Cochise County 1274: 1271: 1262: 1259: 1229: 1226: 1220: 1217: 1215: 1212: 1133:Mexican states 1128: 1125: 1115: 1094: 1093: 1089: 1086: 1083: 1055: 1052: 1040:William Walker 978: 975: 931: 928: 851: 848: 843:Winfield Scott 817:Richard Kluger 813:James Buchanan 793:James Buchanan 782: 779: 742: 741:Mesilla Valley 739: 731:Mesilla Valley 707:Main article: 704: 701: 694: 626:Utah Territory 617: 614: 576:in 1831. When 569: 566: 517:DeBow's Review 512:J. D. B. DeBow 500:James W. Abert 420: 417: 415: 412: 387: 384: 304:acquired from 276: 275: 274: 273: 268: 262:United States 260: 256: 255: 252: 251: 248: 247: 240: 231: 228: 227: 222: 210: 209: 204: 194: 193: 190: 189: 186: 185: 182: 181: 178: 175: 172: 171: 170:April 25, 1854 168: 165: 162: 161: 158: 155: 152: 151: 148: 142: 139: 138: 135: 134: 128: 127:Historical era 124: 123: 120: 119: 116: 115: 110: 107: 104: 103: 100: 99: 96: 90: 89: 84: 78: 77: 75: 71: 70: 67: 64: 61: 60: 57: 53: 52: 42: 41: 37: 36: 29: 28: 25: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4595: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4576: 4574: 4571: 4569: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4551: 4549: 4548:Modern Mexico 4546: 4544: 4541: 4539: 4536: 4534: 4531: 4529: 4526: 4524: 4521: 4519: 4518:1853 treaties 4516: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4505: 4503: 4496: 4493: 4456: 4455: 4446: 4445: 4442: 4441: 4437: 4435: 4434: 4430: 4429: 4426: 4419: 4416: 4413: 4410: 4407: 4404: 4403: 4401: 4397: 4391: 4388: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4376: 4373: 4371: 4368: 4366: 4363: 4361: 4358: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4348: 4347: 4345: 4341: 4335: 4332: 4330: 4327: 4325: 4322: 4320: 4317: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4307: 4305: 4302: 4300: 4297: 4295: 4292: 4291: 4289: 4287: 4283: 4277: 4274: 4272: 4269: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4251: 4248: 4246: 4243: 4242: 4240: 4236: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4205: 4201: 4200: 4197: 4193: 4186: 4181: 4179: 4174: 4172: 4167: 4166: 4163: 4151: 4150: 4146: 4143: 4142: 4139: 4134: 4124: 4121: 4119: 4116: 4114: 4111: 4109: 4106: 4104: 4101: 4099: 4096: 4094: 4091: 4089: 4086: 4084: 4081: 4079: 4076: 4074: 4071: 4069: 4066: 4064: 4061: 4059: 4056: 4054: 4051: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4034: 4031: 4030: 4027: 4023: 4016: 4011: 4009: 4004: 4002: 3997: 3996: 3993: 3987: 3984: 3980: 3979: 3973: 3968: 3965: 3962: 3959: 3956: 3953: 3949: 3946: 3944: 3941: 3937: 3934: 3931: 3927: 3924: 3923: 3912: 3906: 3901: 3900: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3881: 3877: 3872: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3854: 3853: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3832: 3826: 3822: 3816: 3812: 3811: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3788: 3784: 3780: 3776: 3771: 3767: 3761: 3757: 3756: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3737: 3733: 3732: 3727: 3723: 3722: 3701: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3686: 3685:Billy Summers 3681: 3680:King, Stephen 3675: 3661: 3660: 3653: 3649: 3643: 3628: 3624: 3618: 3600: 3593: 3591: 3581: 3573: 3567: 3563: 3556: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3525: 3506: 3499: 3498: 3490: 3471: 3470: 3462: 3454: 3452:0-8310-7111-7 3448: 3445: 3440: 3439: 3430: 3415: 3414:Railswest.com 3411: 3405: 3397: 3391: 3383: 3381:0-8310-7111-7 3377: 3373: 3369: 3368: 3360: 3352: 3345: 3337: 3331: 3327: 3320: 3304: 3298: 3290: 3286: 3282: 3275: 3259: 3255: 3251: 3245: 3230: 3226: 3220: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3197: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3174: 3166: 3162: 3158: 3151: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3128: 3119: 3112: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3089: 3081: 3074: 3066: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3051: 3043: 3036: 3035:Kluger (2007) 3031: 3023: 3012: 3008: 3001: 2986: 2982: 2975: 2959: 2958: 2950: 2944: 2937: 2932: 2924: 2918: 2914: 2913: 2905: 2898: 2897:Kluger (2007) 2893: 2887:, p. 84. 2886: 2881: 2865: 2859: 2852: 2851:Kluger (2007) 2847: 2845: 2837: 2833: 2832:Kluger (2007) 2829: 2824: 2817: 2812: 2805: 2804:Kluger (2007) 2801: 2796: 2789: 2784: 2775: 2768: 2761: 2756: 2750:, p. 48. 2749: 2748:Nevins (1947) 2744: 2737: 2736:Kluger (2007) 2732: 2725: 2720: 2713: 2712:Kluger (2007) 2708: 2706: 2698: 2694: 2693:Kluger (2007) 2689: 2682: 2681:Kluger (2007) 2678: 2673: 2671: 2663: 2659: 2658:Kluger (2007) 2654: 2639: 2633: 2629: 2628: 2620: 2613: 2612:Kluger (2007) 2608: 2601: 2596: 2589: 2588:Kluger (2007) 2584: 2577: 2576:Kluger (2007) 2572: 2565: 2560: 2553: 2549: 2548:Kluger (2007) 2544: 2537: 2532: 2525: 2520: 2513: 2508: 2501: 2500:Kluger (2007) 2496: 2489: 2484: 2482: 2474: 2469: 2462: 2457: 2441: 2435: 2428: 2427:Kluger (2007) 2423: 2421: 2413: 2408: 2406: 2398: 2397:Nevins (1947) 2393: 2385: 2378: 2371: 2367: 2354: 2353: 2348: 2341: 2339: 2337: 2335: 2333: 2331: 2329: 2327: 2325: 2323: 2321: 2319: 2317: 2309: 2308:Kluger (2007) 2304: 2302: 2300: 2298: 2281: 2277: 2276: 2271: 2264: 2262: 2260: 2251: 2245: 2241: 2240: 2232: 2230: 2228: 2226: 2221: 2205: 2176: 2170: 2141: 2135: 2106: 2100: 2071: 2065: 2036: 2030: 1999: 1981:106°31′41.5″W 1968: 1964: 1954: 1951: 1949: 1946: 1944: 1941: 1939: 1936: 1934: 1931: 1929: 1926: 1925: 1921: 1920:Mexico portal 1910: 1907: 1896: 1889: 1887: 1883: 1882: 1881:Billy Summers 1876: 1874: 1873: 1867: 1865: 1860: 1858: 1857: 1846: 1837: 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1804: 1802: 1798: 1792: 1757: 1754: 1751: 1748: 1746: 1745: 1741: 1738: 1735: 1733: 1730: 1728: 1725: 1724: 1720: 1717: 1714: 1712: 1709: 1707: 1704: 1703: 1699: 1696: 1693: 1691: 1688: 1686: 1683: 1682: 1678: 1675: 1672: 1670: 1667: 1665: 1662: 1661: 1657: 1654: 1651: 1649: 1646: 1644: 1641: 1640: 1636: 1633: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1623: 1620: 1619: 1615: 1608: 1601: 1598: 1595: 1592: 1589: 1588: 1585: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1564:northeastern 1562: 1547: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1523:US Highway 60 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1498: 1469: 1465: 1460: 1456: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1420: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1397: 1392: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1361: 1352: 1349: 1344: 1342: 1341:Vendetta Ride 1338: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1317: 1314: 1313: 1307: 1303: 1298: 1296: 1290: 1288: 1284: 1279: 1270: 1268: 1267:Estevan Ochoa 1258: 1256: 1252: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1225: 1211: 1208: 1204: 1200: 1195: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1180:Sonoita Creek 1177: 1176:Fort Buchanan 1173: 1168: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1134: 1124: 1114: 1111: 1104: 1101: 1097: 1090: 1087: 1084: 1081: 1080: 1079: 1077: 1072: 1068: 1060: 1051: 1048: 1045: 1041: 1036: 1034: 1028: 1026: 1022: 1016: 1013: 1008: 1003: 1001: 996: 988: 987:Interstate 10 983: 974: 972: 968: 964: 960: 955: 952: 947: 945: 941: 937: 927: 925: 919: 916: 911: 908: 903: 901: 897: 893: 888: 886: 876: 872: 870: 866: 865:Sierra Nevada 862: 857: 847: 844: 838: 836: 832: 827: 820: 818: 814: 810: 806: 798: 794: 791: 787: 778: 776: 772: 767: 763: 759: 755: 751: 750:John Bartlett 747: 738: 736: 732: 728: 720: 715: 710: 693: 691: 687: 683: 676: 672: 670: 666: 662: 658: 654: 650: 646: 642: 639: 638:U.S. Senators 635: 631: 627: 623: 613: 610: 606: 601: 598: 594: 590: 586: 581: 579: 575: 574:nullification 565: 563: 559: 554: 549: 547: 542: 538: 534: 530: 525: 523: 519: 518: 513: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 492:topographical 489: 484: 482: 478: 474: 470: 469:James Gadsden 466: 462: 458: 454: 450: 446: 442: 438: 430: 429:James Gadsden 425: 411: 409: 405: 400: 392: 383: 381: 378: 374: 368: 366: 362: 358: 354: 350: 346: 342: 338: 334: 333:James Gadsden 329: 327: 323: 319: 315: 311: 307: 303: 302:United States 299: 295: 291: 287: 283: 272: 269: 267: 264: 263: 261: 259:Today part of 257: 241: 239: 236: 235: 232: 226: 223: 216: 215: 212: 211: 208: 205: 203: 200: 199: 195: 191: 187: 183: 179: 173: 169: 163: 159: 153: 149: 146: 140: 136: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 114: 111: 105: 101: 97: 95: 91: 88: 85: 79: 76: 72: 68: 62: 58: 54: 48: 43: 38: 35: 34:United States 32:Expansion of 30: 22: 19: 4465: 4447: 4438: 4431: 4370:Mount Pierce 4360:Pierce Manse 4343:Public image 4308: 4147: 4144: 4072: 3976: 3935: 3898: 3879: 3875: 3857: 3829: 3809: 3791: 3774: 3754: 3730: 3718:Bibliography 3703:. Retrieved 3684: 3674: 3665:November 15, 3663:, retrieved 3658: 3648:Ghostarchive 3646:Archived at 3642: 3630:. Retrieved 3626: 3617: 3605:. Retrieved 3580: 3561: 3555: 3543:. Retrieved 3539:the original 3534: 3524: 3512:. Retrieved 3505:the original 3496: 3489: 3477:. Retrieved 3468: 3461: 3437: 3429: 3417:. Retrieved 3413: 3404: 3395: 3390: 3366: 3359: 3350: 3344: 3325: 3319: 3307:. Retrieved 3297: 3280: 3274: 3262:. Retrieved 3258:the original 3253: 3244: 3232:. Retrieved 3228: 3219: 3202: 3196: 3179: 3173: 3156: 3150: 3133: 3127: 3117: 3111: 3094: 3088: 3079: 3073: 3048: 3042: 3030: 3014:. Retrieved 3000: 2988:. Retrieved 2984: 2974: 2962:. Retrieved 2955: 2943: 2931: 2911: 2904: 2892: 2880: 2868:. Retrieved 2858: 2823: 2811: 2795: 2783: 2773: 2767: 2755: 2743: 2731: 2719: 2688: 2653: 2641:. Retrieved 2626: 2619: 2607: 2595: 2583: 2571: 2559: 2543: 2531: 2519: 2507: 2495: 2468: 2456: 2444:. Retrieved 2434: 2399:, p. 84 2392: 2383: 2377: 2369: 2358:November 30, 2356:. Retrieved 2350: 2284:. Retrieved 2280:the original 2273: 2238: 1967: 1886:Stephen King 1879: 1877: 1870: 1868: 1861: 1854: 1852: 1843: 1824: 1812:Sunland Park 1810: 1763: 1566:Pinal County 1558: 1494:33.1; -110.6 1461: 1457: 1421: 1393: 1366: 1345: 1318: 1310: 1306:stagecoaches 1299: 1291: 1280: 1276: 1264: 1231: 1222: 1219:Army control 1196: 1174:established 1169: 1130: 1122: 1110:sectionalism 1106: 1102: 1098: 1095: 1073: 1071:assistance. 1069: 1065: 1054:Ratification 1049: 1037: 1029: 1021:Mexican Army 1017: 1004: 991: 956: 948: 936:Pierre Soulé 933: 920: 912: 904: 889: 881: 853: 840: 822: 802: 754:Rhode Island 748: 744: 724: 678: 673: 619: 602: 582: 571: 550: 526: 515: 485: 461:William Gwin 434: 401: 397: 369: 330: 309: 281: 279: 207:Succeeded by 206: 201: 180:30 June 1854 18: 4487: / 4475:110°33′13″W 4406:Jane Pierce 4229:(1833–1837) 4227:NH at-large 4217:(1837–1842) 4209:(1853–1857) 3705:January 18, 3234:February 7, 3016:October 10, 2964:November 4, 2199: / 2187:106°31′43″W 2164: / 2152:108°12′31″W 2129: / 2117:109°03′02″W 2094: / 2082:111°04′27″W 2059: / 2047:114°48′47″W 2024: / 1993: / 1834:Luna County 1786: / 1492: / 1377:Los Angeles 1325:Republicans 1302:The Cowboys 1283:Pima County 1240:formed the 799:(1857–1861) 593:San Antonio 541:Mississippi 506:or western 475:and end in 437:Asa Whitney 427:Lieutenant 202:Preceded by 65:• 1854 4502:Categories 4472:32°07′54″N 4286:Presidency 3632:October 9, 2990:August 31, 2885:May (1973) 2286:October 4, 2216:References 2184:31°47′02″N 2175:Rio Grande 2149:31°47′02″N 2114:31°19′56″N 2079:31°19′56″N 2044:32°29′38″N 1820:New Mexico 1807:New Mexico 1774:112°23′0″W 1771:33°23′30″N 1706:Santa Cruz 1550:Population 1337:Wyatt Earp 1285:and later 1199:Rio Grande 1161:Tamaulipas 1157:Nuevo León 826:U. S. Army 634:West Coast 578:California 377:filibuster 318:Rio Grande 314:Gila River 298:New Mexico 271:New Mexico 74:Government 4420:(brother) 4245:Doughface 3866:0022-3840 3514:August 1, 3479:August 1, 3211:0038-478X 3188:0004-1408 3165:0021-9053 3142:0004-1408 2177:river at 1978:31°47′0″N 1752:1,767,770 1602:Area (km) 1599:Area (mi) 1511:Winkelman 1441:Flagstaff 1321:Democrats 1228:Civil War 1149:Chihuahua 1113:railroad. 971:Vicksburg 944:Nicaragua 885:Vera Cruz 597:Red River 553:St. Louis 494:officers 477:San Diego 457:John Bell 365:Tombstone 300:that the 150:1846–1848 94:President 40:1853–1854 4454:Category 4414:(father) 4145:Concept: 3888:40170292 3800:33126738 3783:69655131 3752:(1973). 3728:(2007). 3682:(2021). 3650:and the 3309:March 3, 3289:41695121 2372:series. 2105:tripoint 1892:See also 1797:Goodyear 1690:Florence 1574:Florence 1527:Superior 1480:110°36′W 1433:Holbrook 1184:Santa Fe 1145:Coahuila 1116:— 805:Comanche 695:— 684:and the 653:Missouri 645:Illinois 628:and the 562:Virginia 508:Arkansas 481:Mazatlán 3981:. 1906. 3607:July 7, 3545:July 8, 3444:passim. 3419:May 28, 3103:1839903 2870:July 8, 2643:May 28, 2446:July 8, 2070:Nogales 2012:111°0′W 2009:31°20′N 1801:Phoenix 1758:83,350 1755:32,180 1742:14,290 1736:195,751 1711:Nogales 1700:13,920 1694:375,770 1679:23,800 1673:980,263 1658:12,020 1648:Safford 1637:16,110 1631:131,346 1622:Cochise 1555:Arizona 1501:in the 1477:33°06′N 1445:Kingman 1437:Winslow 1389:El Paso 1172:US Army 835:arroyos 775:Alabama 665:Chicago 605:Florida 595:or the 504:El Paso 467:, but 445:Memphis 308:by the 294:Arizona 286:Spanish 266:Arizona 143:• 4408:(wife) 4399:Family 3907: 3886: 3864: 3840:967035 3838: 3817: 3798: 3781: 3762: 3738: 3696: 3568: 3535:Trains 3449: 3378: 3332: 3305:. 2016 3287: 3264:May 5, 3209: 3186: 3163: 3140: 3101: 3061: 2919: 2634: 2246: 1739:5,519 1721:3,210 1718:1,238 1715:47,420 1697:5,374 1676:9,189 1669:Tucson 1655:4,641 1652:37,220 1643:Graham 1634:6,219 1627:Bisbee 1590:County 1582:Tucson 1431:, via 1411:, and 1236:, the 1159:, and 1153:Sonora 1000:Sonora 940:France 833:, and 831:buttes 809:Apache 762:silver 758:copper 690:Mexico 661:Mobile 546:Orient 463:, and 357:Tucson 306:Mexico 98: 59: 3884:JSTOR 3836:JSTOR 3602:(PDF) 3508:(PDF) 3501:(PDF) 3473:(PDF) 3372:61–62 3285:JSTOR 2952:(PDF) 2142:) at 1959:Notes 1749:Total 1685:Pinal 1543:grade 1531:Miami 1375:from 1192:South 522:South 473:Texas 4238:Life 4225:for 4204:14th 3905:ISBN 3862:ISSN 3815:ISBN 3796:OCLC 3779:OCLC 3760:ISBN 3736:ISBN 3707:2022 3694:ISBN 3667:2018 3634:2017 3609:2018 3566:ISBN 3547:2018 3516:2008 3481:2008 3447:ISBN 3421:2011 3396:Ibid 3376:ISBN 3330:ISBN 3311:2022 3266:2011 3236:2011 3207:ISSN 3184:ISSN 3161:ISSN 3138:ISSN 3099:SSRN 3059:ISBN 3018:2008 2992:2023 2966:2016 2917:ISBN 2872:2018 2645:2011 2632:ISBN 2448:2018 2360:2023 2288:2007 2244:ISBN 1862:The 1732:Yuma 1727:Yuma 1664:Pima 1596:Pop. 1593:Seat 1572:and 1533:via 1529:and 1453:BNSF 1443:and 1335:and 963:Ohio 942:and 905:The 807:and 766:gold 764:and 725:The 647:and 620:The 539:and 537:Ohio 498:and 363:and 361:Yuma 280:The 56:Area 3055:183 2107:at 2072:at 1884:by 1795:in 1509:to 1339:'s 1178:on 1135:of 961:of 752:of 688:in 663:to 651:of 643:of 560:of 479:or 4504:: 3975:. 3880:46 3878:. 3777:. 3688:. 3654:: 3625:. 3589:^ 3533:. 3412:. 3374:. 3252:. 3227:. 3097:. 3057:. 3009:. 2983:. 2954:. 2843:^ 2704:^ 2669:^ 2480:^ 2419:^ 2404:^ 2349:. 2315:^ 2296:^ 2272:. 2258:^ 2224:^ 1875:. 1803:. 1576:. 1439:, 1435:, 1407:, 1343:. 1155:, 1151:, 1147:, 1143:, 1139:, 1002:. 871:. 737:. 459:, 455:, 451:, 359:, 288:: 4267:– 4184:e 4177:t 4170:v 4014:e 4007:t 4000:v 3913:. 3890:. 3868:. 3842:. 3823:. 3802:. 3785:. 3768:. 3744:. 3709:. 3636:. 3574:. 3549:. 3518:. 3483:. 3455:. 3423:. 3398:. 3384:. 3338:. 3313:. 3291:. 3268:. 3238:. 3213:. 3190:. 3167:. 3144:. 3105:. 3067:. 3024:. 2994:. 2968:. 2925:. 2874:. 2647:. 2450:. 2362:. 2290:. 2252:. 2208:. 284:(

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index