389:. Mercury is used because of its high vapor pressure and low ionization potential. Mercury mixed with an inert gas is used where the energy losses in the tube have to be low and the tube lifetime should be long. In mercury-inert gas mixtures, the discharge is initially carried primarily by the inert gas; the released heat then serves to evaporate enough mercury to reach the desired vapor pressure. Low-voltage (hundreds volts) rectifiers use saturated mercury vapor in combination with a small amount of inert gas, allowing cold start of the tubes. High-voltage (kilovolts and more) rectifiers use pure mercury vapor at low pressure, requiring maintenance of maximum temperature of the tube. The liquid mercury serves as a reservoir of mercury, replenishing the vapors that are used up during the discharge. Unsaturated mercury vapor can be used, but as it can not be replenished, the lifetime of such tubes is lower. The strong dependence of vapor pressure on mercury temperature limits the environments the mercury-based tubes can operate in. In low-pressure mercury lamps, there is an optimum mercury pressure for the highest efficiency. Photons emitted by ionized mercury atoms can be absorbed by nearby nonionized atoms and either reradiated or the atom is deexcited nonradiatively, too high mercury pressure therefore causes losses of light. Too low mercury pressure leads to too few atoms present to get ionized and radiate photons. The optimum temperature for low-pressure mercury lamps is at about 42 °C, when the saturated vapor pressure of mercury (present as a drop of about 1 mg of liquid mercury in the tube, as a reservoir compensating for losses by clean-up) reaches this optimum. In lamps intended for operation at higher ambient temperatures, and at a wider temperature range, mercury is present in the form of an
550:
209:). It has higher breakdown voltage than hydrogen. In fast switching tubes it is used instead of hydrogen where high voltage operation is required. For a comparison, the hydrogen-filled CX1140 thyratron has anode voltage rating of 25 kV, while the deuterium-filled and otherwise identical CX1159 has 33 kV. Also, at the same voltage the pressure of deuterium can be higher than of hydrogen, allowing higher rise rates of current before it causes excessive anode dissipation. Significantly higher peak powers are achievable. Its recovery time is however about 40% slower than for hydrogen.
218:
446:
33:
675:
pressure in the tube. The metal filament acts as a hydrogen storage. This approach is used in e.g. hydrogen thyratrons or neutron tubes. Usage of saturated mercury vapor allows using a pool of liquid mercury as a large storage of material; the atoms lost by clean-up are automatically replenished by evaporation of more mercury. The pressure in the tube is however strongly dependent on the mercury temperature, which has to be controlled carefully.
691:
glow color of the gas. Air leaking into the tube introduces oxygen, which is highly electronegative and inhibits the production of electron avalanches. This makes the discharge look pale, milky, or reddish. Traces of mercury vapors glow bluish, obscuring the original gas color. Magnesium vapor colors the discharge green. To prevent
409:; in that application it is usually used together with argon, or in some cases with krypton or neon. Mercury ions deionize slowly, limiting the switching speed of mercury-filled thyratrons. Ion bombardment with mercury ions of even relatively low energies also gradually destroys oxide-coated cathodes.
605:
The fundamental mechanism is the
Townsend discharge, which is the sustained multiplication of electron flow by ion impact when a critical value of electric field strength for the density of the gas is reached. As the electric field is increased various phases of discharge are encountered as shown in
299:
can be used in fluorescent lamps instead of argon; in that application it reduces the total energy losses on electrodes from about 15% to 7%. The voltage drop per lamp length is however lower than with argon, which can be compensated by smaller tube diameter. Krypton-filled lamps also require higher
674:
are employed. Most commonly, replenishers are used with hydrogen; a filament made from a hydrogen-absorbing metal (e.g. zirconium or titanium) is present in the tube, and by controlling its temperature the ratio of absorbed and desorbed hydrogen is adjusted, resulting in controlling of the hydrogen
281:
with high power and short length, e.g. industrial lighting tubes. Has higher voltage drop in comparison with argon and krypton. Its low atomic mass provides only a little protection to the electrodes against accelerated ions; additional screening wires or plates can be used for prolonging the anode
250:
are frequently used in tubes for many purposes, from lighting to switching. Pure noble gases are employed in switching tubes. Noble-gas-filled thyratrons have better electrical parameters than mercury-based ones. The electrodes undergo damage by high-velocity ions. The neutral atoms of the gas slow
681:
The mercury arc valve current-voltage characteristics are highly dependent on the temperature of the liquid mercury. The voltage drop in forward bias decreases from about 60 volts at 0 °C to somewhat above 10 volts at 50 °C and then stays constant; the reverse bias breakdown ("arc-back")
662:
on the surfaces of the electrodes. In high voltage tubes, the accelerated ions can penetrate into the electrode materials. New surfaces, formed by sputtering of the electrodes and deposited on e.g. the inner surfaces of the tube, also readily adsorb gases. Non-inert gases can also chemically react
690:
The gas in the tube has to be kept pure to maintain the desired properties; even small amount of impurities can dramatically change the tube values. The presence of non-inert gases generally increases the breakdown and burning voltages. The presence of impurities can be observed by changes in the
699:
is required before filling with gas and sealing. Thorough degassing is required for high-quality tubes; even as little as 10 torr (≈1 μPa) of oxygen is sufficient for covering the electrodes with monomolecular oxide layer in few hours. Non-inert gases can be removed by suitable
651:
pressure increases, reignition of the discharge requires either significantly higher voltage or reducing the internal pressure by cooling down the lamp. For example, many sodium vapor lamps cannot be re-lit immediately after being shut off; they must cool down before they can be lit up again.
650:
Above a certain value, the higher the gas pressure, the higher the ignition voltage. High-pressure lighting tubes can require a few kilovolts impulse for ignition when cold, when the gas pressure is low. After warming up, when the volatile compound used for light emission is vaporized and the
327:
becomes significant in such mixtures, as most of xenon ionization occurs by collision with excited atoms of the other noble gas; at more than few percents of xenon, the discharge ionizes xenon directly due to most energy of the electrons being spent on direct ionization of
723:
Pure inert gases are used where the difference between the ignition voltage and the burning voltage has to be high, e.g. in switching tubes. Tubes for indication and stabilization, where the difference has to be lower, tend to be filled with
268:
has low ignition voltage and is frequently used in low-voltage tubes. Discharge in neon emits relatively bright red light; neon-filled switching tubes therefore also act as indicators, shining red when switched on. This is exploited in the
178:, where very steep edges are required. The build-up and recovery times of hydrogen are much shorter than in other gases. Hydrogen thyratrons are usually hot-cathode. Hydrogen (and deuterium) can be stored in the tube in the form of a metal
288:
was the first gas used in fluorescent tubes and is still frequently used due to its low cost, high efficiency, and very low striking voltage. In fluorescent tubes it is used in combination with mercury. It was also used in early
182:, heated with an auxiliary filament; hydrogen by heating such storage element can be used to replenish cleaned-up gas, and even to adjust the pressure as needed for a thyratron operation at a given voltage.
306:
in pure state has high breakdown voltage, making it useful in higher-voltage switching tubes. Xenon is also used as a component of gas mixtures when production of ultraviolet radiation is required, e.g. in
251:
the ions down by collisions, and reduce the energy transferred to the electrodes by the ion impact. Gases with high molecular weight, e.g. xenon, protect the electrodes better than lighter ones, e.g. neon.
682:
voltage drops dramatically with temperature, from 36 kV at 60 °C to 12 kV at 80 °C to even less at higher temperatures. The operating range is therefore usually between 18–65 °C.
606:
the accompanying plot. The gas used dramatically influences the parameters of the tube. The breakdown voltage depends on the gas composition and electrode distance; the dependencies are described by
1005:
made the output temperature-dependent. Their burning voltage was under 200 V, but they needed optical priming by an incandescent 2-watt lamp and a voltage surge in the 5-kV range for ignition.
262:
and in some thyratrons rated for high currents and high voltages. Helium provides about as short deionization time as hydrogen, but can withstand lower voltage, so it is used much less often.
618:
The gas pressure may range between 0.001 and 1,000 Torr (0.13–130,000 Pa); most commonly, pressures between 1–10 torr are used. The gas pressure influences the following factors:
315:. The wavelength produced is longer than with argon and krypton and penetrates the phosphors better. To lower the ionization voltage, neon-xenon or helium-xenon are used; above 350
599:
The F-H region is a region of glow discharge; the plasma emits a faint glow that occupies almost all the volume of the tube; most of the light is emitted by excited neutral atoms.
592:
The A-D region is called a dark discharge; there is some ionization, but the current is below 10 microamperes and there is no significant amount of radiation produced.
805:
Since the ignition voltage depends on the ion concentration which may drop to zero after a long period of inactivity, many tubes are primed for ion availability:
601:
The I-K region is a region of arc discharge; the plasma is concentrated in a narrow channel along the center of the tube; a great amount of radiation is produced.
930:
early tuning indicator, a glass tube with a short wire anode and a long wire cathode that glows partially; the glow length is proportional to the tube current
1381:
19:
This article is about tubes producing visible discharges or used for switching purposes. For the use of gas-filled tubes for radiation detection, see
1430:
1346:
496:
vapors absorb ultraviolet radiation and have high electron affinity. When added to inert gases, they quench the discharge; this is exploited in e.g.
300:
starting voltage; this can be alleviated by using e.g. 25%–75% argon-krypton mixture. In fluorescent tubes it is used in combination with mercury.
1640:
553:
Voltage-current characteristics of electrical discharge in neon at 1 Torr (130 Pa), with two planar electrodes separated by 50 cm.
678:
Large rectifiers use saturated mercury vapor with a small amount of an inert gas. The inert gas supports the discharge when the tube is cold.
1532:
1452:
873:
1492:
1090:
1084:
515:
In special cases (e.g., high-voltage switches), gases with good dielectric properties and very high breakdown voltages are needed. Highly
1175:
1142:
1136:
1130:
1114:
1110:
1076:
1064:
1101:, a trade name for a gas-filled shunt regulator, usually contains small quantities of radioactive materials to set the regulated voltage
1201:
1157:
1098:
1060:
728:; the lower difference between ignition and burning voltages allows using lower power supply voltages and smaller series resistances.
2514:
1124:
1040:-based elapsed time meter where the sputtered metal is deposited on a collector element whose resistance therefore decreases slowly.
2155:
1596:
1604:
2072:
523:, are favored as they rapidly recombine with the ions present in the discharge channel. One of the most popular choices is
138:
and composition of the fill gas and geometry of the tube. Although the envelope is typically glass, power tubes often use
1853:
1633:
1344:
Keller, Cornelius; Wolf, Walter; Shani, Jashovam. "Radionuclides, 2. Radioactive
Elements and Artificial Radionuclides".
716:) have to be used. Cathode sputtering may be used intentionally for gettering non-inert gases; some reference tubes use
1363:
1836:
1732:
1440:
1392:
1331:
849:
1976:
1703:
2024:
1823:
1575:
1249:
2683:
1626:
323:), helium has lower breakdown voltage than neon and vice versa. At concentrations of 1% and less of xenon, the
2055:
1807:
809:
optically, by ambient light or by a 2-watt incandescent lamp, or by a glow discharge in the same envelope,
2688:
1859:
1796:
76:
20:
2519:
2066:
1503:
848:
tubes, which are used to switch high-voltage currents. A specialized type of gas-filled tube called a
2678:
2273:
1987:
1830:
1715:
1012:
found an additional use as a noise source, when operated as a diode in a transverse magnetic field.
497:
353:
2282:
2140:
1992:
1848:
1273:
740:
198:
37:
2293:
2013:
1812:
1547:
1467:
1507:
1404:
654:
The gas tends to be used up during the tube operation, by several phenomena collectively called
2462:
2029:
1894:
1870:
1152:
1021:
549:
639:
tube lifetime (lower pressure tubes tend to have shorter lifetimes due to using up of the gas)
2531:
2483:
2304:
2120:
2035:
1966:
1802:
907:
by operating them below their ignition voltage, allowing them to amplify analog signals as a
290:
259:
88:
2605:
2349:
2244:
2018:
1911:
1765:
1726:
1657:
1649:
987:
975:
908:
401:; the vapor pressure above amalgam is lower than above liquid mercury. Mercury is used in
8:
2325:
2233:
2125:
1961:
1938:
877:
869:
705:
595:
524:
493:
390:
1597:
Pulse Power
Switching Devices – An Overview (both vacuum and gas-filled switching tubes)
486:, due to its short build-up time, giving the tubes fast response time to voltage surges.
360:. A classical combination is about 98–99.5% of neon with 0.5–2% of argon, used in, e.g.
2630:
2490:
2198:
2165:
1981:
1865:
1843:
1543:
1288:
944:
744:
563:
544:
96:
92:
27:
1613:
527:, used in special high-voltage applications. Other common options are dry pressurized
2625:
2546:
2437:
2389:
2218:
2145:
2107:
1436:
1388:
1359:
1306:
765:(most of which is not neon based these days) are also low-pressure gas-filled tubes.
752:
748:
622:
466:
416:
382:
378:
357:
202:
112:
108:
342:
of less than four days. Consequently, it is not commonly used in electronic devices.
54:
2341:
2288:
2115:
1754:
1601:
1351:
779:
736:
607:
570:
556:
402:
278:
104:
2150:
2618:
2551:
2135:
2045:
1889:
1608:
1579:
1253:
1002:
967:
865:
853:
725:
628:
516:
345:
1776:
217:
2593:
2374:
2364:
2130:
1933:
1318:
575:
510:
483:
365:
324:
308:
100:
1432:
Reference Data for
Engineers: Radio, Electronics, Computers and Communications
273:
tubes, which act as both counters and displays. Its red light is exploited in
2672:
2655:
2478:
2394:
2213:
2040:
2008:
1355:
979:
912:
335:
320:
445:
432:
Vapors of many metals, alone or together with a noble gas, are used in many
2536:
2524:
2412:
2379:
2208:
2193:
1760:
787:
762:
586:
274:
147:
134:
The voltage required to initiate and sustain discharge is dependent on the
32:
2578:
2320:
2269:
2175:
2160:
1943:
1905:
1572:
1246:
1133:, a hot cathode rectifier with anode current controlled by magnetic field
971:
963:
794:
426:
194:
143:
16:
Assembly of electrodes at either end of an insulated tube filled with gas
1618:
1334:, Defense Technical Information Center Compilation Part Notice ADP011307
776:(used to count or divide pulses, with display as a secondary function).
2650:
2640:
2573:
2447:
2417:
2384:
2359:
2354:
2331:
2203:
2183:
2061:
1923:
1900:
1786:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1412:. Vol. 28. Institute of Radio Engineers. February 1940. p. 52
1195:
1189:
1185:
1151:, a cold cathode tube designed for high current narrow pulses, used in
1148:
1104:
1037:
897:
769:
717:
692:
659:
643:
532:
206:
116:
80:
68:
768:
Specialized historic low-pressure gas-filled tube devices include the
282:
lifetime. In fluorescent tubes it is used in combination with mercury.
2613:
2457:
2452:
2442:
2369:
2249:
2083:
2078:
2003:
1928:
1169:
1163:
1009:
991:
881:
837:
758:
709:
454:
361:
349:
339:
247:
221:
190:
167:
124:
60:
663:
with the tube components. Hydrogen may diffuse through some metals.
2635:
2583:
2563:
2541:
2427:
2422:
2310:
2299:
2228:
1998:
1463:
1435:
by Wendy
Middleton, Mac E. Van Valkenburg, pp. 16–42, Newnes, 2002
1181:
1070:
1054:
933:
893:
845:
773:
696:
528:
479:
458:
450:
406:
386:
312:
270:
171:
163:
135:
128:
72:
2495:
2432:
2254:
2239:
2093:
2050:
1698:
1207:
983:
856:, to limit voltage surges in electrical and electronic circuits.
841:
813:
520:
489:
394:
381:
vapors are used for applications with high current, e.g. lights,
348:
are used where lower ionization voltage is required, e.g. in the
296:
237:
179:
175:
139:
120:
84:
1087:, a trade name for a mercury pool tube used in electric welders
2568:
2259:
2223:
2188:
1748:
1720:
1693:
1668:
1118:
904:
783:
713:
701:
667:
462:
422:
412:
398:
255:
225:
405:
as a source of visible and ultraviolet light for exciting the
2645:
2556:
2315:
2088:
1881:
1743:
1738:
940:
433:
331:
303:
293:; first thyratrons were derived from such argon-filled tubes.
285:
241:
233:
1160:, a cold cathode rectifier for low currents at high voltages
2588:
1971:
1917:
1818:
1771:
1709:
998:
316:
265:
229:
1387:
by John Dakin, Robert G. W. Brown, p. 52, CRC Press, 2006
939:
Luminescent trigger tube, used as latching indicators, or
372:
704:. For mercury-containing tubes, getters that do not form
473:
166:
is used in tubes used for very fast switching, e.g. some
64:
1332:"Gas Discharge and Experiments for Plasma Display Panel"
731:
1204:, a low-noise thyratron with interruptible current flow
142:, and military tubes often use glass-lined metal. Both
1276:, Marconi Applied Technologies Ltd, Chelmsford, U.K.
670:
are used. For resupplying gas for gas-filled tubes,
449:
Other gases in discharge tubes; from left to right:
1247:
Chapter 2: The construction of a gas-discharge tube
923:There were special neon lamps besides nixie tubes:
131:are used as switching devices in electric devices.
1198:, a hot cathode tube with controlled anode current
800:
538:
2670:
1178:, a form of ionization tube for measuring vacuum
1032:Cathode sputtering is taken advantage of in the
482:at relatively high pressure tends to be used in
75:. Gas-filled tubes exploit phenomena related to
997:They were filled with a pure inert gas such as
476:can be used in some low-demanding applications.
40:is a household application of a gas-filled tube
1347:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
1172:, a high-current switch similar to a spark gap
978:, and as long, thin glass tubes with a normal
816:to the gas, or by coating the envelope inside,
1634:
1602:Measurement of Radiation, Gas-Filled Detector
1289:"Pulse Power Switching Devices – An Overview"
872:-region can be exploited to realize timers,
755:are all gas-filled tubes used for lighting.
334:, despite being a noble gas, is dangerously
1343:
1027:
695:of the tube components during operation, a
1641:
1627:
1377:
1375:
1309:. Lamptech.co.uk. Retrieved on 2011-05-17.
1302:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1015:
990:frequencies and diagonal insertion into a
1648:
1406:Surface-Controlled Mercury-pool Rectifier
1284:
1282:
1274:"The Evolution of the Hydrogen Thyratron"
1268:
1266:
1264:
1145:, a grid-controlled mercury-arc rectifier
909:self-quenching superregenerative detector
548:
444:
216:
119:. Specialized gas-filled tubes such as
31:
1372:
1321:. Cdvandt.org. Retrieved on 2011-05-17.
1293:
583:I: unstable region: glow-arc transition
373:Elemental vapors (metals and nonmetals)
103:using a gas-filled tube; these include
2671:
1424:
1337:
1279:
1261:
1043:
974:glass envelopes for frequencies up to
1622:
1583:1964 Philips Gas-Discharge Tubes book
1307:"The Fluorescent Lamp – Gas Fillings"
1257:1964 Philips Gas-Discharge Tubes book
1241:
1239:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1229:
1227:
1225:
1223:
732:Lighting and display gas-filled tubes
224:discharge tubes; from left to right:
2073:Three-dimensional integrated circuit
1210:, a fast cold-cathode switching tube
836:Some important examples include the
797:are also gas-filled tubes when hot.
790:to produce bright flashes of light.
666:For removal of gas in vacuum tubes,
567:D: self-sustained Townsend discharge
1854:Programmable unijunction transistor
1565:
772:(used to display numerals) and the
504:
91:by the underlying phenomena of the
13:
1755:Multi-gate field-effect transistor
1220:
859:
338:and its most stable isotope has a
205:tubes, and in special tubes (e.g.
14:
2700:
1733:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
1590:
1455:Subminiature gas triode type RK61
658:. The gas atoms or molecules are
1977:Heterostructure barrier varactor
1704:Chemical field-effect transistor
1535:7414 Subminiature Time Totalizer
870:negative differential resistance
831:
596:negative differential resistance
2025:Mixed-signal integrated circuit
1546:. 14 March 1959. Archived from
1525:
1485:
1445:
958:
903:Thyratrons can also be used as
801:Gas-filled tubes in electronics
613:
539:Gas-tube physics and technology
153:
1495:6D4 Miniature triode thyratron
1397:
1330:Po-Cheng Chen, Yu-Ting Chien,
1324:
1312:
1166:, a hot cathode switching tube
982:for the filament and an anode
625:(also called ignition voltage)
440:
212:
150:type devices are encountered.
1:
1214:
1121:with grid outside of the tube
918:
782:are gas-filled tubes used in
685:
646:, reduced at higher pressures
2056:Silicon controlled rectifier
1918:Organic light-emitting diode
1808:Diffused junction transistor
1184:, a counting tube (see also
185:
7:
1860:Static induction transistor
1797:Bipolar junction transistor
1749:MOS field-effect transistor
1721:Fin field-effect transistor
1383:Handbook of optoelectronics
1272:C. A. Pirrie and H. Menown
1245:Hajo Lorens van der Horst,
1117:, a hot cathode gas-filled
720:cathodes for this purpose.
158:
77:electric discharge in gases
48:, also commonly known as a
21:Gaseous ionization detector
10:
2705:
2067:Static induction thyristor
1571:Hajo Lorens van der Horst
594:The D-G region exhibits a
581:H: abnormal glow discharge
542:
508:
25:
18:
2604:
2504:
2471:
2403:
2340:
2268:
2236:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode)
2174:
2106:
1988:Hybrid integrated circuit
1952:
1880:
1831:Light-emitting transistor
1785:
1667:
1656:
1067:, a mercury arc pool tube
1020:In the mid-20th century,
970:were available in normal
852:is fabricated for use as
812:radioactively, by adding
2283:Backward-wave oscillator
1993:Light emitting capacitor
1849:Point-contact transistor
1819:Junction Gate FET (JFET)
1573:Chapter 8: Special tubes
1356:10.1002/14356007.o22_o15
1028:Elapsed-time measurement
980:bayonet light bulb mount
949:Direct-glow trigger tube
850:Gas Discharge Tube (GDT)
579:G: normal glow discharge
199:ultraviolet spectroscopy
83:the gas with an applied
71:, temperature-resistant
38:compact fluorescent bulb
2294:Crossed-field amplifier
1813:Field-effect transistor
1350:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
1022:voltage-regulator tubes
1016:Voltage-regulator tubes
952:Phosphored trigger tube
793:The recently developed
59:, is an arrangement of
2463:Voltage-regulator tube
2030:MOS integrated circuit
1895:Constant-current diode
1871:Unijunction transistor
1153:high-speed photography
874:relaxation oscillators
749:sodium discharge lamps
602:
469:
311:, usually to excite a
244:
41:
2684:Electrical components
2532:Electrolytic detector
2305:Inductive output tube
2121:Low-dropout regulator
2036:Organic semiconductor
1967:Printed circuit board
1803:Darlington transistor
1650:Electronic components
1093:, a mercury pool tube
1079:, a mercury pool tube
1073:, a mercury pool tube
1057:, a mercury pool tube
819:electrically, with a
560:B: saturation current
552:
448:
356:and other gas-filled
220:
89:electrical conduction
35:
2350:Beam deflection tube
2019:Metal-oxide varistor
1912:Light-emitting diode
1766:Thin-film transistor
1727:Floating-gate MOSFET
1024:were commonly used.
737:Fluorescent lighting
569:E: unstable region:
555:A: random pulses by
87:sufficient to cause
2326:Traveling-wave tube
2126:Switching regulator
1962:Printed electronics
1939:Step recovery diode
1716:Depletion-load NMOS
1614:Gas discharge tubes
1127:, a pulse generator
1051:Mercury pool tubes
1044:List of -tron tubes
945:dot-matrix displays
708:with mercury (e.g.
525:sulfur hexafluoride
498:Geiger–Müller tubes
425:vapors are used in
415:vapors are used in
354:Geiger–Müller tubes
2689:Glass applications
2631:Crystal oscillator
2491:Variable capacitor
2166:Switched capacitor
2108:Voltage regulators
1982:Integrated circuit
1866:Tetrode transistor
1844:Pentode transistor
1837:Organic LET (OLET)
1824:Organic FET (OFET)
1607:2011-12-16 at the
1578:2010-12-25 at the
1544:Bendix Corporation
1252:2010-12-25 at the
1107:, a modulator tube
603:
564:Townsend discharge
545:Townsend discharge
470:
417:sodium-vapor lamps
383:mercury-arc valves
364:and in monochrome
358:particle detectors
260:helium–neon lasers
245:
113:sodium-vapor lamps
109:metal-halide lamps
97:gas-discharge lamp
93:Townsend discharge
42:
28:Gas-discharge lamp
2666:
2665:
2626:Ceramic resonator
2438:Mercury-arc valve
2390:Video camera tube
2342:Cathode-ray tubes
2102:
2101:
1710:Complementary MOS
1319:Thyratron various
780:Xenon flash lamps
633:operating voltage
623:breakdown voltage
403:fluorescent tubes
279:fluorescent tubes
203:neutron generator
105:fluorescent lamps
79:, and operate by
52:or formerly as a
2696:
2679:Gas-filled tubes
2520:electrical power
2405:Gas-filled tubes
2289:Cavity magnetron
2116:Linear regulator
1665:
1664:
1643:
1636:
1629:
1620:
1619:
1585:
1569:
1563:
1562:
1560:
1558:
1552:
1541:
1529:
1523:
1522:
1520:
1518:
1513:on 20 March 2017
1512:
1506:. Archived from
1501:
1489:
1483:
1482:
1480:
1478:
1473:on 20 March 2017
1472:
1466:. Archived from
1464:Raytheon Company
1461:
1449:
1443:
1428:
1422:
1421:
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1411:
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1310:
1304:
1291:
1286:
1277:
1270:
1259:
1243:
1036:, a metal-vapor
966:, gas-discharge
878:digital circuits
854:surge protectors
726:Penning mixtures
636:backfire voltage
571:corona discharge
557:cosmic radiation
519:elements, e.g.,
505:Insulating gases
346:Penning mixtures
2704:
2703:
2699:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2694:
2693:
2669:
2668:
2667:
2662:
2600:
2515:audio and video
2500:
2467:
2399:
2336:
2264:
2245:Photomultiplier
2170:
2098:
2046:Quantum circuit
1954:
1948:
1890:Avalanche diode
1876:
1788:
1781:
1670:
1659:
1652:
1647:
1609:Wayback Machine
1593:
1588:
1580:Wayback Machine
1570:
1566:
1556:
1554:
1553:on 18 July 2019
1550:
1539:
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1317:
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1305:
1294:
1287:
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1271:
1262:
1254:Wayback Machine
1244:
1221:
1217:
1046:
1030:
1018:
961:
921:
866:Schmitt trigger
862:
860:Computing tubes
834:
803:
734:
688:
629:current density
616:
600:
598:
593:
591:
590:K: electric arc
589:
584:
582:
580:
578:
573:
568:
566:
561:
559:
554:
547:
541:
517:electronegative
513:
507:
484:surge arresters
443:
375:
366:plasma displays
309:plasma displays
291:rectifier tubes
215:
188:
161:
156:
46:gas-filled tube
30:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2702:
2692:
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2599:
2598:
2597:
2596:
2594:Wollaston wire
2586:
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2566:
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2398:
2397:
2392:
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2382:
2377:
2375:Selectron tube
2372:
2367:
2365:Magic eye tube
2362:
2357:
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2016:
2011:
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2001:
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1990:
1985:
1979:
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1969:
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1958:
1956:
1950:
1949:
1947:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1934:Schottky diode
1931:
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1617:
1616:
1611:
1599:
1592:
1591:External links
1589:
1587:
1586:
1564:
1524:
1484:
1444:
1423:
1396:
1371:
1365:978-3527306732
1364:
1336:
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1292:
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1080:
1074:
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1058:
1045:
1042:
1034:Time Totalizer
1029:
1026:
1017:
1014:
1008:One miniature
960:
957:
956:
955:
954:
953:
950:
937:
931:
920:
917:
868:effect of the
861:
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799:
733:
730:
687:
684:
648:
647:
640:
637:
634:
631:
626:
615:
612:
576:glow discharge
574:F: sub-normal
540:
537:
511:Dielectric gas
509:Main article:
506:
503:
502:
501:
487:
477:
442:
439:
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374:
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329:
325:Penning effect
301:
294:
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263:
214:
211:
187:
184:
160:
157:
155:
152:
101:electric light
50:discharge tube
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2701:
2690:
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2676:
2674:
2657:
2656:mercury relay
2654:
2652:
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2479:Potentiometer
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2396:
2395:Williams tube
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2222:
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2214:Fleming valve
2212:
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2200:
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2041:Photodetector
2039:
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2023:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2009:Memtransistor
2007:
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1658:Semiconductor
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1442:
1441:0-7506-7291-9
1438:
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1394:
1393:0-7503-0646-7
1390:
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1139:, a rectifier
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913:radio control
910:
906:
901:
899:
895:
891:
887:
886:trigger tubes
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
857:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
832:Power devices
826:
822:
818:
815:
811:
808:
807:
806:
798:
796:
791:
789:
788:strobe lights
785:
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771:
766:
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750:
746:
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645:
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638:
635:
632:
630:
627:
624:
621:
620:
619:
611:
609:
608:Paschen's law
597:
588:
577:
572:
565:
562:C: avalanche
558:
551:
546:
536:
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526:
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58:
56:
51:
47:
39:
34:
29:
22:
2413:Cold cathode
2404:
2380:Storage tube
2270:Vacuum tubes
2219:Neutron tube
2194:Beam tetrode
2176:Vacuum tubes
1761:Power MOSFET
1582:
1567:
1555:. Retrieved
1548:the original
1534:
1527:
1515:. Retrieved
1508:the original
1494:
1487:
1475:. Retrieved
1468:the original
1454:
1447:
1431:
1426:
1414:. Retrieved
1405:
1399:
1382:
1345:
1339:
1326:
1314:
1256:
1047:
1033:
1031:
1019:
1007:
996:
968:noise diodes
962:
959:Noise diodes
927:
922:
902:
889:
885:
863:
835:
824:
820:
804:
795:sulfur lamps
792:
778:
767:
763:neon signage
757:
735:
722:
689:
680:
677:
672:replenishers
671:
665:
655:
653:
649:
617:
614:Gas pressure
604:
587:electric arc
514:
427:sulfur lamps
275:neon signage
246:
189:
162:
154:Gases in use
148:cold cathode
133:
53:
49:
45:
43:
2579:Transformer
2321:Sutton tube
2161:Charge pump
2014:Memory cell
1944:Zener diode
1906:Laser diode
1789:transistors
1671:transistors
1537:data sheet"
1497:data sheet"
1457:data sheet"
964:Hot-cathode
915:receivers.
898:nixie tubes
890:relay tubes
533:halocarbons
441:Other gases
336:radioactive
258:is used in
248:Noble gases
213:Noble gases
195:ultraviolet
193:is used in
144:hot cathode
117:neon lights
2673:Categories
2651:reed relay
2641:Parametron
2574:Thermistor
2552:resettable
2511:Connector
2472:Adjustable
2448:Nixie tube
2418:Crossatron
2385:Trochotron
2360:Iconoscope
2355:Charactron
2332:X-ray tube
2204:Compactron
2184:Acorn tube
2141:Buck–boost
2062:Solaristor
1924:Photodiode
1901:Gunn diode
1897:(CLD, CRD)
1679:Transistor
1557:23 October
1385:, Volume 1
1215:References
1196:Plasmatron
1190:neon light
1186:nixie tube
1149:Strobotron
1105:Crossatron
1091:Capacitron
1085:Trignitron
1038:coulometer
972:radio tube
934:Phosphored
919:Indicators
882:neon lamps
821:keep-alive
770:Nixie tube
759:Neon lamps
718:molybdenum
712:, but not
693:outgassing
686:Gas purity
644:sputtering
543:See also:
393:with e.g.
362:neon bulbs
350:neon lamps
277:. Used in
207:crossatron
197:lamps for
168:thyratrons
125:thyratrons
69:insulating
67:within an
61:electrodes
26:See also:
2614:Capacitor
2458:Trigatron
2453:Thyratron
2443:Neon lamp
2370:Monoscope
2250:Phototube
2234:Pentagrid
2199:Barretter
2084:Trancitor
2079:Thyristor
2004:Memristor
1929:PIN diode
1706:(ChemFET)
1176:Alphatron
1170:Trigatron
1164:Thyratron
1143:Plomatron
1137:Phanotron
1131:Permatron
1115:cathetron
1111:Kathetron
1077:Sendytron
1065:gausitron
1010:thyratron
992:waveguide
936:neon lamp
894:dekatrons
838:thyratron
827:electrode
753:HID lamps
741:CFL lamps
710:zirconium
455:deuterium
387:ignitrons
340:half-life
319:(47
222:Noble gas
191:Deuterium
186:Deuterium
172:dekatrons
129:ignitrons
2636:Inductor
2606:Reactive
2584:Varistor
2564:Resistor
2542:Antifuse
2428:Ignitron
2423:Dekatron
2311:Klystron
2300:Gyrotron
2229:Nuvistor
2146:Split-pi
2032:(MOS IC)
1999:Memistor
1757:(MuGFET)
1751:(MOSFET)
1723:(FinFET)
1605:Archived
1576:Archived
1504:Sylvania
1477:20 March
1416:July 16,
1250:Archived
1202:Tacitron
1182:Dekatron
1158:Takktron
1099:Corotron
1071:Ignitron
1061:Gusetron
1055:Excitron
1003:mixtures
1001:because
846:ignitron
774:Decatron
706:amalgams
697:bake-out
660:adsorbed
656:clean-up
642:cathode
529:nitrogen
521:halogens
490:Halogens
480:Nitrogen
459:nitrogen
451:hydrogen
407:phosphor
313:phosphor
271:decatron
176:krytrons
164:Hydrogen
159:Hydrogen
140:ceramics
136:pressure
121:krytrons
81:ionizing
73:envelope
2537:Ferrite
2505:Passive
2496:Varicap
2484:digital
2433:Krytron
2255:Tetrode
2240:Pentode
2094:Varicap
2075:(3D IC)
2051:RF CMOS
1955:devices
1729:(FGMOS)
1660:devices
1208:Krytron
1125:Neotron
984:top cap
905:triodes
842:krytron
814:tritium
784:cameras
745:mercury
702:getters
668:getters
494:alcohol
467:mercury
395:bismuth
391:amalgam
379:Mercury
297:Krypton
238:krypton
180:hydride
85:voltage
55:Plücker
2569:Switch
2260:Triode
2224:Nonode
2189:Audion
2069:(SITh)
1953:Other
1920:(OLED)
1882:Diodes
1833:(LET)
1815:(FET)
1787:Other
1735:(IGBT)
1712:(CMOS)
1699:BioFET
1694:BiCMOS
1517:25 May
1439:
1391:
1362:
1119:triode
986:, for
941:pixels
928:Tuneon
844:, and
825:primer
714:barium
463:oxygen
434:lasers
423:Sulfur
413:Sodium
399:indium
328:xenon.
256:Helium
226:helium
174:, and
127:, and
115:, and
99:is an
2646:Relay
2619:types
2557:eFUSE
2328:(TWT)
2316:Maser
2307:(IOT)
2296:(CFA)
2285:(BWO)
2209:Diode
2156:SEPIC
2136:Boost
2089:TRIAC
2058:(SCR)
2021:(MOV)
1995:(LEC)
1914:(LED)
1873:(UJT)
1862:(SIT)
1856:(PUT)
1799:(BJT)
1768:(TFT)
1744:LDMOS
1739:ISFET
1551:(PDF)
1540:(PDF)
1511:(PDF)
1500:(PDF)
1471:(PDF)
1460:(PDF)
1410:(PDF)
880:with
332:Radon
304:Xenon
286:Argon
242:xenon
234:argon
201:, in
95:. A
63:in a
2589:Wire
2547:Fuse
2131:Buck
1984:(IC)
1972:DIAC
1908:(LD)
1777:UMOS
1772:VMOS
1689:PMOS
1684:NMOS
1669:MOS
1559:2017
1519:2013
1479:2017
1437:ISBN
1418:2023
1389:ISBN
1360:ISBN
1188:and
999:neon
896:and
876:and
864:The
786:and
761:and
751:and
747:and
531:and
492:and
397:and
317:Torr
266:Neon
230:neon
146:and
57:tube
2151:Ćuk
1352:doi
1113:or
1063:or
988:SHF
976:UHF
943:of
911:in
823:or
585:J:
474:Air
321:kPa
65:gas
2675::
2525:RF
2274:RF
1542:.
1502:.
1462:.
1374:^
1358:.
1295:^
1281:^
1263:^
1222:^
994:.
900:.
892:,
888:,
884:,
840:,
743:,
739:,
610:.
535:.
465:,
461:,
457:,
453:,
385:,
352:,
240:,
236:,
232:,
228:,
170:,
123:,
111:,
107:,
44:A
36:A
2276:)
2272:(
1642:e
1635:t
1628:v
1561:.
1533:"
1521:.
1493:"
1481:.
1453:"
1420:.
1368:.
1354::
1192:)
500:.
436:.
429:.
419:.
368:.
23:.
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