28:
36:
117:
311:
20:
664:
268:
322:
385:
645:)) and the U.K. inch at 25.399977 mm (with a reference temperature of 62 °F (17 °C)). When Johansson started manufacturing gauge blocks in inch sizes in 1912, Johansson's compromise was to manufacture gauge blocks with a nominal size of 25.4mm, with a reference temperature of 20 °C (68 °F), accurate to within a few parts per million of both official definitions. Because Johansson's blocks were so popular, his blocks became the
195:
330:
144:-based) because they are harder and wear less. Gauge blocks come in sets of blocks of various lengths, along with additional wear blocks, to allow a wide variety of standard lengths to be made up by stacking them. The length of each block is actually slightly shorter than the nominal length stamped on it, because the stamped length includes the length of one
108:, which causes their ultra-flat surfaces to cling together. A small number of gauge blocks can be used to create accurate lengths within a wide range. By using three blocks at a time taken from a set of 30 blocks, one may create any of the 1000 lengths from 3.000 to 3.999 mm in 0.001 mm steps (or .3000 to .3999 inches in 0.0001 inch steps).
591:
had demonstrated his set at Carl Gustaf, his employer provided time and resources for him to develop the idea. Johansson was granted his first
Swedish patent on 2 May 1901, SE patent No. 17017, called "Gauge Block Sets for Precision Measurement". Johansson formed the Swedish company CE Johansson AB (also known as 'CEJ') on 16 March 1917.
622:. Hounshell (1984), citing Althin (1948) and various archive primary sources, says, "Henry Ford purchased the famous gaugemaking operation of the Swede C. E. Johansson in 1923 and soon moved it into the laboratory facility in Dearborn. Between 1923 and 1927, the Johansson division supplied 'Jo-blocks' to the Ford
186:
elsewhere, so one creates a stack from the blocks available at the time. Typically the few millionths of an inch difference will not be detectable, or matter, in the context. Contexts demanding ultimate precision are rarer and require additional expense (for example, more sets of blocks and higher grades of blocks).
305:
while applying moderate pressure. Then, the bottom of the gauge block is observed (through the optical flat) for oil or color. For
Federal Grades 0.5, 1, and 2 and ISO grades K, 00, and 0 no oil or color should be visible under the gauge block. For Federal Grade 3 and ISO grades 1 and 2, no more than
180:
Machinists and toolmakers try to use a stack with the fewest blocks to avoid accumulation of size errors. For example, a stack totaling .638 that is composed of two blocks (a .500 block wrung to a .138 block) is preferable to a stack also totaling .638 that is composed of four blocks (such as a .200,
590:
Back home, Johansson converted his wife's Singer sewing machine to a grinding and lapping machine. He preferred to carry out this precision work at home, as the grinding machines at the rifle factory were not good enough. His wife, Margareta, helped him with the initial prototyping. Once
Johansson
185:
section, each block has a size tolerance of a few millionths of an inch, so stacking them together introduces a cumulative uncertainty. However, the stacked error from even multiple blocks is usually negligible in all but the most demanding uses. In a busy shop, some of the blocks will be in use
345:
together, along with reference points, scribers, and various shapes of blocks that act like caliper jaws, either external or internal. Conical-tip ones ease measurement of center-to-center distances between hole centers. A stack of gauge blocks with external caliper-jaw accessories, all clamped
241:
involved, although to a user the clinging together of the blocks feels a bit like weak refrigerator magnets sticking together. Unlike magnets, however, the cling only lasts while the blocks are completely joined—the blocks do not attract each other across any visible gap, as magnets would.
205:
is the process of sliding two blocks together so that their faces bond. Because of their ultraflat surfaces, when wrung, gauge blocks adhere to each other tightly. Properly wrung blocks may withstand a 300 N (67 lbf) pull. The mechanism is a combination of:
233:
It is believed that the last two sources are the most significant. Experiments with friction of the blocks suggest also that the removal of the oxide film from the steel surface by wringing plays an important role in the wringing action.
124:
A gauge block is a block of metal or ceramic with two opposing faces ground precisely flat and parallel, a precise distance apart. Standard grade blocks are made of a hardened steel alloy, while calibration grade blocks are often made of
300:
There is a formal test to measure wringability. First, the block is prepared for wringing using the standard process. The block is then slid across a 2 in (51 mm) reference grade (1 μin (0.025 μm) flatness) quartz
575:
in 1894, Johansson was very excited about the chance to study Mauser's methods of measuring, in preparation for production under license at Carl Gustaf (which began several years later). However, a visit to the Mauser factory in
540:. Usually no plating or other coating is involved. Blocks are kept very lightly oiled, and are stored and used in dry climate-controlled conditions; unplated, uncoated steel gauge blocks can last for decades without rusting.
451:
and ANSI/ASME B89.1.9M, which defines both absolute deviations from nominal dimensions and parallelism limits as criteria for grade determination. Generally, grades are equivalent to former U.S. Federal grades as follows:
587:, which were custom-made individually in a toolroom for use on the shop floor; but there had never been super-precision gauge blocks that could be wrung together to make up different lengths, as Johansson now envisioned.
516:. Long series blocks are made from high-quality steel having cross section (35 × 9 mm) with holes for clamping two slips together. These are also available in carbon steel material. Steel blocks are
409:. Various grading standards include: JIS B 7506-1997 (Japan)/DIN 861-1980 (Germany), ASME (US), BS 4311: Part 1: 1993 (UK). Tolerances will vary within the same grade as the thickness of the material increases.
404:
Gauge blocks are available in various grades, depending on their intended use. The grading criterion is tightness of tolerance on their sizes; thus higher grades are made to tighter tolerances and have higher
1254:
148:, a film of lubricant which separates adjacent block faces in normal use. The thickness of the wring film is about 25 nanometers (0.98 μin). The gauge's nominal length is also known as the
580:, Germany, turned out to be a disappointment. On the train home, he thought about the problem, and he came up with the idea of a set of blocks that could be combined to make up any measure.
306:
20% of the surface area should show oil or color. This test is hard to perform on gauge blocks thinner than 0.1 in (2.5 mm) because they tend not to be flat in the relaxed state.
660:
followed suit in 1933. By 1935, industry in 16 countries had adopted the "industrial inch" as it came to be known, effectively endorsing
Johansson's pragmatic choice of conversion ratio.
649:
standard for manufacturers internationally, with other manufacturers of gauge blocks following
Johansson's definition by producing blocks designed to be equivalent to his.
285:; it is officially defined as "the ability of two surfaces to adhere tightly to each other in the absence of external means." The minimum conditions for wringability are a
70:
to a specific thickness. Gauge blocks come in sets of blocks with a range of standard lengths. In use, the blocks are stacked to make up a desired length (or height).
104:
An important feature of gauge blocks is that they can be joined together with very little dimensional uncertainty. The blocks are joined by a sliding process called
532:
during use (this is why other kinds of gauges, such as pins, thread plugs, and rings, are also hardened.) The cutting of the blocks to size is accomplished with
1046:
2056:
341:
The pictured accessories provide a set of holders and tools to extend the usefulness of the gauge block set. They provide a means of securely clamping large
229:
that occurs when two very flat surfaces are brought into contact; this force causes gauge blocks to adhere even without surface lubricants, and in a vacuum
618:, where he proposed a cooperation in order to save his company. Henry Ford became interested, and on 18 November 1923 he began working for Henry Ford in
1427:
929:
1168:
1048:
594:
Johansson spent many years in
America; during his life he crossed the Atlantic 22 times. The first CEJ gauge block set in America was sold to
1389:
672:
1079:
Metric Units in
Engineering--going SI: How to Use the International Systems of Measurement Units (SI) to Solve Standard Engineering Problems
1246:
2061:
1797:
169:
to be accurate at 20 °C (68 °F) and should be kept at this temperature when taking measurements. This mitigates the effects of
1820:
698:
Similar to gauge blocks, these are precision-ground cylindrical bars, for use as plug gauges to measure hole diameters, or as parts of
473:
598:
at the
Cadillac Automobile Company around 1908. The first manufacturing plant in America for his gauge block sets was established in
671:
In 1936, at the age of 72, Johansson felt it was time to retire and go back to Sweden. He was awarded the large gold medal of the
476:. See the NIST reference below for more detailed information on tolerances for each grade and block size. Also consult page 3 of:
1113:
Brown & Sharpe and the
Measure of American Industry: Making the Precision Machine Tools That Enabled Manufacturing, 1833-2001
400:. The interference fringes (lines) visible on the surface of the flats indicates error; the number of lines indicates the amount.
420:
calibration (AA): (tolerance +0.10 μm to −0.05 μm) used to calibrate inspection blocks and very high precision gauging
1420:
837:
62:) are a system for producing precision lengths. The individual gauge block is a metal or ceramic block that has been precision
1023:
1341:
1320:
1228:
1192:
1087:
970:
657:
1487:
1363:
The Gauge Block
Handbook; US National Institute of Standards & Technology (NIST) Monograph 180 with Corrections; 2004
430:
workshop (B): large tolerance (tolerance +0.25 μm to −0.15 μm) used as shop standards for precision measurement
1311:
From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States
1181:
From the American System to Mass Production, 1800–1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States
690:
logos were made. Blocks co-branded with the C.E. Johansson and Ford logos are also sometimes still seen in use today.
1413:
1382:
1121:
177:, are included at each end of the stack, whenever possible, to protect the gauge blocks from being damaged in use.
150:
583:
There had already been a long history of increasing use of gauges up to this time, such as gauges for filing and
255:
The block is then slid perpendicularly across the other block while applying moderate pressure until they form a
477:
1184:
603:
599:
1545:
1375:
290:
2066:
1581:
1436:
533:
63:
1830:
1772:
1444:
607:
1247:"20°C—A Short History of the Standard Reference Temperature for Industrial Dimensional Measurements"
1495:
719:
294:
750: – Process whereby two closely conformal surfaces are held together by intermolecular forces.
2030:
889:
747:
1052:
27:
1626:
1362:
1289:
521:
517:
406:
1077:
999:
1953:
553:
456:
00 – generally equivalent to grade 1 (most exacting flatness and accuracy requirements)
414:
74:
711:
226:
468:
K – generally equivalent to grade 00 flatness (parallelism) with grade AS-1 accuracy
462:
AS-1 – generally equivalent to grade 3 (reportedly stands for American Standard - 1)
8:
1880:
1737:
1586:
1555:
577:
82:
744: – Welding process in which joining occurs without melting or heating the interface
1920:
1885:
1840:
1825:
1639:
1309:
1276:
1176:
1160:
715:
637:
was effectively defined as 25.4000508 mm (with a reference temperature of 68
619:
615:
560:
35:
1357:
2005:
2000:
1337:
1316:
1281:
1224:
1206:
1198:
1188:
1147:
1117:
1083:
1029:
903:
Breki, A.; Nosonovsky, M. (2023). "Friction and adhesion of Johansson gauge blocks".
687:
679:
170:
116:
843:
1860:
1669:
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1477:
1271:
1263:
912:
513:
505:
501:
497:
310:
174:
130:
126:
77:. They are used as a reference for the calibration of measuring equipment used in
157:
In use, the blocks are removed from the set, cleaned of their protective coating (
1596:
1331:
1218:
1141:
1111:
1047:
National Conference on Weights and Measures; United States. Bureau of Standards;
595:
216:
158:
138:
98:
19:
567:, Sweden. He was concerned with the expensive tools for measuring parts for the
213:
applies pressure between the blocks because the air is squeezed out of the joint
101:). Gauge blocks are the main means of length standardization used by industry.
1850:
1787:
1747:
1616:
1535:
1472:
699:
627:
584:
572:
568:
434:
More recent grade designations include (U.S. Federal Specification GGG-G-15C):
397:
376:, which removes any excess oil from the block after the oil pad has been used.
347:
334:
333:
A holder that turns a stack of gauge blocks into an instant, custom caliper or
286:
1210:
879:
682:
bought the rights to the C.E. Johansson brand from Ford Motor Co., and blocks
663:
256:
2050:
1925:
1910:
1870:
1767:
1752:
1601:
1591:
1500:
1462:
571:
rifles then in production under licence at Carl Gustaf. When Sweden adopted
1968:
1915:
1905:
1890:
1865:
1855:
1835:
1815:
1782:
1762:
1724:
1684:
1674:
1659:
1634:
1530:
1398:
1285:
916:
741:
735:
391:
302:
78:
626:
and any manufacturer who could afford them. It also made some of the Ford
610:
did not turn out so well for the company, so in 1923 he wrote a letter to
1978:
1973:
1875:
1732:
1694:
1611:
1606:
1560:
1525:
1515:
1510:
1267:
1255:
Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology
683:
396:
being used to measure the height of a ball bearing and a plug gage using
358:
321:
220:
198:
36 Johansson gauge blocks wrung together easily support their own weight.
166:
2025:
2020:
1958:
1935:
1805:
1757:
638:
611:
564:
489:
384:
267:
194:
94:
602:, Dutchess County, New York, in 1919. The economic environment of the
262:
Finally, the block is rotated until it is inline with the other block.
2015:
2010:
1709:
1644:
1467:
710:
These are supplied as sets of individual rollers or balls as used in
653:
548:
The gauge block set, also known as "Jo Blocks", was developed by the
274:
238:
1333:
The Perfectionists: How Precision Engineers Created the Modern World
472:
The ANSI/ASME standard follows a similar philosophy as set forth in
329:
1963:
1900:
1810:
1565:
1520:
1457:
630:
used in production as well as other precision production devices."
623:
525:
424:
423:
inspection (A): (tolerance +0.15 μm to −0.05 μm) used as
372:, which applies a light layer of oil to the block. The second is a
90:
86:
930:
Hugh Jack: Engineer On a Disk, Grand Valley State University, 2001
2035:
1995:
1777:
1689:
1649:
1540:
1452:
884:
642:
557:
556:. Johansson was employed in 1888 as an armourer inspector by the
537:
509:
493:
273:
After use, the blocks are re-oiled or greased to protect against
134:
67:
1202:
1151:
1033:
1742:
1714:
1679:
1654:
1550:
1505:
1367:
549:
210:
1948:
1943:
1895:
1699:
1054:
Report of the ... National Conference on Weights and Measures
181:.149, .151, and .138 all wrung together). As detailed in the
16:
System for producing precision lengths by stacking components
368:
used to prepare a gauge block for wringing. The first is an
165:
to form a stack of the required dimension. Gauge blocks are
1704:
1057:. US Department of Commerce, Bureau of Standards. p. 4
1001:
Industrial Standardization and Commercial Standards Monthly
634:
529:
357:
that cannot damage the surface is used to remove nicks and
1262:(1). National Institute of Science and Technology: 1–23.
1025:
Measures for Progress. NIST Special Publication, isue 275
723:
718:
applications. Calibration balls can be used to calibrate
488:
Gauge blocks are usually made either from hardened alloy
252:
Wiping any extra oil off the gauge block using a dry pad.
277:. The ability of a given gauge block to wring is called
73:
Gauge blocks were invented in 1896 by Swedish machinist
902:
528:
is important because it slows down the gauge's rate of
1217:
Krar, Steve F.; Gill, Arthur R.; Smid, Peter (2005),
1069:
1040:
563:(Rifle Factory of Carl Gustaf's town) in the town of
1143:
C.E. Johansson, 1864–1943: The Master of Measurement
1076:
Wandmacher, Cornelius; Johnson, Arnold Ivan (1995).
1049:
National Institute of Standards and Technology (US)
767:
In at least one experiment this theory didn't hold.
738: – Extremely flat piece of optical-grade glass
173:. The wear blocks, made of a harder substance like
1308:
346:together, acts as a quickly assembled custom-size
1075:
946:
465:AS-2 – generally less accurate than grade 3
2048:
1329:
1028:. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 200.
1306:
249:Wiping a clean gauge block across an oiled pad.
1223:(6th ed.), McGraw-Hill Career Education,
1169:National Institute of Standards and Technology
1421:
1383:
673:Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences
656:adopted an inch of exactly 25.4 mm. The
438:0.5 – generally equivalent to grade AAA
245:The process of wringing involves four steps:
2057:Length, distance, or range measuring devices
1216:
667:Co-branding of CEJ, Ford, and B&S logos.
480:(Length refers to the calibrated thickness)
1158:
866:
808:
796:
784:
417:(±0.05 μm) used to establish standards
1428:
1414:
1390:
1376:
831:
829:
827:
825:
823:
821:
819:
817:
705:
447:3 – compromise grade between A and B
444:2 – generally equivalent to grade A+
441:1 – generally equivalent to grade AA
1275:
1175:
952:
459:0 – generally equivalent to grade 2
427:standards for setting other gauging tools
1021:
997:
662:
573:a tailored variant of the Mauser carbine
383:
328:
320:
193:
115:
34:
26:
18:
1109:
980:. Mitutoyo Corporation. 2013. p. 8
862:
860:
814:
297:of at least 5 μin (0.13 μm).
31:Another set with 8 pcs, 125 mm - 500 mm
2049:
1435:
1244:
1139:
940:
780:
778:
1409:
1371:
965:
963:
961:
896:
1307:David Hounshell (1 September 1985).
1110:Carbone, Gerald M. (21 March 2017).
880:"Will Gauge Blocks Stick In Vacuum?"
857:
633:In the early 20th century, the U.S.
835:
775:
13:
2062:Metalworking measuring instruments
1238:
1146:, Stockholm: Ab. C.E. Johansson ,
1082:. ASCE Publications. p. 265.
958:
675:in 1943, shortly after his death.
223:that is present between the blocks
14:
2078:
1351:
1159:Doiron, Ted; Beers, John (2009),
478:Commercial Gauge Block Tolerances
1397:
892:from the original on 2021-12-13.
726:machines and similar equipment.
561:Carl Gustafs stads Gevärsfaktori
309:
266:
1103:
1015:
998:Gaillard, John (October 1943).
991:
934:
289:of 1 microinch (0.025 μm)
23:Metric gauge block set, 112 pcs
1185:Johns Hopkins University Press
923:
872:
802:
790:
761:
658:American Standards Association
483:
316:
120:How gauge blocks are measured.
111:
1:
1140:Althin, Torsten K.W. (1948),
1133:
1022:Cochrane, Rexmond C. (1966).
971:"The History of Gauge Blocks"
693:
654:British Standards Institution
390:(left in each picture, under
839:Wringability and Gage Blocks
686:with the C.E. Johansson and
7:
1220:Technology of Machine Tools
729:
325:A gauge block accessory set
189:
182:
10:
2083:
1773:Magnetic switchable device
1161:"The Gauge Block Handbook"
604:post–World War I recession
543:
361:to maintain wringability.
1991:
1934:
1796:
1723:
1625:
1574:
1486:
1443:
1405:
1330:Simon Winchester (2018).
720:contact angle goniometers
702:or similar applications.
379:
754:
1831:Engineer's spirit level
1183:, Baltimore, Maryland:
867:Doiron & Beers 2009
809:Doiron & Beers 2009
797:Doiron & Beers 2009
785:Doiron & Beers 2009
748:Optical contact bonding
712:roller or ball bearings
706:Gauge rollers and balls
628:'go' and 'no-go' gauges
512:has a hardness of 1500
413:reference (AAA): small
1546:Oxy-fuel cutting torch
917:10.1680/jsuin.22.01083
668:
407:accuracy and precision
401:
338:
326:
199:
151:interferometric length
121:
40:
32:
24:
2031:Tools and terminology
1798:Measuring instruments
666:
608:depression of 1920–21
554:Carl Edvard Johansson
387:
332:
324:
197:
119:
75:Carl Edvard Johansson
38:
30:
22:
1358:The Joy of High Tech
1268:10.6028/jres.112.001
227:Molecular attraction
1245:Doiron, T. (2007).
1177:Hounshell, David A.
905:Surface Innovations
716:tool and die making
578:Oberndorf am Neckar
2067:Swedish inventions
1921:Thread pitch gauge
1886:Optical comparator
1640:Combination square
1437:Metalworking tools
1336:. Harper Collins.
869:, pp. 138–139
688:Brown & Sharpe
680:Brown & Sharpe
669:
620:Dearborn, Michigan
616:Ford Motor Company
402:
339:
327:
200:
122:
41:
33:
25:
2044:
2043:
1987:
1986:
1343:978-1-63546-320-0
1322:978-0-8018-3158-4
1230:978-0-07-723225-2
1194:978-0-8018-2975-8
1089:978-0-7844-0070-8
498:cemented carbides
355:gauge block stone
348:go or no-go gauge
293:or better, and a
171:thermal expansion
97:(when used in an
2074:
1861:Machinist square
1670:Needlegun scaler
1665:Machinist square
1478:Water jet cutter
1445:Cutting machines
1430:
1423:
1416:
1407:
1406:
1392:
1385:
1378:
1369:
1368:
1347:
1326:
1314:
1303:
1301:
1300:
1294:
1288:. Archived from
1279:
1251:
1233:
1213:
1172:
1165:
1154:
1128:
1127:
1107:
1101:
1100:
1098:
1096:
1073:
1067:
1066:
1064:
1062:
1044:
1038:
1037:
1019:
1013:
1012:
1010:
1009:
995:
989:
988:
986:
985:
975:
967:
956:
950:
944:
938:
932:
927:
921:
920:
900:
894:
893:
888:. Feb 15, 2017.
876:
870:
864:
855:
854:
852:
851:
842:, archived from
833:
812:
806:
800:
794:
788:
782:
768:
765:
514:Vickers hardness
506:tantalum carbide
502:tungsten carbide
313:
283:
282:
270:
175:tungsten carbide
131:chromium carbide
127:tungsten carbide
52:Johansson gauges
2082:
2081:
2077:
2076:
2075:
2073:
2072:
2071:
2047:
2046:
2045:
2040:
1983:
1930:
1826:Engineer's blue
1792:
1725:Machine tooling
1719:
1621:
1597:Hydraulic press
1570:
1482:
1439:
1434:
1401:
1396:
1354:
1344:
1323:
1298:
1296:
1292:
1249:
1241:
1239:Further reading
1231:
1195:
1163:
1136:
1131:
1124:
1108:
1104:
1094:
1092:
1090:
1074:
1070:
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1058:
1045:
1041:
1020:
1016:
1007:
1005:
996:
992:
983:
981:
973:
969:
968:
959:
951:
947:
939:
935:
928:
924:
901:
897:
878:
877:
873:
865:
858:
849:
847:
836:Friedel, Dave,
834:
815:
807:
803:
795:
791:
783:
776:
772:
771:
766:
762:
757:
732:
708:
700:go/no go gauges
696:
596:Henry M. Leland
585:go/no go gauges
546:
486:
382:
319:
280:
279:
217:Surface tension
192:
159:petroleum jelly
142:
114:
99:inspection role
95:dial indicators
46:(also known as
17:
12:
11:
5:
2080:
2070:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2042:
2041:
2039:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
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1936:Smithing tools
1932:
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1903:
1898:
1893:
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1851:Go/no go gauge
1848:
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1833:
1828:
1823:
1821:Dial indicator
1818:
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1617:Stamping press
1614:
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1599:
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1576:
1572:
1571:
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1536:Milling cutter
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1352:External links
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957:
955:, p. 286.
953:Hounshell 1984
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813:
801:
789:
787:, pp. 1–4
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428:
421:
418:
398:interferometry
381:
378:
364:There are two
335:go/no go gauge
318:
315:
287:surface finish
264:
263:
260:
253:
250:
231:
230:
224:
214:
191:
188:
163:wrung together
140:
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15:
9:
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1926:Vernier scale
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1911:Surface plate
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1899:
1897:
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1872:
1871:Marking gauge
1869:
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1768:Machine taper
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1753:Indexing head
1751:
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1602:Machine press
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1592:English wheel
1590:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1579:
1577:
1575:Forming tools
1573:
1567:
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1562:
1559:
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1488:Cutting tools
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1315:. JHU Press.
1313:
1312:
1305:
1295:on 2013-02-17
1291:
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1138:
1137:
1125:
1123:9781476629193
1119:
1115:
1114:
1106:
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1080:
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1026:
1018:
1004:. p. 293
1003:
1002:
994:
979:
972:
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964:
962:
954:
949:
942:
937:
931:
926:
918:
914:
910:
906:
899:
891:
887:
886:
881:
875:
868:
863:
861:
846:on 2011-06-05
845:
841:
840:
832:
830:
828:
826:
824:
822:
820:
818:
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805:
798:
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749:
746:
743:
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737:
734:
733:
727:
725:
721:
717:
713:
703:
701:
691:
689:
685:
681:
676:
674:
665:
661:
659:
655:
652:In 1930, the
650:
648:
644:
640:
636:
631:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
592:
588:
586:
581:
579:
574:
570:
566:
562:
559:
558:state arsenal
555:
551:
541:
539:
535:
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
508:). Often the
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
481:
479:
475:
467:
464:
461:
458:
455:
454:
453:
446:
443:
440:
437:
436:
435:
429:
426:
422:
419:
416:
412:
411:
410:
408:
399:
395:
393:
388:Gauge blocks
386:
377:
375:
371:
367:
366:wringing pads
362:
360:
356:
351:
349:
344:
336:
331:
323:
314:
312:
307:
304:
298:
296:
292:
288:
284:
276:
271:
269:
261:
258:
254:
251:
248:
247:
246:
243:
240:
235:
228:
225:
222:
219:from oil and
218:
215:
212:
209:
208:
207:
204:
196:
187:
184:
178:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
155:
153:
152:
147:
143:
136:
132:
128:
118:
109:
105:
102:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
79:machine shops
76:
71:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
39:Trolley model
37:
29:
21:
1969:Steam hammer
1916:Tape measure
1906:Straightedge
1891:Radius gauge
1866:Marking blue
1856:Height gauge
1845:
1836:Feeler gauge
1816:Center gauge
1783:Rotary table
1763:Lathe center
1675:Piercing saw
1660:Hand scraper
1531:Hand scraper
1399:Metalworking
1332:
1310:
1297:. Retrieved
1290:the original
1259:
1253:
1219:
1180:
1167:
1142:
1112:
1105:
1093:. Retrieved
1078:
1071:
1059:. Retrieved
1053:
1042:
1024:
1017:
1006:. Retrieved
1000:
993:
982:. Retrieved
978:mitutoyo.com
977:
948:
936:
925:
908:
904:
898:
883:
874:
848:, retrieved
844:the original
838:
804:
799:, p. 12
792:
763:
742:Cold welding
736:Optical flat
709:
697:
677:
670:
651:
646:
632:
600:Poughkeepsie
593:
589:
582:
547:
536:followed by
487:
471:
450:
433:
403:
392:optical flat
389:
373:
369:
365:
363:
354:
352:
342:
340:
308:
303:optical flat
299:
281:wringability
278:
272:
265:
244:
237:There is no
236:
232:
202:
201:
179:
162:
161:or oil) and
156:
149:
145:
123:
103:
72:
59:
55:
51:
47:
44:Gauge blocks
43:
42:
2001:Fabrication
1979:Trip hammer
1974:Swage block
1959:Hardy tools
1876:Marking out
1846:Gauge block
1733:Angle plate
1695:Tap and die
1612:Screw press
1607:Punch press
1561:Tipped tool
1516:Countersink
1511:Counterbore
941:Althin 1948
811:, p. 4
490:tool steels
484:Manufacture
317:Accessories
221:water vapor
112:Description
83:micrometers
56:slip gauges
48:gage blocks
2051:Categories
2021:Metallurgy
1881:Micrometer
1806:Bore gauge
1627:Hand tools
1299:2012-06-30
1211:1104810110
1134:References
1008:2020-02-01
984:2020-02-01
850:2010-12-22
694:Gauge pins
684:co-branded
612:Henry Ford
565:Eskilstuna
353:A special
167:calibrated
146:wring film
81:, such as
2016:Machining
2011:Jewellery
1710:Workbench
1645:Drift pin
1468:Miter saw
641:(20
569:Remington
552:inventor
500:(such as
415:tolerance
275:corrosion
257:cruciform
239:magnetism
133:(CrC) or
87:sine bars
60:Jo blocks
2026:Smithing
1964:Pritchel
1901:Sine bar
1566:Tool bit
1521:End mill
1458:Cold saw
1286:27110451
1203:83016269
1179:(1984),
1152:74219452
1095:2 August
1061:2 August
1051:(1936).
1034:65-62472
890:Archived
730:See also
678:In 1948
647:de facto
624:toolroom
534:grinding
526:hardness
522:tempered
518:hardened
494:ceramics
474:ISO 3650
425:toolroom
295:flatness
203:Wringing
190:Wringing
106:wringing
91:calipers
2036:Welding
2006:Forming
1996:Casting
1811:Caliper
1788:Wiggler
1778:Mandrel
1748:Fixture
1690:Scriber
1650:Hacksaw
1541:Nibbler
1453:Bandsaw
1277:4654601
885:YouTube
614:of the
550:Swedish
544:History
538:lapping
510:carbide
374:dry pad
370:oil pad
135:ceramic
1954:Fuller
1743:Collet
1715:Wrench
1680:Pliers
1655:Hammer
1556:Shears
1551:Reamer
1506:Chisel
1496:Broach
1473:Plasma
1340:
1319:
1284:
1274:
1227:
1209:
1201:
1191:
1150:
1120:
1086:
1032:
524:. The
380:Grades
343:stacks
211:Vacuum
183:Grades
129:(WC),
93:, and
68:lapped
64:ground
1949:Forge
1944:Anvil
1896:Ruler
1841:Gauge
1738:Chuck
1700:Tongs
1685:Punch
1635:Clamp
1582:Brake
1463:Laser
1293:(PDF)
1250:(PDF)
1164:(PDF)
974:(PDF)
755:Notes
359:burrs
58:, or
1705:Vise
1526:File
1501:Burr
1338:ISBN
1317:ISBN
1282:PMID
1225:ISBN
1207:OCLC
1199:LCCN
1189:ISBN
1148:LCCN
1118:ISBN
1097:2012
1084:ISBN
1063:2012
1030:LCCN
635:inch
606:and
530:wear
520:and
66:and
1758:Jig
1587:Die
1272:PMC
1264:doi
1260:112
913:doi
724:CNC
714:or
504:or
496:or
139:SiO
2053::
1280:.
1270:.
1258:.
1252:.
1205:,
1197:,
1187:,
1166:,
1116:.
976:.
960:^
911:.
909:11
907:.
882:.
859:^
816:^
777:^
722:,
643:°C
639:°F
492:,
350:.
291:AA
154:.
89:,
85:,
54:,
50:,
1429:e
1422:t
1415:v
1391:e
1384:t
1377:v
1346:.
1325:.
1302:.
1266::
1234:.
1155:.
1126:.
1099:.
1065:.
1036:.
1011:.
987:.
943:.
919:.
915::
853:.
394:)
337:.
259:.
141:2
137:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
