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2157:, defined as broadly as possible, is to discover new knowledge; this may be performed by someone who considers herself a scientist, but may also be done by anyone who is trying to learn why the world appears to work the way it does. A study as practical as deciphering why a business location has failed would be research in this sense. Management (sometimes called operational applications), also defined as broadly as possible, is the application of knowledge to make practical decisions on how to employ the resources one has control over to achieve one's goals. These resources could be time, capital, labor, equipment, land, mineral deposits, wildlife, and so on.
2824:(OGC) is an international industry consortium of 384 companies, government agencies, universities, and individuals participating in a consensus process to develop publicly available geoprocessing specifications. Open interfaces and protocols defined by OpenGIS Specifications support interoperable solutions that "geo-enable" the Web, wireless and location-based services, and mainstream IT, and empower technology developers to make complex spatial information and services accessible and useful with all kinds of applications. Open Geospatial Consortium protocols include
1481:, and hence flow accumulation for the formation of streams, rivers and lakes. Areas of divergent flow can also give a clear indication of the boundaries of a catchment. Once a flow direction and accumulation matrix has been created, queries can be performed that show contributing or dispersal areas at a certain point. More detail can be added to the model, such as terrain roughness, vegetation types and soil types, which can influence infiltration and evapotranspiration rates, and hence influencing surface flow. One of the main uses of hydrological modeling is in
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dot approximately where that address belongs along the segment of centerline. For example, an address point of 500 will be at the midpoint of a line segment that starts with address 1 and ends with address 1,000. Geocoding can also be applied against actual parcel data, typically from municipal tax maps. In this case, the result of the geocoding will be an actually positioned space as opposed to an interpolated point. This approach is being increasingly used to provide more precise location information.
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2315:. A Project GIS is focused on accomplishing a single task: data is gathered, analysis is performed, and results are produced separately from any other projects the person may perform, and the implementation is essentially transitory. An Enterprise GIS is intended to be a permanent institution, including a database that is carefully designed to be useful for a variety of projects over many years, and is likely used by many individuals across an enterprise, with some employed full-time just to maintain it.
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1031:(heads-down digitizing). Heads-down digitizing, or manual digitizing, uses a special magnetic pen, or stylus, that feeds information into a computer to create an identical, digital map. Some tablets use a mouse-like tool, called a puck, instead of a stylus. The puck has a small window with cross-hairs which allows for greater precision and pinpointing map features. Though heads-up digitizing is more commonly used, heads-down digitizing is still useful for digitizing maps of poor quality.
455:(LCGSA 1965–1991), where a number of important theoretical concepts in spatial data handling were developed, and which by the 1970s had distributed seminal software code and systems, such as SYMAP, GRID, and ODYSSEY, to universities, research centers and corporations worldwide. These programs were the first examples of general-purpose GIS software that was not developed for a particular installation, and was very influential on future commercial software, such as
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the first consideration should be whether or not the source data will change (exact or approximate). Next is whether the method is subjective, a human interpretation, or objective. Then there is the nature of transitions between points: are they abrupt or gradual. Finally, there is whether a method is global (it uses the entire data set to form the model), or local where an algorithm is repeated for a small section of terrain.
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2179:. Strategic tasks are long-term, visionary decisions about what goals one should have, such as whether a business should expand or not. Tactical tasks are medium-term decisions about how to achieve strategic goals, such as a national forest creating a grazing management plan. Operational decisions are concerned with the day-to-day tasks, such as a person finding the shortest route to a pizza restaurant.
489: (Computer Aided Resource Information System), and ERDAS (Earth Resource Data Analysis System) emerged as commercial vendors of GIS software, successfully incorporating many of the CGIS features, combining the first-generation approach to separation of spatial and attribute information with a second-generation approach to organizing attribute data into database structures.
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non commercial development teams), while in other cases facilities have been developed and are provided by third parties. Furthermore, many products offer software development kits (SDKs), programming languages and language support, scripting facilities and/or special interfaces for developing one's own analytical tools or variants. The increased availability has created a new dimension to
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example, the changes in vegetation vigor through a growing season can be animated to determine when drought was most extensive in a particular region. The resulting graphic represents a rough measure of plant health. Working with two variables over time would then allow researchers to detect regional differences in the lag between a decline in rainfall and its effect on vegetation.
1137:, the data must be close enough to reality so that the results of GIS procedures correctly correspond to the results of real world processes. This means that there is no single standard for data quality, because the necessary degree of quality depends on the scale and purpose of the tasks for which it is to be used. Several elements of data quality are important to GIS data:
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1338: (ETL) software, but with a primary focus on the ability to manage spatial data. They provide GIS users with the ability to translate data between different standards and proprietary formats, whilst geometrically transforming the data en route. These tools can come in the form of add-ins to existing wider-purpose software such as
2393:. Water by its very nature is dynamic. Features associated with water are thus ever-changing. To be able to keep up with these changes, technological advancements have given scientists methods to enhance all aspects of scientific investigation, from satellite tracking of wildlife to computer mapping of habitats. Agencies like the
737:) location as the key index variable for all other information. Just as a relational database containing text or numbers can relate many different tables using common key index variables, GIS can relate otherwise unrelated information by using location as the key index variable. The key is the location and/or extent in space-time.
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1027:(from satellites, aircraft, Helikites and UAVs), heads-up digitizing is becoming the main avenue through which geographic data is extracted. Heads-up digitizing involves the tracing of geographic data directly on top of the aerial imagery instead of by the traditional method of tracing the geographic form on a separate
354:, which allowed maps to be split into layers, for example one layer for vegetation and another for water. This was particularly used for printing contours – drawing these was a labour-intensive task but having them on a separate layer meant they could be worked on without the other layers to confuse the
2896:. In this data set, the populations of cities are shown for daytime and evening hours highlighting the pattern of concentration and dispersion generated by North American commuting patterns. The manipulation and generation of data required to produce this data would not have been possible without GIS.
2884:(AVHRR). This sensor system detects the amounts of energy reflected from the Earth's surface across various bands of the spectrum for surface areas of about 1 km (0.39 sq mi). The satellite sensor produces images of a particular location on the Earth twice a day. AVHRR and more recently the
1509:. Slope, aspect, and surface curvature in terrain analysis are all derived from neighborhood operations using elevation values of a cell's adjacent neighbours. Each of these is strongly affected by the level of detail in the terrain data, such as the resolution of a DEM, which should be chosen carefully.
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tools from GIS. Spatial interpolation allows for more efficient approach to remediation and monitoring of soil and water contaminants. Soil and water contamination by metals and other contaminants have become a major environmental problem after the industrialization across many parts of the world.
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Since its origin in the 1960s, GIS has been used in an ever-increasing range of applications, corroborating the widespread importance of location and aided by the continuing reduction in the barriers to adopting geospatial technology. The perhaps hundreds of different uses of GIS can be classified in
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individual addresses, such as a road centerline file with address ranges. The individual address locations have historically been interpolated, or estimated, by examining address ranges along a road segment. These are usually provided in the form of a table or database. The software will then place a
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equipment, but GPS locations on the average smartphone are much less accurate. Common datasets such as digital terrain and aerial imagery are available in a wide variety of levels of quality, especially spatial precision. Paper maps, which have been digitized for many years as a data source, can also
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through the use of spatial analysis. Snow achieved this through plotting the residence of each casualty on a map of the area, as well as the nearby water sources. Once these points were marked, he was able to identify the water source within the cluster that was responsible for the outbreak. This was
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are software products that implement OpenGIS Specifications but have not yet passed a compliance test. Compliance tests are not available for all specifications. Developers can register their products as implementing draft or approved specifications, though OGC reserves the right to review
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Web mapping is not without its drawbacks. Web mapping allows for the creation and distribution of maps by people without proper cartographic training. This has led to maps that ignore cartographic conventions and are potentially misleading, with one study finding that more than half of United States
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methods support decision-makers in analysing a set of alternative spatial solutions, such as the most likely ecological habitat for restoration, against multiple criteria, such as vegetation cover or roads. MCDA uses decision rules to aggregate the criteria, which allows the alternative solutions to
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is the process by which a surface is created, usually a raster dataset, through the input of data collected at a number of sample points. There are several forms of interpolation, each which treats the data differently, depending on the properties of the data set. In comparing interpolation methods,
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GIS spatial analysis is a rapidly changing field, and GIS packages are increasingly including analytical tools as standard built-in facilities, as optional toolsets, as add-ins or 'analysts'. In many instances these are provided by the original software suppliers (commercial vendors or collaborative
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The degree of refinement in a represented value. In a quantitative property, this is the number of significant digits in the measured value. An imprecise value is vague or ambiguous, including a range of possible values. For example, if one were to say that the population of
Houston on April 1, 2020
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and it stored the attribute and locational information in separate files. As a result of this, Tomlinson has become known as the "father of GIS", particularly for his use of overlays in promoting the spatial analysis of convergent geographic data. CGIS lasted into the 1990s and built a large digital
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collection, and to perform highly developed analysis and visual production of geospatial data. Therefore, GIS produces up-to-date and more reliable GEOINT to reduce uncertainty for a decisionmaker. Since GIS programs are Web-enabled, a user can constantly work with a decision maker to solve their
2094:. These services give the public access to huge amounts of geographic data, perceived by many users to be as trustworthy and usable as professional information. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, web maps hosted on dashboards were used to rapidly disseminate case data to the general public.
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number as it relates to a given coordinate. For example, a user can click on a road centerline theme (thus providing a coordinate) and have information returned that reflects the estimated house number. This house number is interpolated from a range assigned to that road segment. If the user clicks
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that indicate differing amounts of rainfall. Such a map can be thought of as a rainfall contour map. Many sophisticated methods can estimate the characteristics of surfaces from a limited number of point measurements. A two-dimensional contour map created from the surface modeling of rainfall point
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Data extraction is a GIS process similar to vector overlay, though it can be used in either vector or raster data analysis. Rather than combining the properties and features of both datasets, data extraction involves using a "clip" or "mask" to extract the features of one data set that fall within
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layer (contour lines) over it. Next up is a standing water layer (pond, lake) and then a flowing water layer (stream, river), followed by the boundary layer and finally the road layer on top. The order is very important in order to properly display the final result. Note that the ponds are layered
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A quantitative analysis of maps brings accuracy issues into focus. The electronic and other equipment used to make measurements for GIS is far more precise than the machines of conventional map analysis. All geographical data are inherently inaccurate, and these inaccuracies will propagate through
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Related by accurate spatial information, an incredible variety of real-world and projected past or future data can be analyzed, interpreted and represented. This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry into behaviors and patterns of real-world information that
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model of transparency. With open data, local government organizations can implement citizen engagement applications and online portals, allowing citizens to see land information, report potholes and signage issues, view and sort parks by assets, view real-time crime rates and utility repairs, and
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With the popularization of GIS in decision making, scholars have begun to scrutinize the social and political implications of GIS. GIS can also be misused to distort reality for individual and political gain. It has been argued that the production, distribution, utilization, and representation of
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first pioneered the use of compact airborne digital cameras as airborne geo-information systems. Aircraft measurement software, accurate to 0.4 mm, was used to link the photographs and measure the ground. Helikites are inexpensive and gather more accurate data than aircraft. Helikites can be
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Geographic information systems are utilized in multiple technologies, processes, techniques and methods. They are attached to various operations and numerous applications, that relate to: engineering, planning, management, transport/logistics, insurance, telecommunications, and business. For this
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Economic development departments use interactive GIS mapping tools, aggregated with other data (demographics, labor force, business, industry, talent) along with a database of available commercial sites and buildings in order to attract investment and support existing business. Businesses making
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The condition of the Earth's surface, atmosphere, and subsurface can be examined by feeding satellite data into a GIS. GIS technology gives researchers the ability to examine the variations in Earth processes over days, months, and years through the use of cartographic visualizations. As an
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amounts recorded at different points such as airports, television stations, and schools. A GIS, however, can be used to depict two- and three-dimensional characteristics of the Earth's surface, subsurface, and atmosphere from information points. For example, a GIS can quickly generate a map with
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was introduced, with the advantages of being lighter, using less storage space and being less brittle, among others. When all the layers were finished, they were combined into one image using a large process camera. Once color printing came in, the layers idea was also used for creating separate
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The implementation of a GIS is often driven by jurisdictional (such as a city), purpose, or application requirements. Generally, a GIS implementation may be custom-designed for an organization. Hence, a GIS deployment developed for an application, jurisdiction, enterprise, or purpose may not be
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Data restructuring can be performed by a GIS to convert data into different formats. For example, a GIS may be used to convert a satellite image map to a vector structure by generating lines around all cells with the same classification, while determining the cell spatial relationships, such as
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After entering data into a GIS, the data usually requires editing, to remove errors, or further processing. For vector data it must be made "topologically correct" before it can be used for some advanced analysis. For example, in a road network, lines must connect with nodes at an intersection.
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First, it produces graphics on the screen or on paper that convey the results of analysis to the people who make decisions about resources. Wall maps and other graphics can be generated, allowing the viewer to visualize and thereby understand the results of analyses or simulations of potential
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in the form of mobile GIS. This has been enhanced by the availability of low-cost mapping-grade GPS units with decimeter accuracy in real time. This eliminates the need to post process, import, and update the data in the office after fieldwork has been collected. This includes the ability to
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is the design and production of maps, or visual representations of spatial data. The vast majority of modern cartography is done with the help of computers, usually using GIS but production of quality cartography is also achieved by importing layers into a design program to refine it. Most
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The earth can be represented by various models, each of which may provide a different set of coordinates (e.g., latitude, longitude, elevation) for any given point on the Earth's surface. The simplest model is to assume the earth is a perfect sphere. As more measurements of the earth have
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In addition to the integration of time in environmental studies, GIS is also being explored for its ability to track and model the progress of humans throughout their daily routines. A concrete example of progress in this area is the recent release of time-specific population data by the
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To determine the statistical relevance of the analysis, an average is determined so that points (gradients) outside of any immediate measurement can be included to determine their predicted behavior. This is due to the limitations of the applied statistic and data collection methods, and
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between spatial objects is an especially important aspect of consistency. For example, if all of the lines in a street network were accidentally moved 10 meters to the East, they would be inaccurate but still consistent, because they would still properly connect at each intersection, and
2553:. This fault line is between the blue/green contour lines and the purple/red/yellow contour lines. The thin red circular contour line in the middle of the map indicates the top of the oil reservoir. Because gas floats above oil, the thin red contour line marks the gas/oil contact zone.
2350:, which allows GPS-enabled mobile devices to display their location in relation to fixed objects (nearest restaurant, gas station, fire hydrant) or mobile objects (friends, children, police car), or to relay their position back to a central server for display or other processing.
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because it allows for analysis based on real geographic data and also helps raise research questions from teachers and students in the classroom. It also contributes to improvement in learning by developing spatial and geographical thinking and, in many cases, student motivation.
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in another more roughly classified dataset can help a GIS automatically merge the two datasets under the more general land cover classification. Tentative ontologies have been developed in areas related to GIS applications, for example the hydrology ontology developed by the
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2255:). That said, one of the powerful capabilities of GIS and the spatial perspective of geography is their integrative ability to compare disparate topics, and many applications are concerned with multiple domains. Examples of integrated human-natural application domains include
757:, respectively. These GIS coordinates may represent other quantified systems of temporo-spatial reference (for example, film frame number, stream gage station, highway mile-marker, surveyor benchmark, building address, street intersection, entrance gate, water depth sounding,
2699:, its study using GIS is especially practical. Whereas previous GIS systems were mostly static in their geospatial representation of hydrologic features, GIS platforms are becoming increasingly dynamic, narrowing the gap between historical data and current hydrologic reality.
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relationships allow complex spatial modelling and analysis to be performed. Topological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency (what adjoins what), containment (what encloses what), and proximity (how close something is to something else).
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are a key component of this semantic approach as they allow a formal, machine-readable specification of the concepts and relationships in a given domain. This in turn allows a GIS to focus on the intended meaning of data rather than its syntax or structure. For example,
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printing plates for each color. While the use of layers much later became one of the typical features of a contemporary GIS, the photographic process just described is not considered a GIS in itself – as the maps were just images with no database to link them to.
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A general acknowledgement of the presence of error and imprecision in geographic data. That is, it is a degree of general doubt, given that it is difficult to know exactly how much error is present in a data set, although some form of estimate may be attempted (a
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is the application of data mining methods to spatial data. Data mining, which is the partially automated search for hidden patterns in large databases, offers great potential benefits for applied GIS-based decision making. Typical applications include
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of the same area are produced, processed, and analyzed. Tomlin used raster layers, but the overlay method (see below) can be used more generally. Operations on map layers can be combined into algorithms, and eventually into simulation or optimization models.
244:). All Earth-based, spatial–temporal, location and extent references should be relatable to one another, and ultimately, to a "real" physical location or extent. This key characteristic of GIS has begun to open new avenues of scientific inquiry and studies.
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GIS is proven as an organization-wide, enterprise and enduring technology that continues to change how local government operates. Government agencies have adopted GIS technology as a method to better manage the following areas of government organization:
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is closely related to precision in maps, as it dictates a desirable level of spatial precision, but is problematic in GIS, where a data set can be shown at a variety of display scales (including scales that would not be appropriate for the quality of the
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in mathematics and computer science. Just like graphs, networks can have weight and flow assigned to its edges, which can be used to represent various interconnected features more accurately. Geometric networks are often used to model road networks and
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of a segment that starts with address 1 and ends with 100, the returned value will be somewhere near 50. Note that reverse geocoding does not return actual addresses, only estimates of what should be there based on the predetermined range.
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was "about 2.3 million," this statement would be imprecise, but likely accurate because the correct value (and many incorrect values) are included. As with accuracy, representations of location, property, and time can all be more or less precise.
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The most recent point in time at which a data set claims to be an accurate representation of reality. This is a concern for the majority of GIS applications, which attempt to represent the world "at present," in which case older data is of lower
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are software products that comply to OGC's OpenGIS Specifications. When a product has been tested and certified as compliant through the OGC Testing
Program, the product is automatically registered as "compliant" on this site.
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When data is captured, the user should consider if the data should be captured with either a relative accuracy or absolute accuracy, since this could not only influence how information will be interpreted but also the cost of data capture.
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Interpolation is a justified measurement because of a spatial autocorrelation principle that recognizes that data collected at any position will have a great similarity to, or influence of those locations within its immediate vicinity.
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GIS data represents phenomena that exist in the real world, such as roads, land use, elevation, trees, waterways, and states. The most common types of phenomena that are represented in data can be divided into two conceptualizations:
3036:, but there is not enough bibliography or statistical data to show the concrete scope of the use of GIS in education around the world, although the expansion has been faster in those countries where the curriculum mentions them.
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are linear networks of objects that can be used to represent interconnected features, and to perform special spatial analysis on them. A geometric network is composed of edges, which are connected at junction points, similar to
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Recent research results in this area can be seen in the
International Conference on Geospatial Semantics and the Terra Cognita – Directions to the Geospatial Semantic Web workshop at the International Semantic Web Conference.
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or radio waves that were sent out from an active sensor such as radar. Remote sensing collects raster data that can be further processed using different bands to identify objects and classes of interest, such as land cover.
2429:. The combination of GIS and archaeology has been considered a perfect match, since archaeology often involves the study of the spatial dimension of human behavior over time, and all archaeology carries a spatial component.
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in a GIS can make relationships among map elements visible, heightening one's ability to extract and analyze information. For example, two types of data were combined in a GIS to produce a perspective view of a portion of
2695:. Climate change and greater demands on water resources require a more knowledgeable disposition of arguably one of our most vital resources. Because water in its occurrence varies spatially and temporally throughout the
2105:(API) that enable users to create custom applications. These toolkits commonly offer street maps, aerial/satellite imagery, geocoding, searches, and routing functionality. Web mapping has also uncovered the potential of
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that is intended to be used in many individual geographic information systems in a variety of application domains. Starting in the late 1970s, many software packages have been created specifically for GIS applications.
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is a common operation used in many ways in GIS; because it generates estimates of values between known measurements, the results will always be more precise, but less certain (as each estimate has an unknown amount of
5037:"Off the Map | From Architectural Record and Greensource | Originally published in the March 2012 issues of Architectural Record and Greensource | McGraw-Hill Construction - Continuing Education Center"
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applications have greatly increased, as geospatial technology was merged into broader enterprise applications, sharing IT infrastructure, databases, and software, often using enterprise integration platforms such as
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Any variable that can be located spatially, and increasingly also temporally, can be referenced using a GIS. Locations or extents in Earth space–time may be recorded as dates/times of occurrence, and x, y, and z
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in that they express environmental and spiritual relationships among real and conceptual entities. This toolset focuses on cultural preservation, land rights disputes, natural resource management, and economic
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Traditional maps are abstractions of the real world, a sampling of important elements portrayed on a sheet of paper with symbols to represent physical objects. People who use maps must interpret these symbols.
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An archeochrome is a new way of displaying spatial data. It is a thematic on a 3D map that is applied to a specific building or a part of a building. It is suited to the visual display of heat-loss data.
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Thematic Mapper image shows a false-color infrared image looking down at the same area in 30-meter pixels, or picture elements, for the same coordinate points, pixel by pixel, as the elevation
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from one structure to another. In so doing, the implicit assumptions behind different ontologies and classifications require analysis. Object ontologies have gained increasing prominence as a consequence of
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By the end of the 20th century, the rapid growth in various systems had been consolidated and standardized on relatively few platforms and users were beginning to explore viewing GIS data over the
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GIS technology and the availability of digital data on regional and global scales enable such analyses. The satellite sensor output used to generate a vegetation graphic is produced for example by the
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sites. GIS is used to monitor the sites for metal contaminants in the soil, and based on the GIS analysis, highest risk sites are identified in which majority of the remediation and monitoring takes place.
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When phenomena are measured, the observation methods dictate the accuracy of any subsequent analysis. Due to the nature of the data (e.g. traffic patterns in an urban environment; weather patterns over the
1443:(TIN). A variety of tools are available in most GIS software for analyzing terrain, often by creating derivative datasets that represent a specific aspect of the surface. Some of the most common include:
1379:, performs an operation on that dataset, and returns the result of the operation as an output dataset. Common geoprocessing operations include geographic feature overlay, feature selection and analysis,
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is a branch of statistics that deals with field data, spatial data with a continuous index. It provides methods to model spatial correlation, and predict values at arbitrary locations (interpolation).
5441:"USA 3rd International Conference on Public Participation GIS (2004) - Track on International Perspectives: Summary Proceedings, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 18–20 July 2004, Madison, Wisconsin"
2663:(also written as historical GIS or HGIS) is a geographic information system that may display, store and analyze data of past geographies and track changes in time. It can be regarded as a tool for
1592:, and other elevation products. Watersheds can be easily defined for any given reach, by computing all of the areas contiguous and uphill from any given point of interest. Similarly, an expected
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The degree to which an aspect (location, property, or time) of a phenomenon is inherently imprecise, rather than the imprecision being in a measured value. For example, the spatial extent of the
174:; however, this is not essential to meet the definition of a GIS. In a broader sense, one may consider such a system also to include human users and support staff, procedures and workflows, the
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The quality of a dataset is very dependent upon its sources, and the methods used to create it. Land surveyors have been able to provide a high level of positional accuracy utilizing high-end
1369:, based on GIS spatial analysis, has also become a key element for security. GIS as a whole can be described as conversion to a vectorial representation or to any other digitisation process.
900:, the copying of existing GIS data from external sources such as government agencies and private companies. All of these methods can consume significant time, finances, and other resources.
604:. These and other desktop GIS applications include a full suite of capabilities for entering, managing, analyzing, and visualizing geographic data, and are designed to be used on their own.
769:), but all Earth-based spatial–temporal location and extent references should, ideally, be relatable to one another and ultimately to a "real" physical location or extent in space–time.
554:, which is a single installation of software and data for a particular use, along with associated hardware, staff, and institutions (e.g., the GIS for a particular city government); and
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measurements may be overlaid and analyzed with any other map in a GIS covering the same area. This GIS derived map can then provide additional information - such as the viability of
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GIS provides the capability to relate previously unrelated information, through the use of location as the "key index variable". Locations and extents that are found in the Earth's
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K. Calvert, J. M. Pearce, W.E. Mabee, "Toward renewable energy geo-information infrastructures: Applications of GIScience and remote sensing that can build institutional capacity"
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Second, other database information can be generated for further analysis or use. An example would be a list of all addresses within one mile (1.6 km) of a toxic spill.
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run on a range of operating systems and can be customized to perform specific tasks. The major trend of the 21st
Century has been the integration of GIS capabilities with other
175:
725:. Collecting and managing these data usually constitutes the bulk of the time and financial resources of a project, far more than other aspects such as analysis and mapping.
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geographic information are largely related with the social context and has the potential to increase citizen trust in government. Other related topics include discussion on
1773:), a constant or dynamic degree of precision is always lost in the measurement. This loss of precision is determined from the scale and distribution of the data collection.
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and others to support ontology creation and reasoning using well-understood OGC literals (GML, WKT), topological relationships (Simple
Features, RCC8, DE-9IM), RDF and the
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2462:, GIS is as "a computer system for handling geographic information in a digital form". In recent years it has played an integral role in participatory, collaborative and
1913:. A characteristic of such applications is that spatial correlation between data measurements require the use of specialized algorithms for more efficient data analysis.
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with the ability to edit live data using wireless connections or disconnected editing sessions. The current trend is to utilize applications available on smartphones and
615:, providing another mechanism for providing GIS capabilities. This was facilitated by standalone software installed on a server, similar to other server software such as
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2455:(FEMA) Administrator W. Craig Fugate speaking at a Red Cross seminar on using social media during natural disasters. GIS has an integral role to play in such agendas.
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of digital photographs. These systems allow data to be captured in two and three dimensions, with elevations measured directly from a stereo pair using principles of
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Marwick, Ben; Hiscock, Peter; Sullivan, Marjorie; Hughes, Philip (July 2017). "Landform boundary effects on
Holocene forager landscape use in arid South Australia".
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At the end of the 20th century, GIS began to be recognized as tools that could be used in the classroom. The benefits of GIS in education seem focused on developing
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1748:. This function may weigh some inputs more than others through use of an "index model" that reflects the influence of various factors upon a geographic phenomenon.
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GIS products are broken down by the OGC into two categories, based on how completely and accurately the software follows the OGC specifications.
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While no digital model can be a perfect representation of the real world, it is important that GIS data be of a high quality. In keeping with the principle of
862:). The current trend for geographical information system (GIS) is that accurate mapping and data analysis are completed while in the field. Depicted hardware (
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much more. The push for open data within government organizations is driving the growth in local government GIS technology spending, and database management.
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Public safety operations such as emergency operations centers, fire prevention, police and sheriff mobile technology and dispatch, and mapping weather risks.
2788:(GIS) is a toolset of systems that uses data, techniques, and technologies designed to document and utilize local knowledge in communities around the world.
1477:(DEM) involves calculation of slope and aspect, DEMs are very useful for hydrological analysis. Slope and aspect can then be used to determine direction of
6394:
Maguire, D.J., Goodchild M.F., Rhind D.W. (1997). "Geographic
Information Systems: principles, and applications" Longman Scientific and Technical, Harlow.
4103:
2325:, using specialized GIS software, specialized hardware, specialized data, and specialized professionals. Although these remain common to the present day,
1023:
map or survey plan is transferred into a digital medium through the use of a CAD program, and geo-referencing capabilities. With the wide availability of
4400:
Longley, P. A.; Goodchild, M. F.; McGuire, D. J.; Rhind, D. W. (2005). "Analysis of errors of derived slope and aspect related to DEM data properties".
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Public works and utilities, tracking water and stormwater drainage, electrical assets, engineering projects, and public transportation assets and trends
1058:
Errors such as undershoots and overshoots must also be removed. For scanned maps, blemishes on the source map may need to be removed from the resulting
996:
provides another important source of spatial data. Here satellites use different sensor packages to passively measure the reflectance from parts of the
936:. New technologies also allow users to create maps as well as analysis directly in the field, making projects more efficient and mapping more accurate.
347:, Snow's map was unique due to his use of cartographic methods, not only to depict, but also to analyze clusters of geographically dependent phenomena.
6027:
Análisis de la práctica educativa con SIG en la enseñanza de la
GeografĂa de la educaciĂłn secundaria: un estudio de caso en Baden-WĂĽrttemberg, Alemania
5440:
3087:
initiative is pushing local government to take advantage of technology such as GIS technology, as it encompasses the requirements to fit the open data/
623:, enabling clients to have access to GIS data and processing tools without having to install specialized desktop software. These networks are known as
2963:. Also, simpler ontologies and semantic metadata standards are being proposed by the W3C Geo Incubator Group to represent geospatial data on the web.
2525:
2117:
projects have been proven to provide a high level of value and benefit to end users outside that possible through traditional geographic information.
339:
one of the earliest successful uses of a geographic methodology in pinpointing the source of an outbreak in epidemiology. While the basic elements of
189:. The academic discipline that studies these systems and their underlying geographic principles, may also be abbreviated as GIS, but the unambiguous
6103:
5140:
1310:. Since digital data is collected and stored in various ways, the two data sources may not be entirely compatible. So a GIS must be able to convert
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256:
first coined the phrase "geographic information system", many of the geographic concepts and methods that GIS automates date back decades earlier.
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data also plays an important role in data collection and consist of sensors attached to a platform. Sensors include cameras, digital scanners and
6491:
2620:
1306:
and the private sector to provide contrast enhancement, false color rendering and a variety of other techniques including use of two dimensional
4001:
1717:) creates a new output vector dataset, visually similar to stacking several maps of the same region. These overlays are similar to mathematical
60:
17:
1946:
facilitate distribution of generated maps through web browsers using various implementations of web-based application programming interfaces (
5607:
5429:
Abbot, J. et al. 1998. Participatory
Learning & Action PLA Notes (IIED, Sustainable Agriculture & Rural Livelihoods), PLA 33, 27-34.
2885:
989:. Analog aerial photos must be scanned before being entered into a soft-copy system, for high-quality digital cameras this step is skipped.
185:, also abbreviated GIS, is the most common term for the industry and profession concerned with these systems. It is roughly synonymous with
107:
874:
GIS data acquisition includes several methods for gathering spatial data into a GIS database, which can be grouped into three categories:
79:
5759:
Haque, Akhlaque (2003). "Information technology, GIS and democraticvalues: Ethical implications for IT professionals in public service".
5401:
Jo Abbot; Robert
Chambers; Christine Dunn; Trevor Harris; Emmanuel de Merode; Gina Porter; Janet Townsend; Daniel Weiner (October 1998).
3117:
1666:
An example of use of layers in a GIS application. In this example, the forest-cover layer (light green) forms the bottom layer, with the
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can provide a spatial element that other hydrological models lack, with the analysis of variables such as slope, aspect and watershed or
1097:
444:-based system in support of federal and provincial resource planning and management. Its strength was continent-wide analysis of complex
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Geographic information system (GIS) is a commonly used tool for environmental management, modelling and planning. As simply defined by
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and time of day of the display, to properly render the shadows created by the sun's rays at that latitude, longitude, and time of day.
1228:
The degree to which a data set represents all of the actual features that it purports to include. For example, if a layer of "roads in
1214:
is vague, as there are places on the outskirts of the city that are less connected to the central city (measured by activities such as
1740:
In raster data analysis, the overlay of datasets is accomplished through a process known as "local operation on multiple rasters" or "
1501:
is a depiction of the surface as if it were a three dimensional model lit from a given direction, which is very commonly used in maps.
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processing, and data conversion. Geoprocessing allows for definition, management, and analysis of information used to form decisions.
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2028:, consisting of surface elevations recorded on a 30-meter horizontal grid, shows high elevations as white and low elevation as black.
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CGIS was an improvement over "computer mapping" applications as it provided capabilities for data storage, overlay, measurement, and
86:
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Parks and recreation departments and their functions in asset inventory, land conservation, land management, and cemetery management
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Geocoding is interpolating spatial locations (X,Y coordinates) from street addresses or any other spatially referenced data such as
1495:
predicts the impact that terrain has on the visibility between locations, which is especially important for wireless communications.
6232:
5326:
Kocman, D., & Horvat, M. (2011). Non-point source mercury emission from the Idrija Hg-mine region: GIS mercury emission model.
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drawing origin/units). Units applied to recorded temporal-spatial data can vary widely (even when using exactly the same data, see
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of where surface water would want to travel in intermittent and permanent streams can be computed from elevation data in the GIS.
838:. GIS thematic maps then are becoming more and more realistically visually descriptive of what they set out to show or determine.
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1247:
The degree to which the representations of the many phenomena in a data set correctly correspond with each other. Consistency in
3597:
3494:
3294:
Maliene V, Grigonis V, PaleviÄŤius V, Griffiths S (2011). "Geographic information system: Old principles with new capabilities".
5339:
Jasminka, A., & Robert, S. (2011). Distribution of chemical elements in an old metallurgical area, Zenica. Geoderma, 71–85.
4707:"Evaluating a concept design of a crowd-sourced 'mashup' providing ease-of-access information for people with limited mobility"
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The use of digital maps generated by GIS has also influenced the development of an academic field known as spatial humanities.
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Chouhan, Avinash Kumar; Harsh, Anuranjan; Mishra, Abhishek Kumar; Kumar, Vikram; Kumar, Rakesh; Kumar, Satyam (August 2024).
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being such an estimate of uncertainty). This is sometimes used as a collective term for all or most aspects of data quality.
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data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data collection systems on survey instruments using a technique called
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on April 1, 2020 was 2,304,580; if it was actually 2,310,674, this would be an error and thus a lack of attribute accuracy.
678:) that extend programming languages to enable the incorporation of GIS data and processing into custom software, including
405:
6053:"New Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Certificate Now Offered to USD Undergraduate Students - University of San Diego"
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923:
can also be collected and then imported into a GIS. A current trend in data collection gives users the ability to utilize
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Traditionally, there are two broad methods used to store data in a GIS for both kinds of abstractions mapping references:
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Using models to project the data held by a GIS forward in time have enabled planners to test policy decisions using
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interpolation is required to predict the behavior of particles, points, and locations that are not directly measurable.
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accumulated, the models of the earth have become more sophisticated and more accurate. In fact, there are models called
6469:
6308:
5869:
5844:
4650:"User Centred Design of Neogeography: The Impact of Volunteered Geographic Information on Trust of Online Map 'Mashups"
3329:
3182:
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804:(e.g., rainfall amount or population density). Other types of geographic phenomena, such as events (e.g., location of
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software, which defines a geometry datatype so that spatial data can be stored in relational tables, and extensions to
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331:
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1473:. Terrain analysis is fundamental to hydrology, since water always flows down a slope. As basic terrain analysis of a
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applications are at the foundation of location-enabled services, which rely on geographic analysis and visualization.
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4881:"Assessment of the geothermal potential zone of India utilizing GIS-based multi-criteria decision analysis technique"
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is the amount of difference between them. In GIS data, there is concern for accuracy in representations of location (
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A new hybrid method of storing data is that of identifying point clouds, which combine three-dimensional points with
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126:
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can be defined as the direction in which a unit of terrain faces. Aspect is usually expressed in degrees from north.
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7117:
5234:
Conolly J and Lake M (2006) Geographical Information Systems in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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or compatible with a GIS that has been developed for some other application, jurisdiction, enterprise, or purpose.
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be ranked or prioritised. GIS MCDA may reduce costs and time involved in identifying potential restoration sites.
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4999:"Delineation of groundwater vulnerable zone for sustainable development in the southwestern part of Bihar, India"
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In recent years there has been a proliferation of free-to-use and easily accessible mapping software such as the
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A GIS can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data. These
816:
in an area) are represented less commonly or indirectly, or are modeled in analysis procedures rather than data.
167:
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location decisions can use the tools to choose communities and sites that best match their criteria for success.
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problems in information systems. Correspondingly, such technologies have been proposed as a means to facilitate
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since the early 1990s. Indeed, archaeologists were early adopters, users, and developers of GIS and GIScience,
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tools. Commercial GIS systems are very powerful and have touched many applications and industries, including
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is the steepness or gradient of a unit of terrain, usually measured as an angle in degrees or as a percentage.
890:, the extraction of information from existing sources that are not in a GIS form, such as paper maps, through
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Geospatial technologies and geography education in a changing world: geospatial practices and lessons learned
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1997:
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overlay defines an output area that includes the total area of both inputs except for the overlapping area.
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platform. This began the process of moving GIS from the research department into the business environment.
100:
3018:. A more optimistic social approach to GIS adoption is to use it as a tool for public participation.
1725:
overlay combines the geographic features and attribute tables of both inputs into a single new output. An
1092:
The latitude and longitude on a map made against a local datum may not be the same as one obtained from a
492:
In 1986, Mapping Display and Analysis System (MIDAS), the first desktop GIS product, was released for the
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As a result, environmental agencies are placed in charge in remediating, monitoring, and mitigating the
1365:" which, when openly delivered via intranet, democratizes access to geographic and social network data.
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and its map overlay method and the introduction of a street network into the U.S. Census Bureau's DIME (
7208:
4336:"A comparison of techniques for calculating gradient and aspect from a gridded digital elevation model"
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An alternative approach is the integration of some or all of these capabilities into other software or
451:
In 1964, Howard T. Fisher formed the Laboratory for Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis at the
424:
and land use at a scale of 1:50,000. A rating classification factor was also added to permit analysis.
4299:
Jones, K.H. (1998). "A comparison of algorithms used to compute hill slope as a property of the DEM".
7014:
6505:
6242:
4840:"Normalizing the pandemic: exploring the cartographic issues in state government COVID-19 dashboards"
4005:
3849:
3840:
3352:"Rapport sur la marche et les effets du choléra dans Paris et le département de la Seine. Année 1832"
2960:
2912:
2785:
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1729:
overlay defines the area where both inputs overlap and retains a set of attribute fields for each. A
1726:
1375:
is a GIS operation used to manipulate spatial data. A typical geoprocessing operation takes an input
920:
883:
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4526:
393:
research led to more widespread general-purpose computer "mapping" applications by the early 1960s.
6180:"Capturing Volunteered Information for Inclusive Service Design: Potential Benefits and Challenges"
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Screenshot of a structure map generated by geological mapping software for an 8500 ft deep gas and
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as well as other federal and state agencies are utilizing GIS to aid in their conservation efforts.
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networks, such as electric, gas, and water networks. Network modeling is also commonly employed in
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Demers, M. N. (2003). Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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Greene, R.; Devillers, R.; Luther, J.E.; Eddy, B.G. (2011). "GIS-based multi-criteria analysis".
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Ablimit Aji; Hoang Vo; Qiaoling Liu; Fusheng Wang; Joel Saltz; Rubao Lee; Xiaodong Zhang (2013).
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uses. The latter has become increasingly prominent with the rise of location-enabled smartphones.
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431:/scanning. It supported a national coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as
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4158:"Geospatial Positioning Accuracy Standards Part 3: National Standard for Spatial Data Accuracy"
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Geographic information systems (GISs) have become a useful and important tool in the field of
2563:
are observed, analyzed, and recorded in the field and displayed in real-time on a computer or
1588:, isopleth lines representing elevation contours can be generated, along with slope analysis,
381:
The first publication detailing the use of computers to facilitate cartography was written by
7064:
6904:
6876:
6757:
6607:
5724:
Haque, Akhlaque (1 May 2001). "GIS, Public Service, and the Issue of Democratic Governance".
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Fonseca, Frederico; Egenhofer, Max (1999). "Ontology-Driven Geographic Information Systems".
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The degree of similarity between a represented measurement and the actual value; conversely,
1086:
827:. Points, lines, and polygons represent vector data of mapped location attribute references.
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color gradients, to provide a visual representation for the number of reported deaths due to
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School analytical and demographic data, asset management, and improvement/expansion planning
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operating system. This was renamed in 1990 to MapInfo for Windows when it was ported to the
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6662:
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6622:
6592:
6562:
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5507:
Monmonier, Mark (1990). "Strategies For The Visualization Of Geographic Time-Series Data".
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4851:
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4513:
4499:"Distributed Clustering-Based Aggregation Algorithm for Spatial Correlated Sensor Networks"
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GIS is also used in digital marketing and SEO for audience segmentation based on location.
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1116:
978:
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412:, an effort to determine the land capability for rural Canada by mapping information about
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One of the first known instances in which spatial analysis was used came from the field of
31:
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GEOINT and national security related problems from anywhere in the world. There are many
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of aerial photographs. Soft-copy workstations are used to digitize features directly from
611:, as computer network technology progressed, GIS infrastructure and data began to move to
8:
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6689:
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6647:
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Broome, Frederick R.; Meixler, David B. (January 1990). "The TIGER Data Base Structure".
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Cartographica: The International Journal for Geographic Information and Geovisualization
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Cut and fill is a computation of the difference between the surface before and after an
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methods and other processing tools derives from the quality of input data. For example,
1111:
In popular GIS software, data projected in latitude/longitude is often represented as a
216:
are able to be recorded through the date and time of occurrence, along with x, y, and z
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Longley, Paul; Goodchild, Michael F.; Maguire, David J.; Rhind, David W., eds. (1999).
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4238:
4029:"A Primer of GIS: Fundamental Geographic and Cartographic Concepts - By Francis Harvey"
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and data reuse among GIS applications and also to enable new analysis mechanisms.
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1435:. Thus, terrain data is often a core dataset in a GIS, usually in the form of a raster
1307:
1173:
714:. A GIS database may be stored in a variety of forms, such as a collection of separate
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Surveillance, Transparency and Democracy: Public Administration in the Information Age
5646:
4791:"The disguised pandemic: The importance of data normalization in COVID-19 web mapping"
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GIS software gives the user substantial control over the appearance of the data.
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Internet GIS: Distributed Information Services for the Internet and Wireless Networks
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Longley, Paul A.; Goodchilde, Michael F.; Maguire, David J.; Rhind, David W. (2015).
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2113:, which is a collaborative project to create a free editable map of the world. These
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1527:. Thus, a wide variety of analysis tools have analyze distance in some form, such as
1492:
1486:
1211:
1062:. For example, a fleck of dirt might connect two lines that should not be connected.
1050:
a map results in raster data that could be further processed to produce vector data.
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855:
801:
497:
386:
6077:"Minor in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) | University of New England in Maine"
5780:
5124:
Longley, Paul A.; Goodchild, Michael F.; Maguire, David J.; Rhind, David W. (2011).
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400:, Canada, by the federal Department of Forestry and Rural Development. Developed by
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Proceedings of the VLDB Endowment International Conference on Very Large Data Bases
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agendas to the forefront of public policy, the global media and the private sector.
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2013:
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508:, requiring data format and transfer standards. More recently, a growing number of
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Most of these are generated using algorithms that are discrete simplifications of
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Rapport sur la marche et les effets du choléra dans Paris et le département de la
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6677:
6579:
6436:
5974:
5929:
5925:
International perspectives on teaching and learning with GIS in secondary schools
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4577:
3967:"Mobile GIS in Archaeology – Current Possibilities, Future Needs. Position Paper"
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Kumar, Deepak; Das, Bhumika (23 May 2015). "Recent Trends in GIS Applications".
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Public administration for election data, property records, and zoning/management
2052:, using the Thematic Mapper image pixels, but shaded using the elevation of the
1979:
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under the streams, so that a stream line can be seen overlying one of the ponds.
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6283:
GIS Fundamentals: A first text on Geographic Information Systems, Sixth Edition
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4202:
3732:"Hadoop GIS: a high performance spatial data warehousing system over mapreduce"
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1478:
1408:
1081:
that apply to different areas of the earth to provide increased accuracy, like
993:
986:
939:
879:
766:
659:
486:
390:
186:
5982:
5937:
5772:
5244:
Goodchild, Michael F. (July 2009). "GIScience and Systems". pp. 526–538.
5022:
4731:
4706:
4535:
4351:
4002:"Aeryon Announces Version 5 of the Aeryon Scout System | Aeryon Labs Inc"
3663:
2607:. These technologies allow a user to efficiently manage, analyze, and produce
7236:
7004:
6967:
6796:
6743:
6000:
5955:
5745:
5381:
5313:
Longley, P. A., Goodchild, M. F., Maguire, D. J., & Rhind, D. W. (2005).
4625:
4608:
4234:
4062:
3875:
3425:
3382:
3192:
2888:(MODIS) are only two of many sensor systems used for Earth surface analysis.
2801:
2757:
2628:
2228:
2224:
2187:: the domains in which GIS is applied largely fall into those concerned with
2110:
2106:
2091:
1780:
1770:
1762:
1757:
1589:
1498:
1447:
1269:
1202:
1047:
1046:
data as an operator traces points, lines, and polygon boundaries from a map.
963:
820:
758:
601:
432:
408:(CGIS) and was used to store, analyze, and manipulate data collected for the
263:
5908:
5737:
5485:
4975:
4838:
Adams, Aaron M.; Chen, Xiang; Li, Weidong; Chuanrong, Zhang (27 July 2023).
4226:
3821:
2285:: GIS has been implemented in a variety of different kinds of institutions:
1523:
Distance is a key part of solving many geographic tasks, usually due to the
7143:
6982:
6819:
6738:
6727:
6712:
6637:
6376:
4879:
Chouhan, Avinash Kumar; Kumar, Rakesh; Mishra, Abhishek Kumar (June 2024).
4824:
4676:
4585:
4257:
4079:
3753:
3729:
3279:
3266:
2996:
2916:
2624:
2575:
2546:
2248:
2244:
1993:
1718:
1682:
in his PhD dissertation (1983); he later used it in the title of his book,
1565:
1432:
1134:
1128:
1093:
967:
891:
805:
636:
382:
359:
288:
4959:
4203:"The Certainty of Uncertainty: GIS and the Limits of Geographic Knowledge"
2719:(PGIS) or public participation geographic information system (PPGIS) is a
635:(SAAS). The use of the Internet to facilitate distributed GIS is known as
627:. This strategy has been extended through the Internet and development of
7072:
7024:
7019:
6960:
6950:
6762:
6752:
6430:
Integrated Geospatial Technologies: A Guide to GPS, GIS, and Data Logging
4920:
Geographical Information Systems, V.2: Management Issues and Applications
4442:. Prentice Hall series in geographic information science. Prentice Hall.
4431:
2893:
2422:
2252:
2220:
2212:
2079:
2069:
2057:
1955:
1931:
1905:
1741:
1708:
1675:
1657:
1605:
1570:
1339:
1331:
1242:
1189:
1158:), and time. For example, the US 2020 Census says that the population of
982:
835:
774:
679:
616:
344:
330:, an epidemiologist and physician, was able to determine the source of a
301:
6179:
6038:
5973:. Advances in Geographical and Environmental Sciences. TĹŤkyĹŤ; New York:
5821:
5678:
4561:
3307:
2599:
Geographic information systems (GIS) play a constantly evolving role in
473:) were in development, and by the early 1980s, M&S Computing (later
7077:
6827:
6805:
6780:
6775:
6442:
Thinking about GIS: Geographic Information System Planning for Managers
6423:
Ground Truth: The Social Implications of Geographic Information Systems
5969:
Solari, Osvaldo Muñiz; Demirci, Ali; Schee, Joop van der, eds. (2015).
5890:
4705:
May, Andrew; Parker, Christopher J.; Taylor, Neil; Ross, Tracy (2014).
3015:
2121:
state government COVID-19 dashboards did not follow these conventions.
2098:
2017:
1667:
1024:
1016:
1010:
742:
734:
687:
573:
474:
428:
367:
340:
217:
5664:
5090:
Principles of Geographic Information Systems: An introductory textbook
3472:
3440:
702:
that contains representations of geographic phenomena, modeling their
7049:
6871:
6851:
6814:
6810:
6528:
6416:
Time-integrative GIS. Management and analysis of Spatio-temporal data
5333:
5320:
5307:
5039:. Continuingeducation.construction.com. 11 March 2011. Archived from
4789:
Adams, Aaron; Xiang, Chen; Weidong, Li; Zhang, Chuanrong (May 2020).
3137:
3102:
3084:
3040:
3007:
2964:
2935:
2688:
2542:
2498:
software in mapping out the contaminants in soil and water using the
2463:
2390:
2204:
2083:
1849:
1835:
1641:
1424:
1215:
1182:
1177:
is a commonly used expression of positional precision, especially in
1039:
1020:
947:
908:
863:
746:
593:
470:
417:
327:
221:
213:
194:
190:
2143:: the purpose of an application can be broadly classified as either
1065:
580:, currently dominates the GIS market. Other examples of GIS include
42:
6823:
6497:
5615:
Proc. ACM International Symposium on Geographic Information Systems
5583:
Proc. ACM International Symposium on Geographic Information Systems
3464:
3142:
2753:
2256:
2154:
2053:
2008:
1873:
1845:
1841:
1714:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1380:
846:
750:
699:
662:. Another example is the proliferation of geospatial libraries and
608:
597:
581:
517:
505:
459:
445:
436:
421:
316:
259:
229:
178:
of relevant concepts and methods, and institutional organizations.
6364:
A Primer of GIS, Fundamental geographic and cartographic concepts.
3293:
2752:(GIScience) combine computer-mapping capabilities with additional
366:
Two additional developments are notable in the early days of GIS:
6987:
6856:
6800:
6784:
6717:
5922:
Milson, Andrew J.; Demirci, Ali; Kerski, Joseph J., eds. (2012).
5370:"Digital Maps Are Giving Scholars the Historical Lay of the Land"
3147:
3011:
2797:
2793:
2032:
2004:
1815:
1593:
1420:
1376:
1229:
1208:
1159:
396:
In 1963, the world's first true operational GIS was developed in
355:
320:
274:
193:
is more common. GIScience is often considered a subdiscipline of
5707:"Terra Cognita 2006 – Directions to the Geospatial Semantic Web"
5216:"How To Use Geofencing for Targeted Digital Marketing Campaigns"
3707:
GIS Fundamentals: A First Text on Geographic Information Systems
3574:
2942:
in one dataset is a specialization or subset of land cover type
2792:
is information that encompasses the experiences of a particular
2466:
philosophies. Social and technological evolutions have elevated
2421:
or Geographic Information Systems has been an important tool in
1744:", through a function that combines the values of each raster's
962:
Recently aerial data collection has become more accessible with
6486:
5864:. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press. pp. 70–73.
5342:
4746:
Plewe, Brandon (2007). "Web Cartography in the United States".
2980:
2639:
1713:
The combination of several spatial datasets (points, lines, or
1334:
tools provide the data processing functionality of traditional
1115:. For example, data in latitude/longitude if the datum is the '
577:
569:
335:
278:
4560:
Parker, Christopher J.; May, Andrew J.; Mitchell, Val (2013).
3971:
CAA: Digital Archaeologies, Material Worlds (Past and Present)
3734:. The 39th International Conference on Very Large Data Bases.
1581:
resources to find the best geographic potential for a region.
1096:. Converting coordinates from one datum to another requires a
5608:"Analyzing Theme, Space and Time: an Ontology-based Approach"
5191:"Location Data: How GIS is Used in Digital Marketing and SEO"
4648:
Parker, Christopher J.; May, Andrew J.; Mitchel, Val (2014).
3779:
3521:"History of GIS | Early History and the Future of GIS – Esri"
3073:
Fiber network management for interdepartmental network assets
3047:
Courses in GIS are also offered by educational institutions.
1256:
tools such as shortest path would still give correct results.
1082:
943:
915:(COGO). Positions from a global navigation satellite system (
675:
312:
295:
5123:
4917:
3929:
2977:
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
2379:
ArcGIS Server website depicting submersed aquatic vegetation
1826:
are all mathematical methods to produce interpolative data.
1662:
1584:
Additionally, from a series of three-dimensional points, or
6318:
Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems, 4th Edition
6104:"Strategic GIS Planning and Management in Local Government"
5439:
Giacomo Rambaldi and Daniel Weiner (Track Leaders) (2004).
2956:
2636:
2611:
2056:. The GIS display depends on the viewing point of the
1947:
1867:
Reverse geocoding is the process of returning an estimated
1303:
1286:
GIS operations in ways that are difficult to predict.
950:. In England in the mid 1990s, hybrid kite/balloons called
813:
667:
589:
566:
456:
413:
358:. This work was initially drawn on glass plates, but later
271:
6301:
Introduction to Geographic Information System, 4th Edition
6128:
5887:
Understanding place: GIS and mapping across the curriculum
4562:"The role of VGI and PGI in supporting outdoor activities"
2163:: Management applications have been further classified as
1218:) than places that are closer. Mathematical tools such as
481: platform, Environmental Systems Research Institute (
139:
6428:
Thurston, J., Poiker, T.K. and J. Patrick Moore. (2003).
6178:
Parker, C.J.; May, A.; Mitchell, V.; Burrows, A. (2013).
5692:
4469:
4340:
International Journal of Geographical Information Science
2495:
2331:
2040:
A GIS was used to register and combine the two images to
1278:
1222:
are commonly used to manage vagueness in geographic data.
1042:
or scanned to produce digital data. A digitizer produces
851:
831:
655:
493:
6177:
5606:
Perry, Matthew; Hakimpour, Farshad; Sheth, Amit (2006).
4438:
Geographic information systems and cartographic modeling
1848:
and address locations. A reference theme is required to
1684:
Geographic Information Systems and Cartographic Modeling
631:
GIS platforms such as ArcGIS Online and GIS-specialized
440:
land resource database in Canada. It was developed as a
350:
The early 20th century saw the development of
4996:
4945:
Bringing geographical information systems into business
4265:
Natural Kinds and Classification in Scientific Practice
3891:"GIS versus CAD versus DBMS: What Are the Differences?"
3646:
GIS for Environmental Applications A practical approach
3123:
Dialogue-Assisted Visual Environment for Geoinformation
2809:
2131:
Category:Applications of geographic information systems
878:, the direct measurement phenomena in the field (e.g.,
6276:
Beyond Mapping: Concepts, Algorithms and Issues in GIS
5885:
Sinton, Diana Stuart; Lund, Jennifer J., eds. (2007).
5661:"Semantic Web for Earth and Environmental Terminology"
5355:
Digital Mapping Techniques '00 -- Workshop Proceedings
4788:
4369:
1485:. Other applications of hydrological modeling include
1403:
of the Valestra area in the northern Apennines (Italy)
1395:
277:
outbreak showing the clusters of cholera cases in the
27:
System to capture, manage, and present geographic data
4960:"Deep mapping for environmental communication design"
4711:
Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies
607:
Starting in the late 1990s with the emergence of the
4837:
3486:
2786:
Traditional knowledge Geographic Information Systems
1577:
source. Similarly, GIS can be used to compare other
6371:
An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems
6369:Heywood, I., Cornelius, S., and Carver, S. (2006).
5921:
5693:"International Conferences on Geospatial Semantics"
5605:
5351:"Digital Mapping Systems for Field Data Collection"
4704:
4372:
An Introduction to Geographical Information Systems
1880:
1232:" is missing some actual streets, it is incomplete.
67:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
5968:
5839:. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press.
5534:Zhang, Chuanrong; Zhao, Tian; Li, Weidong (2015).
5357:. U.S. Geological Survey. Open-File Report 00-325.
4878:
4435:
3839:
3799:
2578:that can be utilized and updated while conducting
1302:, a technique developed in the late 1960s by
1264:The degree to which the quality of the results of
1119:of 1983' is denoted by 'GCS North American 1983'.
977:The majority of digital data currently comes from
974:of 1 inch (2.54 cm) in only 12 minutes.
946:, while platforms usually consist of aircraft and
477:) along with Bentley Systems Incorporated for the
5063:"Arctic Sea Ice Extent is Third Lowest on Record"
4559:
4404:. West Sussex, England: John Wiley and Sons: 328.
3039:GIS seems to provide many advantages in teaching
2800:. Traditional knowledge GIS differ from ordinary
2289:(at all levels from municipal to international),
1423:, the shape of the surface of the earth, such as
1066:Projections, coordinate systems, and registration
465:By the late 1970s two public domain GIS systems (
7234:
5580:
4647:
4387:Introduction to Geographical Information Systems
3738:. Vol. 6, no. 11. pp. 1009–1020.
2967:is a standard developed by the Ordnance Survey,
550:The distinction must be made between a singular
6435:
4496:
4127:
4125:
2860:
1289:
252:While digital GIS dates to the mid-1960s, when
155:) consists of integrated computer hardware and
6459:
6290:Principles of geographical information systems
5096:. Enschede, The Netherlands: ITC. p. 44.
4947:. Cambridge, UK: GeoInformation International.
4748:Cartography and Geographic Information Science
4497:Ma, Y.; Guo, Y.; Tian, X.; Ghanem, M. (2011).
4374:(3rd ed.). Essex, England: Prentice Hall.
4080:"Digitizing - GIS Wiki | The GIS Encyclopedia"
3898:Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing
3775:
3773:
3771:
3769:
3767:
3765:
3763:
3624:"Open Source GIS History – OSGeo Wiki Editors"
3616:
3398:Cartography and Geographic Information Systems
3242:Introduction to Geographic Information Systems
3217:Fundamentals of Geographic Information Systems
2623:used in GEOINT and national security, such as
2478:
1938:Cartographic work serves two major functions:
1916:
7108:Geographic data and information organizations
6513:
6288:Burrough, P. A. and McDonnell, R. A. (1998).
6024:
5928:(Submitted manuscript). Dordrecht; New York:
5471:Peat, F. David. "I Have a Map in my Head."
5403:"Participatory GIS: opportunity or oxymoron?"
4958:Butts, Shannon; Jones, Madison (2021-05-20).
4555:
4553:
3965:Buławka, Nazarij; Chyla, Julia Maria (2020),
3395:
3267:"Twenty years of progress: GIScience in 2010"
2886:moderate-resolution imaging spectroradiometer
2545:. The left-to-right gap, near the top of the
1298:More advanced data processing can occur with
728:
693:
448:. The CGIS was never available commercially.
5558:
5126:Geographic Information Systems & Science
5086:
4936:
4384:
4333:
4327:
4256:Winther, Rasmus G. (2014). C. Kendig (ed.).
4131:
4122:
4106:. Government of Ireland 1999. Archived from
3964:
3782:Geographic Information Systems & Science
3219:(4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, inc.
2772:
2321:: Traditionally, most GIS applications were
1983:A traditional topographic map rendered in 3D
292:
6418:, Berlin / Heidelberg / New York: Springer.
6154:"GIS for Local Government| Open Government"
5533:
5117:
4393:
4298:
4134:Introductory Geographic Information Systems
3798:Peng, Zhong-Ren; Tsou, Ming-Hsiang (2003).
3760:
3118:Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography
2433:
1690:refers to a process where several thematic
1015:The most common method of data creation is
970:was used to map a 50-acre area with a
6520:
6506:
6389:Geographic Information Systems and Science
5884:
5315:Geographic Information Systems and Science
4957:
4550:
4402:Geographic Information Systems and Science
4365:
4363:
4361:
3932:Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports
3833:
3831:
3700:
3698:
3696:
3694:
2748:Geographic information systems (GISs) and
2586:
2307:: GIS implementations may be focused on a
2003:Today, graphic display techniques such as
1104:, although in certain situations a simple
955:used over roads, railways and towns where
247:
30:"GIS" redirects here. For other uses, see
7159:National Council for Geographic Education
6261:Learn how and when to remove this message
5834:
5811:
5793:
5590:
5506:
5243:
5141:"Integrating GIS with SAP—The Imperative"
4863:
4814:
4730:
4624:
4525:
4370:Heywood I, Cornelius S, Carver S (2006).
4292:
4200:
4132:Jensen, John R.; Jensen, Ryan R. (2013).
4052:
4004:. Aeryon.com. 6 July 2011. Archived from
3844:. In Shekhar, Shashi; Xiong, Hui (eds.).
3793:
3791:
3743:
3595:
3571:"GIS Hall of Fame – Roger Tomlinson"
3563:
3547:. UCGIS. 21 February 2014. Archived from
3278:
3264:
3210:
3208:
2911:Tools and technologies emerging from the
2842:OGC standards help GIS tools communicate.
1004:
127:Learn how and when to remove this message
6460:Worboys, Michael; Duckham, Matt (2004).
6425:, New York and London: Guilford, 248 pp.
6020:
6018:
5559:Fonseca, Frederico; Sheth, Amit (2002).
5169:
4942:
4416:Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
4026:
3797:
3244:(9th ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 1.
3233:
2990:
2882:advanced very-high-resolution radiometer
2867:Historical geographic information system
2837:
2768:, agricultural applications, and others.
2661:historical geographic information system
2654:Historical geographic information system
2614:, to combine GEOINT with other forms of
2524:
2446:
2374:
1978:
1661:
1651:
1394:
932:incorporate positions collected using a
845:
658:for spatial analysis operations such as
258:
138:
5213:
5188:
5080:
5003:Groundwater for Sustainable Development
4911:
4600:
4358:
4255:
3973:, TĂĽbingen: TĂĽbingen University Press,
3828:
3704:
3691:
3372:
1737:the spatial extent of another dataset.
1599:
903:
834:information at each point, returning a
773:previously had not been systematically
323:per every 1,000 inhabitants.
14:
7235:
5348:
5138:
5087:Huisman, Otto; de By, Rolf A. (2009).
4831:
4782:
4739:
4606:
4463:
4430:
4258:"Mapping Kinds in GIS and Cartography"
3837:
3788:
3589:
3492:
3438:
3271:Journal of Spatial Information Science
3214:
3205:
3050:
2955:and the SWEET ontologies developed by
621:relational database management systems
546:Geographic information system software
170:. Much of this often happens within a
6501:
6098:
6096:
6015:
5859:
5758:
5723:
5538:. Springer International Publishing.
5367:
4745:
4389:. New York: McGraw Hill. p. 184.
4378:
4096:
4074:
4072:
3888:
3239:
2938:that a land cover type classified as
2385:(GIS) has become an integral part of
1612:
1512:
1487:groundwater and surface water mapping
808:battles), processes (e.g., extent of
416:, agriculture, recreation, wildlife,
7203:
6527:
6349:Web GIS: Principles and Applications
6278:. Fort Collins, CO: GIS World Books.
6217:
3806:. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons.
3678:Web GIS: Principles and Applications
3643:
3600:. Harvard University. Archived from
2810:Open Geospatial Consortium standards
2703:
2567:(PDA). The primary function of this
1992:show the shape of land surface with
1968:
1856:
1829:
1483:environmental contamination research
406:Canada Geographic Information System
65:adding citations to reliable sources
36:
7215:
6404:. The University of Chicago Press,
5328:Journal of Environmental Management
5128:(3rd ed.). Wiley. p. 434.
4178:. Njgin.state.nj.us. Archived from
2511:
2453:Federal Emergency Management Agency
2097:Some of them, like Google Maps and
1887:Multiple-criteria decision analysis
1390:
1345:
841:
24:
6213:
6093:
4069:
3537:
2492:GIS in environmental contamination
2486:GIS in environmental contamination
2361:
1899:
1419:Many geographic tasks involve the
1034:Existing data printed on paper or
664:application programming interfaces
25:
7254:
6479:
6414:Ott, T. and Swiaczny, F. (2001) .
6391:. Chichester: Wiley. 2nd edition.
5761:Ethics and Information Technology
4104:"Making maps compatible with GPS"
2103:application programming interface
850:Example of hardware for mapping (
588:and open-source programs such as
453:Harvard Graduate School of Design
7214:
7202:
7190:
7179:
7178:
7154:International Geography Olympiad
6485:
6222:
6196:10.2752/175630613x13584367984947
6171:
6146:
5679:"W3C Geospatial Incubator Group"
5412:. pp. 27–34. Archived from
5250:10.1016/B978-008044910-4.00029-8
5113:from the original on 2018-05-14.
4694:from the original on 2017-08-30.
4484:10.1111/j.1749-8198.2011.00431.x
4274:from the original on 2014-08-08.
4054:10.1111/j.1745-5871.2009.00577.x
3188:Tobler's second law of geography
2901:spatial decision support systems
2778:This section is an excerpt from
2741:This section is an excerpt from
2735:
2709:This section is an excerpt from
2680:This section is an excerpt from
2652:This section is an excerpt from
2592:This section is an excerpt from
2517:This section is an excerpt from
2484:This section is an excerpt from
2441:GIS and environmental governance
2439:This section is an excerpt from
2411:This section is an excerpt from
2367:This section is an excerpt from
1893:multi-criteria decision analysis
1881:Multi-criteria decision analysis
1751:
1546:
780:
646:architectures. One example is a
343:and theme existed previously in
41:
6121:
6069:
6045:
6025:Nieto Barbero, Gustavo (2016).
5962:
5915:
5878:
5853:
5828:
5787:
5752:
5717:
5699:
5685:
5671:
5653:
5635:
5599:
5574:
5552:
5527:
5500:
5478:
5465:
5432:
5394:
5361:
5298:
5237:
5228:
5207:
5182:
5163:
5132:
5055:
5029:
4990:
4951:
4872:
4698:
4641:
4490:
4424:
4408:
4278:
4249:
4201:Couclelis, Helen (March 2003).
4194:
4176:"NJGIN's Information Warehouse"
4168:
4150:
4020:
3994:
3958:
3923:
3904:(11): 1551–1555. Archived from
3882:
3848:. New York: Springer. pp.
3723:
3670:
3637:
3513:
3183:Tobler's first law of geography
3021:
2969:United States Geological Survey
2124:
1796:triangulated irregular networks
1399:Hillshade model derived from a
1122:
1085:for U.S. measurements, and the
866:technology) is used mainly for
706:(location and shape) and their
539:
76:"Geographic information system"
52:needs additional citations for
7243:Geographic information systems
6867:Geographic information science
6492:Geographic information systems
5368:Cohen, Patricia (2011-07-26).
5189:Haywood, Leeann (2023-03-15).
4964:Communication Design Quarterly
3432:
3389:
3366:
3344:
3322:
3258:
3028:Esri Education User Conference
2750:geographic information science
2594:GIS in geospatial intelligence
2427:Geographic Information Science
2405:
2383:Geographic Information Systems
2063:
1698:
1441:Triangulated irregular network
1326:
1282:be of widely varying quality.
812:), and masses (e.g., types of
510:free, open-source GIS packages
300:(1832). French geographer and
183:geographic information systems
18:Geographic information systems
13:
1:
6973:Geographic information system
6432:. Hoboken, New Jersey: Wiley.
6373:. Prentice Hall. 3rd edition.
6245:and help improve the section.
5561:"The Geospatial Semantic Web"
5139:Benner, Steve (Spring 2009).
4865:10.1080/17445647.2023.2235385
4321:10.1016/S0098-3004(98)00032-6
4284:Wade, T. and Sommer, S. eds.
4027:Puotinen, Marji (June 2009).
3858:10.1007/978-0-387-35973-1_648
3330:"The 50th Anniversary of GIS"
3265:Goodchild, Michael F (2010).
3199:
2175:, a common classification in
1489:, as well as flood risk maps.
966:and drones. For example, the
552:geographic information system
376:Dual Independent Map Encoding
149:geographic information system
6900:Environmental social science
6462:GIS: a computing perspective
6351:. ESRI Press. Redlands, CA.
6285:. Ann Arbor: XanEdu, 764 pp.
5726:Public Administration Review
5643:"Ordnance Survey Ontologies"
5317:. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
4905:10.1016/j.renene.2024.120552
4669:10.1080/00140139.2014.909950
4613:Dialogues in Human Geography
4578:10.1016/j.apergo.2012.04.013
3944:10.1016/j.jasrep.2017.07.004
3680:. ESRI Press. Redlands, CA.
3441:"Automation and Cartography"
2906:
2861:Adding the dimension of time
2727:and spatial information and
2691:to study and manage Earth's
2674:
2399:US Fish and Wildlife Service
2297:(even churches), as well as
2235:), and those concerned with
1533:Voronoi or Thiessen polygons
1290:Raster-to-vector translation
1113:Geographic coordinate system
1089:for worldwide measurements.
1083:North American Datum of 1983
800:(e.g., a house, a road) and
307:created a map outlining the
7:
6347:Fu, P., and J. Sun (2010).
6029:(Ph.D. thesis). Barcelona:
5521:10.3138/U558-H737-6577-8U31
5486:"OGC Members | OGC(R)"
5446:. iapad.org. Archived from
5214:Liaquat, Ali (2021-08-01).
3108:Climate Information Service
3095:
2603:(GEOINT) and United States
2479:Environmental contamination
2346:GIS is also diverging into
1917:Data output and cartography
1798:, edge-finding algorithms,
1317:object-oriented programming
10:
7259:
6366:The Guilford Press, 31 pp.
5813:10.1214/088342305000000241
5475:18.3 (1996) : 11-17.
4807:10.1016/j.puhe.2020.04.034
4768:10.1559/152304007781002235
3676:Fu, P., and J. Sun. 2010.
3418:10.1559/152304090784005859
3296:Urban Design International
3240:Chang, Kang-tsung (2016).
3113:Comparison of GIS software
3025:
2994:
2983:database query protocols.
2940:deciduous needleleaf trees
2864:
2822:Open Geospatial Consortium
2816:Open Geospatial Consortium
2813:
2777:
2740:
2708:
2679:
2651:
2646:
2591:
2565:personal digital assistant
2516:
2483:
2438:
2410:
2366:
2293:(of all types and sizes),
2128:
2067:
1972:
1920:
1884:
1860:
1833:
1812:inverse distance weighting
1808:(weighted) moving averages
1755:
1702:
1655:
1619:Transport network analysis
1616:
1551:It is difficult to relate
1516:
1463:project to estimate costs.
1412:
1406:
1349:
1260:Propagation of uncertainty
1126:
1069:
1008:
784:
733:GIS uses spatio-temporal (
729:Aspects of geographic data
694:Geospatial data management
652:Object-relational database
543:
309:forty-eight districts
29:
7174:
7131:
7100:
7063:
7015:Global Positioning System
6941:
6932:
6890:
6842:
6703:
6578:
6571:
6538:
6464:. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
6421:Pickles, J., ed., (1994)
5983:10.1007/978-4-431-55519-3
5938:10.1007/978-94-007-2120-3
5617:: 147–154. Archived from
5023:10.1016/j.gsd.2024.101240
4732:10.1016/j.trc.2014.10.007
4607:Everts, Jonathan (2020).
4536:10.1109/JSEN.2010.2056916
4352:10.1080/02693798908941519
4301:Computers and Geosciences
3377:. Natural History Press.
2961:Jet Propulsion Laboratory
2913:World Wide Web Consortium
2780:Traditional knowledge GIS
2773:Traditional knowledge GIS
2729:communications management
2356:
2109:geodata in projects like
1249:topological relationships
921:Global Positioning System
884:global positioning system
870:, monitoring and mapping.
698:The core of any GIS is a
6362:Harvey, Francis (2008).
6186:(Submitted manuscript).
5860:Haque, Akhlaque (2015).
5835:Monmonier, Mark (1991).
5794:Monmonier, Mark (2005).
4626:10.1177/2043820620935355
4609:"The dashboard pandemic"
4418:18, pp. 416–429 (2013).
3709:(6th ed.). XanEdu.
3373:MacHarg, Ian L. (1971).
3215:DeMers, Michael (2009).
3158:List of GIS data sources
3001:Public participation GIS
2973:Natural Resources Canada
2559:is the process by which
2557:Digital geologic mapping
2519:Digital geologic mapping
2434:Environmental governance
2295:non-profit organizations
1911:environmental monitoring
1792:Digital elevation models
1336:extract, transform, load
1295:adjacency or inclusion.
1072:Spatial reference system
998:electromagnetic spectrum
957:unmanned aerial vehicles
576:and the legacy software
520:infrastructure, such as
270:'s 1855 map of the
7123:National mapping agency
7088:Survey (human research)
7030:Participant observation
6294:Oxford University Press
6031:University of Barcelona
5773:10.1023/A:1024986003350
5738:10.1111/0033-3352.00028
5536:Geospatial Semantic Web
4976:10.1145/3437000.3437001
4943:Grimshaw, D.J. (1994).
4922:(2nd ed.). Wiley.
4227:10.1111/1467-9671.00138
3573:. URISA. Archived from
3168:Map database management
2919:are proving useful for
2857:and verify each entry.
2601:geospatial intelligence
2587:Geospatial intelligence
2369:GIS and aquatic science
2348:location-based services
2269:sustainable development
2026:digital elevation model
1638:transportation planning
1586:digital elevation model
1475:digital elevation model
1437:Digital elevation model
1401:digital elevation model
1367:Geospatial intelligence
1025:ortho-rectified imagery
858:) and data collection (
684:location-based services
435:having a true embedded
389:development spurred by
248:History and development
7113:Geographical societies
6910:Landscape architecture
6335:GIS modeling in raster
3838:Moretz, David (2008).
3784:(4th ed.). Wiley.
3705:Bolstad, Paul (2019).
3596:Lovison-Golob, Lucia.
3495:"Map Printing Methods"
3493:Fitzgerald, Joseph H.
3439:Tobler, Waldo (1959).
3280:10.5311/JOSIS.2010.1.2
3173:Quantitative geography
3153:Integrated Geo Systems
2843:
2554:
2456:
2380:
2209:landscape architecture
2044:the three-dimensional
1984:
1824:trend surface analysis
1672:
1537:Cost distance analysis
1404:
1319:and sustained work by
1203:Vagueness or fuzziness
1102:Helmert transformation
1005:Secondary data capture
972:ground sample distance
888:secondary data capture
871:
644:information technology
514:Information technology
293:
284:
181:The uncounted plural,
144:
6905:Environmental studies
6877:Statistical geography
6758:Environmental science
6274:Berry, J. K. (1993).
5349:Kramer, John (2000).
4385:Chang, K. T. (2008).
4334:Chang, K. T. (1989).
4033:Geographical Research
3889:Cowen, David (1988).
2991:Societal implications
2854:Implementing products
2841:
2790:Traditional knowledge
2762:environmental science
2743:GIS and public health
2633:GeoNetwork opensource
2621:types of GIS software
2528:
2500:spatial interpolation
2450:
2378:
2014:San Mateo County
1982:
1688:Cartographic modeling
1680:cartographic modeling
1665:
1652:Cartographic modeling
1467:Hydrological modeling
1398:
1359:business intelligence
1350:Further information:
1127:Further information:
1087:World Geodetic System
1009:Further information:
849:
633:software as a service
530:software as a service
410:Canada Land Inventory
266:'s version (1958) of
262:
207:location intelligence
197:within the branch of
142:
7118:Geoscience societies
7083:Interview (research)
7055:Land change modeling
6956:Computer cartography
6934:Techniques and tools
6792:Earth system science
6494:at Wikimedia Commons
6402:How to Lie With Maps
6383:, Maguire, D.J. and
6281:Bolstad, P. (2019).
5837:How to Lie with Maps
5488:. Opengeospatial.org
4506:IEEE Sensors Journal
3163:List of GIS software
2665:historical geography
2573:spatially referenced
2533:in the Erath field,
2395:US Geological Survey
2088:free and open-source
1731:symmetric difference
1600:Topological modeling
1525:friction of distance
1363:spatial intelligence
1117:North American Datum
1098:datum transformation
979:photo interpretation
904:Primary data capture
876:primary data capture
586:MapInfo Professional
560:, a general-purpose
522:relational databases
462:, released in 1983.
404:, it was called the
163:, edit, output, and
159:that store, manage,
61:improve this article
32:GIS (disambiguation)
7164:Spatial citizenship
7149:Geographers on Film
7139:Geography education
6749:Atmospheric science
5800:Statistical Science
5015:2024GSusD..2601240C
4897:2024REne..22720552C
4856:2023JMaps..19Q...1A
4760:2007CGISc..34..133P
4723:2014TRPC...49..103M
4518:2011ISenJ..11..641M
4313:1998CG.....24..315J
4219:2003TrGIS...7..165C
4207:Transactions in GIS
4164:on 6 November 2018.
4045:2009GeoRs..47..219P
3846:Encyclopedia of GIS
3604:on 13 December 2007
3551:on 17 December 2015
3457:1959GeoRv..49..526T
3445:Geographical Review
3410:1990CGISy..17...39B
3308:10.1057/udi.2010.25
3178:Technical geography
3051:In local government
2830:Web Feature Service
2569:emerging technology
2561:geological features
2265:wildlife management
2177:business management
2150:resource management
2145:scientific research
1975:Terrain cartography
1923:Cartographic design
1197:confidence interval
1152:positional accuracy
1108:may be sufficient.
959:(UAVs) are banned.
913:coordinate geometry
723:relational database
562:application program
199:technical geography
7045:Statistical survey
6995:Geologic modelling
6834:Quaternary science
6299:Chang, K. (2007).
6184:The Design Journal
5374:The New York Times
5151:on 22 October 2009
4566:Applied Ergonomics
4182:on 10 October 2011
3644:Xuan, Zhu (2016).
3598:"Howard T. Fisher"
3375:Design with nature
3133:Geodatabase (Esri)
2847:Compliant products
2844:
2555:
2505:soil contamination
2457:
2413:GIS in archaeology
2381:
1985:
1891:Coupled with GIS,
1673:
1624:Geometric networks
1613:Geometric networks
1519:Proximity analysis
1513:Proximity analysis
1405:
1308:Fourier transforms
1156:attribute accuracy
872:
868:forest inventories
372:Design with Nature
285:
145:
7230:
7229:
7096:
7095:
6928:
6927:
6915:Landscape ecology
6735:Coastal geography
6490:Media related to
6452:978-1-58948-158-9
6410:978-0-226-43592-3
6343:978-0-471-31965-8
6326:978-0-470-12906-7
6296:, Oxford, 327 pp.
6271:
6270:
6263:
6129:"Home - SafeCity"
5796:"Lying with Maps"
5568:UCGIS White Paper
5545:978-3-319-17801-1
5286:Missing or empty
5195:Hennessey Digital
5103:978-90-6164-269-5
4472:Geography Compass
4143:978-0-13-614776-3
3980:978-3-947-25115-5
3867:978-0-387-35973-1
3716:978-1-59399-552-2
3545:"Roger Tomlinson"
3251:978-1-259-92964-9
3226:978-0-470-12906-7
3034:spatial cognition
2717:Participatory GIS
2711:Participatory GIS
2704:Participatory GIS
2682:GIS and hydrology
2605:national security
2460:Michael Goodchild
2273:natural resources
2237:the natural world
2153:. The purpose of
2086:, as well as the
2078:web applications
2050:San Andreas Fault
2048:looking down the
2031:The accompanying
1969:Terrain depiction
1863:Reverse geocoding
1857:Reverse geocoding
1830:Address geocoding
1800:Thiessen polygons
1493:Viewshed analysis
1212:metropolitan area
1029:digitizing tablet
934:laser rangefinder
856:laser rangefinder
802:continuous fields
720:spatially-enabled
648:spatial extension
572:, which includes
498:Microsoft Windows
387:computer hardware
385:in 1959. Further
176:body of knowledge
143:Basic GIS concept
137:
136:
129:
111:
16:(Redirected from
7250:
7218:
7217:
7206:
7205:
7194:
7182:
7181:
7010:Geovisualization
6939:
6938:
6882:Spatial analysis
6767:Paleoclimatology
6576:
6575:
6522:
6515:
6508:
6499:
6498:
6489:
6475:
6456:
6266:
6259:
6255:
6252:
6246:
6241:Please read the
6237:may need cleanup
6226:
6225:
6218:
6208:
6207:
6175:
6169:
6168:
6166:
6164:
6150:
6144:
6143:
6141:
6139:
6125:
6119:
6118:
6116:
6114:
6100:
6091:
6090:
6088:
6087:
6073:
6067:
6066:
6064:
6063:
6057:www.sandiego.edu
6049:
6043:
6042:
6022:
6013:
6012:
5966:
5960:
5959:
5919:
5913:
5912:
5889:. Redlands, CA:
5882:
5876:
5875:
5857:
5851:
5850:
5832:
5826:
5825:
5815:
5791:
5785:
5784:
5756:
5750:
5749:
5721:
5715:
5714:
5709:. Archived from
5703:
5697:
5696:
5689:
5683:
5682:
5675:
5669:
5668:
5663:. Archived from
5657:
5651:
5650:
5645:. Archived from
5639:
5633:
5632:
5630:
5629:
5623:
5612:
5603:
5597:
5596:
5594:
5578:
5572:
5571:
5565:
5556:
5550:
5549:
5531:
5525:
5524:
5504:
5498:
5497:
5495:
5493:
5482:
5476:
5469:
5463:
5462:
5460:
5458:
5452:
5445:
5436:
5430:
5428:
5426:
5424:
5418:
5407:
5398:
5392:
5391:
5389:
5388:
5365:
5359:
5358:
5346:
5340:
5337:
5331:
5324:
5318:
5311:
5305:
5302:
5296:
5295:
5289:
5283:
5277:
5273:
5271:
5263:
5241:
5235:
5232:
5226:
5225:
5223:
5222:
5211:
5205:
5204:
5202:
5201:
5186:
5180:
5179:
5167:
5161:
5160:
5158:
5156:
5147:. Archived from
5136:
5130:
5129:
5121:
5115:
5114:
5112:
5095:
5084:
5078:
5077:
5075:
5074:
5065:. Archived from
5059:
5053:
5052:
5050:
5048:
5033:
5027:
5026:
4994:
4988:
4987:
4955:
4949:
4948:
4940:
4934:
4933:
4915:
4909:
4908:
4885:Renewable Energy
4876:
4870:
4869:
4867:
4835:
4829:
4828:
4818:
4786:
4780:
4779:
4743:
4737:
4736:
4734:
4702:
4696:
4695:
4693:
4654:
4645:
4639:
4638:
4628:
4604:
4598:
4597:
4557:
4548:
4547:
4529:
4503:
4494:
4488:
4487:
4467:
4461:
4460:
4458:
4456:
4441:
4428:
4422:
4412:
4406:
4405:
4397:
4391:
4390:
4382:
4376:
4375:
4367:
4356:
4355:
4331:
4325:
4324:
4296:
4290:
4282:
4276:
4275:
4273:
4262:
4253:
4247:
4246:
4198:
4192:
4191:
4189:
4187:
4172:
4166:
4165:
4160:. Archived from
4154:
4148:
4147:
4129:
4120:
4119:
4117:
4115:
4100:
4094:
4093:
4091:
4090:
4076:
4067:
4066:
4056:
4024:
4018:
4017:
4015:
4013:
3998:
3992:
3991:
3962:
3956:
3955:
3927:
3921:
3920:
3918:
3916:
3911:on 24 April 2011
3910:
3895:
3886:
3880:
3879:
3843:
3835:
3826:
3825:
3805:
3795:
3786:
3785:
3777:
3758:
3757:
3747:
3727:
3721:
3720:
3702:
3689:
3674:
3668:
3667:
3641:
3635:
3634:
3632:
3630:
3620:
3614:
3613:
3611:
3609:
3593:
3587:
3586:
3584:
3582:
3567:
3561:
3560:
3558:
3556:
3541:
3535:
3534:
3532:
3531:
3517:
3511:
3510:
3508:
3506:
3497:. Archived from
3490:
3484:
3483:
3481:
3479:
3436:
3430:
3429:
3393:
3387:
3386:
3370:
3364:
3363:
3361:
3359:
3348:
3342:
3341:
3339:
3337:
3326:
3320:
3319:
3291:
3285:
3284:
3282:
3262:
3256:
3255:
3237:
3231:
3230:
3212:
2925:interoperability
2921:data integration
2894:U.S. Census
2725:spatial planning
2697:hydrologic cycle
2535:Vermilion Parish
2512:Geologic mapping
2233:national defense
2080:Google Maps
2046:perspective view
1990:Topographic maps
1804:Fourier analysis
1678:coined the term
1579:renewable energy
1575:renewable energy
1541:network analysis
1415:Surface gradient
1391:Terrain analysis
1352:Spatial analysis
1346:Spatial analysis
1323:and co-workers.
1300:image processing
1266:Spatial analysis
1254:network analysis
1220:fuzzy set theory
842:Data acquisition
798:discrete objects
791:GIS file formats
787:Data model (GIS)
534:mobile computing
352:photozincography
332:cholera outbreak
299:
282:epidemic of 1854
220:; representing,
205:reason, GIS and
172:spatial database
132:
125:
121:
118:
112:
110:
69:
45:
37:
21:
7258:
7257:
7253:
7252:
7251:
7249:
7248:
7247:
7233:
7232:
7231:
7226:
7170:
7127:
7092:
7059:
6978:Distributed GIS
6924:
6886:
6838:
6771:Palaeogeography
6699:
6567:
6534:
6526:
6482:
6472:
6453:
6437:Roger Tomlinson
6381:Goodchild, M.F.
6303:. McGraw Hill,
6267:
6256:
6250:
6247:
6240:
6233:Further reading
6227:
6223:
6216:
6214:Further reading
6211:
6176:
6172:
6162:
6160:
6152:
6151:
6147:
6137:
6135:
6127:
6126:
6122:
6112:
6110:
6102:
6101:
6094:
6085:
6083:
6075:
6074:
6070:
6061:
6059:
6051:
6050:
6046:
6023:
6016:
5993:
5975:Springer-Verlag
5967:
5963:
5948:
5930:Springer-Verlag
5920:
5916:
5901:
5883:
5879:
5872:
5858:
5854:
5847:
5833:
5829:
5792:
5788:
5757:
5753:
5722:
5718:
5713:on 18 May 2007.
5705:
5704:
5700:
5691:
5690:
5686:
5677:
5676:
5672:
5667:on 29 May 2007.
5659:
5658:
5654:
5649:on 21 May 2007.
5641:
5640:
5636:
5627:
5625:
5621:
5610:
5604:
5600:
5579:
5575:
5563:
5557:
5553:
5546:
5532:
5528:
5505:
5501:
5491:
5489:
5484:
5483:
5479:
5470:
5466:
5456:
5454:
5453:on 16 July 2011
5450:
5443:
5437:
5433:
5422:
5420:
5419:on 16 July 2011
5416:
5405:
5399:
5395:
5386:
5384:
5366:
5362:
5347:
5343:
5338:
5334:
5325:
5321:
5312:
5308:
5303:
5299:
5287:
5285:
5275:
5274:
5265:
5264:
5260:
5242:
5238:
5233:
5229:
5220:
5218:
5212:
5208:
5199:
5197:
5187:
5183:
5168:
5164:
5154:
5152:
5137:
5133:
5122:
5118:
5110:
5104:
5093:
5085:
5081:
5072:
5070:
5061:
5060:
5056:
5046:
5044:
5043:on 8 March 2012
5035:
5034:
5030:
4995:
4991:
4956:
4952:
4941:
4937:
4930:
4916:
4912:
4877:
4873:
4844:Journal of Maps
4836:
4832:
4787:
4783:
4744:
4740:
4703:
4699:
4691:
4652:
4646:
4642:
4605:
4601:
4558:
4551:
4527:10.1.1.724.1158
4501:
4495:
4491:
4468:
4464:
4454:
4452:
4450:
4432:Tomlin, C. Dana
4429:
4425:
4413:
4409:
4398:
4394:
4383:
4379:
4368:
4359:
4332:
4328:
4297:
4293:
4283:
4279:
4271:
4260:
4254:
4250:
4199:
4195:
4185:
4183:
4174:
4173:
4169:
4156:
4155:
4151:
4144:
4130:
4123:
4113:
4111:
4110:on 21 July 2011
4102:
4101:
4097:
4088:
4086:
4078:
4077:
4070:
4025:
4021:
4011:
4009:
4008:on 10 June 2020
4000:
3999:
3995:
3981:
3963:
3959:
3928:
3924:
3914:
3912:
3908:
3893:
3887:
3883:
3868:
3836:
3829:
3814:
3796:
3789:
3778:
3761:
3728:
3724:
3717:
3703:
3692:
3675:
3671:
3656:
3642:
3638:
3628:
3626:
3622:
3621:
3617:
3607:
3605:
3594:
3590:
3580:
3578:
3577:on 14 July 2007
3569:
3568:
3564:
3554:
3552:
3543:
3542:
3538:
3529:
3527:
3519:
3518:
3514:
3504:
3502:
3491:
3487:
3477:
3475:
3437:
3433:
3394:
3390:
3371:
3367:
3357:
3355:
3350:
3349:
3345:
3335:
3333:
3328:
3327:
3323:
3292:
3288:
3263:
3259:
3252:
3238:
3234:
3227:
3213:
3206:
3202:
3197:
3128:Distributed GIS
3098:
3089:open government
3053:
3030:
3024:
3003:
2995:Main articles:
2993:
2949:Ordnance Survey
2909:
2873:
2863:
2826:Web Map Service
2818:
2812:
2807:
2806:
2783:
2775:
2770:
2769:
2756:management and
2746:
2738:
2733:
2732:
2714:
2706:
2701:
2700:
2693:water resources
2685:
2677:
2669:
2668:
2657:
2649:
2644:
2643:
2597:
2589:
2584:
2583:
2522:
2514:
2509:
2508:
2489:
2481:
2476:
2475:
2444:
2436:
2431:
2430:
2416:
2408:
2403:
2402:
2387:aquatic science
2372:
2364:
2362:Aquatic science
2359:
2189:the human world
2133:
2127:
2072:
2066:
1977:
1971:
1944:Web Map Servers
1929:
1927:Digital mapping
1921:Main articles:
1919:
1904:GIS or spatial
1902:
1900:GIS data mining
1889:
1883:
1865:
1859:
1838:
1832:
1760:
1754:
1711:
1703:Main articles:
1701:
1660:
1654:
1621:
1615:
1602:
1573:potential as a
1549:
1521:
1515:
1507:vector calculus
1417:
1411:
1393:
1354:
1348:
1329:
1312:geographic data
1292:
1131:
1125:
1074:
1068:
1013:
1007:
940:Remotely sensed
925:field computers
906:
860:rugged computer
844:
810:suburbanization
793:
785:Main articles:
783:
767:map projections
731:
696:
625:distributed GIS
548:
542:
526:cloud computing
402:Roger Tomlinson
398:Ottawa, Ontario
370:'s publication
254:Roger Tomlinson
250:
168:geographic data
133:
122:
116:
113:
70:
68:
58:
46:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7256:
7246:
7245:
7228:
7227:
7225:
7224:
7212:
7200:
7188:
7175:
7172:
7171:
7169:
7168:
7167:
7166:
7161:
7156:
7151:
7146:
7135:
7133:
7129:
7128:
7126:
7125:
7120:
7115:
7110:
7104:
7102:
7098:
7097:
7094:
7093:
7091:
7090:
7085:
7080:
7075:
7069:
7067:
7061:
7060:
7058:
7057:
7052:
7047:
7042:
7040:Remote sensing
7037:
7035:Photogrammetry
7032:
7027:
7022:
7017:
7012:
7007:
7002:
7000:Geomathematics
6997:
6992:
6991:
6990:
6985:
6980:
6970:
6965:
6964:
6963:
6958:
6947:
6945:
6936:
6930:
6929:
6926:
6925:
6923:
6922:
6920:Time geography
6917:
6912:
6907:
6902:
6896:
6894:
6888:
6887:
6885:
6884:
6879:
6874:
6869:
6864:
6862:Geoinformatics
6859:
6854:
6848:
6846:
6840:
6839:
6837:
6836:
6831:
6817:
6808:
6803:
6794:
6789:
6788:
6787:
6778:
6773:
6760:
6755:
6741:
6732:
6731:
6730:
6725:
6723:Phytogeography
6720:
6709:
6707:
6701:
6700:
6698:
6697:
6692:
6687:
6682:
6681:
6680:
6675:
6670:
6660:
6655:
6650:
6645:
6640:
6635:
6630:
6625:
6620:
6615:
6610:
6605:
6600:
6595:
6590:
6584:
6582:
6573:
6569:
6568:
6566:
6565:
6560:
6555:
6550:
6545:
6539:
6536:
6535:
6525:
6524:
6517:
6510:
6502:
6496:
6495:
6481:
6480:External links
6478:
6477:
6476:
6471:978-0415283755
6470:
6457:
6451:
6433:
6426:
6419:
6412:
6395:
6392:
6374:
6367:
6360:
6345:
6328:
6311:
6309:978-0071267588
6297:
6286:
6279:
6269:
6268:
6230:
6228:
6221:
6215:
6212:
6210:
6209:
6190:(2): 197–218.
6170:
6145:
6120:
6092:
6068:
6044:
6014:
5991:
5961:
5946:
5914:
5899:
5877:
5871:978-0817318772
5870:
5852:
5846:978-0226534213
5845:
5827:
5806:(3): 215–222.
5786:
5751:
5732:(3): 259–265.
5716:
5698:
5684:
5670:
5652:
5634:
5598:
5592:10.1.1.99.5206
5573:
5551:
5544:
5526:
5499:
5477:
5464:
5431:
5393:
5360:
5341:
5332:
5319:
5306:
5297:
5276:|journal=
5258:
5236:
5227:
5206:
5181:
5162:
5131:
5116:
5102:
5079:
5054:
5028:
4989:
4950:
4935:
4928:
4910:
4871:
4830:
4781:
4754:(2): 133–136.
4738:
4697:
4663:(7): 987–997.
4640:
4619:(2): 260–264.
4599:
4549:
4489:
4478:(6): 412–432.
4462:
4448:
4423:
4407:
4392:
4377:
4357:
4346:(4): 323–334.
4326:
4307:(4): 315–323.
4291:
4277:
4248:
4213:(2): 165–175.
4193:
4167:
4149:
4142:
4121:
4095:
4068:
4039:(2): 219–221.
4019:
3993:
3979:
3957:
3922:
3881:
3866:
3841:"Internet GIS"
3827:
3812:
3787:
3759:
3722:
3715:
3690:
3669:
3654:
3636:
3615:
3588:
3562:
3536:
3512:
3501:on 4 June 2007
3485:
3465:10.2307/212211
3451:(4): 526–534.
3431:
3388:
3365:
3343:
3321:
3286:
3257:
3250:
3232:
3225:
3203:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3081:
3080:
3077:
3074:
3071:
3068:
3065:
3062:
3052:
3049:
3023:
3020:
2992:
2989:
2975:, Australia's
2953:United Kingdom
2908:
2905:
2871:Time geography
2862:
2859:
2814:Main article:
2811:
2808:
2802:cognitive maps
2784:
2776:
2774:
2771:
2766:urban planning
2747:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2715:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2686:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2658:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2598:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2571:is to produce
2523:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2494:is the use of
2490:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2445:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2417:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2373:
2365:
2363:
2360:
2358:
2355:
2336:
2335:
2316:
2302:
2280:
2277:climate change
2261:Natural hazard
2217:urban planning
2201:transportation
2182:
2181:
2180:
2161:Decision level
2136:several ways:
2126:
2123:
2084:Bing Maps
2068:Main article:
2065:
2062:
2038:
2037:
2029:
1973:Main article:
1970:
1967:
1918:
1915:
1901:
1898:
1885:Main article:
1882:
1879:
1869:street address
1861:Main article:
1858:
1855:
1842:ZIP Codes
1834:Main article:
1831:
1828:
1756:Main article:
1753:
1750:
1705:Vector overlay
1700:
1697:
1656:Main article:
1653:
1650:
1646:infrastructure
1644:modeling, and
1634:public utility
1617:Main article:
1614:
1611:
1601:
1598:
1548:
1545:
1517:Main article:
1514:
1511:
1503:
1502:
1496:
1490:
1479:surface runoff
1471:catchment area
1464:
1457:
1451:
1448:Slope or grade
1409:Geomorphometry
1407:Main article:
1392:
1389:
1347:
1344:
1328:
1325:
1291:
1288:
1275:
1274:
1262:
1257:
1245:
1240:
1236:
1233:
1226:
1223:
1205:
1200:
1192:
1187:
1168:
1163:
1144:
1124:
1121:
1070:Main article:
1067:
1064:
1006:
1003:
994:remote sensing
987:photogrammetry
964:miniature UAVs
905:
902:
880:remote sensing
843:
840:
836:3D color image
782:
779:
745:representing,
730:
727:
695:
692:
544:Main article:
541:
538:
391:nuclear weapon
305:Charles Picqué
249:
246:
187:geoinformatics
135:
134:
49:
47:
40:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7255:
7244:
7241:
7240:
7238:
7223:
7222:
7213:
7211:
7210:
7201:
7199:
7198:
7193:
7189:
7187:
7186:
7177:
7176:
7173:
7165:
7162:
7160:
7157:
7155:
7152:
7150:
7147:
7145:
7142:
7141:
7140:
7137:
7136:
7134:
7130:
7124:
7121:
7119:
7116:
7114:
7111:
7109:
7106:
7105:
7103:
7099:
7089:
7086:
7084:
7081:
7079:
7076:
7074:
7071:
7070:
7068:
7066:
7062:
7056:
7053:
7051:
7048:
7046:
7043:
7041:
7038:
7036:
7033:
7031:
7028:
7026:
7023:
7021:
7018:
7016:
7013:
7011:
7008:
7006:
7005:Geostatistics
7003:
7001:
6998:
6996:
6993:
6989:
6986:
6984:
6981:
6979:
6976:
6975:
6974:
6971:
6969:
6968:Geochronology
6966:
6962:
6959:
6957:
6954:
6953:
6952:
6949:
6948:
6946:
6944:
6940:
6937:
6935:
6931:
6921:
6918:
6916:
6913:
6911:
6908:
6906:
6903:
6901:
6898:
6897:
6895:
6893:
6889:
6883:
6880:
6878:
6875:
6873:
6870:
6868:
6865:
6863:
6860:
6858:
6855:
6853:
6850:
6849:
6847:
6845:
6841:
6835:
6832:
6829:
6825:
6821:
6818:
6816:
6812:
6809:
6807:
6804:
6802:
6798:
6797:Geomorphology
6795:
6793:
6790:
6786:
6782:
6779:
6777:
6774:
6772:
6768:
6764:
6761:
6759:
6756:
6754:
6750:
6747:
6746:
6745:
6744:Earth science
6742:
6740:
6736:
6733:
6729:
6726:
6724:
6721:
6719:
6716:
6715:
6714:
6711:
6710:
6708:
6706:
6702:
6696:
6693:
6691:
6688:
6686:
6683:
6679:
6676:
6674:
6671:
6669:
6666:
6665:
6664:
6661:
6659:
6656:
6654:
6651:
6649:
6646:
6644:
6641:
6639:
6636:
6634:
6631:
6629:
6626:
6624:
6621:
6619:
6616:
6614:
6611:
6609:
6606:
6604:
6601:
6599:
6596:
6594:
6591:
6589:
6586:
6585:
6583:
6581:
6577:
6574:
6570:
6564:
6561:
6559:
6556:
6554:
6551:
6549:
6546:
6544:
6541:
6540:
6537:
6533:
6530:
6523:
6518:
6516:
6511:
6509:
6504:
6503:
6500:
6493:
6488:
6484:
6483:
6473:
6467:
6463:
6458:
6454:
6448:
6445:. ESRI, Inc.
6444:
6443:
6438:
6434:
6431:
6427:
6424:
6420:
6417:
6413:
6411:
6407:
6403:
6399:
6398:Monmonier, M.
6396:
6393:
6390:
6386:
6382:
6378:
6377:Longley, P.A.
6375:
6372:
6368:
6365:
6361:
6358:
6357:1-58948-245-X
6354:
6350:
6346:
6344:
6340:
6336:
6332:
6329:
6327:
6323:
6319:
6315:
6312:
6310:
6306:
6302:
6298:
6295:
6291:
6287:
6284:
6280:
6277:
6273:
6272:
6265:
6262:
6254:
6244:
6243:editing guide
6238:
6234:
6229:
6220:
6219:
6205:
6201:
6197:
6193:
6189:
6185:
6181:
6174:
6159:
6155:
6149:
6134:
6130:
6124:
6109:
6105:
6099:
6097:
6082:
6078:
6072:
6058:
6054:
6048:
6040:
6036:
6032:
6028:
6021:
6019:
6010:
6006:
6002:
5998:
5994:
5992:9784431555186
5988:
5984:
5980:
5976:
5972:
5965:
5957:
5953:
5949:
5947:9789400721197
5943:
5939:
5935:
5931:
5927:
5926:
5918:
5910:
5906:
5902:
5900:9781589481497
5896:
5892:
5888:
5881:
5873:
5867:
5863:
5856:
5848:
5842:
5838:
5831:
5823:
5819:
5814:
5809:
5805:
5801:
5797:
5790:
5782:
5778:
5774:
5770:
5766:
5762:
5755:
5747:
5743:
5739:
5735:
5731:
5727:
5720:
5712:
5708:
5702:
5694:
5688:
5680:
5674:
5666:
5662:
5656:
5648:
5644:
5638:
5624:on 2007-06-14
5620:
5616:
5609:
5602:
5593:
5588:
5584:
5577:
5569:
5562:
5555:
5547:
5541:
5537:
5530:
5522:
5518:
5514:
5510:
5503:
5487:
5481:
5474:
5468:
5449:
5442:
5435:
5415:
5411:
5404:
5397:
5383:
5379:
5375:
5371:
5364:
5356:
5352:
5345:
5336:
5329:
5323:
5316:
5310:
5301:
5293:
5281:
5269:
5261:
5259:9780080449104
5255:
5251:
5247:
5240:
5231:
5217:
5210:
5196:
5192:
5185:
5177:
5173:
5166:
5150:
5146:
5142:
5135:
5127:
5120:
5109:
5105:
5099:
5092:
5091:
5083:
5069:on 2017-05-17
5068:
5064:
5058:
5042:
5038:
5032:
5024:
5020:
5016:
5012:
5008:
5004:
5000:
4993:
4985:
4981:
4977:
4973:
4969:
4965:
4961:
4954:
4946:
4939:
4931:
4925:
4921:
4914:
4906:
4902:
4898:
4894:
4890:
4886:
4882:
4875:
4866:
4861:
4857:
4853:
4849:
4845:
4841:
4834:
4826:
4822:
4817:
4812:
4808:
4804:
4800:
4796:
4795:Public Health
4792:
4785:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4757:
4753:
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4572:(6): 886–94.
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3813:0-471-35923-8
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3686:1-58948-245-X
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3655:9780415829069
3651:
3648:. Routledge.
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3193:Virtual globe
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2767:
2763:
2759:
2758:data analysis
2755:
2751:
2744:
2736:Public health
2730:
2726:
2722:
2721:participatory
2718:
2712:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2683:
2672:
2666:
2662:
2655:
2641:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2629:ERDAS IMAGINE
2626:
2622:
2617:
2613:
2610:
2606:
2602:
2595:
2581:
2577:
2576:geologic maps
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
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2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2531:oil reservoir
2527:
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2497:
2493:
2487:
2473:
2472:environmental
2469:
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2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2377:
2370:
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2351:
2349:
2344:
2342:
2341:interoperable
2333:
2328:
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2306:
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2296:
2292:
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2229:crime mapping
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2225:public health
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2112:
2111:OpenStreetMap
2108:
2107:crowdsourcing
2104:
2100:
2095:
2093:
2092:OpenStreetMap
2089:
2085:
2081:
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2059:
2055:
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2034:
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2027:
2023:
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2021:
2019:
2015:
2010:
2006:
2001:
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1998:shaded relief
1995:
1994:contour lines
1991:
1981:
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1782:
1781:Interpolation
1778:
1774:
1772:
1771:Pacific Ocean
1766:
1764:
1763:Geostatistics
1759:
1758:Geostatistics
1752:Geostatistics
1749:
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1590:shaded relief
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1566:contour lines
1563:
1558:
1554:
1547:Data analysis
1544:
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1526:
1520:
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1499:Shaded relief
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1386:
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1378:
1374:
1373:Geoprocessing
1370:
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1343:
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1337:
1333:
1324:
1322:
1318:
1313:
1309:
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1301:
1296:
1287:
1283:
1280:
1271:
1270:interpolation
1267:
1263:
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1255:
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1246:
1244:
1241:
1237:
1234:
1231:
1227:
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1193:
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1167:
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1157:
1154:), property (
1153:
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1109:
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901:
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897:data transfer
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
869:
865:
861:
857:
853:
848:
839:
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833:
828:
826:
822:
821:raster images
817:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
792:
788:
781:Data modeling
778:
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264:E. W. Gilbert
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99:
95:
92:
88:
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78: –
77:
73:
72:Find sources:
66:
62:
56:
55:
50:This article
48:
44:
39:
38:
33:
19:
7219:
7207:
7195:
7183:
7144:Geo-literacy
7101:Institutions
6983:Internet GIS
6972:
6943:Quantitative
6820:Soil science
6739:Oceanography
6728:Zoogeography
6713:Biogeography
6588:Agricultural
6461:
6441:
6429:
6422:
6415:
6401:
6388:
6370:
6363:
6348:
6334:
6317:
6300:
6289:
6282:
6275:
6257:
6251:January 2022
6248:
6236:
6187:
6183:
6173:
6161:. Retrieved
6158:www.esri.com
6157:
6148:
6136:. Retrieved
6132:
6123:
6111:. Retrieved
6107:
6084:. Retrieved
6080:
6071:
6060:. Retrieved
6056:
6047:
6039:10803/400097
6026:
5970:
5964:
5924:
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5886:
5880:
5861:
5855:
5836:
5830:
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5764:
5760:
5754:
5729:
5725:
5719:
5711:the original
5701:
5687:
5673:
5665:the original
5655:
5647:the original
5637:
5626:. Retrieved
5619:the original
5614:
5601:
5582:
5576:
5567:
5554:
5535:
5529:
5515:(1): 30–45.
5512:
5508:
5502:
5490:. Retrieved
5480:
5472:
5467:
5457:30 September
5455:. Retrieved
5448:the original
5434:
5423:28 September
5421:. Retrieved
5414:the original
5410:PLA notes 33
5409:
5396:
5385:. Retrieved
5373:
5363:
5354:
5344:
5335:
5327:
5322:
5314:
5309:
5300:
5288:|title=
5239:
5230:
5219:. Retrieved
5209:
5198:. Retrieved
5194:
5184:
5165:
5153:. Retrieved
5149:the original
5144:
5134:
5125:
5119:
5089:
5082:
5071:. Retrieved
5067:the original
5057:
5045:. Retrieved
5041:the original
5031:
5006:
5002:
4992:
4967:
4963:
4953:
4944:
4938:
4929:0471-32182-6
4919:
4913:
4888:
4884:
4874:
4847:
4843:
4833:
4801:(3): 36–37.
4798:
4794:
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4751:
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4509:
4505:
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4453:. Retrieved
4437:
4426:
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4371:
4343:
4339:
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4300:
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4264:
4251:
4210:
4206:
4196:
4184:. Retrieved
4180:the original
4170:
4162:the original
4152:
4133:
4112:. Retrieved
4108:the original
4098:
4087:. Retrieved
4084:wiki.gis.com
4083:
4036:
4032:
4022:
4010:. Retrieved
4006:the original
3996:
3970:
3960:
3935:
3931:
3925:
3915:17 September
3913:. Retrieved
3906:the original
3901:
3897:
3884:
3845:
3801:
3781:
3735:
3731:
3725:
3706:
3677:
3672:
3645:
3639:
3627:. Retrieved
3618:
3606:. Retrieved
3602:the original
3591:
3579:. Retrieved
3575:the original
3565:
3553:. Retrieved
3549:the original
3539:
3528:. Retrieved
3525:www.esri.com
3524:
3515:
3503:. Retrieved
3499:the original
3488:
3476:. Retrieved
3448:
3444:
3434:
3404:(1): 39–47.
3401:
3397:
3391:
3374:
3368:
3356:. Retrieved
3346:
3334:. Retrieved
3324:
3299:
3295:
3289:
3270:
3260:
3241:
3235:
3216:
3082:
3054:
3046:
3038:
3031:
3022:In education
3004:
2997:Neogeography
2985:
2943:
2939:
2929:
2917:Semantic Web
2910:
2898:
2890:
2878:
2874:
2853:
2852:
2846:
2845:
2834:
2819:
2805:development.
2723:approach to
2670:
2625:Google Earth
2616:intelligence
2549:indicates a
2471:
2467:
2352:
2345:
2339:necessarily
2337:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2263:mitigation,
2257:deep mapping
2249:oceanography
2184:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2134:
2125:Applications
2119:
2101:, expose an
2096:
2090:alternative
2073:
2039:
2036:information.
2002:
1986:
1963:
1960:
1940:
1937:
1930:
1903:
1890:
1866:
1839:
1790:
1786:
1779:
1775:
1767:
1761:
1739:
1735:
1721:overlays. A
1719:Venn diagram
1712:
1683:
1679:
1674:
1622:
1603:
1583:
1550:
1522:
1504:
1433:biogeography
1418:
1383:processing,
1372:
1371:
1355:
1340:spreadsheets
1330:
1297:
1293:
1284:
1276:
1225:Completeness
1172:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1135:homomorphism
1132:
1129:Data quality
1123:Data quality
1110:
1094:GPS receiver
1091:
1075:
1056:
1052:
1038:maps can be
1033:
1017:digitization
1014:
991:
983:stereo pairs
976:
968:Aeryon Scout
961:
938:
907:
895:
892:digitization
887:
875:
873:
829:
818:
806:World War II
794:
771:
739:
732:
718:or a single
711:
707:
703:
697:
641:
637:Internet GIS
617:HTTP servers
606:
557:GIS software
555:
551:
549:
540:GIS software
532:(SAAS), and
502:
491:
464:
450:
426:
395:
383:Waldo Tobler
380:
371:
365:
360:plastic film
349:
325:
302:cartographer
289:epidemiology
286:
251:
241:
233:
225:
211:
203:
182:
180:
152:
148:
146:
123:
114:
104:
97:
90:
83:
71:
59:Please help
54:verification
51:
7221:WikiProject
7073:Ethnography
7065:Qualitative
7025:Map algebra
7020:Hydrography
6961:Web mapping
6951:Cartography
6763:Climatology
6753:Meteorology
6608:Development
6385:Rhind, D.W.
6081:www.une.edu
4970:(1): 4–19.
4717:: 103–113.
4420:open access
4136:. Pearson.
3938:: 864–874.
3555:16 December
2547:contour map
2423:archaeology
2406:Archaeology
2319:Integration
2283:Institution
2221:real estate
2213:archaeology
2173:operational
2076:proprietary
2070:Web mapping
2064:Web mapping
1932:Cartography
1906:data mining
1846:parcel lots
1742:map algebra
1709:Map algebra
1699:Map overlay
1676:Dana Tomlin
1668:topographic
1658:Map algebra
1606:topological
1571:water power
1439:(DEM) or a
1332:Spatial ETL
1327:Spatial ETL
1321:Barry Smith
1243:Consistency
1190:Uncertainty
1181:data sets.
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6314:DeMers, M.
6235:" section
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