1836:
2768:
2316:. Using magnetic instruments adapted from airborne magnetic anomaly detectors developed during World War II to detect submarines, the magnetic variations across the ocean floor have been mapped. Basalt — the iron-rich, volcanic rock making up the ocean floor — contains a strongly magnetic mineral (magnetite) and can locally distort compass readings. The distortion was recognized by Icelandic mariners as early as the late 18th century. More important, because the presence of magnetite gives the basalt measurable magnetic properties, these magnetic variations have provided another means to study the deep ocean floor. When newly formed rock cools, such magnetic materials record the Earth's magnetic field.
2740:
1286:
1274:
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1802:(seemingly random) fluctuation. An instantaneous measurement of it, or several measurements of it across the span of decades or centuries, are not sufficient to extrapolate an overall trend in the field strength. It has gone up and down in the past for unknown reasons. Also, noting the local intensity of the dipole field (or its fluctuation) is insufficient to characterize Earth's magnetic field as a whole, as it is not strictly a dipole field. The dipole component of Earth's field can diminish even while the total magnetic field remains the same or increases.
1650:
1142:
1335:
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1741:, cools to form new basaltic crust on both sides of the ridge, and is carried away from it by seafloor spreading. As it cools, it records the direction of the Earth's field. When the Earth's field reverses, new basalt records the reversed direction. The result is a series of stripes that are symmetric about the ridge. A ship towing a magnetometer on the surface of the ocean can detect these stripes and infer the age of the ocean floor below. This provides information on the rate at which seafloor has spread in the past.
1787:
1302:
7474:
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856:
47:
2579:, and higher order terms drop off increasingly rapidly with the radius. The radius of the outer core is about half of the radius of the Earth. If the field at the core-mantle boundary is fit to spherical harmonics, the dipole part is smaller by a factor of about 8 at the surface, the quadrupole part by a factor of 16, and so on. Thus, only the components with large wavelengths can be noticeable at the surface. From a variety of arguments, it is usually assumed that only terms up to degree
1504:
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1320:, with its south pole pointing towards the geomagnetic North Pole. This may seem surprising, but the north pole of a magnet is so defined because, if allowed to rotate freely, it points roughly northward (in the geographic sense). Since the north pole of a magnet attracts the south poles of other magnets and repels the north poles, it must be attracted to the south pole of Earth's magnet. The dipolar field accounts for 80–90% of the field in most locations.
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2294:
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2113:. The temperature increases towards the center of the Earth, and the higher temperature of the fluid lower down makes it buoyant. This buoyancy is enhanced by chemical separation: As the core cools, some of the molten iron solidifies and is plated to the inner core. In the process, lighter elements are left behind in the fluid, making it lighter. This is called
1347:
and –90° (upwards) at the South
Magnetic Pole. The two poles wander independently of each other and are not directly opposite each other on the globe. Movements of up to 40 kilometres (25 mi) per year have been observed for the North Magnetic Pole. Over the last 180 years, the North Magnetic Pole has been migrating northwestward, from Cape Adelaide in the
1637:, Oregon appeared to suggest the magnetic field once shifted at a rate of up to 6° per day at some time in Earth's history, a surprising result. However, in 2014 one of the original authors published a new study which found the results were actually due to the continuous thermal demagnitization of the lava, not to a shift in the magnetic field.
2387:. This was first done by Carl Friedrich Gauss. Spherical harmonics are functions that oscillate over the surface of a sphere. They are the product of two functions, one that depends on latitude and one on longitude. The function of longitude is zero along zero or more great circles passing through the North and South Poles; the number of such
2177:
2720:. Some researchers have found that cows and wild deer tend to align their bodies north–south while relaxing, but not when the animals are under high-voltage power lines, suggesting that magnetism is responsible. Other researchers reported in 2011 that they could not replicate those findings using different
2176:
1241:. Maps typically include information on the declination as an angle or a small diagram showing the relationship between magnetic north and true north. Information on declination for a region can be represented by a chart with isogonic lines (contour lines with each line representing a fixed declination).
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Very weak electromagnetic fields disrupt the magnetic compass used by
European robins and other songbirds, which use the Earth's magnetic field to navigate. Neither power lines nor cellphone signals are to blame for the electromagnetic field effect on the birds; instead, the culprits have frequencies
1346:
The positions of the magnetic poles can be defined in at least two ways: locally or globally. The local definition is the point where the magnetic field is vertical. This can be determined by measuring the inclination. The inclination of the Earth's field is 90° (downwards) at the North
Magnetic Pole
1342:
Historically, the north and south poles of a magnet were first defined by the Earth's magnetic field, not vice versa, since one of the first uses for a magnet was as a compass needle. A magnet's North pole is defined as the pole that is attracted by the Earth's North
Magnetic Pole when the magnet is
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contributed to a growing body of evidence that the Earth's magnetic field cycles with intensity every 200 million years. The lead author stated that "Our findings, when considered alongside the existing datasets, support the existence of an approximately 200-million-year-long cycle in the strength of
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Earth's magnetic field deflects most of the solar wind, whose charged particles would otherwise strip away the ozone layer that protects the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation. One stripping mechanism is for gas to be caught in bubbles of the magnetic field, which are ripped off by solar winds.
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dynamo models, ones that determine both the fluid motions and the magnetic field, were developed by two groups in 1995, one in Japan and one in the United States. The latter received attention because it successfully reproduced some of the characteristics of the Earth's field, including geomagnetic
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Starting in the late 1800s and throughout the 1900s and later, the overall geomagnetic field has become weaker; the present strong deterioration corresponds to a 10–15% decline and has accelerated since 2000; geomagnetic intensity has declined almost continuously from a maximum 35% above the modern
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The global definition of the Earth's field is based on a mathematical model. If a line is drawn through the center of the Earth, parallel to the moment of the best-fitting magnetic dipole, the two positions where it intersects the Earth's surface are called the North and South geomagnetic poles. If
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Electric currents induced in the ionosphere generate magnetic fields (ionospheric dynamo region). Such a field is always generated near where the atmosphere is closest to the Sun, causing daily alterations that can deflect surface magnetic fields by as much as 1°. Typical daily variations of field
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The oceans contribute to Earth's magnetic field. Seawater is an electrical conductor, and therefore interacts with the magnetic field. As the tides cycle around the ocean basins, the ocean water essentially tries to pull the geomagnetic field lines along. Because the salty water is only slightly
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in which the solar wind would have had a magnetic field orders of magnitude larger than the present solar wind. However, much of the field may have been screened out by the Earth's mantle. An alternative source is currents in the core-mantle boundary driven by chemical reactions or variations in
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The direction and intensity of the dipole change over time. Over the last two centuries the dipole strength has been decreasing at a rate of about 6.3% per century. At this rate of decrease, the field would be negligible in about 1600 years. However, this strength is about average for the last 7
2909:
Finlay, C. C.; Maus, S.; Beggan, C. D.; Bondar, T. N.; Chambodut, A.; Chernova, T. A.; Chulliat, A.; Golovkov, V. P.; Hamilton, B.; Hamoudi, M.; Holme, R.; Hulot, G.; Kuang, W.; Langlais, B.; Lesur, V.; Lowes, F. J.; Lühr, H.; Macmillan, S.; Mandea, M.; McLean, S.; Manoj, C.; Menvielle, M.;
2447:. Analyses of the Earth's magnetic field use a modified version of the usual spherical harmonics that differ by a multiplicative factor. A least-squares fit to the magnetic field measurements gives the Earth's field as the sum of spherical harmonics, each multiplied by the best-fitting
1315:
Near the surface of the Earth, its magnetic field can be closely approximated by the field of a magnetic dipole positioned at the center of the Earth and tilted at an angle of about 11° with respect to the rotational axis of the Earth. The dipole is roughly equivalent to a powerful bar
2102:. Even in a fluid with a finite conductivity, new field is generated by stretching field lines as the fluid moves in ways that deform it. This process could go on generating new field indefinitely, were it not that as the magnetic field increases in strength, it resists fluid motion.
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In July 2020 scientists report that analysis of simulations and a recent observational field model show that maximum rates of directional change of Earth's magnetic field reached ~10° per year – almost 100 times faster than current changes and 10 times faster than previously thought.
1990:
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863:'s field in a period of normal polarity between reversals. The lines represent magnetic field lines, blue when the field points towards the center and yellow when away. The rotation axis of Earth is centered and vertical. The dense clusters of lines are within Earth's core.
2144:(MHD) of the Earth's interior. Simulation of the MHD equations is performed on a 3D grid of points and the fineness of the grid, which in part determines the realism of the solutions, is limited mainly by computer power. For decades, theorists were confined to creating
1454:
Some of the charged particles do get into the magnetosphere. These spiral around field lines, bouncing back and forth between the poles several times per second. In addition, positive ions slowly drift westward and negative ions drift eastward, giving rise to a
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computer models in which the fluid motion is chosen in advance and the effect on the magnetic field calculated. Kinematic dynamo theory was mainly a matter of trying different flow geometries and testing whether such geometries could sustain a dynamo.
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At any location, the Earth's magnetic field can be represented by a three-dimensional vector. A typical procedure for measuring its direction is to use a compass to determine the direction of magnetic North. Its angle relative to true North is the
2098:, any change in the magnetic field would be immediately opposed by currents, so the flux through a given volume of fluid could not change. As the fluid moved, the magnetic field would go with it. The theorem describing this effect is called the
2324:
Each measurement of the magnetic field is at a particular place and time. If an accurate estimate of the field at some other place and time is needed, the measurements must be converted to a model and the model used to make predictions.
4345:
Tarduno, J. A.; Cottrell, R. D.; Watkeys, M. K.; Hofmann, A.; Doubrovine, P. V.; Mamajek, E. E.; Liu, D.; Sibeck, D. G.; Neukirch, L. P.; Usui, Y. (4 March 2010). "Geodynamo, Solar Wind, and
Magnetopause 3.4 to 3.45 Billion Years Ago".
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show that the magnetic field, which interacts with the solar wind, is reduced when the magnetic orientation is aligned between Sun and Earth – opposite to the previous hypothesis. During forthcoming solar storms, this could result in
2515:
Spherical harmonic analysis can be used to distinguish internal from external sources if measurements are available at more than one height (for example, ground observatories and satellites). In that case, each term with coefficient
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down to a wavelength of 56 kilometers. It was compiled from satellite, marine, aeromagnetic and ground magnetic surveys. As of 2018, the latest version, EMM2017, includes data from The
European Space Agency's Swarm satellite
2607:
and SAC-C) and a world network of geomagnetic observatories. The spherical harmonic expansion was truncated at degree 10, with 120 coefficients, until 2000. Subsequent models are truncated at degree 13 (195 coefficients).
1474:, are largely driven by solar activity. If the solar wind is weak, the magnetosphere expands; while if it is strong, it compresses the magnetosphere and more of it gets in. Periods of particularly intense activity, called
2670:. CM attempts to reconcile data with greatly varying temporal and spatial resolution from ground and satellite sources. The latest version as of 2022 is CM5 of 2016. It provides separate components for main field plus
1436:). The inner belt is 1–2 Earth radii out while the outer belt is at 4–7 Earth radii. The plasmasphere and Van Allen belts have partial overlap, with the extent of overlap varying greatly with solar activity.
1207:
and rotates upwards as the latitude decreases until it is horizontal (0°) at the magnetic equator. It continues to rotate upwards until it is straight up at the South
Magnetic Pole. Inclination can be measured with a
1614:
at a rate of about 0.2° per year. This drift is not the same everywhere and has varied over time. The globally averaged drift has been westward since about 1400 AD but eastward between about 1000 AD and 1400 AD.
1343:
suspended so it can turn freely. Since opposite poles attract, the North
Magnetic Pole of the Earth is really the south pole of its magnetic field (the place where the field is directed downward into the Earth).
1428:. This region begins at a height of 60 km, extends up to 3 or 4 Earth radii, and includes the ionosphere. This region rotates with the Earth. There are also two concentric tire-shaped regions, called the
1904:
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term. In a stationary fluid, the magnetic field declines and any concentrations of field spread out. If the Earth's dynamo shut off, the dipole part would disappear in a few tens of thousands of years.
1385:
An artist's rendering of the structure of a magnetosphere. 1) Bow shock. 2) Magnetosheath. 3) Magnetopause. 4) Magnetosphere. 5) Northern tail lobe. 6) Southern tail lobe.
4397:
Nichols, Claire I. O.; Weiss, Benjamin P.; Eyster, Athena; Martin, Craig R.; Maloof, Adam C.; Kelly, Nigel M.; Zawaski, Mike J.; Mojzsis, Stephen J.; Watson, E. Bruce; Cherniak, Daniele J. (2024).
2178:
1451:. By contrast, astronauts on the Moon risk exposure to radiation. Anyone who had been on the Moon's surface during a particularly violent solar eruption in 2005 would have received a lethal dose.
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the Earth's magnetic field were perfectly dipolar, the geomagnetic poles and magnetic dip poles would coincide and compasses would point towards them. However, the Earth's field has a significant
1162:(μT), with 1 G = 100 μT. A nanotesla is also referred to as a gamma (γ). The Earth's field ranges between approximately 22 and 67 μT (0.22 and 0.67 G). By comparison, a strong
937:
corresponds to the north pole of Earth's magnetic field (because opposite magnetic poles attract and the north end of a magnet, like a compass needle, points toward Earth's South magnetic field,
2124:
A dynamo can amplify a magnetic field, but it needs a "seed" field to get it started. For the Earth, this could have been an external magnetic field. Early in its history the Sun went through a
4041:
Coe, R. S.; Jarboe, N. A.; Le Goff, M.; Petersen, N. (15 August 2014). "Demise of the rapid-field-change hypothesis at Steens
Mountain: The crucial role of continuous thermal demagnetization".
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with a presently accelerating rate—10 kilometres (6.2 mi) per year at the beginning of the 1900s, up to 40 kilometres (25 mi) per year in 2003, and since then has only accelerated.
2910:
Michaelis, I.; Olsen, N.; Rauberg, J.; Rother, M.; Sabaka, T. J.; Tangborn, A.; Tøffner-Clausen, L.; Thébault, E.; Thomson, A. W. P.; Wardinski, I.; Wei, Z.; Zvereva, T. I. (December 2010).
1237:
Declination is positive for an eastward deviation of the field relative to true north. It can be estimated by comparing the magnetic north–south heading on a compass with the direction of a
2190:
The strength of the interaction depends also on the temperature of the ocean water. The entire heat stored in the ocean can now be inferred from observations of the Earth's magnetic field.
2507:– determine the direction and magnitude of the dipole contribution. The best fitting dipole is tilted at an angle of about 10° with respect to the rotational axis, as described earlier.
1832:
The Earth's magnetic field is believed to be generated by electric currents in the conductive iron alloys of its core, created by convection currents due to heat escaping from the core.
1847:
fluids. The Earth's field originates in its core. This is a region of iron alloys extending to about 3400 km (the radius of the Earth is 6370 km). It is divided into a solid
1795:
value, from circa year 1 AD. The rate of decrease and the current strength are within the normal range of variation, as shown by the record of past magnetic fields recorded in rocks.
1203:
The inclination is given by an angle that can assume values between −90° (up) to 90° (down). In the northern hemisphere, the field points downwards. It is straight down at the
2646:
The above models only take into account the "main field" at the core-mantle boundary. Although generally good enough for navigation, higher-accuracy use cases require smaller-scale
1044:
is spreading, while the stability of the geomagnetic poles between reversals has allowed paleomagnetism to track the past motion of continents. Reversals also provide the basis for
1534:) and magnetosphere, and some changes can be traced to geomagnetic storms or daily variations in currents. Changes over time scales of a year or more mostly reflect changes in the
2092:
4447:
2551:. The increasing terms fit the external sources (currents in the ionosphere and magnetosphere). However, averaged over a few years the external contributions average to zero.
1726:. In sediments, the orientation of magnetic particles acquires a slight bias towards the magnetic field as they are deposited on an ocean floor or lake bottom. This is called
1603:. Over hundreds of years, magnetic declination is observed to vary over tens of degrees. The animation shows how global declinations have changed over the last few centuries.
1482:
erupts above the Sun and sends a shock wave through the Solar System. Such a wave can take just two days to reach the Earth. Geomagnetic storms can cause a lot of disruption;
2239:. Such observatories can measure and forecast magnetic conditions such as magnetic storms that sometimes affect communications, electric power, and other human activities.
1405:, the area where the pressures balance, is the boundary of the magnetosphere. Despite its name, the magnetosphere is asymmetric, with the sunward side being about 10
1459:. This current reduces the magnetic field at the Earth's surface. Particles that penetrate the ionosphere and collide with the atoms there give rise to the lights of the
1401:
The solar wind exerts a pressure, and if it could reach Earth's atmosphere it would erode it. However, it is kept away by the pressure of the Earth's magnetic field. The
6476:
5831:
Engels, Svenja; Schneider, Nils-Lasse; Lefeldt, Nele; Hein, Christine Maira; Zapka, Manuela; Michalik, Andreas; Elbers, Dana; Kittel, Achim; Hore, P. J. (2014-05-15).
1839:
A schematic illustrating the relationship between motion of conducting fluid, organized into rolls by the
Coriolis force, and the magnetic field the motion generates.
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or less have their origin in the core. These have wavelengths of about 2,000 km (1,200 mi) or less. Smaller features are attributed to crustal anomalies.
2227:
Governments sometimes operate units that specialize in measurement of the Earth's magnetic field. These are geomagnetic observatories, typically part of a national
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in time, with intervals between reversals ranging from less than 0.1 million years to as much as 50 million years. The most recent geomagnetic reversal, called the
6372:
917:
The magnitude of Earth's magnetic field at its surface ranges from 25 to 65 μT (0.25 to 0.65 G). As an approximation, it is represented by a field of a
5188:
Hulot, G.; Eymin, C.; Langlais, B.; Mandea, M.; Olsen, N. (April 2002). "Small-scale structure of the geodynamo inferred from Oersted and Magsat satellite data".
2224:
allowed a comparison indicating a dynamic geodynamo in action that appears to be giving rise to an alternate pole under the Atlantic Ocean west of South Africa.
1859:, which is about 3,800 K (3,530 °C; 6,380 °F). The heat is generated by potential energy released by heavier materials sinking toward the core (
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604:
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1305:
Relationship between Earth's poles. A1 and A2 are the geographic poles; B1 and B2 are the geomagnetic poles; C1 (south) and C2 (north) are the magnetic poles.
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3562:
1855:. The motion of the liquid in the outer core is driven by heat flow from the inner core, which is about 6,000 K (5,730 °C; 10,340 °F), to the
4948:
Glatzmaier, Gary A.; Roberts, Paul H. (1995). "A three-dimensional convective dynamo solution with rotating and finitely conducting inner core and mantle".
1390:
Earth's magnetic field, predominantly dipolar at its surface, is distorted further out by the solar wind. This is a stream of charged particles leaving the
2698:
For historical data about the main field, the IGRF may be used back to year 1900. A specialized GUFM1 model estimates back to year 1590 using ship's logs.
1843:
The Earth and most of the planets in the Solar System, as well as the Sun and other stars, all generate magnetic fields through the motion of electrically
1667:
Although generally Earth's field is approximately dipolar, with an axis that is nearly aligned with the rotational axis, occasionally the North and South
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between 2 kHz and 5 MHz. These include AM radio signals and ordinary electronic equipment that might be found in businesses or private homes.
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The geomagnetic field changes on time scales from milliseconds to millions of years. Shorter time scales mostly arise from currents in the ionosphere (
6531:
3018:
Luhmann, J. G.; Johnson, R. E.; Zhang, M. H. G. (3 November 1992). "Evolutionary impact of sputtering of the Martian atmosphere by O + pickup ions".
589:
5581:
Jackson, Andrew; Jonkers, Art R. T.; Walker, Matthew R. (15 March 2000). "Four centuries of geomagnetic secular variation from historical records".
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2623:. This model truncates at degree 12 (168 coefficients) with an approximate spatial resolution of 3,000 kilometers. It is the model used by the
1755:, a geophysical correlation technique that can be used to date both sedimentary and volcanic sequences as well as the seafloor magnetic anomalies.
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are usually located near the geographic poles, they slowly and continuously move over geological time scales, but sufficiently slowly for ordinary
6214:
Towle, J. N. (1984). "The Anomalous Geomagnetic Variation Field and Geoelectric Structure Associated with the Mesa Butte Fault System, Arizona".
7815:
5560:
5304:
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Coe, R. S.; Prévot, M.; Camps, P. (20 April 1995). "New evidence for extraordinarily rapid change of the geomagnetic field during a reversal".
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in calculating geomagnetic fields in the past. Such information in turn is helpful in studying the motions of continents and ocean floors. The
5153:
4913:
Kageyama, Akira; Sato, Tetsuya; the Complexity Simulation Group (1 January 1995). "Computer simulation of a magnetohydrodynamic dynamo. II".
1310:
1021:, resulting from scavenging of ions by the solar wind, indicate that the dissipation of the magnetic field of Mars caused a near total loss
7820:
3788:
Jackson, Andrew; Jonkers, Art R. T.; Walker, Matthew R. (2000). "Four centuries of Geomagnetic Secular Variation from Historical Records".
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thermal or electric conductivity. Such effects may still provide a small bias that are part of the boundary conditions for the geodynamo.
1071:, various other organisms, ranging from some types of bacteria to pigeons, use the Earth's magnetic field for orientation and navigation.
8501:
7284:
6452:
2843:
Glatzmaier, Gary A.; Roberts, Paul H. (1995). "A three-dimensional self-consistent computer simulation of a geomagnetic field reversal".
2220:
satellite and later satellites have used 3-axis vector magnetometers to probe the 3-D structure of the Earth's magnetic field. The later
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strength are about 25 nT (one part in 2000), with variations over a few seconds of typically around 1 nT (one part in 50,000).
1985:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \mathbf {B} }{\partial t}}=\eta \nabla ^{2}\mathbf {B} +\nabla \times (\mathbf {u} \times \mathbf {B} ),}
6500:
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The study of the past magnetic field of the Earth is known as paleomagnetism. The polarity of the Earth's magnetic field is recorded in
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The average magnetic field in the Earth's outer core was calculated to be 25 gauss, 50 times stronger than the field at the surface.
1778:. In 2024 researchers published evidence from Greenland for the existence of the magnetic field as early as 3,700 million years ago.
1618:
Changes that predate magnetic observatories are recorded in archaeological and geological materials. Such changes are referred to as
1063:
Humans have used compasses for direction finding since the 11th century A.D. and for navigation since the 12th century. Although the
4451:
1657:. Dark areas denote periods where the polarity matches today's polarity, light areas denote periods where that polarity is reversed.
1490:, occurred in 1859. It induced currents strong enough to disrupt telegraph lines, and aurorae were reported as far south as Hawaii.
6771:
6414:
4219:"Ice Age Polarity Reversal Was Global Event: Extremely Brief Reversal of Geomagnetic Field, Climate Variability, and Super Volcano"
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elements in the interior. The pattern of flow is organized by the rotation of the Earth and the presence of the solid inner core.
619:
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2246:, with over 100 interlinked geomagnetic observatories around the world, has been recording the Earth's magnetic field since 1991.
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causing geomagnetic storms, provoking displays of aurorae. The short-term instability of the magnetic field is measured with the
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in the natural background that might be caused by a significant metallic object such as a submerged submarine. Typically, these
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Chulliat, A.; Brown, W.; Alken, P.; Beggan, C.; Nair, M.; Cox, G.; Woods, A.; Macmillan, S.; Meyer, B.; Paniccia, M. (2020).
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The most common way of analyzing the global variations in the Earth's magnetic field is to fit the measurements to a set of
2140:
Simulating the geodynamo by computer requires numerically solving a set of nonlinear partial differential equations for the
2121:, caused by the overall planetary rotation, tends to organize the flow into rolls aligned along the north–south polar axis.
1733:
Thermoremanent magnetization is the main source of the magnetic anomalies around mid-ocean ridges. As the seafloor spreads,
8575:
8506:
4306:"Evidence for a 3.45-billion-year-old magnetic remanence: Hints of an ancient geodynamo from conglomerates of South Africa"
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over South America while there are maxima over northern Canada, Siberia, and the coast of Antarctica south of Australia.
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in 1832 and has been repeatedly measured since then, showing a relative decay of about 10% over the last 150 years. The
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4399:"Possible Eoarchean Records of the Geomagnetic Field Preserved in the Isua Supracrustal Belt, Southern West Greenland"
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Deutschlander, M.; Phillips, J.; Borland, S. (1999). "The case for light-dependent magnetic orientation in animals".
2599:(IGRF). It is updated every five years. The 11th-generation model, IGRF11, was developed using data from satellites (
71:
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Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
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Hert, J; Jelinek, L; Pekarek, L; Pavlicek, A (2011). "No alignment of cattle along geomagnetic field lines found".
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Animals, including birds and turtles, can detect the Earth's magnetic field, and use the field to navigate during
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and accelerating to a speed of 200 to 1000 kilometres per second. They carry with them a magnetic field, the
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does shift with time, this wandering is slow enough that a simple compass can remain useful for navigation. Using
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2406:ℓ. Each harmonic is equivalent to a particular arrangement of magnetic charges at the center of the Earth. A
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that happens about twice per day (M2). Other contributions come from ocean swell, eddies, and even tsunamis.
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2402:. The function of latitude is zero along zero or more latitude circles; this plus the order is equal to the
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to remain useful for navigation. However, at irregular intervals averaging several hundred thousand years,
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The intensity of the magnetic field is subject to change over time. A 2021 paleomagnetic study from the
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shows, the intensity tends to decrease from the poles to the equator. A minimum intensity occurs in the
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6367:. Information on monitoring and modeling the geomagnetic field. British Geological Survey, August 2005.
6310:
5928:
5151:; Le Mouel, Jean Louis (1988). "Time Variations of the Earth's Magnetic Field: From Daily to Secular".
4792:
Buffett, Bruce A. (2010). "Tidal dissipation and the strength of the Earth's internal magnetic field".
2070:
1886:); and the electric and magnetic fields exert a force on the charges that are flowing in currents (the
1120:) of the field is proportional to the force it exerts on a magnet. Another common representation is in
272:
6490:
2480:, gives the contribution of an isolated magnetic charge, so it is zero. The next three coefficients –
1679:, sediment cores taken from the ocean floors, and seafloor magnetic anomalies. Reversals occur nearly
1626:. The records typically include long periods of small change with occasional large changes reflecting
1285:
1273:
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2313:
2254:
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1860:
1583:
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826:
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314:
304:
244:
239:
179:
5335:
4649:"Earth's Center Is 1,000 Degrees Hotter Than Previously Thought, Synchrotron X-Ray Experiment Shows"
4021:
3810:
2675:
2297:
A model of short-wavelength features of Earth's magnetic field, attributed to lithospheric anomalies
8152:
8066:
7868:
7650:
7630:
7522:
7401:
5125:
1519:: map showing locations of observatories and contour lines giving horizontal magnetic intensity in
1429:
324:
3230:
910:: these convection currents are caused by heat escaping from the core, a natural process called a
757:
259:
27:
Magnetic field that extends from the Earth's outer and inner core to where it meets the solar wind
7878:
7751:
7746:
7559:
7358:
6540:
6154:
4648:
4218:
2962:
2686:
2236:
2016:
1185:
637:
164:
154:
149:
6459:
Sweeps are in 10° steps at 10 years intervals. Based on data from: The Institute of Geophysics,
5820:
762:
732:
7873:
7863:
7703:
6720:
6622:
5833:"Anthropogenic electromagnetic noise disrupts magnetic compass orientation in a migratory bird"
3805:
2821:
2796:
2424:
to two dipoles brought together. A quadrupole field is shown in the lower figure on the right.
2305:
2276:
2258:
1768:
1711:
1539:
1178:
934:
930:
584:
354:
129:
6449:
3435:
3408:
3381:
2371:
circles of equal latitude. The function changes sign each ℓtime it crosses one of these lines.
1878:. The magnetic field is generated by a feedback loop: current loops generate magnetic fields (
1261:
8565:
8119:
7673:
7312:
7307:
7139:
6798:
6699:
6683:
6579:
6569:
4868:
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1852:
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in South Africa have concluded that the magnetic field has been present since at least about
1627:
1479:
1033:
907:
682:
369:
359:
309:
299:
5535:
5430:
4564:
4234:
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conductive, the interaction is relatively weak: the strongest component is from the regular
8280:
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8004:
7708:
6274:
6223:
6199:
6171:
6113:
6058:
5844:
5748:
5690:
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5199:
5162:
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4957:
4922:
4877:
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4478:
4410:
4355:
4317:
4304:
Usui, Yoichi; Tarduno, John A.; Watkeys, Michael; Hofmann, Axel; Cottrell, Rory D. (2009).
4276:
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4114:
4050:
3995:
3934:
3797:
3496:
3027:
2923:
2852:
2791:
2612:
2379:
Example of a quadrupole field. This can also be constructed by moving two dipoles together.
2213:
2141:
2012:
1856:
1844:
1680:
1662:
1566:
1367:
contribution, so the poles do not coincide and compasses do not generally point at either.
1251:
1232:
1064:
957:
807:
707:
672:
424:
289:
189:
174:
109:
1722:, the direction of the field is "frozen" in small minerals as they cool, giving rise to a
46:
8:
8570:
8423:
8380:
8214:
8157:
7999:
7991:
7967:
7490:
7416:
7200:
7164:
7134:
6881:
6833:
6564:
6559:
3882:
3487:
Campbell, Wallace A. (1996). ""Magnetic" pole locations on global charts are incorrect".
3462:
2384:
2334:
1752:
1535:
1364:
1204:
1163:
1045:
1005:
965:
961:
922:
767:
747:
742:
549:
534:
419:
389:
284:
214:
6278:
6227:
6175:
6117:
6062:
5848:
5752:
5694:
5679:"Extremely low-frequency electromagnetic fields disrupt magnetic alignment of ruminants"
5594:
5413:
Finlay, CC; Maus, S; Beggan, CD; Hamoudi, M.; Lowes, FJ; Olsen, N; Thébault, E. (2010).
5323:
5203:
5174:
5166:
5092:
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4961:
4926:
4881:
4807:
4689:
4605:
4482:
4414:
4359:
4321:
4280:
4118:
3999:
3920:"Eastward and westward drift of the Earth's magnetic field for the last three millennia"
3801:
3500:
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2927:
2856:
2339:
8292:
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7333:
7154:
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6643:
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5678:
5606:
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5223:
5148:
5050:
5017:
4895:
4827:
4379:
4145:
4102:
4011:
3831:
3823:
3667:"Shields Up! A breeze of interstellar helium atoms is blowing through the solar system"
3512:
2868:
2690:
2650:
and other variations to be considered. Some examples are (see geomag.us ref for more):
2647:
2053:
1744:
1691:, takes the dipole axis across the equator and then back to the original polarity. The
1599:
Changes in Earth's magnetic field on a time scale of a year or more are referred to as
1460:
1053:
1041:
1022:
899:
879:
642:
382:
184:
144:
6245:
North Pole, South Pole: The epic quest to solve the great mystery of Earth's magnetism
5242:
4624:
4589:
4103:"Rapid geomagnetic changes inferred from Earth observations and numerical simulations"
3885:(2007). "Dipole Moment Variation". In Gubbins, David; Herrero-Bervera, Emilio (eds.).
3285:
464:
8511:
8488:
8408:
8375:
7793:
7776:
7737:
7683:
7600:
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7144:
6607:
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6314:
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6141:
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5374:
5364:
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5106:
5055:
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4819:
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4701:
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4573:
4548:
4496:
4428:
4371:
4173:
4150:
4132:
3898:
3623:
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3414:
3387:
3159:
3134:
3109:
3084:
2936:
2911:
2759:
2604:
2408:
2271:
companies also use magnetic detectors to identify naturally occurring anomalies from
2228:
1695:
is an example of an excursion, occurring during the last ice age (41,000 years ago).
1668:
1649:
1475:
1348:
1334:
1141:
702:
6430:
6294:
6265:(1954). "On the relation between telluric currents and the earth's magnetic field".
5815:
5610:
5368:
4899:
4383:
4077:"Simulations show magnetic field can change 10 times faster than previously thought"
3835:
2249:
The military determines local geomagnetic field characteristics, in order to detect
1591:
8534:
8529:
8435:
8302:
8287:
8164:
8144:
8086:
7939:
7924:
7787:
7431:
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7238:
7159:
7129:
7055:
7040:
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6791:
6704:
6673:
6612:
6282:
6231:
6179:
6131:
6121:
6076:
6066:
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5852:
5795:
5756:
5708:
5698:
5651:
5598:
5487:
5434:
5331:
5327:
5227:
5207:
5190:
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5096:
5079:
5045:
5037:
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4885:
4831:
4811:
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4693:
4619:
4609:
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4363:
4325:
4284:
4238:
4140:
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4058:
4015:
4003:
3942:
3890:
3815:
3709:
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3179:
3035:
2970:
2941:
2931:
2872:
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2801:
2786:
2711:
2343:
Schematic representation of spherical harmonics on a sphere and their nodal lines.
2288:
2045:
1864:
1738:
1487:
1447:. Many cosmic rays are kept out of the Solar System by the Sun's magnetosphere, or
1425:
1329:
1068:
969:
938:
895:
887:
802:
717:
677:
667:
554:
509:
492:
409:
344:
114:
38:
5448:
4697:
3180:"Magnetoreception | The Lohmann Lab – University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill"
1786:
1595:
Strength of the axial dipole component of Earth's magnetic field from 1600 to 2020
1486:
damaged more than a third of NASA's satellites. The largest documented storm, the
1301:
8430:
8413:
8370:
8360:
8252:
7934:
7929:
7391:
7353:
7179:
6981:
6955:
6902:
6725:
6480:
6467:
6456:
6437:
6343:
5465:
5018:"Estimating global ocean heat content from tidal magnetic satellite observations"
4719:
4217:
Nowaczyk, N. R.; Arz, H. W.; Frank, U.; Kind, J.; Plessen, B. (16 October 2012).
4028:
3894:
3059:
2816:
2811:
2414:
2118:
1799:
1634:
1037:
933:
actually represents the South pole of Earth's magnetic field, and conversely the
918:
737:
662:
657:
524:
399:
364:
224:
124:
5896:"Electromagnetic Interference Disrupts Bird Navigation, Hints at Quantum Action"
3643:
Darrouzet, Fabien; De Keyser, Johan; Escoubet, C. Philippe (10 September 2013).
2431:(function of position) that satisfies certain properties. A magnetic field is a
777:
8544:
8463:
8453:
8317:
8312:
8071:
8061:
7960:
7888:
7668:
7396:
7373:
7363:
7343:
7226:
7174:
7108:
7070:
7065:
7017:
6897:
6653:
6444:
5974:
5041:
4491:
4466:
4242:
4127:
4062:
3946:
2773:
2717:
1692:
1511:
1238:
973:
875:
697:
692:
514:
404:
329:
279:
229:
202:
159:
134:
104:
97:
7473:
5971:
The magnetic field of the earth: paleomagnetism, the core, and the deep mantle
5799:
4265:"Paleomagnetic Evidence for the Existence of the Geomagnetic Field 3.5 Ga Ago"
2946:
2753:
1359:
is the line where the inclination is zero (the magnetic field is horizontal).
1094:. Facing magnetic North, the angle the field makes with the horizontal is the
855:
8559:
8473:
8403:
8355:
8322:
8194:
8184:
8174:
8134:
8129:
7883:
7718:
7713:
7625:
7620:
7545:
7411:
7205:
6986:
6922:
6871:
6504:. Vol. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 353–385.
6495:
6489:
6262:
6162:
5864:
5624:
5126:"The Intensity of the Earth's Magnetic Force Reduced to Absolute Measurement"
5003:
4726:(New millennium ed.). New York: BasicBooks. pp. 13–3, 15–14, 17–2.
4432:
4136:
3052:
2699:
2095:
1887:
1822:
1587:
Estimated declination contours by year, 1590 to 1990 (click to see variation)
1471:
1413:
that extends beyond 200 Earth radii. Sunward of the magnetopause is the
1376:
1049:
977:
812:
797:
782:
722:
434:
349:
334:
249:
234:
139:
6422:
5703:
5439:
5414:
5272:
4367:
4289:
4264:
3735:
8516:
8478:
8468:
8458:
8398:
8179:
8024:
8014:
7914:
7645:
7640:
7615:
7436:
7088:
7012:
6945:
6940:
6907:
6730:
6145:
6126:
6090:
5872:
5807:
5722:
5663:
5602:
5219:
5110:
5059:
4912:
4823:
4705:
4633:
4614:
4500:
4375:
4154:
3819:
3410:
Planet Earth: Cosmology, Geology, and the Evolution of Life and Environment
2887:
2721:
2432:
2428:
2361:
2301:
2125:
1764:
1654:
1562:
1523:
1456:
1444:
1433:
1421:
1406:
1402:
1391:
1352:
1198:
1159:
1155:
1106:
1029:
792:
687:
652:
594:
529:
449:
414:
294:
169:
6509:
6474:
Patterns in Earth's magnetic field that evolve on the order of 1,000 years
6395:
6071:
5655:
2974:
2441:, each component is the derivative of the same scalar function called the
1874:
The mechanism by which the Earth generates a magnetic field is known as a
1610:
A prominent feature in the non-dipolar part of the secular variation is a
1503:
1439:
As well as deflecting the solar wind, the Earth's magnetic field deflects
1145:
Common coordinate systems used for representing the Earth's magnetic field
8275:
8081:
8009:
7919:
7825:
7688:
7678:
7328:
7169:
7035:
6991:
6976:
6302:
4890:
4863:
4423:
4398:
4330:
4305:
3534:
2671:
2268:
2265:
2261:
or towed as an instrument or an array of instruments from surface ships.
2243:
1868:
1703:
1546:
1448:
1410:
1001:
997:
989:
712:
564:
394:
56:
6100:"Deep-Earth reactor: Nuclear fission, helium, and the geomagnetic field"
6025:"Earth's core may have hardened just in time to save its magnetic field"
5969:
Merrill, Ronald T.; McElhinny, Michael W.; McFadden, Phillip L. (1996).
5856:
5556:
4864:"Recent geodynamo simulations and observations of the geomagnetic field"
4815:
2565:. The magnetic field, being a derivative of the potential, drops off as
1687:, occurred about 780,000 years ago. A related phenomenon, a geomagnetic
8365:
8332:
8307:
8189:
8109:
8019:
7660:
7610:
7584:
7579:
7368:
7293:
7149:
7124:
7103:
7080:
7007:
6912:
6554:
6426:, History of the discovery of Earth's magnetic field by David P. Stern.
4646:
3827:
2781:
2420:
2389:
2293:
2167:
2106:
1773:
1440:
1381:
1209:
993:
981:
926:
883:
429:
7221:
6853:
6286:
6183:
5509:
3508:
3279:
3277:
3039:
2304:
detect minute deviations in the Earth's magnetic field caused by iron
1338:
The movement of Earth's North Magnetic Pole across the Canadian arctic
1219:(map of inclination contours) for the Earth's magnetic field is shown
8297:
8242:
8227:
8199:
8169:
8096:
8029:
7909:
7904:
7605:
7574:
7195:
7050:
6917:
6678:
6347:. American Geophysical Union Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism Section.
4934:
4007:
2864:
2806:
2060:
2059:
The first term on the right hand side of the induction equation is a
1875:
1719:
1707:
1414:
911:
752:
727:
539:
61:
5761:
5736:
5362:
5211:
5101:
5074:
2912:"International Geomagnetic Reference Field: the eleventh generation"
2375:
1424:, a donut-shaped region containing low-energy charged particles, or
1000:
that would otherwise strip away the upper atmosphere, including the
984:
that is defined by the extent of Earth's magnetic field in space or
5466:"The International Geomagnetic Reference Field: A "Health" Warning"
4467:"Earth's magnetic field is acting up and geologists don't know why"
3274:
2554:
The remaining terms predict that the potential of a dipole source (
2418:
is equivalent to two opposing charges brought close together and a
2110:
985:
504:
499:
119:
7514:
5790:
1017:
Calculations of the loss of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere of
8390:
8267:
8237:
8053:
8034:
7756:
7457:
7027:
6814:
5002:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
4988:
2412:
is an isolated magnetic charge, which has never been observed. A
1810:
1790:
Variations in virtual axial dipole moment since the last reversal
1550:
1443:, high-energy charged particles that are mostly from outside the
1250:
Components of the Earth's magnetic field at the surface from the
953:
942:
474:
5677:
Burda, H.; Begall, S.; Cerveny, J.; Neef, J.; Nemec, P. (2009).
3131:
Looking into the Earth: An introduction to Geological Geophysics
8257:
8124:
8104:
7810:
7782:
7564:
6363:
5997:
4101:
Davies, Christopher J.; Constable, Catherine G. (6 July 2020).
2534:
can be split into two terms: one that decreases with radius as
2309:
2217:
2193:
1806:
1751:, part of which is shown in the image. This forms the basis of
1676:
1607:
thousand years, and the current rate of change is not unusual.
1557:
1520:
1464:
1317:
559:
66:
6460:
5415:"Evaluation of candidate geomagnetic field models for IGRF-11"
3308:"Ancient lava reveals secrets of Earth's magnetic field cycle"
2308:, kilns, some types of stone structures, and even ditches and
1052:
rocks and sediments. The field also magnetizes the crust, and
8445:
8222:
8204:
8044:
7983:
7262:
4344:
3860:
3645:"Cluster shows plasmasphere interacting with Van Allen belts"
2702:
research has produced models dating back to 10,000 BCE.
1734:
1189:
the Earth's magnetic field related to deep Earth processes."
968:
respectively, abruptly switch places. These reversals of the
860:
6441:, Educational web site by David P. Stern and Mauricio Peredo
5641:
3759:"Sun Often "Tears Out A Wall" In Earth's Solar Storm Shield"
8496:
8114:
7441:
6351:
6104:
6049:
5250:
2663:
2659:
1057:
1018:
903:
6783:
5830:
5775:
5016:
Irrgang, Christopher; Saynisch, Jan; Thomas, Maik (2019).
3642:
2689:(EMM), which extends to degree and order 790 and resolves
2678:, and primary/induced magnetosphere/ionosphere variations.
1882:); a changing magnetic field generates an electric field (
1805:
The Earth's magnetic north pole is drifting from northern
988:. It extends several tens of thousands of kilometres into
921:
currently tilted at an angle of about 11° with respect to
6236:
10.1130/0016-7606(1984)95<221:TAGVFA>2.0.CO;2
4840:"First Measurement Of Magnetic Field Inside Earth's Core"
4676:
Buffett, B. A. (2000). "Earth's Core and the Geodynamo".
4647:
European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (25 April 2013).
4303:
4172:(2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science. p. 38.
3258:. National High Magnetic Field Laboratory. Archived from
2272:
891:
7952:
5968:
5187:
4779:
4767:
4755:
4396:
4204:
4192:
4040:
3283:
3217:
2902:
2619:(formerly the National Geophysical Data Center) and the
2015:, which is inversely proportional to the product of the
1510:: a set of traces from magnetic observatories showing a
5412:
3596:
3594:
3592:
3590:
3588:
2186:
Sea level magnetic fields observed by satellites (NASA)
6450:
Global evolution/anomaly of the Earth's magnetic field
5676:
4515:"How does the Earth's core generate a magnetic field?"
3533:. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Archived from
2908:
2593:
International Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy
1470:
The varying conditions in the magnetosphere, known as
1432:, with high-energy ions (energies from 0.1 to 10
929:
placed at that angle through the center of Earth. The
6337:
Geomagnetism & Paleomagnetism background material
5015:
2073:
1907:
992:, protecting Earth from the charged particles of the
5580:
5274:
Geologic Applications of Modern Aeromagnetic Surveys
4262:
4216:
3787:
3585:
3469:. Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State Univ
3079:
McElhinny, Michael W.; McFadden, Phillip L. (2000).
2735:
2244:
International Real-time Magnetic Observatory Network
2212:
The Earth's magnetic field strength was measured by
3017:
2595:maintains a standard global field model called the
1710:, that can carry a permanent magnetic moment. This
5147:
3918:Dumberry, Mathieu; Finlay, Christopher C. (2007).
3859:. Canadian Geological Survey. 2011. Archived from
3379:
2654:The "comprehensive modeling" (CM) approach by the
2086:
1984:
1166:has a field of about 10,000 μT (100 G).
6307:Introduction to Geomagnetically Trapped Radiation
6097:
4947:
4521:. United States Geological Survey. Archived from
3790:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A
3734:. Space Weather Prediction Center. Archived from
3078:
2842:
2435:, but if it is expressed in Cartesian components
1827:
8557:
6098:Hollenbach, D. F.; Herndon, J. M. (2001-09-25).
5468:. National Geophysical Data Center. January 2010
5370:This Dynamic Earth: The Story of Plate Tectonics
5270:
4263:McElhinney, T. N. W.; Senanayake, W. E. (1980).
3875:
2838:
2836:
2643:as well as in many civilian navigation systems.
1545:Frequently, the Earth's magnetosphere is hit by
1417:, the area where the solar wind slows abruptly.
1154:The intensity of the field is often measured in
5948:Our Magnetic Earth: The Science of Geomagnetism
5683:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
5247:Comprehensive Modeling of the Geomagnetic Field
4594:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4100:
3887:Encyclopedia of Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism
3413:. UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 228.
3104:Opdyke, Neil D.; Channell, James E. T. (1996).
3074:
3072:
3070:
3068:
1798:The nature of Earth's magnetic field is one of
6445:International Geomagnetic Reference Field 2011
5729:
5561:National Centers for Environmental Information
5460:
5458:
5302:
4995:. Scientific Visualization Studio. 2016-12-30.
4671:
4669:
3985:
3917:
3103:
3062:. Scign.jpl.nasa.gov. Retrieved on 2012-01-27.
2683:National Centers for Environmental Information
2617:National Centers for Environmental Information
1851:, with a radius of 1220 km, and a liquid
1698:The past magnetic field is recorded mostly by
7968:
7530:
7278:
6799:
6525:
6045:"Substructure of the inner core of the Earth"
5154:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences
4448:"North Magnetic Pole Moving Due to Core Flux"
3613:
3611:
3609:
3556:
3554:
3552:
2833:
2282:
1351:in 1831 to 600 kilometres (370 mi) from
1036:are thus detectable as "stripes" centered on
972:leave a record in rocks that are of value to
834:
6506:(with dozens of tables and several diagrams)
5181:
4950:Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors
4590:"Structural Geology of the Earth's Interior"
4403:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
4198:
3489:Eos, Transactions American Geophysical Union
3454:
3286:The US/UK World Magnetic Model for 2020–2025
3065:
2194:Currents in the ionosphere and magnetosphere
1056:can be used to search for deposits of metal
882:out into space, where it interacts with the
6539:
5455:
5394:
4983:
4981:
4979:
4861:
4857:
4855:
4666:
4297:
3781:
3756:
3231:"An Overview of the Earth's Magnetic Field"
3128:
2615:, is produced jointly by the United States
2202:
1747:of lava flows has been used to establish a
1718:, can be acquired in more than one way. In
1644:
1409:out but the other side stretching out in a
1220:
1174:
7975:
7961:
7537:
7523:
7285:
7271:
6806:
6792:
6532:
6518:
6391:. National Geographic, September 27, 2004.
5123:
3979:
3606:
3549:
2960:
2083:
1311:Dipole model of the Earth's magnetic field
841:
827:
45:
6418:. Projects in Scientific Computing, 1996.
6135:
6125:
6080:
6070:
5789:
5760:
5712:
5702:
5670:
5438:
5100:
5072:
5049:
4889:
4751:
4749:
4747:
4745:
4743:
4623:
4613:
4572:
4490:
4422:
4329:
4288:
4144:
4126:
3881:
3809:
3620:Physics of space plasmas: an introduction
3380:Serway, Raymond A.; Chris Vuille (2006).
3353:
3333:"Geomagnetism Frequently Asked Questions"
3213:
3211:
3209:
3207:
3205:
3203:
3201:
3199:
3197:
3195:
3129:Mussett, Alan E.; Khan, M. Aftab (2000).
2945:
2935:
2879:
2597:International Geomagnetic Reference Field
1244:
1169:A map of intensity contours is called an
6431:Exploration of the Earth's Magnetosphere
6155:"Magnetic monitoring of Earth and space"
6022:
5922:
5400:
5358:
5356:
4976:
4852:
4549:"Dynamos in planets, stars and galaxies"
4542:
4540:
4446:Lovett, Richard A. (December 24, 2009).
4167:
4034:
3967:
3911:
3695:
3622:. Redwood City, Calif.: Addison-Wesley.
3560:
3486:
3406:
3400:
3356:"The Earth Has More Than One North Pole"
2374:
2338:
2292:
2172:
2160:
2105:The motion of the fluid is sustained by
1834:
1785:
1648:
1590:
1582:
1502:
1498:
1380:
1333:
1300:
1296:
1140:
854:
6042:
5945:
5510:"Geomagnetic and Electric Field Models"
4862:Kono, Masaru; Roberts, Paul H. (2002).
4791:
4773:
4761:
4718:
4675:
3600:
3433:
3427:
2641:International Hydrographic Organization
2611:Another global field model, called the
590:Electromagnetism and special relativity
14:
8558:
6242:
6216:Geological Society of America Bulletin
4780:Merrill, McElhinny & McFadden 1996
4768:Merrill, McElhinny & McFadden 1996
4756:Merrill, McElhinny & McFadden 1996
4740:
4587:
4445:
4205:Merrill, McElhinny & McFadden 1996
4193:Merrill, McElhinny & McFadden 1996
4186:
3847:
3845:
3757:Steigerwald, Bill (16 December 2008).
3647:(Press release). European Space Agency
3386:. USA: Cengage Learning. p. 493.
3373:
3218:Merrill, McElhinny & McFadden 1996
3192:
3153:
2885:
2427:Spherical harmonics can represent any
2328:
1890:). These effects can be combined in a
1758:
7956:
7518:
7266:
6787:
6513:
6487:
6388:Why Does Earth's Magnetic Field Flip?
6213:
6023:Gramling, Carolyn (1 February 2019).
5994:Paleomagnetic Principles and Practice
5991:
5353:
4546:
4537:
4464:
3973:
3889:. Springer-Verlag. pp. 159–161.
3617:
3081:Paleomagnetism: Continents and Oceans
2890:. University of California Santa Cruz
2471:The lowest-degree Gauss coefficient,
2364:passing through the poles, and along
2319:
2040:is the time derivative of the field;
1653:Geomagnetic polarity during the late
894:. The magnetic field is generated by
610:Maxwell equations in curved spacetime
8507:Geology of solar terrestrial planets
7497:
6766:
6301:
6261:
6152:
4310:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
3698:"The great solar superstorm of 1859"
3460:
3354:Casselman, Anne (28 February 2008).
3325:
3253:
2989:"Solar wind ripping chunks off Mars"
2963:"Solar wind hammers the ozone layer"
2629:Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)
2510:
2257:are flown in aircraft like the UK's
1572:
7544:
7245:
5893:
5305:"Basalts from the Deep Ocean Floor"
5175:10.1146/annurev.ea.16.050188.002133
4465:Witze, Alexandra (9 January 2019).
4223:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
4043:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
3927:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
3842:
3763:THEMIS: Understanding space weather
3673:. 27 September 2004. Archived from
3563:"Earth's Inconstant Magnetic Field"
3561:Phillips, Tony (29 December 2003).
2961:Shlermeler, Quirin (3 March 2005).
2625:United States Department of Defense
2135:
2094:), there would be no diffusion. By
925:axis, as if there were an enormous
24:
6015:
5925:Introduction to geomagnetic fields
5490:. National Geophysical Data Center
3335:. National Geophysical Data Center
2995:. 25 November 2008. Archived from
2637:North Atlantic Treaty Organization
2080:
1954:
1937:
1921:
1911:
1894:for the magnetic field called the
1816:
1493:
1074:
25:
8587:
7838:Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility
6329:
6192:"Temperature of the Earth's core"
5778:Journal of Comparative Physiology
5075:"Spectroscopy: NMR down to Earth"
4989:"Ocean Tides and Magnetic Fields"
2916:Geophysical Journal International
2087:{\displaystyle \sigma =\infty \;}
1671:trade places. Evidence for these
1323:
8540:
8539:
8043:
7496:
7485:
7484:
7472:
7244:
7233:
7232:
7220:
6852:
6765:
6754:
6753:
6247:. New York, NY: The Experiment.
5240:
4997:
4574:10.1046/j.1468-4004.2002.43309.x
2937:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2010.04804.x
2766:
2752:
2738:
2586:
1972:
1964:
1947:
1915:
1420:Inside the magnetosphere is the
1370:
1284:
1272:
1260:
8248:Human impact on the environment
6357:United States Geological Survey
5887:
5824:
5769:
5644:Journal of Experimental Biology
5635:
5617:
5574:
5549:
5520:
5502:
5480:
5406:
5296:
5264:
5234:
5141:
5117:
5066:
5009:
4941:
4906:
4785:
4724:The Feynman lectures on physics
4712:
4640:
4581:
4507:
4458:
4439:
4390:
4338:
4269:Journal of Geophysical Research
4256:
4210:
4161:
4094:
4069:
3750:
3724:
3689:
3659:
3636:
3523:
3480:
3440:. USA: CRC Press. p. 148.
3347:
3300:
3247:
3223:
3172:
3147:
3122:
2705:
2668:Danish Space Research Institute
2633:Federal Aviation Administration
2572:. Quadrupole terms drop off as
1749:geomagnetic polarity time scale
1728:detrital remanent magnetization
1620:paleomagnetic secular variation
1158:, but is generally reported in
1011:
8077:Climate variability and change
7292:
6491:"Magnetism, Terrestrial"
5332:10.1180/minmag.1965.034.268.32
4170:Geomagnetism in marine geology
3133:. Cambridge University Press.
3097:
3046:
3011:
2981:
2954:
2001:is the velocity of the fluid;
1976:
1960:
1828:Earth's core and the geodynamo
1633:A 1995 study of lava flows on
1226:
1192:
13:
1:
8502:Evolution of the Solar System
7694:Interplanetary magnetic field
7636:Magnetosphere particle motion
6352:National Geomagnetism Program
6043:Herndon, J. M. (1996-01-23).
5923:Campbell, Wallace H. (2003).
5557:"The Enhanced Magnetic Model"
4698:10.1126/science.288.5473.2007
3383:Essentials of college physics
2827:
2393:is the absolute value of the
2007:is the magnetic B-field; and
1892:partial differential equation
1579:Geomagnetic secular variation
1538:, particularly the iron-rich
1484:the "Halloween" storm of 2003
1396:interplanetary magnetic field
1006:harmful ultraviolet radiation
615:Relativistic electromagnetism
8253:Evolutionary history of life
4970:10.1016/0031-9201(95)03049-3
3895:10.1007/978-1-4020-4423-6_67
3437:Static Fields and Potentials
3020:Geophysical Research Letters
2207:
1724:thermoremanent magnetization
1624:paleosecular variation (PSV)
1149:
7:
8576:Magnetic field of the Earth
7432:Precession of the equinoxes
6877:Geological history of Earth
6813:
6741:Charles Thomson Rees Wilson
6639:Upper-atmospheric lightning
6423:The Great Magnet, the Earth
6373:Will Compasses Point South?
5952:University of Chicago Press
5946:Merrill, Ronald T. (2010).
5243:"Satellite Magnetic Models"
2731:
2656:Goddard Space Flight Center
1896:magnetic induction equation
10:
8592:
8041:
7699:Heliospheric current sheet
7349:Geophysical fluid dynamics
6850:
6311:Cambridge University Press
5929:Cambridge University Press
5927:(2nd ed.). New York:
5916:
5894:Hsu, Jeremy (9 May 2014).
5488:"The World Magnetic Model"
5042:10.1038/s41598-019-44397-8
4492:10.1038/d41586-019-00007-1
4243:10.1016/j.epsl.2012.06.050
4128:10.1038/s41467-020-16888-0
4063:10.1016/j.epsl.2014.05.036
4020:(also available online at
3947:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.11.026
2709:
2332:
2286:
2283:Crustal magnetic anomalies
2255:magnetic anomaly detectors
1820:
1700:strongly magnetic minerals
1660:
1576:
1374:
1327:
1308:
1230:
1196:
948:While the North and South
340:Liénard–Wiechert potential
8525:
8487:
8444:
8389:
8331:
8266:
8213:
8143:
8095:
8052:
7990:
7982:
7897:
7846:
7803:
7727:
7659:
7593:
7552:
7466:
7450:
7382:
7321:
7300:
7214:
7188:
7117:
7079:
7026:
7000:
6964:
6931:
6891:Composition and structure
6890:
6862:
6844:Index of geology articles
6821:
6749:
6713:
6692:
6666:
6631:
6600:
6593:
6547:
6153:Love, Jeffrey J. (2008).
5800:10.1007/s00359-011-0628-7
5271:William F. Hanna (1987).
5073:Stepišnik, Janez (2006).
4168:Vacquier, Victor (1972).
3618:Parks, George K. (1991).
3531:"The Magnetic North Pole"
3407:Emiliani, Cesare (1992).
2621:British Geological Survey
2314:archaeological geophysics
2233:British Geological Survey
1861:planetary differentiation
1781:
1763:Paleomagnetic studies of
1685:Brunhes–Matuyama reversal
1532:ionospheric dynamo region
1430:Van Allen radiation belts
1004:that protects Earth from
605:Mathematical descriptions
315:Electromagnetic radiation
305:Electromagnetic induction
245:Magnetic vector potential
240:Magnetic scalar potential
8512:Location in the Universe
8454:Antarctic/Southern Ocean
8153:List of sovereign states
7651:Van Allen radiation belt
7631:Magnetosphere chronology
6243:Turner, Gillian (2011).
5737:"Biology: Electric cows"
5419:Earth, Planets and Space
4553:Astronomy and Geophysics
2203:Measurement and analysis
2115:compositional convection
2067:In a perfect conductor (
1645:Magnetic field reversals
7560:Atmospheric circulation
7359:Near-surface geophysics
6541:Atmospheric electricity
6501:Encyclopædia Britannica
6488:Chree, Charles (1911).
6410:. about pole reversals)
5704:10.1073/pnas.0811194106
5629:geomagia.gfz-potsdam.de
5625:"The GEOMAGIA database"
5440:10.5047/eps.2010.11.005
5431:2010EP&S...62..787F
5303:G. D. Nicholls (1965).
4565:2002A&G....43c...9W
4368:10.1126/science.1183445
4290:10.1029/JB085iB07p03523
4235:2012E&PSL.351...54N
4055:2014E&PSL.400..302C
3939:2007E&PSL.254..146D
3702:Technology Through Time
3696:Odenwald, Sten (2010).
3154:Temple, Robert (2006).
2687:Enhanced Magnetic Model
2237:Eskdalemuir Observatory
2100:frozen-in-field theorem
2017:electrical conductivity
1776: million years ago
1186:University of Liverpool
902:of a mixture of molten
859:Computer simulation of
155:Electrostatic induction
150:Electrostatic discharge
7570:Earth's magnetic field
7407:Earth's magnetic field
6721:Georg Wilhelm Richmann
6700:Electrodynamic tethers
6585:Earth's magnetic field
6198:. 1999. Archived from
6196:NEWTON Ask a Scientist
6127:10.1073/pnas.201393998
5603:10.1098/rsta.2000.0569
5312:Mineralogical Magazine
4615:10.1073/pnas.76.9.4192
4588:Jordan, T. H. (1979).
3820:10.1098/rsta.2000.0569
3765:. NASA. Archived from
3461:Nave, Carl R. (2010).
3053:Structure of the Earth
2822:South Atlantic Anomaly
2797:Magnetic field of Mars
2380:
2372:
2298:
2277:Kursk Magnetic Anomaly
2187:
2088:
1986:
1880:Ampère's circuital law
1867:) as well as decay of
1840:
1791:
1767:lava in Australia and
1712:remanent magnetization
1658:
1628:geomagnetic excursions
1596:
1588:
1527:
1387:
1339:
1306:
1245:Geographical variation
1179:South Atlantic Anomaly
1146:
1034:reversals of the field
958:Earth's field reverses
935:South geomagnetic pole
931:North geomagnetic pole
868:Earth's magnetic field
864:
585:Electromagnetic tensor
8233:Biogeochemical cycles
8158:dependent territories
7674:Coronal mass ejection
7594:Earth's magnetosphere
7479:Geophysics portal
7402:Earth's energy budget
7140:Environmental geology
6684:Equatorial electrojet
6580:Atmospheric chemistry
6415:When North Goes South
6072:10.1073/pnas.93.2.646
5656:10.1242/jeb.202.8.891
5363:Jacqueline W. Kious;
4869:Reviews of Geophysics
4547:Weiss, Nigel (2002).
4454:on December 28, 2009.
4107:Nature Communications
3434:Manners, Joy (2000).
3106:Magnetic Stratigraphy
2975:10.1038/news050228-12
2746:Earth sciences portal
2378:
2342:
2296:
2185:
2161:Effect of ocean tides
2089:
1987:
1838:
1789:
1673:geomagnetic reversals
1652:
1594:
1586:
1567:artificial satellites
1506:
1499:Short-term variations
1480:coronal mass ejection
1386:7) Plasmasphere.
1384:
1337:
1304:
1297:Dipolar approximation
1144:
898:due to the motion of
858:
578:Covariant formulation
370:Synchrotron radiation
310:Electromagnetic pulse
300:Electromagnetic field
8281:Computer cartography
8005:Prebiotic atmosphere
7847:Other magnetospheres
7709:Solar particle event
7099:Planetary geophysics
6570:Atmospheric dynamics
5992:Tauxe, Lisa (1998).
5373:. USGS. p. 17.
4891:10.1029/2000RG000102
4846:. December 17, 2010.
4424:10.1029/2023JB027706
4331:10.1029/2009GC002496
3883:Constable, Catherine
3235:www.geomag.bgs.ac.uk
2792:Geomagnetic latitude
2631:, the United States
2613:World Magnetic Model
2355:is equal to 0 along
2275:bodies, such as the
2214:Carl Friedrich Gauss
2142:magnetohydrodynamics
2071:
2013:magnetic diffusivity
1905:
1857:core-mantle boundary
1663:Geomagnetic reversal
1463:while also emitting
1252:World Magnetic Model
1233:Magnetic declination
1175:World Magnetic Model
1138:(Down) coordinates.
1065:magnetic declination
966:South Magnetic Poles
886:, a stream of
870:, also known as the
620:Stress–energy tensor
545:Reluctance (complex)
290:Displacement current
8424:Geologic time scale
8145:Culture and society
8000:Atmosphere of Earth
7451:Related disciplines
7417:Geothermal gradient
7201:Petroleum geologist
7165:Forensic geophysics
7135:Engineering geology
6882:Timeline of geology
6834:Glossary of geology
6565:Atmospheric physics
6560:Atmospheric science
6279:1954Geop...19..281W
6228:1984GSAB...95..221T
6176:2008PhT....61b..31H
6118:2001PNAS...9811085H
6063:1996PNAS...93..646H
5857:10.1038/nature13290
5849:2014Natur.509..353E
5753:2009Natur.458Q.389.
5747:(7237): 389. 2009.
5695:2009PNAS..106.5708B
5595:2000RSPTA.358..957J
5528:"Model information"
5324:1965MinM...34..373N
5204:2002Natur.416..620H
5167:1988AREPS..16..389C
5149:Courtillot, Vincent
5124:Gauss, C.F (1832).
5093:2006Natur.439..799S
5034:2019NatSR...9.7893I
4962:1995PEPI...91...63G
4927:1995PhPl....2.1421K
4882:2002RvGeo..40.1013K
4816:10.1038/nature09643
4808:2010Natur.468..952B
4720:Feynman, Richard P.
4690:2000Sci...288.2007B
4684:(5473): 2007–2012.
4606:1979PNAS...76.4192J
4483:2019Natur.565..143W
4415:2024JGRB..12927706N
4360:2010Sci...327.1238T
4354:(5970): 1238–1240.
4322:2009GGG....10.9Z07U
4281:1980JGR....85.3523M
4119:2020NatCo..11.3371D
4000:1995Natur.374..687C
3853:"Secular variation"
3802:2000RSPTA.358..957J
3501:1996EOSTr..77..345C
3360:Scientific American
3254:Palm, Eric (2011).
3156:The Genius of China
3032:1992GeoRL..19.2151L
2928:2010GeoJI.183.1216F
2857:1995Natur.377..203G
2385:spherical harmonics
2335:Multipole expansion
2329:Spherical harmonics
2231:, for example, the
2109:, motion driven by
1759:Earliest appearance
1753:magnetostratigraphy
1565:and disruptions in
1478:, can occur when a
1205:North Magnetic Pole
1164:refrigerator magnet
1046:magnetostratigraphy
900:convection currents
890:emanating from the
535:Magnetomotive force
420:Electromotive force
390:Alternating current
325:Jefimenko equations
285:Cyclotron radiation
8419:Geological history
8293:Geodetic astronomy
7334:Geophysical survey
7227:Geology portal
7155:Geologic modelling
7094:Geophysical survey
7046:Geodetic astronomy
6972:Structural geology
6933:Historical geology
6864:History of geology
6839:History of geology
6829:Outline of geology
6608:Radio atmospherics
6575:Atmospheric dynamo
6479:2018-07-20 at the
6466:2007-10-31 at the
6455:2016-06-24 at the
6436:2013-02-14 at the
6379:The New York Times
6370:William J. Broad,
6342:2013-03-03 at the
5532:ccmc.gsfc.nasa.gov
5022:Scientific Reports
4915:Physics of Plasmas
4525:on 18 January 2015
4207:, pp. 148–155
4027:2012-03-14 at the
3738:on 22 October 2013
3712:on 12 October 2009
3573:on 1 November 2022
3108:. Academic Press.
3083:. Academic Press.
3058:2013-03-15 at the
2947:20.500.11850/27303
2886:Glatzmaier, Gary.
2691:magnetic anomalies
2648:magnetic anomalies
2444:magnetic potential
2381:
2373:
2320:Statistical models
2299:
2188:
2084:
1982:
1841:
1792:
1745:Radiometric dating
1737:wells up from the
1659:
1597:
1589:
1528:
1476:geomagnetic storms
1388:
1340:
1307:
1147:
1054:magnetic anomalies
980:extends above the
923:Earth's rotational
908:Earth's outer core
878:that extends from
865:
383:Electrical network
220:Gauss magnetic law
185:Static electricity
145:Electric potential
8553:
8552:
8489:Planetary science
8409:Extremes on Earth
8376:Signal processing
7950:
7949:
7804:Research projects
7772:
7743:
7684:Geomagnetic storm
7601:Birkeland current
7512:
7511:
7427:Mantle convection
7260:
7259:
7145:Planetary geology
7061:Planetary geodesy
6781:
6780:
6662:
6661:
6632:Optical emissions
6601:ELF/VLF emissions
6320:978-0-521-61611-9
6287:10.1190/1.1437994
6254:978-1-61519-031-7
6184:10.1063/1.2883907
6007:978-0-7923-5258-7
5984:978-0-12-491246-5
5961:978-0-226-52050-6
5938:978-0-521-52953-2
5843:(7500): 353–356.
5589:(1768): 957–990.
5380:978-0-16-048220-5
5365:Robert I. Tilling
5198:(6881): 620–623.
5087:(7078): 799–801.
4802:(7326): 952–954.
4733:978-0-465-02494-0
4477:(7738): 143–144.
4179:978-0-08-087042-7
3994:(6524): 687–692.
3904:978-1-4020-3992-8
3796:(1768): 957–990.
3629:978-0-201-50821-5
3537:on 19 August 2013
3509:10.1029/96EO00237
3447:978-0-7503-0718-5
3420:978-0-521-40949-0
3393:978-0-495-10619-7
3165:978-0-671-62028-8
3158:. Andre Deutsch.
3140:978-0-521-78085-8
3115:978-0-12-527470-8
3090:978-0-12-483355-5
3040:10.1029/92GL02485
3026:(21): 2151–2154.
2851:(6546): 203–209.
2760:Geophysics portal
2511:Radial dependence
2449:Gauss coefficient
2229:Geological survey
2183:
1928:
1669:geomagnetic poles
1601:secular variation
1573:Secular variation
1349:Boothia Peninsula
1023:of its atmosphere
970:geomagnetic poles
896:electric currents
888:charged particles
872:geomagnetic field
851:
850:
550:Reluctance (real)
520:Gyrator–capacitor
465:Resonant cavities
355:Maxwell equations
16:(Redirected from
8583:
8543:
8542:
8436:History of Earth
8087:Paleoclimatology
8047:
7977:
7970:
7963:
7954:
7953:
7788:Van Allen Probes
7770:
7741:
7553:Submagnetosphere
7539:
7532:
7525:
7516:
7515:
7500:
7499:
7488:
7487:
7477:
7476:
7422:Gravity of Earth
7287:
7280:
7273:
7264:
7263:
7248:
7247:
7236:
7235:
7225:
7224:
7160:Forensic geology
7130:Economic geology
7056:Gravity of Earth
6951:Paleoclimatology
6856:
6808:
6801:
6794:
6785:
6784:
6769:
6768:
6757:
6756:
6705:Magnetotellurics
6674:Solar irradiance
6598:
6597:
6594:Electromagnetism
6534:
6527:
6520:
6511:
6510:
6505:
6493:
6382:, July 13, 2004.
6364:BGS Geomagnetism
6359:, March 8, 2011.
6324:
6298:
6258:
6239:
6210:
6208:
6207:
6187:
6159:
6149:
6139:
6129:
6112:(20): 11085–90.
6094:
6084:
6074:
6039:
6037:
6035:
6011:
5988:
5965:
5942:
5911:
5910:
5908:
5906:
5891:
5885:
5884:
5828:
5822:
5819:
5793:
5773:
5767:
5766:
5764:
5733:
5727:
5726:
5716:
5706:
5674:
5668:
5667:
5639:
5633:
5632:
5621:
5615:
5614:
5578:
5572:
5571:
5569:
5567:
5559:. United States
5553:
5547:
5546:
5544:
5543:
5534:. Archived from
5524:
5518:
5517:
5506:
5500:
5499:
5497:
5495:
5484:
5478:
5477:
5475:
5473:
5462:
5453:
5452:
5442:
5410:
5404:
5398:
5392:
5391:
5389:
5387:
5360:
5351:
5350:
5348:
5346:
5340:
5334:. Archived from
5318:(268): 373–388.
5309:
5300:
5294:
5293:
5291:
5289:
5279:
5268:
5262:
5261:
5259:
5257:
5238:
5232:
5231:
5185:
5179:
5178:
5145:
5139:
5138:
5136:
5135:
5130:
5121:
5115:
5114:
5104:
5070:
5064:
5063:
5053:
5013:
5007:
5001:
5000:
4996:
4985:
4974:
4973:
4945:
4939:
4938:
4935:10.1063/1.871485
4921:(5): 1421–1431.
4910:
4904:
4903:
4893:
4859:
4850:
4847:
4835:
4789:
4783:
4777:
4771:
4765:
4759:
4753:
4738:
4737:
4716:
4710:
4709:
4673:
4664:
4663:
4661:
4659:
4644:
4638:
4637:
4627:
4617:
4600:(9): 4192–4200.
4585:
4579:
4578:
4576:
4559:(3): 3.09–3.15.
4544:
4535:
4534:
4532:
4530:
4511:
4505:
4504:
4494:
4462:
4456:
4455:
4450:. Archived from
4443:
4437:
4436:
4426:
4394:
4388:
4387:
4342:
4336:
4335:
4333:
4301:
4295:
4294:
4292:
4260:
4254:
4253:
4251:
4249:
4214:
4208:
4202:
4196:
4190:
4184:
4183:
4165:
4159:
4158:
4148:
4130:
4098:
4092:
4091:
4089:
4087:
4073:
4067:
4066:
4038:
4032:
4019:
4008:10.1038/374687a0
3983:
3977:
3971:
3965:
3964:
3962:
3961:
3955:
3949:. Archived from
3933:(1–2): 146–157.
3924:
3915:
3909:
3908:
3879:
3873:
3872:
3870:
3868:
3849:
3840:
3839:
3813:
3785:
3779:
3778:
3776:
3774:
3769:on 16 March 2010
3754:
3748:
3747:
3745:
3743:
3728:
3722:
3721:
3719:
3717:
3708:. Archived from
3693:
3687:
3686:
3684:
3682:
3663:
3657:
3656:
3654:
3652:
3640:
3634:
3633:
3615:
3604:
3598:
3583:
3582:
3580:
3578:
3569:. Archived from
3558:
3547:
3546:
3544:
3542:
3527:
3521:
3520:
3484:
3478:
3477:
3475:
3474:
3458:
3452:
3451:
3431:
3425:
3424:
3404:
3398:
3397:
3377:
3371:
3370:
3368:
3366:
3351:
3345:
3344:
3342:
3340:
3329:
3323:
3322:
3320:
3319:
3304:
3298:
3297:
3295:
3293:
3281:
3272:
3271:
3269:
3267:
3262:on 21 March 2013
3251:
3245:
3244:
3242:
3241:
3227:
3221:
3215:
3190:
3189:
3187:
3186:
3176:
3170:
3169:
3151:
3145:
3144:
3126:
3120:
3119:
3101:
3095:
3094:
3076:
3063:
3050:
3044:
3043:
3015:
3009:
3008:
3006:
3004:
2985:
2979:
2978:
2958:
2952:
2951:
2949:
2939:
2922:(3): 1216–1230.
2906:
2900:
2899:
2897:
2895:
2883:
2877:
2876:
2865:10.1038/377203a0
2840:
2802:Magnetotellurics
2787:Geomagnetic jerk
2776:
2771:
2770:
2762:
2757:
2756:
2748:
2743:
2742:
2741:
2712:Magnetoreception
2639:(NATO), and the
2582:
2578:
2571:
2564:
2557:
2550:
2540:
2533:
2524:
2506:
2497:
2488:
2479:
2467:
2458:
2440:
2401:
2370:
2360:
2354:
2289:Magnetic anomaly
2222:Ørsted satellite
2184:
2146:kinematic dynamo
2136:Numerical models
2093:
2091:
2090:
2085:
2051:
2046:Laplace operator
2043:
2039:
2028:
2021:
2010:
2006:
2000:
1991:
1989:
1988:
1983:
1975:
1967:
1950:
1945:
1944:
1929:
1927:
1919:
1918:
1909:
1865:iron catastrophe
1777:
1675:can be found in
1536:Earth's interior
1488:Carrington Event
1357:magnetic equator
1330:Geomagnetic pole
1288:
1276:
1264:
1171:isodynamic chart
1137:
1131:
1125:
1119:
1103:
1089:
1069:magnetoreception
1038:mid-ocean ridges
939:Ellesmere Island
880:Earth's interior
843:
836:
829:
510:Electric machine
493:Magnetic circuit
455:Parallel circuit
445:Network analysis
410:Electric current
345:London equations
190:Triboelectricity
180:Potential energy
49:
39:Electromagnetism
30:
29:
21:
8591:
8590:
8586:
8585:
8584:
8582:
8581:
8580:
8556:
8555:
8554:
8549:
8521:
8483:
8440:
8431:Geologic record
8385:
8371:Plate tectonics
8361:Mineral physics
8341:Earth structure
8327:
8262:
8209:
8139:
8091:
8048:
8039:
7986:
7981:
7951:
7946:
7893:
7842:
7799:
7723:
7655:
7589:
7548:
7546:Magnetospherics
7543:
7513:
7508:
7471:
7462:
7446:
7397:Coriolis effect
7392:Chandler wobble
7384:
7378:
7354:Mineral physics
7317:
7296:
7291:
7261:
7256:
7219:
7210:
7184:
7180:Mineral physics
7113:
7075:
7022:
6996:
6982:Plate tectonics
6960:
6956:Palaeogeography
6927:
6903:Crystallography
6886:
6858:
6857:
6848:
6817:
6812:
6782:
6777:
6745:
6726:Egon Schweidler
6709:
6688:
6658:
6649:St. Elmo's fire
6627:
6589:
6543:
6538:
6484:. July 19, 2017
6481:Wayback Machine
6468:Wayback Machine
6457:Wayback Machine
6438:Wayback Machine
6344:Wayback Machine
6332:
6327:
6321:
6255:
6205:
6203:
6190:
6157:
6033:
6031:
6018:
6016:Further reading
6008:
5985:
5962:
5939:
5919:
5914:
5904:
5902:
5892:
5888:
5829:
5825:
5774:
5770:
5762:10.1038/458389a
5735:
5734:
5730:
5689:(14): 5708–13.
5675:
5671:
5640:
5636:
5623:
5622:
5618:
5579:
5575:
5565:
5563:
5555:
5554:
5550:
5541:
5539:
5526:
5525:
5521:
5508:
5507:
5503:
5493:
5491:
5486:
5485:
5481:
5471:
5469:
5464:
5463:
5456:
5425:(10): 787–804.
5411:
5407:
5399:
5395:
5385:
5383:
5381:
5361:
5354:
5344:
5342:
5341:on 16 July 2017
5338:
5307:
5301:
5297:
5287:
5285:
5277:
5269:
5265:
5255:
5253:
5241:Frey, Herbert.
5239:
5235:
5212:10.1038/416620a
5186:
5182:
5146:
5142:
5133:
5131:
5128:
5122:
5118:
5102:10.1038/439799a
5071:
5067:
5014:
5010:
4998:
4987:
4986:
4977:
4946:
4942:
4911:
4907:
4860:
4853:
4838:
4790:
4786:
4778:
4774:
4766:
4762:
4754:
4741:
4734:
4717:
4713:
4674:
4667:
4657:
4655:
4645:
4641:
4586:
4582:
4545:
4538:
4528:
4526:
4513:
4512:
4508:
4463:
4459:
4444:
4440:
4395:
4391:
4343:
4339:
4302:
4298:
4261:
4257:
4247:
4245:
4215:
4211:
4203:
4199:
4191:
4187:
4180:
4166:
4162:
4099:
4095:
4085:
4083:
4075:
4074:
4070:
4039:
4035:
4029:Wayback Machine
3984:
3980:
3972:
3968:
3959:
3957:
3953:
3922:
3916:
3912:
3905:
3880:
3876:
3866:
3864:
3863:on 25 July 2008
3851:
3850:
3843:
3811:10.1.1.560.5046
3786:
3782:
3772:
3770:
3755:
3751:
3741:
3739:
3730:
3729:
3725:
3715:
3713:
3694:
3690:
3680:
3678:
3677:on 21 June 2013
3665:
3664:
3660:
3650:
3648:
3641:
3637:
3630:
3616:
3607:
3603:, pages 126–141
3599:
3586:
3576:
3574:
3559:
3550:
3540:
3538:
3529:
3528:
3524:
3485:
3481:
3472:
3470:
3459:
3455:
3448:
3432:
3428:
3421:
3405:
3401:
3394:
3378:
3374:
3364:
3362:
3352:
3348:
3338:
3336:
3331:
3330:
3326:
3317:
3315:
3312:Cosmos Magazine
3306:
3305:
3301:
3291:
3289:
3282:
3275:
3265:
3263:
3252:
3248:
3239:
3237:
3229:
3228:
3224:
3216:
3193:
3184:
3182:
3178:
3177:
3173:
3166:
3152:
3148:
3141:
3127:
3123:
3116:
3102:
3098:
3091:
3077:
3066:
3060:Wayback Machine
3051:
3047:
3016:
3012:
3002:
3000:
2999:on 4 March 2016
2987:
2986:
2982:
2959:
2955:
2907:
2903:
2893:
2891:
2888:"The Geodynamo"
2884:
2880:
2841:
2834:
2830:
2817:Rings of Saturn
2812:Operation Argus
2772:
2765:
2758:
2751:
2744:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2714:
2708:
2589:
2580:
2577:
2573:
2570:
2566:
2563:
2559:
2558:) drops off as
2555:
2549:
2546:
2545:with radius as
2539:
2535:
2532:
2531:
2526:
2523:
2522:
2517:
2513:
2505:
2502:
2499:
2496:
2493:
2490:
2487:
2484:
2481:
2478:
2475:
2472:
2466:
2465:
2460:
2457:
2456:
2451:
2439:
2436:
2400:
2397:
2369:
2365:
2359:
2356:
2353:
2352:
2347:
2344:
2337:
2331:
2322:
2291:
2285:
2210:
2205:
2196:
2173:
2163:
2154:self-consistent
2138:
2119:Coriolis effect
2072:
2069:
2068:
2049:
2041:
2030:
2026:
2019:
2008:
2002:
1996:
1971:
1963:
1946:
1940:
1936:
1920:
1914:
1910:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1902:
1830:
1825:
1819:
1817:Physical origin
1800:heteroscedastic
1784:
1772:
1761:
1702:, particularly
1665:
1647:
1635:Steens Mountain
1630:and reversals.
1581:
1575:
1515:
1501:
1496:
1494:Time dependence
1379:
1373:
1332:
1326:
1313:
1299:
1292:
1289:
1280:
1277:
1268:
1265:
1256:
1247:
1235:
1229:
1217:isoclinic chart
1201:
1195:
1152:
1136:
1133:
1130:
1127:
1124:
1121:
1118:
1115:
1102:
1099:
1088:
1085:
1077:
1075:Characteristics
1014:
974:paleomagnetists
919:magnetic dipole
847:
818:
817:
633:
625:
624:
580:
570:
569:
525:Induction motor
495:
485:
484:
400:Current density
385:
375:
374:
365:Poynting vector
275:
273:Electrodynamics
265:
264:
260:Right-hand rule
225:Magnetic dipole
215:Biot–Savart law
205:
195:
194:
130:Electric dipole
125:Electric charge
100:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8589:
8579:
8578:
8573:
8568:
8551:
8550:
8548:
8547:
8537:
8532:
8526:
8523:
8522:
8520:
8519:
8514:
8509:
8504:
8499:
8493:
8491:
8485:
8484:
8482:
8481:
8476:
8471:
8466:
8464:Atlantic Ocean
8461:
8456:
8450:
8448:
8442:
8441:
8439:
8438:
8433:
8428:
8427:
8426:
8416:
8411:
8406:
8401:
8395:
8393:
8387:
8386:
8384:
8383:
8378:
8373:
8368:
8363:
8358:
8353:
8348:
8346:Fluid dynamics
8343:
8337:
8335:
8329:
8328:
8326:
8325:
8320:
8318:Geopositioning
8315:
8313:Remote Sensing
8310:
8305:
8300:
8295:
8290:
8285:
8284:
8283:
8272:
8270:
8264:
8263:
8261:
8260:
8255:
8250:
8245:
8240:
8235:
8230:
8225:
8219:
8217:
8211:
8210:
8208:
8207:
8202:
8197:
8192:
8187:
8182:
8177:
8172:
8167:
8162:
8161:
8160:
8149:
8147:
8141:
8140:
8138:
8137:
8132:
8127:
8122:
8117:
8112:
8107:
8101:
8099:
8093:
8092:
8090:
8089:
8084:
8079:
8074:
8072:Climate change
8069:
8067:Energy balance
8064:
8062:Climate system
8058:
8056:
8050:
8049:
8042:
8040:
8038:
8037:
8032:
8027:
8022:
8017:
8012:
8007:
8002:
7996:
7994:
7988:
7987:
7980:
7979:
7972:
7965:
7957:
7948:
7947:
7945:
7944:
7943:
7942:
7937:
7932:
7927:
7917:
7912:
7907:
7901:
7899:
7898:Related topics
7895:
7894:
7892:
7891:
7886:
7881:
7876:
7871:
7866:
7861:
7856:
7850:
7848:
7844:
7843:
7841:
7840:
7835:
7830:
7829:
7828:
7818:
7813:
7807:
7805:
7801:
7800:
7798:
7797:
7790:
7785:
7780:
7773:
7764:
7759:
7754:
7749:
7744:
7735:
7731:
7729:
7725:
7724:
7722:
7721:
7716:
7711:
7706:
7701:
7696:
7691:
7686:
7681:
7676:
7671:
7669:Magnetic cloud
7665:
7663:
7657:
7656:
7654:
7653:
7648:
7643:
7638:
7633:
7628:
7623:
7618:
7613:
7608:
7603:
7597:
7595:
7591:
7590:
7588:
7587:
7582:
7577:
7572:
7567:
7562:
7556:
7554:
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7374:Tectonophysics
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7071:Geopositioning
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7018:Marine geology
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6396:Magnetic Storm
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6330:External links
6328:
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6299:
6273:(2): 281–289.
6263:Wait, James R.
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7313:Geophysicists
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6987:Geomorphology
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6202:on 2010-09-08
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6163:Physics Today
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5538:on 2021-12-09
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5401:Campbell 2003
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5004:public domain
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4023:
4017:
4013:
4009:
4005:
4001:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3982:
3975:
3970:
3956:on 2013-10-23
3952:
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3807:
3803:
3799:
3795:
3791:
3784:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3753:
3737:
3733:
3732:"The K-index"
3727:
3711:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3692:
3676:
3672:
3668:
3662:
3646:
3639:
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3328:
3313:
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3287:
3280:
3278:
3261:
3257:
3250:
3236:
3232:
3226:
3219:
3214:
3212:
3210:
3208:
3206:
3204:
3202:
3200:
3198:
3196:
3181:
3175:
3167:
3161:
3157:
3150:
3142:
3136:
3132:
3125:
3117:
3111:
3107:
3100:
3092:
3086:
3082:
3075:
3073:
3071:
3069:
3061:
3057:
3054:
3049:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3014:
2998:
2994:
2993:Cosmos Online
2990:
2984:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2957:
2948:
2943:
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2805:
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2800:
2798:
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2785:
2783:
2780:
2779:
2775:
2769:
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2761:
2755:
2750:
2747:
2736:
2729:
2725:
2723:
2719:
2713:
2703:
2701:
2700:Paleomagnetic
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2652:
2651:
2649:
2644:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2618:
2614:
2609:
2606:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2587:Global models
2584:
2552:
2544:
2541:and one that
2508:
2469:
2450:
2446:
2445:
2434:
2430:
2425:
2423:
2422:
2417:
2416:
2411:
2410:
2405:
2396:
2392:
2391:
2386:
2377:
2363:
2362:great circles
2341:
2336:
2326:
2317:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2302:Magnetometers
2295:
2290:
2280:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2267:
2262:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2247:
2245:
2240:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2225:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2200:
2191:
2171:
2169:
2158:
2155:
2150:
2147:
2143:
2133:
2130:
2127:
2126:T-Tauri phase
2122:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2103:
2101:
2097:
2077:
2074:
2065:
2062:
2057:
2055:
2054:curl operator
2047:
2038:
2034:
2025:
2018:
2014:
2005:
1999:
1979:
1968:
1957:
1951:
1941:
1933:
1930:
1924:
1901:
1900:
1899:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1888:Lorentz force
1885:
1884:Faraday's law
1881:
1877:
1872:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1837:
1833:
1824:
1823:Dynamo theory
1814:
1812:
1808:
1803:
1801:
1796:
1788:
1779:
1775:
1770:
1766:
1756:
1754:
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1731:
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1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
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1701:
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1621:
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1613:
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1602:
1593:
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1564:
1559:
1554:
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1548:
1543:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1525:
1522:
1518:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1491:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1472:space weather
1468:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1452:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1437:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1418:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1383:
1378:
1377:Magnetosphere
1371:Magnetosphere
1368:
1366:
1360:
1358:
1355:in 2001. The
1354:
1350:
1344:
1336:
1331:
1321:
1319:
1312:
1303:
1287:
1282:
1275:
1270:
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1234:
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1218:
1213:
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1200:
1190:
1187:
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1143:
1139:
1113:
1109:
1108:
1097:
1093:
1083:
1072:
1070:
1066:
1061:
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1030:igneous rocks
1026:
1024:
1020:
1009:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
979:
978:magnetosphere
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
946:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
915:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
862:
857:
853:
844:
839:
837:
832:
830:
825:
824:
822:
821:
814:
811:
809:
806:
804:
801:
799:
796:
794:
791:
789:
786:
784:
781:
779:
776:
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771:
769:
766:
764:
761:
759:
756:
754:
751:
749:
746:
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741:
739:
736:
734:
731:
729:
726:
724:
721:
719:
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714:
711:
709:
706:
704:
701:
699:
696:
694:
691:
689:
686:
684:
681:
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671:
669:
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664:
661:
659:
656:
654:
651:
649:
646:
644:
641:
639:
636:
635:
629:
628:
621:
618:
616:
613:
611:
608:
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603:
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591:
588:
586:
583:
582:
579:
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573:
566:
563:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
548:
546:
543:
541:
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533:
531:
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523:
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518:
516:
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511:
508:
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503:
501:
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497:
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478:
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473:
471:
468:
466:
463:
461:
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
435:Joule heating
433:
431:
428:
426:
423:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
398:
396:
393:
391:
388:
387:
384:
379:
378:
371:
368:
366:
363:
361:
358:
356:
353:
351:
350:Lorentz force
348:
346:
343:
341:
338:
336:
333:
331:
328:
326:
323:
321:
318:
316:
313:
311:
308:
306:
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
291:
288:
286:
283:
281:
278:
277:
274:
269:
268:
261:
258:
256:
253:
251:
250:Magnetization
248:
246:
243:
241:
238:
236:
235:Magnetic flux
233:
231:
228:
226:
223:
221:
218:
216:
213:
211:
208:
207:
204:
199:
198:
191:
188:
186:
183:
181:
178:
176:
173:
171:
168:
166:
163:
161:
158:
156:
153:
151:
148:
146:
143:
141:
140:Electric flux
138:
136:
133:
131:
128:
126:
123:
121:
118:
116:
113:
111:
108:
106:
103:
102:
99:
94:
93:
88:
85:
83:
80:
78:
77:Computational
75:
73:
70:
68:
65:
63:
60:
58:
55:
54:
53:
52:
48:
44:
43:
40:
37:
36:
32:
31:
19:
8566:Geomagnetism
8517:Solar System
8479:Oceanography
8469:Indian Ocean
8459:Arctic Ocean
8399:Age of Earth
8351:Geomagnetism
8350:
8025:Thermosphere
8015:Stratosphere
7920:Ring systems
7915:Lunar swirls
7792:
7775:
7646:Ring current
7641:Plasmasphere
7616:Magnetopause
7569:
7501:
7489:
7470:
7437:Seismic wave
7406:
7339:Geomagnetism
7338:
7249:
7237:
7218:
7118:Applications
7089:Geomagnetism
7013:Hydrogeology
6946:Paleontology
6941:Stratigraphy
6908:Geochemistry
6770:
6758:
6731:Nikola Tesla
6693:Applications
6584:
6499:
6472:
6429:
6421:
6413:
6407:
6394:
6386:
6385:John Roach,
6377:
6371:
6362:
6350:
6335:
6306:
6303:Walt, Martin
6270:
6266:
6244:
6219:
6215:
6204:. Retrieved
6200:the original
6195:
6170:(2): 31–37.
6167:
6161:
6109:
6103:
6054:
6048:
6032:. Retrieved
6029:Science News
6028:
5993:
5970:
5947:
5924:
5903:. Retrieved
5899:
5889:
5840:
5836:
5826:
5781:
5777:
5771:
5744:
5740:
5731:
5686:
5682:
5672:
5647:
5643:
5637:
5628:
5619:
5586:
5582:
5576:
5564:. Retrieved
5551:
5540:. Retrieved
5536:the original
5531:
5522:
5513:
5504:
5492:. Retrieved
5482:
5470:. Retrieved
5422:
5418:
5408:
5403:, p. 1.
5396:
5384:. Retrieved
5369:
5343:. Retrieved
5336:the original
5315:
5311:
5298:
5286:. Retrieved
5284:. p. 66
5273:
5266:
5254:. Retrieved
5246:
5236:
5195:
5189:
5183:
5158:
5152:
5143:
5132:. Retrieved
5119:
5084:
5078:
5068:
5025:
5021:
5011:
4992:
4953:
4949:
4943:
4918:
4914:
4908:
4873:
4867:
4843:
4799:
4793:
4787:
4782:, Chapter 11
4775:
4770:, Chapter 10
4763:
4723:
4714:
4681:
4677:
4656:. Retrieved
4653:ScienceDaily
4652:
4642:
4597:
4593:
4583:
4556:
4552:
4527:. Retrieved
4523:the original
4518:
4509:
4474:
4470:
4460:
4452:the original
4441:
4406:
4402:
4392:
4351:
4347:
4340:
4313:
4309:
4299:
4275:(B7): 3523.
4272:
4268:
4258:
4246:. Retrieved
4226:
4222:
4212:
4200:
4188:
4169:
4163:
4110:
4106:
4096:
4084:. Retrieved
4080:
4071:
4046:
4042:
4036:
3991:
3987:
3981:
3969:
3958:. Retrieved
3951:the original
3930:
3926:
3913:
3886:
3877:
3865:. Retrieved
3861:the original
3857:Geomagnetism
3856:
3793:
3789:
3783:
3771:. Retrieved
3767:the original
3762:
3752:
3740:. Retrieved
3736:the original
3726:
3714:. Retrieved
3710:the original
3705:
3701:
3691:
3679:. Retrieved
3675:the original
3671:Science@NASA
3670:
3661:
3649:. Retrieved
3638:
3619:
3601:Merrill 2010
3575:. Retrieved
3571:the original
3567:Science@Nasa
3566:
3539:. Retrieved
3535:the original
3525:
3492:
3488:
3482:
3471:. Retrieved
3467:Hyperphysics
3466:
3463:"Bar Magnet"
3456:
3436:
3429:
3409:
3402:
3382:
3375:
3363:. Retrieved
3359:
3349:
3337:. Retrieved
3327:
3316:. Retrieved
3314:. 2021-08-31
3311:
3302:
3290:. Retrieved
3264:. Retrieved
3260:the original
3249:
3238:. Retrieved
3234:
3225:
3183:. Retrieved
3174:
3155:
3149:
3130:
3124:
3105:
3099:
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2706:Biomagnetism
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170:Permittivity
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8276:Cartography
8215:Environment
8082:Climatology
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7752:Double Star
7689:Heliosphere
7679:Solar flare
7329:Geodynamics
7189:Occupations
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2157:reversals.
1869:radioactive
1704:iron oxides
1449:heliosphere
1441:cosmic rays
1411:magnetotail
1407:Earth radii
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1227:Declination
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7585:Polar wind
7580:Jet stream
7369:Seismology
7294:Geophysics
7150:Geobiology
7125:Biogeology
7104:Seismology
7081:Geophysics
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6913:Mineralogy
6555:Geophysics
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6267:Geophysics
6206:2006-01-21
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5542:2022-01-12
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3339:21 October
3318:2021-09-03
3266:20 October
3240:2024-03-02
3185:2024-06-21
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2894:20 October
2828:References
2782:Polar wind
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2168:lunar tide
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2107:convection
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1309:See also:
1254:for 2020.
1210:dip circle
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927:bar magnet
884:solar wind
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480:Waveguides
460:Resistance
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8298:Geomatics
8243:Ecosystem
8228:Biosphere
8190:Etymology
8170:Earth Day
8120:Australia
8030:Exosphere
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7889:Neptunian
7879:Saturnian
7833:SuperDARN
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7575:Geosphere
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2306:artifacts
2251:anomalies
2208:Detection
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2075:σ
2061:diffusion
1969:×
1958:×
1955:∇
1938:∇
1934:η
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1912:∂
1876:geodynamo
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1708:magnetite
1689:excursion
1563:blackouts
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1156:gauss (G)
1150:Intensity
1126:(North),
1112:intensity
1092:variation
1042:sea floor
954:compasses
912:geodynamo
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788:Steinmetz
718:Kirchhoff
703:Jefimenko
698:Hopkinson
683:Helmholtz
678:Heaviside
540:Permeance
425:Impedance
165:Insulator
160:Gauss law
110:Conductor
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8545:Category
8497:The Moon
7491:Category
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6760:Category
6477:Archived
6464:Archived
6453:Archived
6434:Archived
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6305:(1994).
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8391:Geology
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738:Lorentz
733:Liénard
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8414:Future
8258:Nature
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2944::
2934::
2926::
2898:.
2875:.
2863::
2855::
2658:(
2576:r
2569:r
2562:r
2548:r
2538:r
2530:m
2528:h
2521:m
2519:g
2504:1
2501:h
2495:1
2492:g
2486:1
2483:g
2477:0
2474:g
2464:m
2462:h
2455:m
2453:g
2399:m
2368:m
2358:m
2351:m
2346:P
2078:=
2042:∇
2037:t
2033:B
2031:∂
2027:μ
2020:σ
2004:B
1998:u
1980:,
1977:)
1973:B
1965:u
1961:(
1952:+
1948:B
1942:2
1931:=
1925:t
1916:B
1526:.
1524:T
1521:μ
1135:Z
1129:Y
1123:X
1117:F
1114:(
1101:I
1098:(
1087:D
1084:(
842:e
835:t
828:v
20:)
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