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extinguishing the latter insect with a park of artillery; though all the city seem to have fancied that George
Washington Dixon could be conquered with no less. The truth of him is, that he is a most unmitigated fool; and as to his pursuing any person with malice, he is not capable of any sentiment requiring the appreciation of real or fancied injury. If he were kicked down stairs, he could not decide, until told by some one else, whether the kick was the result of accident or design, and if design, whether it was intended as a compliment or an insult.
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427:. Nevertheless, he also reached out to a richer, middle-class patronage. For example, he played alongside a classically trained pianist, and he billed the performance as a "concert", a word typically reserved for high-class, non-blackface entertainment. Dixon earned a third of the gross from this engagement: $ 23.50. He still owed money to the printer of
661:. He then targeted men who seduced young, working-class women, boarders who cheated their landlords, dysfunctional banks, and so-called British agents who were supposedly stirring up anti-American sentiment among American Indians and black slaves. Dixon claimed to be "a battering-ram against vice and folly in every shape", writing:
709:, the court will take measures for procuring the passage of such a law", Dixon responded with the March 20 headline "Restell caught at last!" On March 22, Ann Lohman, part of the husband-and-wife team behind the Restell name, was arrested. Dixon claimed vindication and covered the trial over several issues of the
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I consider him as being on the frontier line—sometimes on one side, and sometimes on the other, just as the breeze of fortune happens to blow." In the end, he was found not guilty when the prosecution failed to satisfy that he had known the document to be a forgery. Dixon took the opportunity to give
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by March, and he renewed his public crusade in New York. On
February 22, 1846, he posted handbills around the city publicizing a meeting to protest further activities by Madame Restell. At the rally the next day, several hundred people listened to Dixon speak against the abortionist, calling for her
510:
Not ten days after the end of the
Harrington case, Dixon was charged with forging a signature on a bail bond pertaining to his previous debt from July 1835. He was sent to Lowell and jailed. The press responded with its usual glee: "George has been a great eulogist, the defender of the Constitution!
760:
We know him for a greedy, sordid, unscrupulous knave, of old; ... We are aware that men are judged by the company they keep and that we shall be blamed for having had anything to do with Dixon. Be it so.—We deserve rebuke, we have suffered for our folly and, if that is not enough, we are content to
724:
Even with positive press, Dixon's troubles with the courts were not over. Around
September 16, he allegedly assaulted Peter D. Formal, who was taking down bills that Dixon had posted. Dixon failed to appear for his October court date, and he skipped later dates on 1 and November 11. On November 19,
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The
Minturn case came first, on April 15, 1839. After three days, the jury came back unable to reach a verdict, and the Minturn brothers dropped the charges. Dixon returned to jail, but Hawks dropped his charges from four to three. The judge lowered bail to $ 900 on April 20, and Dixon walked free.
467:
Mister Zip Coon is at his old tricks again. So far from possessing the ability to write a letter Miss Nancy-Coal-Black-Rose Dixon cannot begin to write ten consecutive words of the
English language, and he must have encountered "the Schoolmaster abroad" in the Athenian city that teaches "penmanship
828:
gave this advice: "walk in one direction all the time, from this part of the compass, till ocean fetches him up, and then see how far he can swim." He walked for 60 hours that summer in
Richmond, then did 30 miles (48 km) in five hours and 35 minutes in Washington, D.C. Dixon tried many other
668:
cannot die. The protecting
Providence that watches over the safety of the just, and defeats the machinations of the wicked, will make it bloom ... We prophesy that the latest descendant of the youngest newsboy will animate his hearers with the desire to emulate the enviable fame of DIXON! Our name
644:
Dixon is a mulatto, and was, not many years ago, employed in this city, in an oyster house to open oysters and empty the shells into the carts before they were carried away. He is an impudent scoundrel, aspires to every thing, and was fit to be any body's fool. Somebody used his name (such as he
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alleged that Thomas
Hamblin, manager of the Bowery Theatre, was engaging in an affair with Miss Missouri, a teen-aged performer there. Within ten days of publication, Miss Missouri turned up dead, reportedly killed by "inflammation of the brain caused by the violent misconduct of Miss Missouri's
288:
Few
Melodists have gained more celebrity or been so universally admired, ... The many effusions from the pen of this gentleman independent of his vocal powers, is sufficient proof of his being a man of considerable talent and originality—you should hear him sing his national air "on a wing that
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A newspaper story from 1841 claims that at age 15, Dixon's singing caught the attention of a circus proprietor named West. The man convinced Dixon to join his traveling circus as a stablehand and errand boy. Dixon traveled with this and other circuses for a time, and he appears as a singer and
305:" trying to fit into Northern white society, "Zip Coon" garnered acclaim and quickly became an audience favorite and Dixon's trademark tune. He later claimed to have written the song, although others performed it before him, so this seems unlikely. Dixon accompanied his singing with an earthy
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for one admitted that his trial had exposed an unsavory facet of the upper class. Nevertheless, on May 10, Dixon changed his plea to guilty regarding one count, and the next day did the same for the other two. He was sentenced to six months of hard labor at the New York State Penitentiary at
338:
Mr. Dixon, the singer (an American,) now made his appearance. "Let us have Zip Coon," exclaimed a thousand voices. The singer gave them their favorite song, amidst peals of laughter,—and his Honor the Mayor, who as the old woman said of her husband, is a "good-natured, easy fellow," made his
238:
Dixon performed through 1834, most frequently at New York's three major theatres. In addition to blackface song-and-dance numbers, he did whiteface songs and scenes from popular plays; much of his material was quite challenging. Dixon's fame allowed him to pepper his material with satire and
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To those who know the true character, and something of the personal history of this imbecile vagrant, the exuberance of indignation with which he is pursued, appears truly ridiculous. That he is disgusting, a nuisance, and a bore, we know—and so is a spider. Nobody would dream, however, of
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called himself, for negroes have, by right, no surnames) as the publisher of a newspaper, in which every body, almost, was libelled. He is now caged, and, we may hope, will, when he comes out of prison, go to opening oysters, or some other employment appropriate to his habits and color.
696:. He vowed to reprint an anti-Restell editorial every week until the authorities took notice or Restell stopped running newspaper ads for her abortion services. As for abortion itself, Dixon claimed that it subverted marriage by inhibiting procreation and encouraged female infidelity.
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praised his editing and writing: "Go on martyr of virtue, go on and prosper! Go on getting out extras, and defending the sacredness of the marriage institution. Go on through malice, opposition, fiery trials, persecutions and assassinations—posterity will do thee justice ... !"
387:, and was hunting after the other." By the next month, Dixon had sold his paper, and the new publishers were eager to point out that Dixon no longer had anything to do with its production. By August, rumors were circulating that Dixon had started up another paper called the
765:
In keeping with sexual morality at the time, Dixon and his colleagues sometimes checked bordellos for cleanliness, friendliness, and other factors. Snelling drew from this, linking Dixon to organized prostitution and alleging that he had connections to a madam named
526:
wrote: "I begin to think that the Melodist bears a charmed life—and as was often said to be done in olden time, has made a bargain with the Being of Darkness for a certain term of years, during which he may defy the majesty of the law, and the wrath of his enemies."
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paid it, and Dixon walked free. Only a month later, though, she had sent Dixon back to jail for unknown reasons. Facing seven counts (four from Hawks and three from the Minturns), the singer and editor remained incarcerated for two months while he awaited trial.
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In February, he competed to win $ 4,000 by walking 48 hours without stopping. When the prize failed to materialize, Dixon charged admission to watch him. Later that month, Dixon tried to break this record by walking 50 hours. His publicity was, as usual, bad.
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Again and again have I been applied to by his emissaries for money, and as often have they been refused; and, as a consequence, I have been vilified and abused without stint or measure, which, of course, I expected, and, of the two, would prefer to his
877:, Dixon added some timely political references to "Zip Coon" and briefly returned to the public eye. Another crusade seems to have drawn Dixon away from New York in 1847. He was probably one of the first Radical Republicans to entrench himself as a
115:. By this point, he had taken to using his paper to expose what he considered the misdeeds of the upper classes. These stories earned him many enemies, and Dixon was taken to court on several occasions. His most successful paper was the
507:. The judge eventually dismissed the case, agreeing that the paper had been taken, but ruling that no proof pointed to Dixon as the one who had taken it. Dixon gave another post-trial speech, followed by a stage show on February 4.
588:. Dixon spent a week in jail, then paid the $ 2000 bail. However, before he could even leave the jailhouse, he was arrested for a charge leveled by Rowland Minturn's brothers that Dixon's article had resulted in the man's death.
167:. Fairly detailed descriptions and portraits of Dixon survive; he had a swarthy complexion and a "splendid head of hair". However, the question of whether he was white or black is an open one. His enemies sometimes called him a "
546:, singing selections from popular operas. His fame (or notoriety) served to get him listed as a candidate for the Boston mayoral race in December. Dixon won nine votes, despite his polite refusal to serve should he be elected.
247:
in 1830; the book remained in print long after. Dixon mostly played to a working-class audience, including in his repertoire such songs as "The New York Fireman", which compared firefighters to the American Founding Fathers.
778:, but they did not sell well. Rumors circulated at this time that Dixon was to be married, but sources disagreed over the identity of the fiancée; one said she was a Congressman's daughter, another that she was a madam. The
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neighbors to demand her eviction or else to take matters into their own hands. The crowd then walked to her residence three blocks away to shout threats but eventually dispersed. Restell responded with a letter to the
595:, and by his infamous publication is morally guilty of no less than three murders, and I hope the court will not diminish the amount of bail one iota!" It did not. Nevertheless, a notorious New York madam named
1935:
On the Real Side: Laughing, Lying, and Signifying—The Underground Tradition of African-American Humor that Transformed American Culture, from Slavery to Richard Pryor. New York: Simon & Schuster.
419:
night is announced! Will some of the enlightened citizens of the emporium favor us with their opinion of his performance? Is his Zip Coon as thrilling as Mr Wood's "Still so gently o'er me stealing?"
92:, where he quickly established himself as a singer. In 1829, he began performing "Coal Black Rose" in blackface; this and similar songs would propel him to stardom. In contrast to his contemporary
902:"by night and day, was the home of this waif upon society ... The 'General' was not without friends who contributed an odd 'five' to him when too frail to move about." He came down with pulmonary
423:
On 16 and April 30, Dixon played the Masonic Temple in Boston. There he included material to appeal to his lower-class audience, such as a popular tune that he had adapted with lyrics about the
577:. He exposed another alleged affair, this between a merchant named Rowland R. Minturn and the wife of a shipmaker named James H. Roome. Twelve days after the publication, Roome killed himself.
175:", or referred to him as "Zip Coon", the name of the black character in one of his songs. However, the weight of evidence suggests that if Dixon did have black ancestry, it was fairly remote.
829:
feats of endurance. For example, in late August, he stood on a plank for three days and two nights with no sleep. In September, he paced for 76 hours on a 15-foot-long (five-meter) platform.
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At the trial, held in mid-June, character witnesses testified that Dixon was "a harmless, inoffensive man, but destitute of business capacity" and "in reply to the question whether Dixon was
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Meanwhile, he did not give up his singing career. In early 1843, Dixon (now called "Pedestrian and Melodist") appeared at least once more at the Bowery Theatre, and he played on bills with
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appearance, delivered a short speech, made a low bow, and went out. Dixon, who had produced such amazing good nature with "Zip Coon," next addressed them—and they soon quietly dispersed.
934:, 189, argues that 1801 is the correct date. This is based on Dixon's records at a New Orleans hospital, which list him as 60 years old in 1861, and a December 11, 1841 article in the
716:
On September 12, a man in the street struck Dixon in the head with an ax, which prompted some of the only positive press Dixon ever enjoyed that was not related to his singing. The
96:, Dixon was primarily a singer rather than a dancer. He was by all accounts a gifted vocalist, and much of his material was quite challenging. "Zip Coon" became his trademark song.
535:
573:." On July 28, Hamblin accosted Dixon. Another assault in August prompted Dixon to start carrying a pistol. Undaunted, Dixon continued his attacks on Hamblin and others in the
907:
806:. A fad for public competitions and feats of endurance served as another vehicle for him to keep his name in the public eye; he became a "pedestrian", a long-distance sport
557:
Dixon performed in Boston through the end of February 1838. That spring, he moved to New York City, where he re-entered the publishing business with a newspaper called the
289:
beamed in glory" unnecessary for us to enlarge on his merits as a vocalist—for his Melodies display a feeling of Patriotism which attracts the attention of every beholder.
85:", and similar songs. He later turned to a career in journalism, during which he earned the enmity of members of the upper class for his frequent allegations against them.
713:. After her conviction on July 20, he wrote, "the monster in human shape ... has ... been convicted of one of the most hellish acts ever perpetrated in a Christian land!"
584:, an Episcopalian rector and reverend at the St. Thomas Church of New York, had been engaging in illicit sexual behavior. On December 31, Dixon was in court, charged with
220:. These performances proved a hit, and Dixon rose to celebrity, perhaps before any other American blackface performer had done so. On December 14, Dixon's benefit at the
511:
But he cannot defend himself." At his hearing on February 15, bail was set at $ 1000, an unheard of amount for the time. Unable to pay, he was transferred to a jail in
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Another stage tour followed, with concerts in Lowell, New England, and Maine. This was an apparent success, with one reviewer saying that Dixon had "a voice which
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in exposing allegedly immoral affairs of well known Bostonians. One story told of two personalities eloping. Other Boston papers called the story false, and the
259:
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on April 17 resulted in a hung jury, and his prosecutors dropped the charges against him. He gave another of his by now trademark post-trial addresses. The
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characterized his audience as "crowded galleries and scantily filled boxes"; that is, mostly working-class. On September 24 at the Bowery, Dixon performed
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sit down in sackcloth and ashes; the meet attire of fools who trust to a person so vile that the English language cannot express his unmitigated baseness.
435:
note to the trustee to collect early. Within a few days, Dixon was arrested and jailed in Boston. The press took the opportunity to castigate him again: "
431:, so these earnings were put in trust for the conductor of the orchestra to pick up at a later date. Dixon and the printer grew impatient and presented a
383:
254:
657:, whom he accused of sexual misconduct. On August 21, 1840, he went so far as to rally a riot against her and then published the inciting speech in the
701:
2116:
1981:
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629:. Dixon reportedly responded, "This is a pretty situation for an editor." He would later claim that Hawks had paid him $ 1000 to change his plea.
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Dixon kept his word, illustrating the editorial in later runs with woodcuts of Restell carrying a skull-and-crossbones emblem. When the March 17
561:. Dixon again championed the lower class and aimed to expose the sordid affairs of the rich, especially those who preyed upon lower-class women.
2016:
653:, emerging as the leader of a cadre of like-minded editors interested in exposing immorality. Dixon now focused his efforts on Austrian dancer
543:
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119:, which he began publishing in 1838 from New York City. Under its masthead, he challenged some of his greatest adversaries, including
2021:
352:, a small town growing out of the Industrial Revolution. By April, he had taken the epithet "The National Melodist" and was editing
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Despite these excursions into athletics and entertainment, Dixon still considered himself an editor. He started a new paper called
810:. The participation of Dixon, a blackface singer and dancer, in these contests presaged the challenge dances of performers such as
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quoted the New York grand jury as saying "We earnestly pray that if there is no law that will reach this , which we present as a
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272:. However, the publication saw little success, and by January 1834, he was performing again, now with new talents, such as
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2006:
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By February 1836, Dixon was touring again. He played many well-attended shows in Boston that month and did a play at the
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reciter of poems on bills dated from as early as February 1824. By early 1829, he had taken on the epithet "The American
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erupted. Young men in New York City targeted the homes, businesses, churches, and institutions of black New Yorkers and
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political commentary. On November 25, 1830, he sang before a crowd of 120,000 in Washington, D.C., in support of the
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Bail was raised to $ 9000, an enormous amount, which Dixon protested. The prosecution argued that "The accused is a
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In early 1837, Dixon was again in legal trouble. Harrington accused Dixon of stealing half a ream of paper from the
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Dixon was still guilty in the eyes of the press, however, and his letters to clear his name only made things worse:
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2101:
276:. Dixon seemed untarnished by his yearlong hiatus. Reviews said that "his voice seems formed of the music itself—
131:. After a brief foray into hypnotism, "pedestrianism" (long-distance walking), and other pursuits, he retired to
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unite in pronouncing to be of remarkable richness and compass." That Fall, he may have contemplated a tour with
2031:
1996:
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2026:
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a speech to the public outside. He then returned to the stage, earning a considerable $ 527.50 in late July.
216:, a dramatic interpretation of the events described in "Coal Black Rose" and possibly the first blackface
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will be handed down to the end of time as one of the most independent men of the nineteenth century! Our
892:, sometime before 1848. A city directory gives his address as "Literary Tent", and his obituary in the
357:
356:. The paper took as motto "Knowledge—Liberty—Utility—Representation—Responsibility" and championed the
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alleging that Dixon was simply trying to extort money from her in return for an end to his agitation:
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At this classical establishment, Mr Dixon, "the American Buffo singer," is at present the star. His
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402:. His recent forays into publishing had soured his image in the popular press, however, and
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443:, and ex-publisher, ex-editor, ex-broker, ex-melodist, &c., is quite out of tune." The
440:
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By 1835, Dixon considered journalism to be his primary vocation. His first major paper was
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by defending himself and his motives, and to some degree, he seems to have succeeded. The
8:
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1305:
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obtained a warrant against him, and Dixon countersued. Snelling wrote anonymously in the
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called Dixon "the most miserable apology for a vocalist that ever bored the public ear."
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had been seen fighting over the Melodist. If Dixon did marry, no record survives of it.
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in France. He began selling a collection of songs and skits he had popularized called
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538:, a black musician and dancer well known in lower-class districts of Boston such as
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grossed $ 155.87, the largest take there since the opening night earlier that year.
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Details about Dixon's childhood are scarce. The record suggests that he was born in
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737:. A warrant was issued for his arrest on April 13. By this time, he had handed the
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The prison at Blackwell's Island, where Dixon served a six-month sentence for libel
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did not meet their expectations when they ordered him to perform. According to the
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Dixon's criticism of his colleagues did not win him any friends, and in June, the
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476:. The paper focused on working-class issues, religious values, and opposition to
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By the end of 1836, Dixon had moved to Boston and started a new paper, the
69:(1801? – March 2, 1861) was an American singer, stage actor, and newspaper
1268:. Metuchen, New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, p. 210; Quoted in Knowles 77.
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labeled Dixon a "knave". Dixon fired back, depicting the paper's editor,
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Beginning in 1842, Dixon took on a number of new occupations, including
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Dixon served out his sentence then returned to New York. He resumed the
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and women's place in the rapidly changing society of the urban North.
320:. On the night of July 9, the mob stormed the Bowery Theatre. Manager
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reported that Dixon would read an address from the President at the
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On February 16, 1841, Dixon turned to a crusade against a New York
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performer (possibly the first American to do so) after performing "
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In late 1841, Dixon had gotten into another row with a colleague.
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as part of a citywide campaign by the district attorney to fight
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168:
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1865:
The Wickedest Woman in New York: Madame Restell, the Abortionist
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sometime in mid-1860. On February 27, 1861, he checked into the
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Dixon's March 16 trial ended in conviction. His appeal to the
1948:
The Cambridge History of American Theatre: Beginnings to 1870
1879:
Demons of Disorder: Early Blackface Minstrels and Their World
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in six lessons," and that lately too if he can sign his name.
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217:
172:
1921:
Blacking Up: The Minstrel Show in Nineteenth-century America
1116:. Providence: Brown University Library. Quoted in Lewis 257.
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Many biographies list his birth year as 1808, but Cockrell,
910:, noting his occupation as "editor". Dixon died on March 2.
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made up another facet of his act; on December 4, 1832, the
142:
733:. On January 13, 1842, Dixon was indicted for the charges
297:" for the first time. Although Dixon had previously sung "
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in a bid to annex more territory for the United States.
542:. Instead, he appeared on December 6 at the upper-class
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reported that he had "flogged one of the editors of the
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published a story that Brown and a prostitute named
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mother and the publication of an abusive article in
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Over three days in late July 1829, Dixon performed "
1946:Wilmeth, Don B. and Bigsby, C. W. E., eds. (1998).
1895:, Vol. 24 or 6. New York: Oxford University Press.
1891:Cockrell, Dale (1999). "Dixon, George Washington".
395:. If he did, no copies are known to have survived.
1909:. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Co.
265:In 1833, he started a small newspaper called the
1963:
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840:. On January 29, he performed at a benefit for
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1730:
1638:. Quoted in Browder 29. Emphasis in original.
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938:that says he was born "some forty years ago".
474:Bostonian; or, Dixon's Saturday Night Express
1621:. Emphasis in original. Quoted in Cockrell,
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1461:. Emphasis in original. Quoted in Cockrell,
1264:, quoted in Leonard, William Torber (1986).
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503:, the principal competition to Harrington's
1907:Tap Roots: The Early History of Tap Dancing
745:, and the charges were eventually dropped.
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774:joined with Dixon for a few issues of the
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640:The press reacted with its usual fervor:
107:, in 1835. He followed this in 1836 with
1950:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
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607:The press renewed their attacks on him:
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146:
143:Childhood, adolescence and young manhood
2117:19th-century musicians from New Orleans
1982:19th-century American newspaper editors
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163:family. He may have been educated at a
151:Sheet music cover for "Zip Coon", 1830s
1964:
301:", another racist tale about a black "
2017:19th-century deaths from tuberculosis
1923:. New York: Oxford University Press.
1867:. Hamden, Connecticut: Archon Books.
725:he again was placed under arrest for
2037:Musicians from Lowell, Massachusetts
919:
844:. These concerts would be his last.
559:Polyanthos and Fire Department Album
520:Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court
408:satirized his lower-class audience:
2112:Male actors from Richmond, Virginia
1844:Baton Rouge Daily Gazette and Comet
895:Baton Rouge Daily Gazette and Comet
770:. Eventually, another editor named
343:
13:
2097:19th-century American male writers
1987:19th-century American male singers
14:
2128:
2092:19th-century American male actors
2077:Actors from Lowell, Massachusetts
2047:Musicians from Richmond, Virginia
1097:Harrisburg Pennsylvania Telegraph
1077:Harrisburg Pennsylvania Telegraph
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391:and was selling it in Lowell and
2022:Tuberculosis deaths in Louisiana
1095:, quoted in the January 18, 1834
324:failed to quell them, and actor
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206:theatres in New York City. The
1881:. Cambridge University Press.
1546:, quoted on November 11, 1843
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480:. It followed the lead of the
348:In early 1835, Dixon moved to
109:Dixon's Saturday Night Express
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2072:19th-century American dancers
2012:Blackface minstrel performers
1992:19th-century American singers
1856:
1075:, quoted on January 18, 1834
999:. Paraphrased in Cockrell 96.
580:Another article alleged that
231:Cover to the 1842 edition of
73:. He rose to prominence as a
2067:Male actors from New Orleans
2052:People from Roosevelt Island
1403:, 113. Emphasis in original.
1208:, 103. Emphasis in original.
1114:Series of Old American Songs
1083:, 113. Emphasis in original.
908:New Orleans Charity Hospital
593:criminal of the blackest dye
88:At age 15, Dixon joined the
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1893:American National Biography
684:depiction of Madame Restell
293:In March, Dixon performed "
10:
2133:
2062:American circus performers
2042:Musicians from New Orleans
2007:American male stage actors
1863:Browder, Clifford (1988).
1842:Obituary, March 23, 1861,
103:, which he published from
2107:Journalists from Virginia
2087:American male journalists
2002:American male racewalkers
1477:quoted on April 23, 1839
1112:Damon, S. Foster (1936).
616:Dixon fought back in the
364:, and the working class.
159:, probably in 1801, to a
52:
37:
28:
21:
1919:Toll, Robert C. (1974).
1690:11 or December 18, 1841
1673:September 18, 1841. The
913:
280:, it animates' ..." The
2082:Male actors from Boston
1877:Cockrell, Dale (1997).
1807:. Quoted in Browder 66.
1664:. Quoted in Browder 44.
1651:. Quoted in Browder 29.
1608:. Quoted in Browder 25.
818:in the next few years.
750:William Joseph Snelling
437:George Washington Dixon
67:George Washington Dixon
23:George Washington Dixon
2102:Singers from Louisiana
1905:Knowles, Mark (2002).
1846:. Quoted in Cockrell,
1755:. Quoted in Cockrell,
1694:. Quoted in Cockrell,
1677:. Quoted in Cockrell,
1550:. Quoted in Cockrell,
1515:. Quoted in Cockrell,
1498:. Quoted in Cockrell,
1481:. Quoted in Cockrell,
1442:. Quoted in Cockrell,
1399:. Quoted in Cockrell,
1397:Portland Eastern Argus
1382:. Quoted in Cockrell,
1352:. Quoted in Cockrell,
1309:. Quoted in Cockrell,
1247:. Quoted in Cockrell,
1204:. Quoted in Cockrell,
1172:. Quoted in Cockrell,
1140:. Quoted in Cockrell,
1099:. Quoted in Cockrell,
1079:. Quoted in Cockrell,
1012:. Quoted in Cockrell,
969:. Quoted in Cockrell,
890:New Orleans, Louisiana
871:
763:
685:
675:
647:
637:
614:
513:Concord, Massachusetts
470:
425:Boston Fire Department
421:
341:
291:
235:
152:
2032:Musicians from Boston
1997:American male dancers
1933:Watkins, Mel (1994).
866:
758:
680:
663:
642:
635:
609:
465:
410:
362:Radical Republicanism
350:Lowell, Massachusetts
336:
286:
230:
150:
105:Lowell, Massachusetts
2027:American mercenaries
1277:Quoted in Cockrell,
875:Mexican–American War
772:George B. Wooldridge
673:will become a relic.
429:Dixon's Daily Review
366:Dixon's Daily Review
354:Dixon's Daily Review
260:Front Street Theatre
101:Dixon's Daily Review
16:American entertainer
1543:Baltimore Chronicle
1306:Spirit of the Times
1266:Masquerade in Black
1245:New York Transcript
1008:December 11, 1841,
965:September 19, 1841
492:Henry F. Harrington
439:, now cormorant of
1803:February 25, 1846
1348:February 13, 1837
1201:The New York Times
995:December 11, 1841
932:Demons of Disorder
686:
638:
627:Blackwell's Island
405:The New York Times
236:
157:Richmond, Virginia
153:
45:Richmond, Virginia
1956:978-0-521-78092-6
1941:978-0-671-68982-7
1929:978-0-19-501820-2
1915:978-0-786-41267-9
1901:978-0-19-520635-7
1887:978-0-521-56828-9
1873:978-0-208-02183-0
1617:January 17, 1841
1475:New York Dispatch
1350:Lowell Advertiser
888:Dixon retired to
849:Dixon's Regulator
731:yellow journalism
455:non compos mentis
384:Lowell Castigator
322:Thomas S. Hamblin
255:Baltimore Patriot
121:Thomas S. Hamblin
64:
63:
60:(aged 59–60)
2124:
1851:
1840:
1834:
1827:
1821:
1814:
1808:
1801:
1795:
1792:
1786:
1779:
1773:
1766:
1760:
1749:. Quoted in the
1747:Brother Jonathan
1743:
1737:
1734:
1725:
1718:
1712:
1705:
1699:
1688:
1682:
1671:
1665:
1658:
1652:
1645:
1639:
1632:
1626:
1615:
1609:
1602:
1596:
1593:
1587:
1580:
1571:
1564:
1555:
1539:
1533:
1526:
1520:
1509:
1503:
1492:
1486:
1472:
1466:
1453:
1447:
1436:
1430:
1423:
1417:
1410:
1404:
1393:
1387:
1376:
1370:
1363:
1357:
1346:
1340:
1333:
1327:
1320:
1314:
1301:
1295:
1288:
1282:
1275:
1269:
1258:
1252:
1241:
1235:
1228:
1222:
1215:
1209:
1198:March 11, 1836.
1196:
1190:
1183:
1177:
1164:
1158:
1151:
1145:
1132:
1126:
1123:
1117:
1110:
1104:
1093:Bedford Enquirer
1090:
1084:
1073:Bedford Enquirer
1070:
1064:
1057:
1051:
1048:
1042:
1035:
1029:
1026:
1017:
1006:
1000:
993:
987:
980:
974:
963:
957:
950:
939:
928:
898:states that the
855:New York Tribune
825:Brother Jonathan
802:specializing in
796:animal magnetist
702:New York Courier
582:Francis L. Hawks
344:Dixon the editor
245:Dixon's Oddities
233:Dixon's Oddities
125:Francis L. Hawks
59:
33:
19:
18:
2132:
2131:
2127:
2126:
2125:
2123:
2122:
2121:
1962:
1961:
1960:
1859:
1854:
1850:, 196 note 190.
1841:
1837:
1828:
1824:
1820:, 196 note 190.
1815:
1811:
1802:
1798:
1793:
1789:
1780:
1776:
1767:
1763:
1744:
1740:
1735:
1728:
1719:
1715:
1706:
1702:
1689:
1685:
1672:
1668:
1659:
1655:
1647:March 20, 1841
1646:
1642:
1634:March 17, 1841
1633:
1629:
1616:
1612:
1603:
1599:
1594:
1590:
1581:
1574:
1565:
1558:
1548:New York Herald
1540:
1536:
1527:
1523:
1510:
1506:
1496:New York Herald
1494:April 19, 1839
1493:
1489:
1473:
1469:
1458:New York Herald
1455:April 20, 1839
1454:
1450:
1437:
1433:
1424:
1420:
1411:
1407:
1395:August 5, 1837
1394:
1390:
1378:April 18, 1837
1377:
1373:
1364:
1360:
1347:
1343:
1334:
1330:
1321:
1317:
1302:
1298:
1289:
1285:
1276:
1272:
1259:
1255:
1242:
1238:
1229:
1225:
1216:
1212:
1197:
1193:
1184:
1180:
1165:
1161:
1152:
1148:
1133:
1129:
1124:
1120:
1111:
1107:
1091:
1087:
1071:
1067:
1058:
1054:
1049:
1045:
1036:
1032:
1027:
1020:
1007:
1003:
994:
990:
986:, 193 note 112.
981:
977:
964:
960:
951:
942:
929:
920:
916:
861:New York Herald
792:
707:public nuisance
555:
536:James Salisbury
494:, as a monkey.
413:Tremont Teatre.
400:Tremont Theatre
346:
312:On July 7, the
241:July Revolution
214:Love in a Cloud
188:Coal Black Rose
145:
111:, published in
79:Coal Black Rose
57:
48:
42:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2130:
2120:
2119:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2057:Ventriloquists
2054:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1959:
1958:
1944:
1931:
1917:
1903:
1889:
1875:
1860:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1852:
1835:
1822:
1809:
1796:
1787:
1774:
1761:
1752:Lowell Courier
1745:July 19, 1842
1738:
1726:
1713:
1700:
1683:
1666:
1660:July 21, 1841
1653:
1640:
1627:
1610:
1604:June 19, 1841
1597:
1588:
1572:
1556:
1534:
1521:
1504:
1487:
1467:
1448:
1438:June 20, 1838
1431:
1418:
1405:
1388:
1371:
1358:
1341:
1328:
1315:
1296:
1283:
1270:
1262:Boston Courier
1253:
1236:
1223:
1210:
1191:
1178:
1166:June 11, 1835
1159:
1146:
1134:July 11, 1834
1127:
1118:
1105:
1085:
1065:
1052:
1043:
1030:
1018:
1001:
988:
975:
967:Sunday Mercury
958:
940:
917:
915:
912:
900:Poydras Market
838:Billy Whitlock
834:Richard Pelham
791:
788:
694:Madame Restell
666:The Polyanthos
597:Adeline Miller
571:The Polyanthos
554:
548:
446:Boston Courier
368:also explored
345:
342:
299:Long Tail Blue
222:Albany Theatre
200:Chatham Garden
165:charity school
144:
141:
129:Madame Restell
94:Thomas D. Rice
62:
61:
54:
50:
49:
43:
39:
35:
34:
26:
25:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2129:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2110:
2108:
2105:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2058:
2055:
2053:
2050:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1969:
1967:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1943:
1942:
1938:
1932:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1861:
1849:
1845:
1839:
1832:
1826:
1819:
1813:
1806:
1800:
1794:Browder 64–5.
1791:
1784:
1778:
1771:
1765:
1758:
1754:
1753:
1748:
1742:
1733:
1731:
1723:
1717:
1710:
1704:
1697:
1693:
1687:
1680:
1676:
1670:
1663:
1657:
1650:
1644:
1637:
1631:
1624:
1620:
1614:
1607:
1601:
1592:
1585:
1579:
1577:
1569:
1563:
1561:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1544:
1538:
1531:
1525:
1518:
1514:
1511:May 20, 1839
1508:
1501:
1497:
1491:
1484:
1480:
1476:
1471:
1464:
1460:
1459:
1452:
1445:
1441:
1435:
1428:
1422:
1415:
1409:
1402:
1398:
1392:
1385:
1381:
1375:
1368:
1362:
1355:
1351:
1345:
1338:
1332:
1325:
1319:
1312:
1308:
1307:
1303:July 2, 1836
1300:
1293:
1287:
1280:
1274:
1267:
1263:
1257:
1250:
1246:
1243:June 2, 1836
1240:
1233:
1227:
1220:
1214:
1207:
1203:
1202:
1195:
1188:
1182:
1175:
1171:
1170:
1163:
1156:
1150:
1143:
1139:
1138:
1131:
1125:Knowles 76–7.
1122:
1115:
1109:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1089:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1069:
1062:
1056:
1047:
1040:
1034:
1025:
1023:
1015:
1011:
1005:
998:
992:
985:
979:
972:
968:
962:
955:
949:
947:
945:
937:
933:
927:
925:
923:
918:
911:
909:
905:
901:
897:
896:
891:
886:
884:
880:
876:
870:
865:
863:
862:
857:
856:
850:
845:
843:
839:
835:
830:
827:
826:
819:
817:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
787:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
762:
757:
755:
751:
746:
744:
740:
736:
732:
728:
722:
719:
714:
712:
708:
704:
703:
697:
695:
691:
683:
679:
674:
672:
667:
662:
660:
656:
655:Fanny Elssler
652:
646:
641:
634:
630:
628:
623:
619:
613:
608:
605:
601:
598:
594:
589:
587:
583:
578:
576:
572:
567:
562:
560:
553:
547:
545:
541:
537:
533:
528:
525:
521:
516:
514:
508:
506:
502:
501:
495:
493:
489:
488:
487:Boston Herald
483:
479:
475:
469:
464:
461:
458:
456:
450:
448:
447:
442:
438:
434:
430:
426:
420:
418:
414:
409:
407:
406:
401:
396:
394:
390:
386:
385:
380:
379:
373:
371:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
340:
335:
333:
332:
327:
326:Edwin Forrest
323:
319:
318:abolitionists
315:
310:
308:
304:
300:
296:
290:
285:
283:
279:
275:
274:ventriloquism
271:
268:
263:
261:
257:
256:
251:
246:
242:
234:
229:
225:
223:
219:
215:
211:
210:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
184:
182:
176:
174:
170:
166:
162:
161:working-class
158:
149:
140:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
110:
106:
102:
97:
95:
91:
86:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
56:March 2, 1861
55:
51:
46:
40:
36:
32:
27:
20:
1972:1800s births
1947:
1934:
1920:
1906:
1892:
1878:
1864:
1847:
1843:
1838:
1830:
1825:
1817:
1812:
1804:
1799:
1790:
1782:
1777:
1769:
1764:
1756:
1750:
1746:
1741:
1721:
1716:
1708:
1703:
1695:
1691:
1686:
1678:
1674:
1669:
1661:
1656:
1648:
1643:
1635:
1630:
1622:
1618:
1613:
1605:
1600:
1591:
1583:
1567:
1551:
1547:
1541:
1537:
1529:
1524:
1516:
1512:
1507:
1499:
1495:
1490:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1462:
1456:
1451:
1443:
1439:
1434:
1426:
1421:
1413:
1408:
1400:
1396:
1391:
1383:
1379:
1374:
1366:
1361:
1353:
1349:
1344:
1336:
1331:
1323:
1318:
1310:
1304:
1299:
1291:
1286:
1278:
1273:
1265:
1261:
1256:
1248:
1244:
1239:
1231:
1226:
1218:
1213:
1205:
1199:
1194:
1186:
1181:
1173:
1167:
1162:
1154:
1149:
1141:
1137:New York Sun
1135:
1130:
1121:
1113:
1108:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1060:
1055:
1046:
1038:
1033:
1013:
1009:
1004:
996:
991:
983:
978:
970:
966:
961:
953:
935:
931:
904:tuberculosis
893:
887:
872:
867:
859:
853:
848:
846:
831:
823:
820:
816:John Diamond
804:clairvoyance
800:spiritualist
793:
790:Later career
779:
775:
764:
759:
753:
747:
738:
734:
723:
717:
715:
710:
706:
700:
698:
687:
670:
665:
664:
658:
650:
648:
643:
639:
621:
617:
615:
610:
606:
602:
592:
590:
579:
574:
570:
565:
563:
558:
556:
551:
544:Opera Saloon
531:
529:
523:
517:
509:
504:
500:Morning Post
498:
496:
485:
482:Daily Review
481:
473:
471:
466:
462:
453:
451:
444:
436:
428:
422:
416:
412:
411:
403:
397:
388:
382:
376:
374:
365:
353:
347:
337:
331:New York Sun
329:
314:Farren Riots
311:
292:
287:
281:
277:
269:
264:
253:
244:
237:
232:
213:
207:
185:
177:
154:
116:
108:
100:
98:
87:
66:
65:
58:(1861-03-02)
1977:1861 deaths
1736:Knowles 77.
1595:Browder 25.
1513:Boston Post
1479:Boston Post
1440:Boston Post
1380:Boston Post
1281:, 104, 106.
1169:Boston Post
1050:Knowles 76.
1028:Watkins 84.
873:During the
812:Master Juba
784:Phoebe Doty
768:Julia Brown
735:in absentia
690:abortionist
682:Penny press
524:Boston Post
441:Boston jail
389:News Letter
378:Boston Post
278:'it thrills
133:New Orleans
123:, Reverend
1966:Categories
1857:References
1829:Cockrell,
1816:Cockrell,
1781:Cockrell,
1768:Cockrell,
1720:Cockrell,
1707:Cockrell,
1662:Polyanthos
1649:Polyanthos
1619:Polyanthos
1606:Polyanthos
1582:Cockrell,
1566:Cockrell,
1528:Cockrell,
1425:Cockrell,
1412:Cockrell,
1365:Cockrell,
1339:, 108–110.
1335:Cockrell,
1322:Cockrell,
1290:Cockrell,
1230:Cockrell,
1217:Cockrell,
1185:Cockrell,
1153:Cockrell,
1059:Cockrell,
1037:Cockrell,
982:Cockrell,
952:Cockrell,
879:filibuster
842:Dan Emmett
776:True Flash
743:Louse Leah
739:Polyanthos
711:Polyanthos
659:Polyanthos
651:Polyanthos
618:Polyanthos
575:Polyanthos
566:Polyanthos
552:Polyanthos
540:Ann Street
358:Whig Party
267:Stonington
117:Polyanthos
1675:Uncle Sam
1260:May 1836
727:obscenity
718:Uncle Sam
692:known as
564:An early
282:Telegraph
192:blackface
183:Singer".
137:Louisiana
75:blackface
1429:, 114–5.
1416:, 113–4.
1221:, 103–4.
671:very hat
478:abortion
370:morality
295:Zip Coon
83:Zip Coon
1636:Courier
883:Yucatán
881:in the
869:praise.
284:wrote,
250:Oratory
194:at the
169:mulatto
1954:
1939:
1927:
1913:
1899:
1885:
1871:
1848:Demons
1833:, 646.
1818:Demons
1805:Herald
1785:, 138.
1783:Demons
1772:, 137.
1770:Demons
1759:, 137.
1757:Demons
1724:, 136.
1722:Demons
1711:, 135.
1709:Demons
1698:, 131.
1696:Demons
1681:, 130.
1679:Demons
1625:, 128.
1623:Demons
1586:, 128.
1584:Demons
1570:, 645.
1554:, 127.
1552:Demons
1532:, 127.
1530:Demons
1519:, 126.
1517:Demons
1502:, 121.
1500:Demons
1485:, 120.
1483:Demons
1465:, 118.
1463:Demons
1446:, 115.
1444:Demons
1427:Demons
1414:Demons
1401:Demons
1386:, 111.
1384:Demons
1369:, 110.
1367:Demons
1356:, 110.
1354:Demons
1337:Demons
1326:, 107.
1324:Demons
1313:, 106.
1311:Demons
1294:, 106.
1292:Demons
1279:Demons
1251:, 104.
1249:Demons
1234:, 104.
1232:Demons
1219:Demons
1206:Demons
1189:, 103.
1187:Demons
1176:, 102.
1174:Demons
1157:, 101.
1155:Demons
1144:, 100.
1142:Demons
1101:Demons
1081:Demons
1061:Demons
1041:, 113.
1039:Demons
1014:Demons
984:Demons
973:, 129.
971:Demons
954:Demons
808:walker
622:Herald
505:Herald
433:forged
393:Boston
270:Cannon
202:, and
196:Bowery
171:", a "
127:, and
113:Boston
90:circus
71:editor
47:, U.S.
1692:Flash
1103:, 98.
1063:, 97.
1016:, 96.
1010:Flash
997:Flash
956:, 96.
936:Flash
914:Notes
780:Flash
754:Flash
586:libel
417:third
303:dandy
218:farce
209:Flash
190:" in
181:Buffo
173:Negro
1952:ISBN
1937:ISBN
1925:ISBN
1911:ISBN
1897:ISBN
1883:ISBN
1869:ISBN
858:and
836:and
814:and
798:and
550:The
204:Park
81:", "
53:Died
41:1801
38:Born
1831:ANB
1568:ANB
741:to
532:all
307:jig
1968::
1729:^
1575:^
1559:^
1021:^
943:^
921:^
756::
515:.
360:,
334::
309:.
262:.
198:,
139:.
135:,
457:,
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