27:
129:, George and his family were granted audience with Tamim and persuaded him to employ them. George and his family were granted various offices, with George becoming governor of Sousse. The family stayed there until the death of George's brother Simon at the hands of Tamim's son, Yahya. Following this, George fled and relocated his family to Norman-controlled Sicily, where they found employment in the court of Roger II of Sicily in 1108. Davis-Secord asserts that George's migration across the Mediterranean is emblematic of the exchange of people and ideas that occurred in the region at that time.
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ad-Dimas near Mahdia, but the two admirals were soon defeated at the hands of the Zirids, and lost 200 of the 300 ships they had sailed from Sicily with. Despite this catastrophic failure in the infancy of his military career, George did not seem to fall out of grace, and was given yet more military responsibilities. In the following year, 1124, George and
Christodulus were summoned by Roger II to partake in his campaign in Apulia. After this, George would take the position of his mentor Christodulus and was styled as
153:
96:
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237:, promptly taking the city, where he remained for half a year, administrating the city and seeing to its defenses. Before his return to Sicily, George appointed a local Muslim to govern the city for the Sicilians. The administration George set up in Tripoli was very similar to the one in Sicily, with many Arabic aspects of governance, such as the
145:. Many of these positions were granted in subordination to Christodulus, who served as a mentor to George. However, as noted in the accounts of the Muslim scholars al-Maqrizi and al-Tijani, George soon began to discredit Christodulus, and took his position at court. By that time, Christodulus's power had grown to that of a prime minister or
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ways in which George exerted his newfound influence, such as changing Roger's wardrobe to be more similar to Muslim rulers, limiting his public appearances, and making sure that the few he did make were extravagant shows of wealth and power. George also made efforts to continue already existing Arabic practices, such as the
188:, who was sentenced to death after rumors of "unfaithfulness" that were likely a result of his leniency toward his fellow Berbers in North Africa (which were harsher than the terms George had put them to). However, Arabic and Muslim influences still persisted for many years, at least until the reign of
258:
George of
Antioch also spent a significant amount of his time at sea fighting with the Byzantines. While there had been a history of conflict between the Normans and the Byzantines over land in Italy, Roger II took that fight to Byzantium proper through raids on Greece starting in 1147. These attacks
220:
George of
Antioch's military career started soon after his migration to Sicily. He was initially a commander under Christodulus, with one of their first joint ventures being the 1123 attack on Mahdia, the seat of the Zirid emirs. The attack started out successfully with the seizure of the fortress of
172:
This new position of power led to an increase in the influence that George of
Antioch had on the Norman court. Familiar with the norms and traditions of Muslim courts, George was instrumental in further cementing and intensifying the Arabic character of Norman Sicily. Al-Maqrizi details a few of the
319:
George of
Antioch's legacy is manifold. His entry into Norman society in Sicily left a lasting legacy of Arabic, Muslim, and the myriad of other cultures and their influences on the island, as well as strengthening the Kingdom of Sicily using both his administrative prowess in bolstering the Norman
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and military expertise in the Norman campaigns around the
Mediterranean. George's role in bridging cultural gaps and connecting the various ethnicities and religions of Norman Sicily into a somewhat cohesive hole indicates the shift in the narrative of the Normans in Sicily from an "enlightened"
141:, a high-ranking official in the Norman government. His many administrative and linguistic skills facilitated his rise within the Norman court. Much like in Ifriqiya, George was placed in charge of administrating the district of Iato in Sicily, and was given the position as an ambassador to the
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court. It seems likely that the lack of George, who served as a bridge between the Greeks, Normans, and Arabs of Sicily, contributed to the decline in diverse cultural influences seen after his death in 1151 or 1152. Joshua Birk makes the case that the Arabic character of the Norman court was
149:, with dominion over military affairs, finances, and with power nearly equal to that of Roger II, his liege. When George took this position in 1126, he assumed all of the powers that his former mentor had possessed and served in this position until his death in either 1151 or 1152.
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society of tolerance as
British scholar John Julius Norwich indicates, to the view that Norman multiculturalism existed as a result of pragmatism and practicality. An example of these connections that still remains today is the church he sponsored in Palermo, the
225:, translated as "admiral of admirals," "emir of emirs," or "great admiral." George was again called to assist Roger II's armies against the lords of southern Italy. In 1131, after Roger's late 1130 coronation, George led a fleet to blockade the city of
111:
The exact location of George of
Antioch's birth is uncertain, but many place it at Antioch, where it is certain that he spent a portion of his younger life. It is again unclear when he left the city, but Sarah Davis-Secord places it sometime around the
251:, and George's final attack on Mahdia in 1148, where he returned with 300 ships, taking the city for the last time. This invasion constituted the integration of Ifriqiya into the Norman kingdom, and the establishment of Roger II's
179:, bringing the Arabic language back into that branch of the administration after it had stopped producing such documents in the years prior, as well as promoting Fatimid methods of governance through his ties to an official in the
87:, George fled the court and found refuge in Norman Sicily. There he spent the remainder of his life, serving as both an administrator and military commander with profound influence within the Kingdom of Sicily until his death.
232:
The next phases of George's military career took place in Africa and Greece. Starting in 1140, George began raiding the city of Mahdia on a regular basis, on King Roger II's orders. In 1146, George led an attack by sea on
247:) tax put on Muslims as they had in Sicily. The attack on Mahdia was part of a larger invasion of Muslim Ifriqiya by the Normans. This is shown by the subsequent attacks on North African cities such as Sousse,
116:
conquest of the city in 1084, whereupon George likely migrated through various other Greek cities in the
Byzantine Empire before finding employment with Emperor Alexios Komnenos. 15th-century Egyptian scholar
295:, which was lightly defended, and did much the same as he did in Thebes and returned to Sicily with his spoils in late 1147. George would return in 1148, but not before he was defeated by a coalition of
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and artworks along with various Arabic writings and inscriptions within the church. Upon his death, George was buried in the church. In 2015, the
Martorana was made part of the
125:
due to a grave complaint. They were exiled and shipped to sea, but their boat was intercepted by the Emir of Ifriqiya, Tamim ibn al-Muizz. Upon their arrival at his court in
329:
or the Church of Saint Mary of the Admiral. It also later came to be known as the Martorana. George sponsored the construction in 1143. The Martorana is a prime example of
697:
Ariel Fein, “Emiral Patronage: George of Antioch, the Martorana, and the Arab-Christians of Norman Sicily, (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, 2021), 1-4, 38, 51-52.
48:
that played a significant role in the transformation of Norman Sicily into a multicultural society and naval power. He did so as chiefly as an advisor to
750:
760:
627:
Crossroads between Latin Europe and the Near East: Corollaries of the Frankish Presence in the Eastern Mediterranean (12-14th centuries),
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745:
267:, which he was able to bribe due to the excessive tax burden placed on the island by the Byzantines. George then sailed into the
137:
After coming to Sicily, George was given several jobs and roles at the Norman court. One such job was as a tax collector under
121:, in his biography of George of Antioch, states that sometime around the year 1087, George and his family were forced to leave
330:
263:, who portrays George, his fellow Greek, as a pillager only motivated by greed. George's attacks began with the island of
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and Byzantine ships. In 1149, George then managed to sail through the Aegean and harass the defenses of Constantinople.
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culture, combining aspects of the various cultures within Norman Sicily. This can be seen in the distinctly Greek
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ostracized almost immediately after George's death. Birk demonstrates this with the trial of George's successor,
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735:
725:
291:, sacking and looting the city, and absconding with great wealth. George then made his way to the city of
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229:, which Roger had demanded the subjugation of. Roger and his land troops subsequently took the city.
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44:: Γεώργιος ό Άντιοχεύς; died 1151 or 1152) was a court official and military officer in the
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8:
341:
625:
David Abulafia, “The Kingdom of Sicily: From Arab-Norman kingdom to Latin kingdom,” in
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Francesco Carbonaro, “Christodulo and George of Antioch, the First Great Admirals,” in
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49:
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for a part of his life before he and his family found work with the Byzantine Emperor
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ed. and trans. Jeremy Johns, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 84, 87.
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60:
566:
Norman Kings of Sicily and the Rise of the Anti-Islamic Critique: Baptized Sultans
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ed. and trans. Jeremy Johns, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 80-82.
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Roger II of Sicily: Family, Faith, and Empire in the Medieval Mediterranean World
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Roger II of Sicily: Family, Faith, and Empire in the Medieval Mediterranean World
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Roger II of Sicily: Family, Faith, and Empire in the Medieval Mediterranean World
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until their exile from the Empire. He and his family then worked for the Emir of
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675:, trans. Harry Magoulias, (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1984), 43-45.
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recorded the significant Arabic presence and influence within the royal court.
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41:
564:
Joshua Birk, "The Case of Philipp of Mahdiyya: A Medieval Murder History," in
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Sarah Davis-Secord, “George of Antioch and Other Immigrants to Sicily,” in
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Dawn Marie Hayes, “The Appeal of Alfonso VI of Leon-Castile’s Legacy,” in
706:"Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Cefalú and Monreale".
535:
Matt King, "The End of the Emirate and the Beginning of the Kingdom," in
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83:. After the death of George's brother at the hands of Tamim's successor,
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ed. and trans. Ronald J. C. Broadhurst (London: J. Cape, 1952), 340-341.
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Dynasties Intertwined: The Zirids of Ifriqiya and the Normans of Sicily
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Dynasties Intertwined: The Zirids of Ifriqiya and the Normans of Sicily
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Arab-Norman Palermo and the Cathedral Churches of Monreale and Cefalu
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Jeremy Johns, “The Regent Adelaide and Count Roger II, 1101-30", in
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The Norman Admiralty: History of an Office Between Two Worlds,
283:. George then sailed back around the Peloponnese and into the
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Seal of George of Antioch, bearing the titles of his offices (
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287:, where he and his troops set out onto the land, attacking
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ed. Stephen Leder (Würzburg: Ergon Verlag GmbH, 2016), 19.
616:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 60, 81, 83.
548:
Matt King, "Commerce and Conflict from 1087 to 1123," in
513:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 33, 38-39.
539:(Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2022), 108.
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Arabic Administration in Norman Sicily: The Royal Diwan,
453:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 257, 282.
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Arabic Administration in Norman Sicily: The Royal Dīwān,
598:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 285-286.
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Arabic Administration in Norman Sicily: The Royal Diwan
552:(Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2022), 95.
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Arabic Administration in Norman Sicily: The Royal Dīwān
451:
Arabic Administration in Norman Sicily: The Royal Diwan
638:
G. A. Loud, “The Church and the Norman conquest,” in
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Ibn Jubayr, "The Month of Ramadan the Venerated," in
493:. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 74.
526:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 150.
642:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 63.
654:Dawn Marie Hayes, “The Message of the Antiquated
614:Roger II of Sicily: A Ruler between East and West
524:Roger II of Sicily: A Ruler between East and West
511:Roger II of Sicily: A Ruler between East and West
394:Dawn Marie Hayes, “The Devotion of Roger II,” in
30:George depicted in a contemporary mosaic, in the
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673:O City of Byzantium: Annals of Niketas Choniates
418:. (London: Arc Humanities Press, 2021), 84-86.
19:For other people named George of Antioch, see
568:(Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016), 141-145 .
522:Hubert Houben, “Between east and west,” in
662:(Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, 2020), 176.
398:(Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, 2020), 116.
751:Military history of the Kingdom of Sicily
688:(Turnhout: Brepols Publishers, 2020), 37.
509:Hubert Houben, “From count to King,” in
431:(Berlin: Logos Verlag Berlin, 2021), 55.
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190:King William II of Sicily
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162:Virgin Mary
160:before the
52:. He was a
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281:Monemvasia
194:Ibn Jubayr
158:supplicant
119:al-Maqrizi
59:from the
297:Venetian
275:and the
271:between
181:Caliphal
73:Ifriqiya
335:mosaics
293:Corinth
235:Tripoli
105:Palermo
65:Antioch
708:UNESCO
658:,” in
471:Rihla,
339:UNESCO
303:Legacy
289:Thebes
273:Athens
227:Amalfi
214:amēras
147:vizier
127:Mahdia
114:Seljuk
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85:Yahya
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