31:
247:
with sophisticated body plans, i.e. bilaterians. There are several theories on the origin of the strict germline-soma distinction. Setting aside an isolated germ cell population early in embryogenesis might promote cooperation between the somatic cells of a complex multicellular organism. Another recent theory suggests that early germline sequestration evolved to limit the accumulation of deleterious mutations in mitochondrial genes in complex organisms with high energy requirements and fast mitochondrial mutation rates.
48:
330:
155:. Apomixis and Parthenogenesis both refer to the development of an embryo without fertilization. The former typically occurs in plants seeds, while the latter tends to be seen in nematodes, as well as certain species of reptiles, birds, and fish. Autogamy is a term used to describe self pollination in plants. Cloning is a technique used to creation of genetically identical cells or organisms.
369:
In the mouse, by days 6.25 to 7.25 after fertilization of an egg by a sperm, cells in the embryo are set aside as primordial germ cells (PGCs). These PGCs will later give rise to germline sperm cells or egg cells. At this point the PGCs have high typical levels of methylation. Then primordial germ
246:
Plants and basal metazoans such as sponges (Porifera) and corals (Anthozoa) do not sequester a distinct germline, generating gametes from multipotent stem cell lineages that also give rise to ordinary somatic tissues. It is therefore likely that germline sequestration first evolved in complex animals
199:
proposed and pointed out, a germline cell is immortal in the sense that it is part of a lineage that has reproduced indefinitely since the beginning of life and, barring accident, could continue doing so indefinitely. However, it is now known in some detail that this distinction between somatic and
365:
regions of genes can reduce or silence gene expression. About 28 million CpG dinucleotides occur in the human genome, and about 24 million CpG sites in the mouse genome (which is 86% as large as the human genome). In most tissues of mammals, on average, 70% to 80% of CpG cytosines are methylated
401:
Following erasure of DNA methylation marks in mouse PGCs, male and female germ cells undergo new methylation at different time points during gametogenesis. While undergoing mitotic expansion in the developing gonad, the male germline starts the re-methylation process by embryonic day 14.5. The
386:
all genomic sequences. This loss of methylation occurs through passive demethylation due to repression of the major components of the methylation machinery. The second phase occurs during embryonic days 9.5 to 13.5 and causes demethylation of most remaining specific loci, including
395:(5-hmC) during embryonic days 9.5 to 10.5. This is likely followed by replication-dependent dilution during embryonic days 11.5 to 13.5. At embryonic day 13.5, PGC genomes display the lowest level of global DNA methylation of all cells in the life cycle.
835:
Akira Wakana and
Shunpei Uemoto. Adventive Embryogenesis in Citrus (Rutaceae). II. Postfertilization Development. American Journal of Botany Vol. 75, No. 7 (Jul., 1988), pp. 1033-1047 Published by: Botanical Society of America Article Stable URL:
381:
In the mouse, PGCs undergo DNA demethylation in two phases. The first phase, starting at about embryonic day 8.5, occurs during PGC proliferation and migration, and it results in genome-wide loss of methylation, involving
333:
5 methylcytosine methyl highlight. The image shows a cytosine single ring base and a methyl group added on to the 5 carbon. In mammals, DNA methylation occurs almost exclusively at a cytosine that is followed by a
219:
into somatic and germ lines, but in the absence of specialised technical human intervention practically all but the simplest multicellular structures do so. In such organisms somatic cells tend to be practically
402:
sperm-specific methylation pattern is maintained during mitotic expansion. DNA methylation levels in primary oocytes before birth remain low, and re-methylation occurs after birth in the oocyte growth phase.
750:
Bonetti, G.; Donato, K.; Medori, M. C.; Dhuli, K.; Henehan, G.; Brown, R.; Sieving, P.; Sykora, P.; Marks, R.; Falsini, B.; Capodicasa, N.; Miertus, S.; Lorusso, L.; Dondossola, D.; Tartaglia, G. M. (2023).
166:, recombinations and other genetic changes in the germline may be passed to offspring, but changes in a somatic cell will not be. This need not apply to somatically reproducing organisms, such as some
398:
In the mouse, the great majority of differentially expressed genes in PGCs from embryonic day 9.5 to 13.5, when most genes are demethylated, are upregulated in both male and female PGCs.
1202:
Bernstein H, Byerly HC, Hopf FA, Michod RE. Genetic damage, mutation, and the evolution of sex. Science. 1985 Sep 20;229(4719):1277-81. doi: 10.1126/science.3898363. PMID 3898363
345:
of DNA include modifications that affect gene expression, but are not caused by changes in the sequence of bases in DNA. A well-studied example of such an alteration is the
230:
can refer to a lineage of cells spanning many generations of individuals—for example, the germline that links any living individual to the hypothetical
224:, and for over a century sponge cells have been known to reassemble into new sponges after having been separated by forcing them through a sieve.
317:. Among humans, about five percent of live-born offspring have a genetic disorder, and of these, about 20% are due to newly arisen
788:
860:
582:
559:
278:, is produced by spontaneous oxidation in the germline cells of mice, and during the cell's DNA replication cause GC to TA
786:. ed. E.Monosson and C.J.Cleveland. Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC
195:
In an earlier stage of genetic thinking, there was a clear distinction between germline and somatic cells. For example,
820:
305:. The lower frequencies of mutation in germline cells compared to somatic cells appears to be due to more efficient
259:
1035:
Ohno M, Sakumi K, Fukumura R, Furuichi M, Iwasaki Y, Hokama M, Ikemura T, Tsuzuki T, Gondo Y, Nakabeppu Y (2014).
200:
germ cells is partly artificial and depends on particular circumstances and internal cellular mechanisms such as
728:
30:
1493:
231:
293:
The mutation frequencies for cells in different stages of gametogenesis are about 5 to 10-fold lower than in
712:
258:(ROS) are produced as byproducts of metabolism. In germline cells, ROS are likely a significant cause of
421:
752:
387:
germline-specific and meiosis-specific genes. This second phase of demethylation is mediated by the
57:, an example of a sponge that can grow indefinitely from somatic tissue and reconstitute itself from
17:
713:"Contributions of Autogamy and Geitonogamy to Self-Fertilization in a Mass-Flowering, Clonal Plant"
310:
216:
1343:
Jabbari K, Bernardi G (May 2004). "Cytosine methylation and CpG, TpG (CpA) and TpA frequencies".
654:
Dudgeon, Christine L.; Coulton, Laura; Bone, Ren; Ovenden, Jennifer R.; Thomas, Severine (2017).
392:
255:
27:
Population of a multicellular organism's cells that pass on their genetic material to the progeny
909:
Radzvilavicius, Arunas L.; Hadjivasiliou, Zena; Pomiankowski, Andrew; Lane, Nick (2016-12-20).
78:
124:
Germ cells pass on genetic material through the process of sexual reproduction. This includes
416:
129:
1097:"Mutation frequency declines during spermatogenesis in young mice but increases in old mice"
850:
1108:
1048:
981:
667:
610:
8:
1498:
1441:"Dynamics of 5-methylcytosine and 5-hydroxymethylcytosine during germ cell reprogramming"
362:
1112:
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671:
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932:
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693:
636:
579:
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532:
483:
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TET1 and TET2, which carry out the first step in demethylation by converting 5-mC to
318:
809:
329:
118:
1460:
1452:
1408:
1398:
1352:
1315:
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350:
36:
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298:
263:
196:
158:
In sexually reproducing organisms, cells that are not in the germline are called
144:
518:
1356:
974:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
892:
Watt, F. M. and B. L. M. Hogan. 2000 Out of Eden: Stem Cells and Their Niches
622:
468:
235:
552:
Fertilization in protozoa and metazoan animals: cellular and molecular aspects
1487:
1121:
1003:
936:
736:
371:
287:
125:
47:
1439:
Yamaguchi S, Hong K, Liu R, Inoue A, Shen L, Zhang K, Zhang Y (March 2013).
1255:"DNA methylation in human epigenomes depends on local topology of CpG sites"
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1422:
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1329:
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994:
954:
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159:
110:
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346:
342:
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1303:
1230:
1213:
837:
306:
283:
209:
205:
179:
114:
1060:
911:"Selection for Mitochondrial Quality Drives Evolution of the Germline"
679:
656:"Switch from sexual to parthenogenetic reproduction in a zebra shark"
375:
302:
201:
184:
106:
82:
1037:"8-oxoguanine causes spontaneous de novo germline mutations in mice"
358:
354:
267:
175:
163:
148:
140:
136:. These processes help to increase genetic diversity in offspring.
90:
70:
52:
41:
597:
Niccolò, Terzaroli; Anderson, Aaron W.; Emidio, Albertini (2023).
1154:
Murphey P, McLean DJ, McMahan CA, Walter CA, McCarrey JR (2013).
1095:
Walter CA, Intano GW, McCarrey JR, McMahan CA, Walter RB (1998).
806:
503:"Recombination, Pairing, and Synapsis of Homologs during Meiosis"
335:
314:
275:
189:
152:
133:
117:, which develop into the final gametes. This process is known as
66:
450:
Yao, Chunmeng; Yao, Ruqiang; Luo, Haining; Shuai, Ling (2022).
171:
167:
98:
86:
361:
from CpG to 5-mCpG. Methylation of cytosines in CpG sites in
102:
94:
1387:"DNA Methylation Reprogramming during Mammalian Development"
574:
Lowe, Andrew; Harris, Stephen; Ashton, Paul (1 April 2000).
139:
Certain organisms reproduce asexually via processes such as
1094:
729:
10.1890/0012-9658(2000)081[0532:COAAGT]2.0.CO;2
1252:
1153:
1034:
753:"Human Cloning: Biology, Ethics, and Social Implications"
653:
1253:
Lövkvist C, Dodd IB, Sneppen K, Haerter JO (June 2016).
749:
576:
Ecological
Genetics: Design, Analysis, and Application
374:, followed by subsequent new methylation to reset the
282:
mutations. Such mutations occur throughout the mouse
1438:
596:
970:"Evolution, development, and the units of selection"
879:
Essays upon heredity and kindred biological problems
452:"Germline specification from pluripotent stem cells"
808:
250:
204:and controls such as the selective application of
1485:
1214:"DNA methylation patterns and epigenetic memory"
1156:"Enhanced genetic integrity in mouse germ cells"
170:and many plants. For example, many varieties of
1342:
875:
500:
85:. In other words, they are the cells that form
1090:
1088:
449:
723:(2). Ecological Society of America: 532–542.
1434:
1432:
1336:
1295:
1246:
1205:
1147:
1028:
869:
848:
807:Brusca, Richard C.; Brusca, Gary J. (1990).
550:TarĂn, Juan J.; Cano, Antonio, eds. (2000).
1085:
599:"Apomixis: oh, what a tangled web we have!"
370:cells of the mouse undergo genome-wide DNA
353:. This usually occurs in the DNA sequence
188:, produce seeds apomictically when somatic
507:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology
192:cells displace the ovule or early embryo.
1464:
1429:
1412:
1402:
1319:
1278:
1229:
1179:
1130:
1120:
1068:
1011:
993:
944:
926:
842:
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687:
630:
549:
526:
501:Zickler, Denise; Kleckner, Nancy (2015).
477:
467:
324:
1384:
711:Eckert, Christopher G. (February 2000).
328:
46:
29:
1380:
1378:
1376:
1374:
14:
1486:
1301:
797:
710:
286:as well as during different stages of
904:
902:
855:. New India Publishing. pp. 9–.
97:), which can come together to form a
1371:
1211:
967:
838:https://www.jstor.org/stable/2443771
234:, from which all plants and animals
24:
899:
815:. Sunderland: Sinauer Associates.
378:in order to form an egg or sperm.
25:
1510:
849:K V Ed Peter (5 February 2009).
739:– via John Wiley and Sons.
456:Stem Cell Research & Therapy
215:Not all multicellular organisms
162:. According to this definition,
1196:
961:
886:
829:
554:. Berlin Heidelberg: Springer.
251:DNA damage, mutation and repair
775:
743:
704:
647:
590:
568:
543:
494:
443:
232:last universal common ancestor
13:
1:
1385:Zeng Y, Chen T (March 2019).
1172:10.1095/biolreprod.112.103481
437:
309:of DNA damages, particularly
1101:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
928:10.1371/journal.pbio.2000410
274:, an oxidized derivative of
241:
101:. They differentiate in the
7:
1302:Guénet JL (December 2005).
519:10.1101/cshperspect.a016626
405:
81:'s cells that develop into
10:
1515:
1357:10.1016/j.gene.2004.02.043
623:10.1007/s00425-023-04124-0
469:10.1186/s13287-022-02750-1
422:Germinal choice technology
357:, changing the DNA at the
311:homologous recombinational
578:. John Wiley & Sons.
1122:10.1073/pnas.95.17.10015
968:Buss, L W (1983-03-01).
876:August Weismann (1892).
349:of DNA cytosine to form
313:repair, during germline
1212:Bird A (January 2002).
791:April 30, 2011, at the
781:C.Michael Hogan. 2010.
393:5-hydroxymethylcytosine
256:Reactive oxygen species
77:is the population of a
61:separated somatic cells
995:10.1073/pnas.80.5.1387
852:Basics Of Horticulture
757:La Clinica Terapeutica
343:Epigenetic alterations
339:
325:Epigenetic alterations
79:multicellular organism
62:
44:
1494:Developmental biology
1404:10.3390/genes10040257
894:Science 287:1427-1430
417:Germ line development
332:
113:, which develop into
107:primordial germ cells
50:
33:
769:10.7417/ct.2023.2492
1113:1998PNAS...9510015W
1053:2014NatSR...4E4689O
986:1983PNAS...80.1387B
672:2017NatSR...740537D
615:2023Plant.257...92N
1457:10.1038/cr.2013.22
1321:10.1101/gr.3728305
1304:"The mouse genome"
1271:10.1093/nar/gkw124
1231:10.1101/gad.947102
882:. Clarendon press.
660:Scientific Reports
366:(forming 5-mCpG).
340:
319:germline mutations
63:
45:
1259:Nucleic Acids Res
1061:10.1038/srep04689
862:978-81-89422-55-4
680:10.1038/srep40537
584:978-1-444-31121-1
561:978-3-540-67093-3
16:(Redirected from
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351:5-methylcytosine
178:and some in the
174:, plants in the
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264:DNA replication
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445:
400:
397:
383:
380:
368:
341:
292:
280:transversion
272:8-Oxoguanine
254:
245:
227:
226:
214:
194:
183:
157:
138:
123:
74:
64:
51:
35:
34:Cormlets of
1224:(1): 6–21.
412:Epigenetics
389:TET enzymes
347:methylation
284:chromosomes
262:that, upon
260:DNA damages
115:gametocytes
111:gametogonia
1499:Germ cells
1488:Categories
1397:(4): 257.
1308:Genome Res
438:References
307:DNA repair
266:, lead to
222:totipotent
210:stem cells
206:telomerase
182:, such as
180:Asteraceae
83:germ cells
59:totipotent
1351:: 143–9.
1218:Genes Dev
1004:0027-8424
937:1545-7885
737:0012-9658
609:(5): 92.
462:(1): 74.
376:epigenome
303:oogenesis
297:both for
268:mutations
242:Evolution
202:telomeres
185:Taraxacum
164:mutations
18:Germ-line
1475:23399596
1445:Cell Res
1423:30934924
1365:15177689
1330:16339371
1289:26932361
1240:11782440
1190:23153565
1166:(1): 6.
1079:24732879
1047:: 4689.
955:27997535
789:Archived
784:Mutation
698:28091617
641:37000270
632:10066125
537:25986558
488:35189957
406:See also
363:promoter
359:CpG site
228:Germline
176:Rosaceae
168:Porifera
149:autogamy
141:apomixis
75:germline
71:genetics
55:tuberosa
53:Clathria
42:apomixis
1466:3587712
1414:6523607
1280:4914085
1181:4434944
1141:9707592
1109:Bibcode
1070:3986730
1049:Bibcode
1041:Sci Rep
1022:6572396
982:Bibcode
946:5172535
717:Ecology
689:5238396
668:Bibcode
611:Bibcode
528:4448610
479:8862564
336:guanine
315:meiosis
276:guanine
236:descend
190:diploid
153:cloning
134:meiosis
87:gametes
67:biology
1473:
1463:
1421:
1411:
1363:
1328:
1287:
1277:
1238:
1188:
1178:
1139:
1129:
1077:
1067:
1020:
1013:393602
1010:
1002:
953:
943:
935:
859:
819:
735:
696:
686:
639:
629:
603:Planta
558:
535:
525:
486:
476:
384:almost
172:citrus
151:, and
103:gonads
99:zygote
73:, the
1132:21453
763:(6).
109:into
105:from
95:sperm
1471:PMID
1419:PMID
1361:PMID
1345:Gene
1326:PMID
1285:PMID
1236:PMID
1186:PMID
1137:PMID
1075:PMID
1018:PMID
1000:ISSN
951:PMID
933:ISSN
857:ISBN
817:ISBN
733:ISSN
694:PMID
637:PMID
580:ISBN
556:ISBN
533:PMID
484:PMID
301:and
132:and
93:and
91:eggs
69:and
1461:PMC
1453:doi
1409:PMC
1399:doi
1353:doi
1349:333
1316:doi
1275:PMC
1267:doi
1226:doi
1176:PMC
1168:doi
1127:PMC
1117:doi
1065:PMC
1057:doi
1008:PMC
990:doi
941:PMC
923:doi
765:doi
761:174
725:doi
684:PMC
676:doi
627:PMC
619:doi
607:257
523:PMC
515:doi
474:PMC
464:doi
355:CpG
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