German revolutions of 1848–1849

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Napoleon in 1814, Prussia took over the west bank of the Rhineland. Its government treated the Rhinelanders as subjects and alien peoples, and it began to reinstate the hated feudal structures. Much of the revolutionary impulse in the Rhineland in 1848 was colored by a strong anti-Prussian feeling. The Rhinelanders took careful note of the announcement by King Frederick William IV on 18 March 1848, in Berlin that a United Diet would be formed and that other democratic reforms would be instituted. Elections for the United Diet were indirect. The elections were conducted on the basis of universal male suffrage, and they were to choose the members of the United Diet. Rhinelanders remained hopeful regarding this progress and did not participate in the early round of uprisings that were occurring in other parts of Germany.

1843: 460: 1158:, and the survivors of Willich's Corps crossed over the frontier into the safety of Switzerland. Engels did not reach Switzerland until 25 July 1849. He sent word of his survival to Marx and friends and comrades in London, England. A refugee in Switzerland, Engels began to write about his experiences during the revolution. He published the article, "The Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution." Due to the Prussian Army's ease in crushing the uprising, many South German states came to believe that Prussia, not Austria, was going to be the new power in the region. The suppression of the uprising in Baden and the Palatinate was the end of the German revolutionary uprisings that had begun in the spring of 1848. 1722:, a dancer and actress unacceptable to the aristocracy and the Church. She tried to launch liberal reforms through a Protestant prime minister, which outraged the state's Catholic conservatives. On 9 February, conservatives came out onto the streets in protest. This 9 February 1848, demonstration was the first in that revolutionary year. It was an exception among the wave of liberal protests. The conservatives wanted to be rid of Lola Montez, and had no other political agenda. Liberal students took advantage of the Lola Montez affair to stress their demands for political change. All over Bavaria, students started demonstrating for constitutional reform, just as students were doing in other cities. 867:) were separated only by the Rhine. The uprising in Baden and the Palatinate took place largely in the Rhine Valley along their mutual border, and are considered aspects of the same movement. In May 1849, the Grand Duke was forced to leave Karlsruhe, Baden and seek help from Prussia. Provisional governments were declared in both the Palatinate and Baden. In Baden conditions for the provisional government were ideal: the public and army were both strongly in support of constitutional change and democratic reform in the government. The army strongly supported the demands for a constitution; the state had amply supplied arsenals, and a full exchequer. The Palatinate did not have the same conditions. 1382:, of my company, an exceptionally small man, spoke out at the Council of War and declared that it would be a disgrace if we surrendered to the Revolutionaries without a blow. Thereupon it was resolved to put up a fight. Our main position was to be on the first floor, led, up to by four stone staircases, each of which was allotted to a company. Our firearms, which had been placed in hiding already, were taken out again, and we began to block up the entrances to the staircases. Unfortunately we had no ammunition! This lack was in some degree made good by such officers as were sportsmen and had some powder and shot to distribute, so that firing might have been done by each of the companies; 212: 154: 201: 143: 1370:. The outbreak began at different parts of the city at two o'clock in the afternoon of the 18th, our attention being called to it by the circumstance that shots were fired at the sentinels in front of the Franz Regiment's barracks, which adjoined those of the Cadet Corps. The report went that the Cadet Corps, that breeding place of reaction, was to be up rooted ! This put our superior officers in a very awkward predicament; all connection with the outer world was cut off, and the Franz Regiment, which had been quartered next door to us, had been moved away, so we had to decide for ourselves what to do. General 2211:

however, that the Assembly needed to gain agreement of the monarchs, who were highly reactionary. In addition, only the Kingdom of Prussia had the military force necessary to effect this unification. Many in the Assembly, including Gagern, distrusted the intentions of the Prussian state and its absolutist government. Fearful of losing their positions as servants of the monarchs, the moderate liberals quickly concluded that only negotiations would lead to political progress. The Prussian army ignored the demands for reforms and chased the rump assembly out of Frankfurt in 1849.

1037: 1453: 1276: 1994: 223: 165: 257: 178: 875: 1287:, leaving one person dead and many injured. On 18 March, a large demonstration occurred. After two shots were fired, fearing that some of the 20,000 soldiers would be used against them, demonstrators erected barricades, and a battle ensued until troops were ordered 13 hours later to retreat, leaving hundreds dead. Afterwards, Frederick William attempted to reassure the public that he would proceed with reorganizing his government. The King also approved arming the citizens. 1495: 131: 1336: 1296: 1856: 1594: 1172: 5476: 1561:

and the nobility had exercised over the area previously. The soil of the Rhineland is not the best for agriculture, but forestry has traditionally been a strong industry there. The relative lack of agriculture, late 18th-century elimination of the feudal structure, and the strong logging industry contributed to the industrialization of the Rhineland. With nearby sources of coal in the Mark, and access via the Rhine to the

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realized. They were unwilling to give up any power in its pursuit. As princes quelled rebellions in their territories, they followed the example of Prussia, recalling their elected deputies from the Assembly. Only Prussia, with its overwhelming military might, was able to protect the Frankfurt Assembly from military attack by the princes. But Prussia had its own interests in mind.

1151:, a former Prussian military officer. He was also a member of the Communist League and supported revolutionary change in Germany. The newly formed Willich Corps combined with other revolutionary groups to form an army of about 30,000 strong; it fought to resist the highly trained Prussian troops. Engels fought with the Willich Corps for their entire campaign in the Palatinate. 1131:, at the Second Democratic Congress held in Berlin from 26 October through 30 October 1848. Because of his commitments to the provisional government, D'Ester was unable to attend an important meeting in Paris on behalf of the German Central Committee. He wanted to provide Marx with the mandate to attend the meeting in his place. Marx and Engels met with D'Ester in the town of 2242:, supporters of Austria versus supporters of Prussia. The major conflict that caused the collapse of the Assembly was the stand-off between demands of the moderates to write a democratic constitution and liberals' reliance on negotiation with reactionary monarchs to produce reforms. The various interest groups began to gather outside the Assembly to decide on their tactics. 1533:. In all, about 2,500 combatants manned the barricades during the May Uprising. On 9 May 1849, together with the leaders of the uprising, Wagner left Dresden for Switzerland to avoid arrest. He spent a number of years in exile abroad, in Switzerland, Italy, and Paris. Finally the government lifted its ban against him and he returned to Germany. 1084:

collected on the Palatinate side, but Brentano's government collected it on the Baden side. Due to the continued lack of coordination, Mieroslawski lost battles in Waghausle and Ubstadt in Baden. He and his troops were forced to retreat across the mountains of southern Baden, where they fought a last battle against the Prussians in the town of

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did not find a fully organized state or a full exchequer. Arms in the Palatinate were limited to privately held muskets, rifles and sporting guns. The provisional government of the Palatinate sent agents to France and Belgium to purchase arms but they were unsuccessful. France banned sales and export of arms to either Baden or the Palatinate.

791:, to the provisional parliament. In the minority and frustrated with the lack of progress, Hecker and Struve walked out in protest on 2 April 1848. The walkout and the continuing revolutionary upsurge in Germany spurred the provisional parliament to action; they passed a resolution calling for an All-German National Assembly to be formed. 1747:. The aim of the revolution was to improve the economic and political situation of ordinary citizens in Liechtenstein, primarily fuelled by the worsening economy in the country in the years prior. On 22 March 1848, the people's committee appointed a three-person committee to lead the Liechtenstein revolutionary movement, which included 2199:

group of radical members wanted the assembly to declare itself as a law-giving parliament. They were unable to overcome this fundamental division, and did not take any definitive action toward unification or the introduction of democratic rules. The assembly declined into debate. While the French revolution drew on an existing

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petty bourgeoisie, were starting to vacillate. Rather than working to organize and direct the various factions of protests, they began to draw back from the revolutionary movement, especially the destruction of property. The Committee of Public Safety tried to calm the reformist movement and quell the demonstrations.

2083:, and the office of head of state ("Emperor of the Germans") was to be hereditary and held by the respective King of Prussia. The latter proposal was carried by a mere 290 votes in favour, with 248 abstentions. The constitution was recognized by 29 smaller states but not by Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, 1771:

was formed on 7 March 1849 with 24 elected representatives and acted as the first democratic representation in Liechtenstein, with Schädler was elected as District Administrator. However, after the failure of the German revolutions, Aloys II once again instated absolute power over Liechtenstein on 20

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Following the revolution, a constitutional council was elected on 27 July 1848 in response to popular demand from the revolutionaries, of which Schädler was elected as its president. The primary task of the council was the creation the draft for a new Liechtenstein constitution, of which the work was

1638:. The uprising in Düsseldorf was suppressed the following day on 10 May 1849. In the town of Elberfeld, the uprising showed strength and persistence, as 15,000 workers took to the streets and erected barricades; they confronted the Prussian troops sent to suppress the unrest and to collect a quota of 1589:

In 1848, Prussia controlled the Rhineland as part of "Western Prussia", having first acquired territory in this area in 1614. During the Napoleonic Era, as noted above, the Rhineland west of the Rhine had been incorporated into France and its feudal structures dismantled. But, following the defeat of

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Brentano ordered the day-to-day affairs of the uprising in Baden, and Mieroslawski directed a military command on the Palatinate side. They did not coordinate well. For example, Mieroslawski decided to abolish the long-standing toll on the Mannheim-Ludwigshaven bridge over the Rhine River. It was not

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Ferdinand appointed new, nominally liberal, ministers. The Austrian government drafted a constitution in late April 1848. The people rejected this, as the majority was denied the right to vote. The citizens of Vienna returned to the streets from 26 May through 27, 1848, erecting barricades to prepare

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was greeted with great consternation in Germany, and debated in the Assembly, but it was powerless to control Prussia. On 16 September 1848, the Frankfurt National Assembly approved of the Malmö Treaty by a majority vote. Public support for the National Assembly declined sharply following this vote,

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Meanwhile, the rulers of the German states gradually realised that their positions were no longer under threat. The King of Bavaria had stepped down, but that was only partly the result of pressure from below. As the threat of an armed uprising receded, the monarchs realized unification would not be

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as the first President of the Assembly. He had strong support from the Center-Right Unionist party and some influence with moderates of the left, such that he could control perhaps 250 of the deputies of the Frankfurt Assembly. Gagern strongly supported unification of the German states. He insisted,

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in Berlin and offered him the crown of the Emperor under this new constitution. Frederick William told the delegation that he felt honoured but could only accept the crown with the consent of his peers, the other sovereign monarchs and free cities. But later, in a letter to a relative in England, he

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The Rhineland shared a common history with the Rhenish Hesse, Luxembourg and the Palatinate of having been under the control of Revolutionary and then Napoleonic France from 1795. His rule established social, administrative and legislative measures taken that broke up the feudal rule that the clergy

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Arrived at the Schloss, led by General von Below, himself afoot, we were ushered through "Portal No. I" into the Castle Yard, where General von Prittwitz was to be seen mounted on a chestnut with some officers round about him. We had now to down arms and we began almost to freeze in the cold morning

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Democrats of the Palatinate and across Germany considered the Baden-Palatinate insurrection to be part of the wider all-German struggle for constitutional rights. Franz Sigel, a second lieutenant in the Baden army, a democrat and a supporter of the provisional government, developed a plan to protect

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Baden was the first state in Germany to have popular unrest, despite Baden being one of the most liberal states in Germany. After the news of the February Days in Paris reached Baden, there were several unorganized instances of peasants burning the mansions of local aristocrats and threatening them.

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to obtain arms for the insurgents. Workers from Solingen stormed the arsenal at Gräfrath and obtained arms and cartridges for the insurgents. (As noted above under the heading on "The Palatinate") Frederick Engels was active in the uprising in Elberfeld from 11 May 1849 until the end of the revolt.

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The members of the Committee for Public Safety could not agree on a common plan, let alone control the various groups taking part in the uprising. The awakened working classes were pursuing their goals with single-minded determination. Citizen-military forces (paramilitary) organized to support the

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affected all males under the age of 40 years, and such a call up was to be done only in time of war, not in peacetime, when it was considered illegal. The Prussian King dissolved the Second Chamber of the United Diet because on 27 March 1849 it passed an unpopular constitution. The entire citizenry

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for the civilian victims of the uprising. He and his ministers and generals wore the revolutionary tricolor of black, red, and gold. Polish prisoners, who had been jailed for planning a rebellion in formerly Polish territories now ruled by Prussia, were liberated and paraded through the city to the

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The Frankfurt Assembly had no powers to raise taxes and relied completely on the goodwill of the monarchs. As many of the members held influential provincial positions, their reluctance to call for radical reforms or annoy their employers meant that they could not raise funds for armed forces, nor

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reflected the many different interests of the German ruling classes. Its members were unable to form coalitions and push for specific goals. The first conflict arose over the goals of the assembly. The moderate liberals wanted to draft a constitution to present to the monarchs, whereas the smaller

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The achievements of the revolutionaries of March 1848 were reversed in all of the German states and by 1851, the Basic Rights had also been abolished nearly everywhere. In the end, the revolution fizzled because of the divisions between the various factions in Frankfurt, the calculating caution of

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The Palatinate traditionally contained more upper-class citizens than other areas of Germany, and they resisted the revolutionary changes. In the Palatinate, the army did not support the revolution, and it was not well supplied. When the insurrectionary government took over in the Palatinate, they

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was a catalyst to revolution throughout the German states. Popular demands were made for an elected representative government and for the unification of Germany. Fear on the part of the princes and rulers of the various German states caused them to concede in the demand for reform. They approved a

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on 18 May 1848. The deputies consisted of 122 government officials, 95 judges, 81 lawyers, 103 teachers, 17 manufacturers and wholesale dealers, 15 physicians, and 40 landowners. A majority of the Assembly were liberals. It became known as the "professors' parliament", as many of its members were

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Engels remained in the Palatinate, where in 1849 he joined citizens at the barricades of Elberfeld in the Rhineland, preparing to fight the Prussian troops expected to attack the uprising. On his way to Elberfeld, Engels took two cases of rifle cartridges which had been gathered by the workers of

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Ferdinand returned to Vienna from Innsbruck on 12 August 1848. Soon after his return, the working-class populace hit the streets again on 21 August to protest high unemployment and the government's decree to reduce wages. On 23 August 1848, Austrian troops opened fire on unarmed demonstrators and

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The upper bourgeoisie were frightened by the armed working classes taking to the streets. They began to separate themselves from the movement for constitutional reform and the Committee of Public Safety, describing the leaders as bloodthirsty terrorists. Leaders of the Committee, who were mostly

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Since the revolutionary events of 1830, Saxony had been ruled as a constitutional monarchy with a two-chamber legislature and an accountable ministry. This constitution continued to serve as the basis of the Saxon government until 1918. The Revolution of 1848 brought more popular reforms in the

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principles, while the working class sought radical improvements to their working and living conditions. As the middle class and working class components of the Revolution split, the conservative aristocracy defeated it. Liberals were forced into exile to escape political persecution, where they

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and Holstein were unsure of what was occurring in Copenhagen. They revolted to found a separate and autonomous province with closer relations with the German states. On 24 March 1848, they set up a new provisional, autonomous government in Holstein and raised a Schleswig-Holstein army of 7,000

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had been sent to Vienna by his left-wing political colleagues on a fact-finding mission to see how Austria's government was rolling back liberal achievements by military force. Blum participated in the street fighting, was arrested and executed on 9 November, despite his claim to immunity from

2027:"). This was an attempt to create a provisional executive power, but it did not get very far since most states failed to fully recognize the new government. The National Assembly lost reputation in the eyes of the German public when Prussia carried through its own political intentions in the 985:. Refusing to shoot insurgent forces who stormed the arsenal on 14 June 1848, Natzmer became a hero to insurgents across Germany. He was sentenced to 15 years in prison for refusing orders to shoot, but in 1849, he escaped prison and fled to the Palatinate to join its insurgent forces. 794:

On 8 April 1848, a law allowing universal suffrage and an indirect (two-stage) voting system was agreed to by the assembly. A new National Assembly was selected, and on 18 May 1848, 809 delegates (585 of whom were elected) were seated at St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt to convene the

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enforce laws they might pass. The hundred or so radicals, who believed that an armed uprising was necessary, lost interest and left the assembly to try to raise forces at a local level to bring about a 'real' revolution. Without a bureaucracy, they could not raise any money.

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were heavily industrialized, with a number of different industries represented. At the beginning of the 19th century, more than 90% of the population of the Rhineland was engaged in agriculture (including lumbering), but by 1933, only 12% were still working in agriculture

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was placed in charge of the peoples' militia. Ludwik Mieroslawski, a Polish-born national who had taken part in the military operations during the Polish uprising of 1830–1831, was placed in charge of the military operation on the Palatinate side of the Rhine River.

2345:. Peasant revolts in 1848–1849 involved more participants than the national revolutions of the period. Most importantly, they were successful bringing the final abolition of serfdom or its remnants across the German Confederation, the Austrian Empire and 1119:, then serving as a member of the provisional government in Baden and the Palatinate. He was a physician, democrat and socialist who had been a member of the Cologne community chapter of the Communist League. D'Ester had been elected as a deputy to the 1412:, by order of General von Prittwitz. We set out just as day was breaking. In the Königstrasse we passed three or four deserted barricades; we could see that most of the windows in the street were broken and that all the houses showed marks of bullets. 1601:

The Prussian government mistook this quietude in the Rhineland for loyalty to the autocratic Prussian government. The Prussian government began offering military assistance to other states in suppressing the revolts in their territories and cities,

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were members of the burghers or liberal bureaucracy. They set about the task of writing a constitution "by agreement with the Crown", but on 9 November, before it had completed its work, the Assembly was adjourned and "for its own safety" moved to

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there. On 29 September 1848, the Austrian troops were defeated by the Hungarian revolutionary forces. On 6 October through 7, 1848, the citizens of Vienna had demonstrated against the emperor's actions against forces in Hungary, resulting in the

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Austria and Prussia withdrew their delegates from the Assembly, which was now little more than a debating club. The radical members were forced to go to Stuttgart, where they sat from 6–18 June as a rump parliament until it too was dispersed by

1147:. The Prussian troops arrived and crushed the uprising in August 1849. Engels and some others escaped to Kaiserslautern. While in Kaiserslautern on 13 June 1849, Engels joined an 800-member group of workers being formed as a military corps by 1476:

On 22 May 1848, another elected assembly sat for the first time in Berlin. They were elected under the law of 8 April 1848, which allowed for universal manhood suffrage and a two-stage voting system. Most of the deputies elected to the

1729:. Ludwig complained that "I could not rule any longer, and I did not want to give up my powers. In order to not become a slave, I became a lord." Although some popular reforms were introduced, the government regained full control. 378:, each of which had distinct revolutions. They were also inspired by the street demonstrations in Paris, France, led by workers and artisans which took place through 22 to 24 February, 1848, and resulted in the abdication of King 1610:. Soon the Prussians discovered that they needed additional troops in this effort. Taking the loyalty of the Rhineland for granted, in the spring of 1849 the Prussian government called up a large portion of the army reserve—the 814:, a journalist who was the leader of the Baden democrats. The arrests caused outrage and a rise in protests. A full-scale uprising broke out on 12 April 1848. The Bavarian government suppressed the revolutionary forces led by 1378:—and some of them were no good as officers, so it was small wonder if a lack of vigour or decision was displayed. It was under debate whether we should not abstain from any attempt at resistance, when the senior lieutenant, 470:

On 13 March 1848, university students mounted a large street demonstration in Vienna, and it was covered by the press across the German-speaking states. Following the important, but relatively minor, demonstrations against

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By 1848, a large industrial working class, the proletariat, had developed and, owing to Napoleonic France, the level of education was relatively high and it was politically active. While in other German states the liberal

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Early in the morning of the 19th—it may have been about 4 o'clock, the shooting had been followed by silence throughout the city—we were given the alarm and had to don our cloaks and fall in with our guns and march to the

2309:, the Habsburgs were ready to deal with the German states. Unable to muster an army and lacking broader support, the Assembly could not resist Austrian power. The Frankfurt National Assembly was dissolved on 31 May 1849. 780:, charged with the task of drafting a new constitution, to be called the "Fundamental Rights and Demands of the German People." The majority of the delegates to the provisional parliament were constitutional monarchists. 1272:, taken by surprise, verbally yielded to all the demonstrators' demands, including parliamentary elections, a constitution, and freedom of the press. He promised that "Prussia was to be merged forthwith into Germany." 366:

of 1832, when public unrest began to grow in the face of heavy taxation and political censorship. The Hambacher Fest is also noteworthy for the Republicans adopting the black-red-gold colours used on today's national

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in Bavaria on 9 February 1848 (see below), the first major revolt of 1848 in German lands occurred in Vienna on 13 March 1848. The demonstrating students in Vienna had been restive and were encouraged by a sermon of

2042:"), or should it exclude Austria, with leadership falling to Prussia ("smaller German solution")? Finally, this question was settled when the Austrian Chancellor introduced a centralised constitution for the entire 2284:

Prussia sent an army to support this independence movement, and ignored the Frankfurt National Assembly when Great Britain and Russia applied international pressure to end the war. The Prussians signed a peace at

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Starting on 18 May 1848, the Frankfurt Assembly worked to find ways to unite the various German states and to write a constitution. The Assembly was unable to pass resolutions and dissolved into endless debate.

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conscripts. In the end, the troops collected only about 40 conscripts from Elberfeld. A Committee of Public Safety was formed in the town, to organize the citizens in revolt. Members of the Committee included

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Hewitson, Mark (2010). "'The Old Forms are Breaking Up, ... Our New Germany Is Rebuilding Itself': Constitutionalism, Nationalism and the Creation of a German Polity During the Revolutions of 1848–49".

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In May 1849, a resurgence of revolutionary activity occurred in Baden. As this was closely connected to the uprising in the Palatinate, it is described below, in the section titled, "The Palatinate."

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By late 1848, the Prussian aristocrats and generals had regained power in Berlin. They had not been defeated permanently during the incidents of March, but had only retreated temporarily. General

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Afraid of suffering the same fate as Louis-Philippe of France, some of the German monarchs acquiesced to the demands of the revolutionaries, at least temporarily. In the south and west, large

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The revolutions spread from France across Europe; demonstrations against the government erupted soon thereafter in both Austria and Germany, beginning with large protests on 13 March 1848, in

890:, a lawyer, democrat and deputy in the Frankfurt Assembly, as the head of the military department in the Palatinate. The first Commander in Chief of the military forces of the Palatinate was 49: 1920:, in the Grand Duchy of Baden, on 6 March 1848, a group of German liberals began to make plans for an election to a German national assembly. This provisional Parliament met on 31 March, in 1424:, and others in the Castle Yard. The streets through which we had passed, and the open places outside the Schloss, had, of course, been empty. Now we saw many waggons and bodies of troops 570: 4633: 487:, the troops fired on the demonstrating students, killing several of them. The new working class of Vienna joined the student demonstrations, developing an armed insurrection. The Diet of 2163:

and Baden were short-lived, as the local militaries, aided by Prussian troops, crushed them quickly. Leaders and participants, if caught, were executed or sentenced to long prison terms.

480:, a liberal priest, on Sunday, 12 March 1848, in their university chapel. The student demonstrators demanded a constitution and a constituent assembly elected by universal male suffrage. 2038:

Should the new united Germany include the German-speaking areas of Austria and thus separate these territories constitutionally from the remaining areas of the Habsburg Empire ("greater

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demanded Metternich's resignation. With no forces rallying to Metternich's defense, Ferdinand reluctantly complied and dismissed him. The former chancellor went into exile in London.

1759:. Together, they managed to maintain order in Liechtenstein and formed a constitutional council. Liechtenstein was a member of the National Assembly in Frankfurt until April 1849. 1623:

of the Rhineland, including the petty bourgeoisie, the grand bourgeoisie and the proletariat, rose up to protect the political reforms which they believed were slipping away.

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pushed forward to the Marschallbrücke and averted all possibility of danger for us. The noise of the fighting died down now a little, only to revive again in the evening. The

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Mieck, Ilja (1992). "Preußen von 1807–1850. Reformen, Restauration und Revolution" [Prussia 1807–1850. Reforms, Restoration and Revolution]. In Büsch, Otto (ed.).

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Ludwig tried to institute a few minor reforms but they proved insufficient to quell the storm of protests. On 16 March 1848, Ludwig I abdicated in favor of his eldest son

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Although the achievements of the March Revolution were rolled back in many German states, the discussions in Frankfurt continued, increasingly losing touch with events.

691: 656: 2203:, the democratic and liberal forces in Germany of 1848 were confronted with the need to build a nation state and a constitution at the same time, which overtaxed them. 1698:

On 10 May 1849, he was in Solingen and making his way toward Elberfeld. He obtained two cases of cartridges from the arsenal at Gräfrath and carried them to Elberfeld.

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Despite Sigel's plan, the new insurgent government did not go on the offensive. The uprising in Karlsruhe and the Grand Duchy of Baden was eventually suppressed by the

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into a Constituent Assembly to be elected by the people. Other concessions were less substantial, and generally addressed the reorganizing and unification of Germany.

563: 1124: 1000: 4899: 681: 401:, and his going into exile in Britain. Because of the date of the Vienna demonstrations, the protests throughout Germany are usually called the March Revolution ( 4610: 1650: 1646: 666: 3046: 1428:. Prisoners were being brought in every now and again and taken into the Castle cellars. After a wait of two hours or so we were given orders to march back to 706: 676: 646: 618: 3294: 2939: 1076: 686: 671: 3818: 3786: 3754: 3691: 3689: 3523: 3521: 3519: 3517: 3476: 3474: 3426: 3424: 3122: 3120: 3032: 3030: 3013: 3011: 3009: 2976: 2974: 2811: 2809: 1686: 1877: 1670: 1189: 1060: 651: 556: 2853: 2218:

The Assembly members were highly motivated for reform, but the major divides among them became obvious and inhibited progress; for instance, advocates of

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On 13 March, after warnings by the police against public demonstrations went unheeded, the army charged a group of people returning from a meeting in the

3686: 3622: 3606: 3590: 3574: 3514: 3471: 3421: 3117: 3027: 3006: 2971: 2923: 2806: 2790: 2774: 1764: 1654: 989:, a former Prussian officer, also joined Palatinate forces. Organizing the artillery and providing services in the ordnance shops was Lieutenant Colonel 701: 696: 631: 2837: 739:. After news broke of revolutionary victories in February 1848 in Paris, uprisings occurred throughout Europe, including Austria and the German states. 514:

In late September 1848, Emperor Ferdinand, who was also King Ferdinand V of Hungary, decided to send Austrian and Croatian troops to Hungary to crush a

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In December 1848 the "Basic Rights for the German People" proclaimed equal rights for all citizens before the law. On 28 March 1849, the draft of the

1350:, who in March 1848 was a sixteen-year-old student at the Royal Prussian Cadet Corps, gave a vivid description of the revolutionary events in Berlin: 1236: 322:, liberalism and parliamentarianism, demonstrated popular discontent with the traditional, largely autocratic political structure of the thirty-nine 3203: 1208: 4972: 2305:. Its strongest support came from the southern provinces, where there was a tradition of opposition to the local rulers. After Austria crushed the 1690: 2151:

wrote that he felt deeply insulted by being offered a crown "from the gutter", "disgraced by the stink of revolution, defiled with dirt and mud".

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without the prior consent of Parliament. A similar discrediting occurred when Austria suppressed a popular uprising in Vienna by military force.

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Finally, on 18 May 1848, the National Assembly opened its session in St. Paul's Church. Of the 586 delegates of the first freely elected German

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Emperor Ferdinand and his chief advisor Metternich directed troops to crush the demonstration. When demonstrators moved to the streets near the

1215: 974: 4763: 1092:. Mieroslawski and the other survivors of the battle escaped across the frontier to Switzerland, and the commander went into exile in Paris. 1416:

air. It was very pleasant for us, therefore, when we were taken, troop by troop, into the kitchen, and given coffee. There was now a lively

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Disorder fomented by republican agitators continued in Baden. Fearing greater riots, the Baden government began to increase the size of its

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became Grand Duke. His reign brought liberal reforms in constitutional, civil and criminal law, and in education. In 1832 Baden joined the

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Encouraged by similar uprisings the same year, demonstrations emerged which caused increased opposition against the absolute monarchy of

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led the uprisings of 1848, in the Rhineland the proletariat was asserting its interests openly against the bourgeoisie as early as 1840.

1222: 4872: 1565:, the west bank of the Rhine in the Rhineland became the premier industrial area in Germany in the 19th century. By 1848, the towns of 772: 435: 1306: 5534: 5529: 5262: 4839: 2306: 1980: 456:

of this confederation. The (German) Austrian chancellor Klemens von Metternich had dominated Austrian politics from 1815 until 1848.

1657:, a lawyer and a liberal who was also the public prosecutor in Elberfeld. Members of the Palatinate provisional government included 1204: 2133:"): representation was proportional to taxes paid, so that more than 80% of the electorate controlled only one-third of the seats. 1986: 1956: 1939:, so many were professors (94), teachers (30) or had a university education (233) that it was called a "professors' parliament" (" 310:

that broke out in many European countries. They were a series of loosely coordinated protests and rebellions in the states of the

1968: 1461: 962: 1525:

from 3–9 May 1849, he supported the provisional government. Others participating in the Uprising were the Russian revolutionary

762:, and other German states. The surprisingly strong popular support for these movements forced rulers to give in to many of the 2570: 1009:

the reform movement in Karlsruhe and the Palatinate. He recommended using a corps of the Baden army to advance on the town of

4589: 4201: 3998: 3970: 3654: 3344: 2620: 2260:. Like many other events of 1848, the Danish conflict was sparked by a street demonstration. On 21 March 1848, the people of 1465:

academics in addition to their other responsibilities. The one working-class member was Polish and, like colleagues from the

3638: 2167:

the liberals, the failure of the left to marshal popular support and the overwhelming superiority of the monarchist forces.

1842: 1374:

was a feeble old man, Lieut.-Colonel Richter and our company commanders were all elderly—most of them had taken part in the

5544: 5539: 4965: 1693:. On 17 May through 18, 1849, a group of workers and democrats from Trier and neighboring townships stormed the arsenal at 1521:

passionately engaged himself in the revolution in Dresden, supporting the democratic-republican movement. Later during the

503:. Ferdinand issued two manifestos on 16 May 1848, and 3 June 1848, which gave concessions to the people. He converted the 459: 1738: 894:, a former Austrian officer who commanded the national guard in Vienna during the 1848 uprising. He was soon replaced by 1822:

against the Prussian forces. It began on 20 March 1848, and resulted in Prussia demoting the Grand Duchy to an ordinary

1460:

A Constituent National Assembly was elected from various German states in late April and early May 1848 and gathered in

750:, an assembly of people from Baden adopted a resolution demanding a bill of rights. Similar resolutions were adopted in 5032: 3062: 1949: 375: 87: 20: 2008:, the assembly started on its ambitious plan to create a modern constitution as the foundation for a unified Germany. 5549: 4756: 4564: 4541: 4473: 4421: 4224: 4176: 4149: 4045: 3412: 2456: 2120: 1903: 1744: 1255: 1229: 2909: 2907: 2890: 2888: 2301:

had been founded partly following the revolutionary events in Vienna, Austria, which resulted in the fall of Prince

1885: 711: 5292: 4909: 1386:

we secured from the Franz Regiment's barracks. However, things were not to become serious, for a battalion of the

5455: 5297: 4958: 3136: 3078: 2990: 2955: 2904: 2885: 2869: 2147: 2100: 1511: 1387: 1269: 810:

and to seek assistance from neighboring states. The Baden government sought to suppress the revolts by arresting

216: 205: 3445: 3443: 5519: 5282: 5177: 4892: 4851: 2289:, requiring them to remove all Prussian troops from the two duchies and agree to all other Danish demands. The 2281:

soldiers. Unification opinion in the German states supported annexing the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein.

2124: 2112: 2108: 1881: 1781: 1193: 1268:

In March 1848, crowds of people gathered in Berlin to present their demands in an "address to the king". King

523:. As a result, Emperor Ferdinand I fled Vienna on 7 October 1848, taking up residence in the fortress town of 5307: 5065: 4922: 3440: 1116: 182: 4636:[March Revolution 1848: When the king orders to "clean the palace square", a bloody battle begins]. 2111:

of his own which was based upon the work of the Assembly yet maintained the ultimate authority of the king.

1552:

community. In mid-century, some lived in cities, but many developed substantial farms to the west in Texas.

448:

in 1806, it was succeeded by a similarly loose coalition of states known as the German Confederation at the

5524: 5514: 4917: 4887: 4877: 4749: 4694: 4168: 2554: 2115:

and amended frequently in the following years, the constitution provided for an appointed upper house, the

1437: 1316: 732: 728: 515: 4324:

Mattheisen, Donald J. (1983). "History as Current Events: Recent Works on the German Revolution of 1848".

3336:

A Field Marshal's Memoirs: From the Diary, Correspondence and Reminiscences of Alfred, Count von Waldersee

2703: 2701: 2699: 2697: 2695: 5302: 5246: 4844: 3544: 2728: 2726: 2724: 2722: 2720: 2678: 2676: 2540: 2538: 2298: 2028: 891: 879: 784: 5267: 4634:"Märzrevolution 1848: Als der König befiehlt, "den Schlossplatz zu säubern", beginnt ein blutiger Kampf" 3670: 3378: 3376: 3152: 2034:

Nonetheless, discussions on the future constitution had started. The main questions to be decided were:

1106:, Germany, to observe the events of the region. From 1 June 1848, Engels and Marx became editors of the 5509: 5504: 5337: 5075: 5048: 4817: 4556: 4465: 4413: 4270: 4236: 3932: 2758: 2692: 2257: 2104: 2096: 1831: 1807: 1478: 1120: 1075:, a journalist and a democrat in Baden; and Gustav Struve, another journalist and democrat from Baden. 2717: 2673: 2586: 2535: 1404:, amidst the same kind of continuous but unsystematic fighting which the Guards also had encountered. 1085: 5372: 5287: 5197: 4822: 4702: 3373: 1803: 1449:. Some 40,000 people accompanied these fallen demonstrators to their burial place at Friedrichshain. 922: 383: 5027: 1018: 751: 5450: 5327: 4581: 3962: 3725: 3274: 3258: 2444: 2273: 2016: 1997: 1866: 1748: 1726: 1483: 1354:

Those March days of 1848 left the most lasting impression on us young soldiers. From the so-called

803:, a right-center journalist, was among those elected as deputy to the Frankfurt National Assembly. 379: 3879: 3187: 1123:

in 1848. D'Ester had been elected to the Central committee of the German Democrats, together with

5393: 5272: 5206: 5148: 4937: 4533: 3990: 3958:

The Nation in the Village: The Genesis of Peasant National Identity in Austrian Poland, 1848–1914

2116: 2080: 1870: 1522: 1379: 1375: 1182: 1071:, a journalist and a democrat from Baden. Leaders of the constitutional forces in Baden included 1055:, a lawyer and democrat from Baden, headed its government, wielding absolute power. He appointed 958: 819: 603: 548: 504: 5186: 4661: 3173: 3171: 1067:

was appointed as Minister of the Interior. Other members of the provisional government included

608: 5342: 5317: 5228: 4981: 4882: 3288: 2302: 2253:, the German Navy, on 14 June 1848, which was significant to Germany's future power and reach. 2074: 2056:

Should it be a federation of relatively independent states or have a strong central government?

2012: 1925: 1662: 1040: 1030: 981:. Hermann von Natzmer was the former Prussian officer who had been in charge of the arsenal of 887: 777: 661: 398: 394: 227: 41: 4615: 3219: 2448: 2156: 1819: 1436:

On 21 March, the King proceeded through the streets of Berlin to attend a mass funeral at the

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The Revolution of 1848 failed in its attempt to unify the German-speaking states because the

3867: 3357: 2290: 5445: 5367: 5347: 5332: 5215: 5168: 5053: 2396: 2330: 2256:

The powerlessness of the Frankfurt Assembly, however, was reflected in the debate over the

1936: 1795: 1347: 1339: 1036: 986: 796: 755: 724: 613: 419: 311: 271: 134: 110: 5424: 371:

as a symbol of the Republican movement and of the unity among the German-speaking people.

8: 5388: 5312: 5237: 5224: 4832: 4772: 2383: 2207: 2160: 2050: 2005: 1715: 1312: 934: 903: 860: 851:

in the Rhineland on 6 May 1849. However, the uprisings soon spread to the Grand Duchy of

423: 307: 245: 37: 4144:. New German-American Studies/Neue Deutsch-Amerikanische Studien. New York: Peter Lang. 2612:

The Survival of the Habsburg Empire: Radetzky, the Imperial Army and the Class War, 1848

1826:. Nevertheless, both Prussian-held Polish-speaking territories of Province of Posen and 5413: 5100: 5017: 5012: 5007: 4512: 4394: 4386: 4349: 4253: 2437: 2269: 2195: 2139: 2084: 1948:

There were few practical politicians. Some 400 delegates can be identified in terms of

1452: 1275: 1155: 978: 918: 864: 847:

When the revolutionary upsurge revived in the spring of 1849, the uprisings started in

838: 449: 4483:

Robertson, Priscilla (1969). "Students on the Barricades: Germany and Austria, 1848".

776:

provisional parliament, which was convened from 31 March 1848, until 4 April 1848, in

5357: 5277: 5120: 5022: 4585: 4560: 4537: 4526: 4504: 4492: 4469: 4459: 4442: 4417: 4398: 4378: 4341: 4296: 4220: 4197: 4172: 4161: 4145: 4126: 4105: 4078: 4051: 4041: 3994: 3966: 3925: 3408: 3340: 3247: 3106: 2742: 2616: 2462: 2452: 2405: 2265: 2170:

Many disappointed German patriots went to the United States, among them most notably

2134: 1823: 1583: 1541: 1507: 1284: 913:

Other noteworthy military officers serving the provisional government in the city of

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in Westphalia and the Rhineland. This action was opposed: the order to call up the

1545: 1095: 994: 895: 815: 581: 544: 415: 4705:[Constitution of the German Empire ("Constitution of St. Paul's Church")] 3749: 2159:

troops. Armed uprisings in support of the constitution, especially in Saxony, the

1830:

were formally integrated into Germany only 17 years later, upon foundation of the

1752: 997:

and one of the founders of the Cologne Workers Association in 1848, editor of the

5440: 5419: 5406: 5000: 4995: 4904: 4575: 4436: 4407: 4187: 3984: 3956: 2610: 2326: 2221: 2043: 2039: 2015:, support of local issues over pan-German issues, and Austro-Prussian conflicts. 1810:

in the late 18th century. The Greater Poland Uprising of 1848, also known as the

1526: 1401: 1128: 1052: 950: 823: 759: 595: 520: 463: 368: 331: 323: 315: 186: 55: 4018: 2000:

proclamation to the German people upon appointment as Administrator of the Realm

1441:

acclaim of the people. The 254 persons killed during the riots were laid out on

499:, where they spent the next few months surrounded by the loyal peasantry of the 5480: 5435: 5399: 4267:

Restoration, Revolution, Reaction: Economics and Politics in Germany, 1815–1871

2318: 2264:

protested in the streets to demand a liberal Constitution. The majority in the

2183: 2022: 1962: 1787: 1682: 1674: 1518: 1446: 1397: 1383: 1335: 1148: 1132: 1068: 926: 914: 811: 382:

and his exile to Britain. In France the revolution of 1848 became known as the

363: 343: 4723: 3251: 2374: 2294:

and the radical republicans publicly stated their opposition to the Assembly.

1098:

took part in the uprising in Baden and the Palatinate. On 10 May 1848, he and

5493: 5431: 5080: 4796: 4508: 4446: 4382: 4345: 4300: 4055: 3110: 2466: 2342: 1929: 1815: 1425: 1409: 1361: 1342:

gave an account of the events of March 1848 in Berlin as seen by the soldiers

1056: 1048: 946: 907: 626: 488: 440:

In 1848, Austria was the predominant German state. After the collapse of the

319: 63: 4109: 4082: 2369: 1794:

were German states, the respective roughly corresponding territories of the

1574: 1494: 874: 256: 5352: 5070: 4856: 4595: 4577:

Defining Germany: The 1848 Frankfurt Parliamentarians and National Identity

4450: 4427: 4214: 4207: 4004: 3976: 3350: 2626: 2350: 2250: 2200: 1827: 1799: 1756: 1718:

lost prestige because of his open relationship with his favourite mistress

1549: 1530: 1421: 938: 727:

had a liberal constitution from 1811 until reaction resulted in Grand Duke

637: 532: 477: 267: 4234:

Hamerow, Theodore S. (1954). "History and the German Revolution of 1848".

4071:

Hans Kudlich, zum hundertsten Geburtstage des schlesischen Bauernbefreiers

3813: 5362: 4950: 4791: 4292: 4075:

Hans Kudlich, on the hundredth birthday of the Silesian peasant liberator

2322: 2239: 2175: 2171: 2103:

immediately rejoined the old forces. In November, the king dissolved the

2061: 1719: 1666: 1653:, another lawyer and democrat, elected as chairman of the Committee, and 1089: 966: 954: 942: 472: 2206:

When the Frankfurt Assembly opened on 18 May 1848, the deputies elected

1540:

In 1849, many Saxon residents emigrated to the United States, including

1144: 130: 5059: 4786: 4516: 4390: 4353: 4257: 2261: 1917: 1442: 1196: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1072: 930: 807: 800: 736: 338: 326:

of the Confederation that inherited the German territory of the former

5110: 4741: 4659:[German March Revolution of 1848: a success despite failure]. 3986:

Freedom's Price: Serfdom, Subjection, and Reform in Prussia, 1648–1848

2317:

Nationalism did not become the usual way of founding and legitimising

1514:

to engage in electoral reform, social justice and for a constitution.

5461: 4801: 4308: 2432: 2379: 2235: 2146:

On 2 April 1849, a delegation of the National Assembly met with King

1921: 1791: 1627: 1597:

Arbeiterdelegation 1848 vor dem Magistrat by Johann Peter Hasenclever

1562: 1371: 1099: 1026: 1022: 1014: 1010: 970: 906:

was given supreme command of the armed forces in the Palatinate, and

856: 848: 496: 347: 4500: 4337: 4249: 2439:

The revolution of 1848–49: articles from the Neue Rheinische Zeitung

2046:, thus delegates had to give up their hopes for a "Greater Germany". 1855: 1811: 1593: 1171: 4932: 4638: 4374: 2334: 1635: 1631: 1612: 1140: 747: 445: 4438:

Germany in Power and Eclipse: The Background of German Development

3732:

Jahrbuch des Historischen Vereins für das Fürstentum Liechtenstein

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led the troops who recaptured Berlin for the old powers, and King

578: 531:. On 2 December 1848, Ferdinand abdicated in favour of his nephew 4193: 3407:] (in German). Vol. 2. Berlin: de Gruyter. p. 233. 2346: 2338: 2272:

were German-speaking. However, the Duke of both duchies was King

1711: 1570: 1503: 1429: 1103: 1059:

as War Minister. Later, Eichfeld was replaced as War Minister by

528: 524: 484: 4361:

O'Boyle, Lenore (1961). "The Democratic Left in Germany, 1848".

3841: 3490: 3059:, pp. 176, 728, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 426:, written constitutions, arming of the people and a Parliament. 4724:"Historical Atlas of Europe (21 March 1848): March Revolutions" 3307:, pp. 147–239, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3216:, pp. 202–204, Letter from Engels to Jenny Marx (25 July 1849). 2952:, pp. 195–196, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2642: 2640: 2638: 2636: 1677:

were among the other of the leaders of the Elberfeld uprising.

1566: 982: 390: 59: 4657:"Deutsche Märzrevolution von 1848: ein Erfolg trotz Scheitern" 4023:

Bauernbefreier Hans Kudlich und seine Denkmäler, Gedenkstätten

3271:, pp. 202–204, Letter from Engels to Jenny Marx (25 July 1849) 4217:

The Revolutions in Europe, 1848–1849: From Reform to Reaction

2325:. In the mid-19th century, over 90% of the population in the 2079:

constitution was finally passed. The new Germany was to be a

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and a member of the Rhenish District Committee of Democrats.

852: 500: 362:

The groundwork of the 1848 uprising was laid as early as the

351: 4613:[Speech: Remembering the March Revolution of 1848]. 4215:

Evans, R. J. W.; Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, eds. (2000).

3705: 3562: 3502: 3459: 2825: 2633: 2866:, p. 1193, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2523: 2490: 2277: 1928:. Its members called for free elections to an assembly for 1694: 4038:

Hans Kudlich : (1823–1917) : cesta života a mýtu

3702:, p. 164, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3635:, p. 160, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3619:, p. 162, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3603:, p. 158, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3587:, p. 156, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3534:, p. 157, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3487:, p. 155, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3437:, p. 154, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3133:, p. 186, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3043:, p. 180, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 3024:, p. 184, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2987:, p. 174, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2936:, p. 195, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2822:, p. 189, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2803:, p. 172, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2787:, p. 175, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 1626:

On 9 May 1849, uprisings occurred in the Rhenish towns of

1606:. Dresden, the Palatinate, Baden, Wűrttemberg, Franconia, 2850:, p. 17, "Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution". 2480: 2478: 2476: 4132:

Revolutionary Spring: Fighting for a New World 1848–1849

4077:] (in German). Verlag der Buchdruckerei K. Pickert. 2402:

Revolutionary Spring: Fighting for a New World 1848–1849

2276:, the last absolute monarch of Denmark. The citizens of 1029:. Sigel failed to account for dealing with the separate 1013:

and declare the Hohenzollern Republic, then to march on

374:

Activism for liberal reforms spread through many of the

2435:; Engels, Friedrich (1972). "Foreword (S.Z. Leviova)". 2249:

The Frankfurt National Assembly did agree to found the

1814:

Uprising, was an unsuccessful military insurrection of

357: 3842:"Emigrant's Map and Guide for Routes to North America" 2663: 2661: 2659: 2657: 2655: 2473: 2349:. The leader of the anti-serfdom peasant movement was 1154:

The Prussians defeated this revolutionary army at the

4139: 2513: 2511: 2509: 2507: 2505: 2053:, have an elected monarch, or even become a republic? 1135:. Marx obtained the mandate and headed off to Paris. 495:

for an army attack. Ferdinand and his family fled to

346:. Many emigrated to the United States, settling from 3866:

Staas, Christian; Ullrich, Volker (24 August 2010).

2312: 2123:, elected by universal manhood suffrage but under a 2060:

Soon events began to overtake discussions. Delegate

1681:

uprising. Military leaders of these forces included

1115:

In late 1848, Marx and Engels intended to meet with

4435:Pollock, James Kerr; Thomas, Homer Leonard (1952). 2652: 1555: 1456:

The dead are laid out on the Gendarmenmarkt, Berlin

1364:we could see the erection of the barricades on the 4525: 4160: 3819:Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein 3787:Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein 3755:Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein 2502: 2436: 2386:, and his eventual downfall in the 1848 uprisings. 2065:prosecution as a member of the National Assembly. 822:on 20 April 1848, ending what became known as the 418:and mass demonstrations took place. They demanded 292:), the opening phase of which was also called the 4555:. New Approaches to European History. Cambridge: 2004:Under the chairmanship of the liberal politician 1837: 274:, the first national parliament in German history 5491: 4098:Hans Kudlich, der bauernbefreier des jahres 1848 4035: 4021:[Hans Kudlich – the peasant liberator]. 1846:National assembly's meeting in St. Paul's Church 1143:, when those workers had stormed the arsenal at 4611:"Rede: Erinnern an die Märzrevolution von 1848" 4317:Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Collected Works 4119: 3954: 1775: 1017:. After inciting Stuttgart and the surrounding 4189:The 1848 Revolutions in German-speaking Europe 1772:July 1852 and disbanded the district council. 768:(demands of March) almost without resistance. 4966: 4757: 4434: 3874:(in German). No. 3/2010. pp. 22–28. 3568: 3508: 3496: 3465: 2831: 2646: 1510:, the people took to the streets asking King 1309:to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies 564: 4104:] (in German). Verlagsanstalt Moldavia. 3865: 2354: 2341:or some lingering elements of the system of 2227: 2219: 2189: 2128: 2072: 2020: 1952:– usually named after their meeting places: 1940: 1639: 1617: 1391: 1365: 1355: 1107: 998: 763: 731:revoking the constitution in 1825. In 1830, 337:The middle-class elements were committed to 4532:. Oxford History of Modern Europe. Oxford: 4360: 4102:Hans Kudlich, the peasant liberator of 1848 3779: 3723: 2427: 2425: 1884:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1661:, serving as Minister of the Interior, and 951:Otto Julius Bernhard von Corvin-Wiersbitzki 886:The provisional government first appointed 778:St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt am Main 330:after its dismantlement as a result of the 4980: 4973: 4959: 4764: 4750: 4631: 4323: 4307: 4036:Kladiwa, Pavel; Pokludová, Andrea (2012). 3938: 3906:. Copenhagen: Host & Son. p. 211. 3885: 3727:Liechtensteiner Ärzte des 19. Jahrhunderts 3695: 3676: 3660: 3644: 3628: 3612: 3596: 3580: 3527: 3480: 3449: 3430: 3382: 3363: 3316: 3300: 3280: 3264: 3225: 3209: 3193: 3177: 3158: 3142: 3126: 3084: 3068: 3052: 3036: 3017: 2996: 2980: 2961: 2945: 2929: 2913: 2894: 2875: 2859: 2843: 2815: 2796: 2780: 2764: 2748: 2732: 2707: 2682: 2592: 2576: 2560: 2544: 2431: 2019:was chosen as a temporary head of state (" 2011:From the beginning the main problems were 1802:had been under Prussian control since the 1319:this issue before removing this message. 571: 557: 436:Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire 48: 4482: 4457: 3711: 3332: 2529: 2496: 2337:. Most of them suffered the indignity of 2307:Revolutions of 1848 in the Italian states 1965:– Right centre/Liberal-conservative (120) 1904:Learn how and when to remove this message 1256:Learn how and when to remove this message 4277: 3876:Interview with historian August Winkler. 3811: 3780:Rheinberger, Rudolf (31 December 2011). 3747: 3667:, pp. 713, 722, 739, Biographical notes. 3100: 2422: 1992: 1841: 1649:, a democrat and a lawyer in Elberfeld; 1592: 1493: 1451: 1334: 1274: 1035: 873: 458: 255: 4771: 4550: 4523: 4264: 4233: 4142:Germans and the Revolution of 1848–1849 4140:Davis Randers-Pehrson, Justine (1999). 3915: 3913: 3901: 3651:, pp. 722–723, 732, Biographical notes. 910:was given field command of the troops. 898:, a former Polish staff general in the 818:with the aid of Prussian troops at the 334:. This process began in the mid-1840s. 5492: 4654: 4405: 4095: 4068: 3775: 3773: 3743: 3741: 3241: 2090: 1462:St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt am Main 393:. This resulted in the resignation of 19:For other revolutions in Germany, see 16:German part of the Revolutions of 1848 4954: 4745: 4632:Duderstedt, Andreas (18 March 2023). 4461:Revolutions of 1848: A Social History 4125: 3982: 3812:Frommelt, Fabian (31 December 2011). 3807: 3805: 3748:Quaderer, Rupert (31 December 2011). 3717: 3398: 3287:, pp. 214–216, Letter from Engels to 2362: 2182:. Such emigrants became known as the 1279:Barricades at Alexander Platz, Berlin 552: 452:in 1815. Austria served as President 4573: 4185: 4158: 3910: 3105:. Progress Publishers. p. 166. 2667: 2608: 2517: 2484: 2143:elected under the new constitution. 1882:adding citations to reliable sources 1849: 1529:and the German working-class leader 1410:Schloss (the Royal Palace in Berlin) 1289: 1194:adding citations to reliable sources 1165: 1088:, on the frontier between Baden and 1021:, the military corps would march to 358:Events leading up to the revolutions 106:introduction of liberal constitution 4721: 4553:The European Revolutions, 1848–1851 4219:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4040:(in Czech). University of Ostrava. 4019:"Hans Kudlich – der Bauernbefreier" 3904:A History of the Kingdom of Denmark 3770: 3738: 3401:Handbuch der preußischen Geschichte 3244:Frederick Engels : a biography 1739:Revolution of 1848 in Liechtenstein 1313:create a more balanced presentation 977:, Friedrich Karl, Franz Hecker and 250:~400,000 among peasants and workers 66:in the background, on 19 March 1848 13: 5033:States of the German Confederation 4703:"Verfassung des Deutschen Reiches" 4691:History of Modern Germany Lectures 4684: 4603: 3802: 3246:. Zeit im Bild. pp. 205–207. 3101:Fedoseev, Petr Nikolaevic (1973). 3075:, pp. 713, 735, Biographical note. 2615:. Addison-Wesley Longman Limited. 925:, Captain Rudolph von Manteuffel, 900:Polish insurgent army of 1830–1831 318:. The revolutions, which stressed 21:German revolution (disambiguation) 14: 5561: 4678: 2583:, p. 457, "Revolution in Vienna". 2313:Peasant success of the revolution 1205:"German revolutions of 1848–1849" 832: 104:Establishment of German state and 5535:1849 in the German Confederation 5530:1848 in the German Confederation 5474: 4655:Maksan, Oliver (18 March 2023). 4319:. New York: International Press. 3919: 2268:and in the southern part of the 1932:– and the German states agreed. 1854: 1732: 1556:The Rhineland or Rhenish Prussia 1294: 1170: 1025:and set up camp in the state of 221: 210: 199: 176: 163: 152: 141: 129: 5500:German revolutions of 1848–1849 4687:"1848: Revolution and Reaction" 4089: 4062: 4029: 4011: 3955:Stauter-Halsted, Keely (2015). 3948: 3895: 3859: 3834: 3537: 3392: 3326: 3235: 3094: 2602: 2101:Frederick William IV of Prussia 1512:Frederick Augustus II of Saxony 1181:needs additional citations for 280:German revolutions of 1848–1849 31:German Revolutions of 1848–1849 4326:The American Historical Review 3868:"Deutschlands sonderbarer Weg" 3333:Waldersee, Alfred von (2019). 1838:National Assembly in Frankfurt 1782:Greater Poland Uprising (1848) 1548:, and created what became the 1346:In his memoirs, Field Marshal 444:, which had been dissolved by 306:), were initially part of the 58:: Cheering revolutionaries in 1: 5308:Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust 4458:Robertson, Priscilla (1952). 4363:The Journal of Modern History 4281:The English Historical Review 4025:(in German). 3 February 2014. 2411: 2382:'s affair with Bavarian King 1983:– Left/Liberal democrats (60) 859:. The state of Baden and the 397:as chief minister to Emperor 290:Deutsche Revolution 1848/1849 4169:University of Michigan Press 4120:General and cited references 3782:"Schädler, Karl (1804–1872)" 3724:Rheinberger, Rudolf (1991). 3405:Handbook of Prussian History 3149:, p. 718, Biographical note. 3091:, p. 728, Biographical note. 3003:, p. 714, Biographical note. 2968:, p. 710, Biographical note. 2920:, p. 729, Biographical note. 2901:, p. 719, Biographical note. 2882:, p. 195, Biographical note. 2416: 2378:lavishly depicts the famous 2125:three-class system of voting 1776:Greater Poland and Pomerelia 7: 5545:1849 in the Austrian Empire 5540:1848 in the Austrian Empire 5456:Schleswig–Holstein question 5303:Friedrich Daniel Bassermann 4485:Political Science Quarterly 4186:Hahn, Hans Joachim (2001). 2390: 2359:('liberator of peasants'). 2299:Frankfurt National Assembly 2029:Schleswig-Holstein Question 1498:The May uprising in Dresden 892:Daniel Fenner von Fenneberg 880:Battle of Kirchheimbolanden 855:, when a riot broke out in 785:Friedrich Karl Franz Hecker 10: 5566: 5338:Karl August von Hardenberg 5076:North German Confederation 5049:Confederation of the Rhine 4557:Cambridge University Press 4551:Sperber, Jonathan (2005). 4524:Sheehan, James J. (1990). 4466:Princeton University Press 4271:Princeton University Press 4265:Hamerow, Theodore (1967). 4237:American Historical Review 2353:, subsequently revered as 2321:across Europe until after 2137:was a member of the first 2105:Prussian National Assembly 1832:North German Confederation 1808:Second Partition of Poland 1786:While technically neither 1779: 1763:done primarily by him and 1736: 1705: 1479:Prussian National Assembly 1161: 1121:Prussian National Assembly 1117:Karl Ludwig Johann D'Ester 836: 783:Baden sent two democrats, 773:March Revolution in Vienna 542: 433: 429: 18: 5471: 5381: 5255: 5089: 5066:German Empire (1848–1849) 5041: 4988: 4865: 4810: 4779: 4717:: 101–147. 28 April 1849. 4528:German History, 1770–1866 4163:Germany: A Modern History 3569:Pollock & Thomas 1952 3509:Pollock & Thomas 1952 3497:Pollock & Thomas 1952 3466:Pollock & Thomas 1952 3242:Gemkow, Heinrich (1972). 2832:Pollock & Thomas 1952 2647:Pollock & Thomas 1952 2190:Failure of the revolution 2119:, and a lower house, the 1989:– Far left/Democrats (40) 1959:– Right/Conservative (40) 1489: 993:. He was a member of the 923:Alexander Schimmelpfennig 592: 238: 233:No centralised leadership 192: 122: 78:February 1848 – July 1849 70: 47: 35: 30: 5550:19th-century revolutions 5451:Greater Austria proposal 4582:Harvard University Press 3963:Cornell University Press 3545:"The Revolution of 1848" 3456:, pp. 662–663, Note 139. 2567:, pp. 642–643, Note 298. 2445:International Publishers 2274:Frederick VII of Denmark 2121:House of Representatives 2049:Should Germany become a 2017:Archduke John of Austria 1484:Brandenburg an der Havel 746:On 27 February 1848, in 737:(Prussian) Customs Union 538: 380:Louis-Philippe of France 5394:Austro-Prussian rivalry 5207:"Blood and Iron" speech 5178:Greater Poland uprising 5149:Frankfurter Wachensturm 4574:Vick, Brian E. (2002). 4534:Oxford University Press 4414:Charles Scribner's Sons 4159:Dill, Marshall (1970). 4135:. Penguin Random House. 3991:Oxford University Press 3902:Lauring, Palle (1960). 3730:. Vol. 89. Vaduz: 2258:Danish Conflict of 1848 2081:constitutional monarchy 1523:May Uprising in Dresden 1469:, not taken seriously. 1438:Friedrichshain cemetery 1380:Besserer von Dahlfingen 1109:Neue Rheinische Zeitung 959:Johann Gottfried Kinkel 820:Battle on the Scheideck 640:(9 May – 23 July 1849): 629:(21–25 September 1848): 5407:Das Lied der Deutschen 5343:Klemens von Metternich 5318:Johann Gottlieb Fichte 5028:Kingdom of Württemberg 4982:Unification of Germany 3939:Marx & Engels 1977 3886:Marx & Engels 1977 3696:Marx & Engels 1977 3677:Marx & Engels 1977 3661:Marx & Engels 1977 3645:Marx & Engels 1977 3629:Marx & Engels 1977 3613:Marx & Engels 1977 3597:Marx & Engels 1977 3581:Marx & Engels 1977 3549:German-American Corner 3528:Marx & Engels 1977 3481:Marx & Engels 1977 3450:Marx & Engels 1977 3431:Marx & Engels 1977 3383:Marx & Engels 1977 3364:Marx & Engels 1977 3317:Marx & Engels 1977 3301:Marx & Engels 1977 3289:Jakob Lukas Schabelitz 3281:Marx & Engels 1977 3265:Marx & Engels 1977 3226:Marx & Engels 1977 3210:Marx & Engels 1977 3194:Marx & Engels 1977 3178:Marx & Engels 1977 3159:Marx & Engels 1977 3143:Marx & Engels 1977 3127:Marx & Engels 1977 3103:Karl Marx: A Biography 3085:Marx & Engels 1977 3069:Marx & Engels 1977 3053:Marx & Engels 1977 3037:Marx & Engels 1977 3018:Marx & Engels 1977 2997:Marx & Engels 1977 2981:Marx & Engels 1977 2962:Marx & Engels 1977 2946:Marx & Engels 1977 2930:Marx & Engels 1977 2914:Marx & Engels 1977 2895:Marx & Engels 1977 2876:Marx & Engels 1977 2860:Marx & Engels 1977 2844:Marx & Engels 1977 2816:Marx & Engels 1977 2797:Marx & Engels 1977 2781:Marx & Engels 1977 2765:Marx & Engels 1977 2749:Marx & Engels 1977 2733:Marx & Engels 1977 2708:Marx & Engels 1977 2683:Marx & Engels 1977 2593:Marx & Engels 1977 2577:Marx & Engels 1977 2561:Marx & Engels 1977 2545:Marx & Engels 1977 2355: 2228: 2220: 2129: 2075:Paulskirchenverfassung 2073: 2021: 2001: 1941: 1847: 1663:Theodor Ludwig Greiner 1651:Ernst Hermann Höchster 1640: 1618: 1598: 1537:government of Saxony. 1499: 1457: 1434: 1392: 1388:1st Regiment of Guards 1366: 1356: 1343: 1280: 1108: 1044: 1031:Free City of Frankfurt 1019:Kingdom of Württemberg 1001:Neue Kölnische Zeitung 999: 888:Joseph Martin Reichard 883: 764: 467: 408: 399:Ferdinand I of Austria 303: 289: 275: 228:Klemens von Metternich 193:Commanders and leaders 187:German revolutionaries 42:unification of Germany 5520:Rebellions in Germany 5323:Johann Gustav Droysen 5293:Frederick William III 4406:Palmer, Alan (1976). 4096:Walter, Hans (1907). 4069:Koberg, Karl (1923). 3983:Eddie, S. A. (2013). 3846:World Digital Library 1996: 1971:– Centre/Liberal (40) 1845: 1647:Karl Nickolaus Riotte 1596: 1506:, the capital of the 1497: 1455: 1352: 1338: 1278: 1053:Lorenz Peter Brentano 1039: 877: 462: 395:Prince von Metternich 259: 206:Frederick Augustus II 5446:German reunification 5368:Wilhelm von Humboldt 5333:John, King of Saxony 5298:Frederick William IV 5247:Treaty of Versailles 5216:Second Schleswig War 5187:Punctation of Olmütz 5169:Frankfurt Parliament 5054:German Confederation 4697:on 10 December 2005. 4662:Neue Zürcher Zeitung 3922:A History of Prussia 2397:Bourgeois revolution 2331:German Confederation 2226:versus advocates of 2148:Frederick William IV 2130:Dreiklassenwahlrecht 1942:Professorenparlament 1878:improve this section 1796:Grand Duchy of Posen 1348:Alfred von Waldersee 1340:Alfred von Waldersee 1270:Frederick William IV 1190:improve this article 987:Gustav Adolph Techow 797:Frankfurt Parliament 516:democratic rebellion 420:freedom of the press 312:German Confederation 272:Frankfurt parliament 217:Frederick William IV 135:German Confederation 111:German Confederation 5525:Revolutions of 1848 5515:Protests in Germany 5313:Heinrich von Gagern 5238:Franco-Prussian War 5225:Austro-Prussian War 4773:Revolutions of 1848 4711:Reichs-Gesetz-Blatt 4616:Der Bundespräsident 3945:, p. 638, Note 271. 3714:, pp. 180–181. 3683:, p. 664, Note 149. 3499:, pp. 414–415. 3165:, p. 666, Note 164. 2771:, p. 580, Note 342. 2714:, p. 625, Note 167. 2599:, p. 643, Note 298. 2551:, p. 637, Note 264. 2532:, pp. 206–236. 2499:, pp. 188–205. 2487:, pp. 104–105. 2368:The second half of 2208:Heinrich von Gagern 2091:Backlash in Prussia 2051:hereditary monarchy 2006:Heinrich von Gagern 1977:– Left centre (100) 1820:Ludwik Mierosławski 1077:John Phillip Becker 1043:burns, 15 June 1849 935:Friedrich von Beust 904:Ludwik Mieroslawski 598:(13–27 April 1848): 580:Battles during the 424:freedom of assembly 384:February Revolution 308:Revolutions of 1848 246:German Federal Army 100:Rebellion quelled 38:Revolutions of 1848 5481:Germany portal 5414:Die Wacht am Rhein 5198:Dresden Conference 5101:Congress of Vienna 5018:Kingdom of Prussia 5013:Kingdom of Hanover 5008:Kingdom of Bavaria 4293:10.1093/ehr/ceq276 4287:(516): 1173–1214. 4127:Clark, Christopher 3926:Barnes & Noble 3339:. Borodino Books. 2739:, p. 606, Note 10. 2689:, p. 606, Note 12. 2363:In popular culture 2291:Armistice of Malmö 2270:Duchy of Schleswig 2196:Frankfurt Assembly 2002: 1950:political factions 1848: 1671:Franz Heinrch Zitz 1599: 1500: 1458: 1344: 1281: 1156:Battle of Rinnthal 1061:Rudolph Mayerhofer 1045: 979:Herman von Natzmer 965:, Karl Emmermann, 919:Friedrich Strasser 884: 865:Kingdom of Bavaria 863:(then part of the 839:Elberfeld uprising 468: 450:Congress of Vienna 416:popular assemblies 324:independent states 276: 270:, hung inside the 159:Kingdom of Prussia 5510:Conflicts in 1849 5505:Conflicts in 1848 5487: 5486: 5425:Lützow Free Corps 5358:Otto von Bismarck 5278:Eduard von Simson 5121:Wartburg Festival 5023:Kingdom of Saxony 4948: 4947: 4685:Rempel, Gerhard. 4591:978-0-674-00911-0 4313:Engels, Friedrich 4203:978-0-582-35765-5 4000:978-0-19-966275-3 3972:978-1-5017-0223-5 3750:"Revolution 1848" 3734:. pp. 54–55. 3389:, p. 605, Note 9. 3346:978-1-163-18135-5 2622:978-0-582-50711-1 2609:Sked, A. (1979). 2406:Christopher Clark 2266:Duchy of Holstein 2135:Otto von Bismarck 1975:Württemberger Hof 1926:St. Paul's Church 1914: 1913: 1906: 1824:Province of Posen 1765:Michael Menzinger 1655:Alexis Heintzmann 1584:petty bourgeoisie 1544:. They landed in 1542:Michael Machemehl 1508:Kingdom of Saxony 1376:War of Liberation 1333: 1332: 1311:. Please help to 1303:This section may 1266: 1265: 1258: 1240: 843:Palatine uprising 789:Gustav von Struve 721: 720: 442:Holy Roman Empire 328:Holy Roman Empire 254: 253: 148:Kingdom of Saxony 118: 117: 5557: 5479: 5478: 5477: 5428: 5244: 5235: 5222: 5213: 5204: 5195: 5184: 5175: 5166: 5159: 5145: 5139:Hambach Festival 5136: 5130:Carlsbad Decrees 5127: 5118: 5107: 5098: 5004: 4975: 4968: 4961: 4952: 4951: 4766: 4759: 4752: 4743: 4742: 4738: 4736: 4734: 4718: 4708: 4698: 4693:. Archived from 4674: 4672: 4670: 4651: 4649: 4647: 4628: 4626: 4624: 4599: 4570: 4547: 4531: 4520: 4479: 4454: 4441:. Van Nostrand. 4431: 4402: 4357: 4332:(5): 1219–1237. 4320: 4304: 4274: 4261: 4230: 4211: 4182: 4166: 4155: 4136: 4114: 4113: 4093: 4087: 4086: 4066: 4060: 4059: 4033: 4027: 4026: 4015: 4009: 4008: 3980: 3952: 3946: 3936: 3930: 3929: 3917: 3908: 3907: 3899: 3893: 3883: 3877: 3875: 3863: 3857: 3856: 3854: 3852: 3838: 3832: 3831: 3829: 3827: 3809: 3800: 3799: 3797: 3795: 3777: 3768: 3767: 3765: 3763: 3745: 3736: 3735: 3721: 3715: 3709: 3703: 3693: 3684: 3674: 3668: 3658: 3652: 3642: 3636: 3626: 3620: 3610: 3604: 3594: 3588: 3578: 3572: 3566: 3560: 3559: 3557: 3555: 3541: 3535: 3525: 3512: 3506: 3500: 3494: 3488: 3478: 3469: 3463: 3457: 3447: 3438: 3428: 3419: 3418: 3396: 3390: 3380: 3371: 3361: 3355: 3354: 3330: 3324: 3314: 3308: 3298: 3292: 3291:(24 August 1849) 3278: 3272: 3262: 3256: 3255: 3239: 3233: 3223: 3217: 3207: 3201: 3191: 3185: 3175: 3166: 3156: 3150: 3140: 3134: 3124: 3115: 3114: 3098: 3092: 3082: 3076: 3066: 3060: 3050: 3044: 3034: 3025: 3015: 3004: 2994: 2988: 2978: 2969: 2959: 2953: 2943: 2937: 2927: 2921: 2911: 2902: 2892: 2883: 2873: 2867: 2857: 2851: 2841: 2835: 2829: 2823: 2813: 2804: 2794: 2788: 2778: 2772: 2762: 2756: 2746: 2740: 2730: 2715: 2705: 2690: 2680: 2671: 2665: 2650: 2644: 2631: 2630: 2606: 2600: 2590: 2584: 2574: 2568: 2558: 2552: 2542: 2533: 2527: 2521: 2515: 2500: 2494: 2488: 2482: 2471: 2470: 2442: 2429: 2358: 2233: 2230:Kleindeutschland 2225: 2180:Friedrich Hecker 2132: 2107:and put forth a 2078: 2026: 1944: 1909: 1902: 1898: 1895: 1889: 1858: 1850: 1769:District Council 1687:Feliks Trociński 1659:Nikolaus Schmitt 1643: 1621: 1546:Galveston, Texas 1517:German composer 1402:Frankfurter Gate 1396:advanced to the 1395: 1369: 1359: 1328: 1325: 1298: 1297: 1290: 1261: 1254: 1250: 1247: 1241: 1239: 1198: 1174: 1166: 1111: 1096:Frederick Engels 1004: 995:Communist League 991:Freidrich Anneke 896:Felix Raquilliet 816:Friedrich Hecker 767: 587: 584: 583:Baden Revolution 573: 566: 559: 550: 549: 545:Baden Revolution 406: 342:became known as 314:, including the 301: 294:March Revolution 287: 226: 225: 224: 215: 214: 213: 204: 203: 202: 181: 180: 179: 169: 167: 166: 158: 156: 155: 147: 145: 144: 133: 90:, Central Europe 72: 71: 52: 28: 27: 5565: 5564: 5560: 5559: 5558: 5556: 5555: 5554: 5490: 5489: 5488: 5483: 5475: 5473: 5467: 5441:German question 5422: 5420:Flag of Germany 5389:Alsace–Lorraine 5377: 5263:Baron von Stein 5251: 5242: 5233: 5229:Peace of Prague 5220: 5211: 5202: 5193: 5182: 5173: 5164: 5157: 5143: 5134: 5125: 5116: 5105: 5096: 5085: 5037: 5001:Austria-Hungary 4998: 4996:Austrian Empire 4984: 4979: 4949: 4944: 4929:United Kingdom 4914:Ottoman Empire 4873:Austrian Empire 4861: 4806: 4775: 4770: 4732: 4730: 4722:Westera, Rick. 4706: 4701: 4681: 4668: 4666: 4645: 4643: 4622: 4620: 4609: 4606: 4604:Further reading 4592: 4567: 4544: 4501:10.2307/2147265 4476: 4424: 4338:10.2307/1904890 4250:10.2307/1842744 4227: 4204: 4179: 4152: 4122: 4117: 4094: 4090: 4067: 4063: 4048: 4034: 4030: 4017: 4016: 4012: 4001: 3973: 3953: 3949: 3937: 3933: 3918: 3911: 3900: 3896: 3884: 3880: 3872:ZEIT Geschichte 3864: 3860: 3850: 3848: 3840: 3839: 3835: 3825: 3823: 3810: 3803: 3793: 3791: 3778: 3771: 3761: 3759: 3746: 3739: 3722: 3718: 3710: 3706: 3694: 3687: 3675: 3671: 3659: 3655: 3643: 3639: 3627: 3623: 3611: 3607: 3595: 3591: 3579: 3575: 3567: 3563: 3553: 3551: 3543: 3542: 3538: 3526: 3515: 3507: 3503: 3495: 3491: 3479: 3472: 3464: 3460: 3448: 3441: 3429: 3422: 3415: 3397: 3393: 3381: 3374: 3362: 3358: 3347: 3331: 3327: 3315: 3311: 3299: 3295: 3279: 3275: 3263: 3259: 3240: 3236: 3224: 3220: 3208: 3204: 3192: 3188: 3176: 3169: 3157: 3153: 3141: 3137: 3125: 3118: 3099: 3095: 3083: 3079: 3067: 3063: 3051: 3047: 3035: 3028: 3016: 3007: 2995: 2991: 2979: 2972: 2960: 2956: 2944: 2940: 2928: 2924: 2912: 2905: 2893: 2886: 2874: 2870: 2858: 2854: 2842: 2838: 2830: 2826: 2814: 2807: 2795: 2791: 2779: 2775: 2763: 2759: 2747: 2743: 2731: 2718: 2706: 2693: 2681: 2674: 2666: 2653: 2645: 2634: 2623: 2607: 2603: 2591: 2587: 2575: 2571: 2559: 2555: 2543: 2536: 2528: 2524: 2516: 2503: 2495: 2491: 2483: 2474: 2459: 2430: 2423: 2419: 2414: 2393: 2365: 2327:Austrian Empire 2315: 2222:Großdeutschland 2192: 2113:Revised in 1850 2093: 2044:Austrian Empire 2040:German solution 1998:Archduke John's 1910: 1899: 1893: 1890: 1875: 1859: 1840: 1784: 1778: 1741: 1735: 1708: 1558: 1527:Michael Bakunin 1492: 1384:percussion-caps 1367:Marschallbrücke 1329: 1323: 1320: 1299: 1295: 1262: 1251: 1245: 1242: 1199: 1197: 1187: 1175: 1164: 845: 837:Main articles: 835: 824:Hecker Uprising 765:Märzforderungen 756:Hesse-Darmstadt 722: 717: 716: 657:Wald-Michelbach 623: 596:Hecker Uprising 588: 582: 579: 577: 547: 541: 521:Vienna Uprising 464:Vienna Uprising 438: 432: 402: 369:flag of Germany 360: 332:Napoleonic Wars 316:Austrian Empire 297: 283: 222: 220: 219: 211: 209: 208: 200: 198: 185: 177: 175: 170:Austrian Empire 164: 162: 153: 151: 142: 140: 109:Dissolution of 105: 91: 56:Flag of Germany 53: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5563: 5553: 5552: 5547: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5522: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5485: 5484: 5472: 5469: 5468: 5466: 5465: 5458: 5453: 5448: 5443: 5438: 5436:Lesser Germany 5429: 5417: 5410: 5403: 5400:Burschenschaft 5396: 5391: 5385: 5383: 5379: 5378: 5376: 5375: 5370: 5365: 5360: 5355: 5350: 5345: 5340: 5335: 5330: 5325: 5320: 5315: 5310: 5305: 5300: 5295: 5290: 5288:Franz Joseph I 5285: 5280: 5275: 5270: 5265: 5259: 5257: 5253: 5252: 5250: 5249: 5240: 5231: 5218: 5209: 5200: 5191: 5190: 5189: 5180: 5171: 5154: 5153: 5152: 5141: 5132: 5123: 5103: 5093: 5091: 5087: 5086: 5084: 5083: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5056: 5051: 5045: 5043: 5039: 5038: 5036: 5035: 5030: 5025: 5020: 5015: 5010: 5005: 4992: 4990: 4986: 4985: 4978: 4977: 4970: 4963: 4955: 4946: 4945: 4943: 4942: 4941: 4940: 4935: 4927: 4926: 4925: 4920: 4912: 4907: 4902: 4897: 4896: 4895: 4890: 4885: 4880: 4869: 4867: 4863: 4862: 4860: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4848: 4847: 4837: 4836: 4835: 4825: 4820: 4814: 4812: 4808: 4807: 4805: 4804: 4799: 4794: 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p. 105. 2651: 2649:, p. 612. 2632: 2621: 2601: 2585: 2569: 2553: 2534: 2530:Robertson 1952 2522: 2520:, p. 106. 2501: 2497:Robertson 1952 2489: 2472: 2457: 2420: 2418: 2415: 2413: 2410: 2409: 2408: 2399: 2392: 2389: 2388: 2387: 2364: 2361: 2356:Bauernbefreier 2314: 2311: 2191: 2188: 2184:Forty-Eighters 2117:House of Lords 2092: 2089: 2058: 2057: 2054: 2047: 2023:Reichsverweser 1991: 1990: 1984: 1978: 1972: 1966: 1960: 1930:all of Germany 1912: 1911: 1862: 1860: 1853: 1839: 1836: 1788:Greater Poland 1780:Main article: 1777: 1774: 1737:Main article: 1734: 1731: 1707: 1704: 1691:Christian Zinn 1683:August Willich 1675:Ludwig Blenker 1630:, Düsseldorf, 1557: 1554: 1519:Richard Wagner 1491: 1488: 1447:Gendarmenmarkt 1398:Alexanderplatz 1360:alongside the 1331: 1330: 1315:. Discuss and 1302: 1300: 1293: 1264: 1263: 1178: 1176: 1169: 1163: 1160: 1149:August Willich 1133:Kaiserslautern 1102:traveled from 1069:Joseph Fickler 1065:Florian Mördes 927:Albert Clement 915:Kaiserslautern 882:, 14 June 1849 834: 833:The Palatinate 831: 812:Joseph Fickler 719: 718: 715: 714: 709: 704: 699: 694: 689: 684: 679: 674: 669: 664: 659: 654: 649: 643: 622: 621: 616: 611: 606: 600: 593: 590: 589: 576: 575: 568: 561: 553: 543:Main article: 540: 537: 511:shot several. 466:, October 1848 434:Main article: 431: 428: 409:Märzrevolution 364:Hambacher Fest 359: 356: 344:Forty-Eighters 304:Märzrevolution 266:, possibly by 252: 251: 248: 241: 240: 236: 235: 230: 195: 194: 190: 189: 173: 172: 171: 160: 149: 125: 124: 120: 119: 116: 115: 114: 113: 107: 97: 93: 92: 86: 84: 80: 79: 76: 68: 67: 54:Origin of the 45: 44: 33: 32: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5562: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5497: 5495: 5482: 5470: 5464: 5463: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5433: 5432:Pan-Germanism 5430: 5426: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5415: 5411: 5409: 5408: 5404: 5402: 5401: 5397: 5395: 5392: 5390: 5387: 5386: 5384: 5380: 5374: 5371: 5369: 5366: 5364: 5361: 5359: 5356: 5354: 5351: 5349: 5346: 5344: 5341: 5339: 5336: 5334: 5331: 5329: 5328:Archduke John 5326: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5314: 5311: 5309: 5306: 5304: 5301: 5299: 5296: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5286: 5284: 5281: 5279: 5276: 5274: 5271: 5269: 5266: 5264: 5261: 5260: 5258: 5254: 5248: 5241: 5239: 5232: 5230: 5226: 5219: 5217: 5210: 5208: 5201: 5199: 5192: 5188: 5181: 5179: 5172: 5170: 5163: 5162: 5161: 5155: 5151: 5150: 5142: 5140: 5133: 5131: 5124: 5122: 5115: 5114: 5113: 5112: 5104: 5102: 5095: 5094: 5092: 5088: 5082: 5081:German Empire 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5062: 5061: 5057: 5055: 5052: 5050: 5047: 5046: 5044: 5040: 5034: 5031: 5029: 5026: 5024: 5021: 5019: 5016: 5014: 5011: 5009: 5006: 5002: 4997: 4994: 4993: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4976: 4971: 4969: 4964: 4962: 4957: 4956: 4953: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4930: 4928: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4916: 4915: 4913: 4911: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4901: 4898: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4875: 4874: 4871: 4870: 4868: 4864: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4850: 4846: 4843: 4842: 4841: 4838: 4834: 4831: 4830: 4829: 4826: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4816: 4815: 4813: 4809: 4803: 4800: 4798: 4797:Republicanism 4795: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4785: 4784: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4767: 4762: 4760: 4755: 4753: 4748: 4747: 4744: 4729: 4725: 4720: 4716: 4713:(in German). 4712: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4683: 4682: 4664: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4641: 4640: 4635: 4630: 4618: 4617: 4612: 4608: 4607: 4597: 4593: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4578: 4572: 4568: 4566:0-521-83907-6 4562: 4558: 4554: 4549: 4545: 4543:0-19-822120-7 4539: 4535: 4530: 4529: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4510: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4490: 4486: 4481: 4477: 4475:0-691-00756-X 4471: 4467: 4463: 4462: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4439: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4423:0-684-14683-5 4419: 4415: 4411: 4410: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4359: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4322: 4318: 4314: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4276: 4272: 4269:. 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1973: 1970: 1967: 1964: 1961: 1958: 1955: 1954: 1953: 1951: 1946: 1943: 1938: 1933: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1908: 1905: 1897: 1894:December 2023 1887: 1883: 1879: 1873: 1872: 1868: 1863:This section 1861: 1857: 1852: 1851: 1844: 1835: 1833: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1818:troops under 1817: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1793: 1789: 1783: 1773: 1770: 1766: 1760: 1758: 1754: 1753:Karl Schädler 1750: 1746: 1740: 1733:Liechtenstein 1730: 1728: 1727:Maximilian II 1723: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1703: 1699: 1696: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1678: 1676: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1642: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1624: 1620: 1615: 1614: 1609: 1605: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1585: 1579: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1553: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1538: 1534: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1515: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1496: 1487: 1485: 1480: 1474: 1470: 1468: 1463: 1454: 1450: 1448: 1444: 1439: 1433: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1422:aides-de-camp 1419: 1413: 1411: 1405: 1403: 1399: 1394: 1389: 1385: 1381: 1377: 1373: 1368: 1363: 1358: 1351: 1349: 1341: 1337: 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Retrieved 4727: 4714: 4710: 4695:the original 4690: 4667:. Retrieved 4660: 4644:. Retrieved 4637: 4621:. Retrieved 4614: 4596:Google Books 4594:– via 4576: 4552: 4527: 4488: 4484: 4460: 4451:Google Books 4449:– via 4437: 4428:Google Books 4426:– via 4412:. New York: 4408: 4366: 4362: 4329: 4325: 4316: 4284: 4280: 4266: 4244:(1): 27–44. 4241: 4235: 4216: 4208:Google Books 4206:– via 4188: 4162: 4141: 4130: 4101: 4097: 4091: 4074: 4070: 4064: 4037: 4031: 4022: 4013: 4005:Google Books 4003:– via 3985: 3977:Google Books 3975:– via 3957: 3950: 3942: 3934: 3921: 3920:Koch, H. W. 3903: 3897: 3889: 3881: 3871: 3861: 3849:. Retrieved 3836: 3824:. Retrieved 3817: 3792:. Retrieved 3785: 3760:. Retrieved 3753: 3726: 3719: 3707: 3699: 3680: 3672: 3664: 3656: 3648: 3640: 3632: 3624: 3616: 3608: 3600: 3592: 3584: 3576: 3564: 3552:. Retrieved 3548: 3539: 3531: 3504: 3492: 3484: 3461: 3453: 3434: 3404: 3400: 3394: 3386: 3367: 3359: 3351:Google Books 3349:– via 3335: 3328: 3320: 3312: 3304: 3296: 3284: 3276: 3268: 3260: 3243: 3237: 3229: 3221: 3213: 3205: 3197: 3189: 3181: 3162: 3154: 3146: 3138: 3130: 3102: 3096: 3088: 3080: 3072: 3064: 3056: 3048: 3040: 3021: 3000: 2992: 2984: 2965: 2957: 2949: 2941: 2933: 2925: 2917: 2898: 2879: 2871: 2863: 2855: 2847: 2839: 2827: 2819: 2800: 2792: 2784: 2776: 2768: 2760: 2752: 2744: 2736: 2711: 2686: 2627:Google Books 2625:– via 2611: 2604: 2596: 2588: 2580: 2572: 2564: 2556: 2548: 2525: 2492: 2438: 2373: 2372:' 1955 film 2351:Hans Kudlich 2343:forced labor 2316: 2296: 2283: 2255: 2251:Reichsflotte 2248: 2244: 2217: 2213: 2205: 2201:nation state 2193: 2169: 2165: 2153: 2145: 2138: 2109:constitution 2094: 2087:and Saxony. 2070: 2067: 2059: 2033: 2010: 2003: 1947: 1934: 1915: 1900: 1891: 1876:Please help 1864: 1828:West Prussia 1800:West Prussia 1785: 1761: 1757:Ludwig Grass 1749:Peter Kaiser 1742: 1724: 1709: 1700: 1689:and Captain 1679: 1625: 1611: 1607: 1603: 1600: 1588: 1580: 1559: 1550:German Texan 1539: 1535: 1531:Stephen Born 1516: 1501: 1475: 1471: 1459: 1435: 1417: 1414: 1406: 1393:Leibregiment 1353: 1345: 1321: 1307:undue weight 1304: 1282: 1267: 1252: 1243: 1233: 1226: 1219: 1212: 1200: 1188:Please help 1183:verification 1180: 1153: 1137: 1114: 1094: 1082: 1046: 1041:Ludwigshafen 1007: 975:Colonel Kurz 939:Eugen Oswald 912: 885: 869: 846: 828: 805: 793: 782: 770: 745: 741: 723: 687:Ladenburg II 662:Ludwigshafen 638:Baden Mutiny 636: 635: 625: 624: 594: 533:Franz Joseph 513: 509: 493: 482: 478:Anton Füster 469: 453: 439: 413: 388: 373: 361: 336: 293: 279: 277: 268:Philipp Veit 261: 232: 128: 123:Belligerents 99: 36:Part of the 25: 5363:Robert Blum 5160:Revolutions 4866:By location 4792:Nationalism 4665:(in German) 4642:(in German) 4619:(in German) 4495:: 367–379. 3851:13 February 3826:24 December 3822:(in German) 3794:24 December 3790:(in German) 3762:24 December 3758:(in German) 2447:. pp. 2375:Lola Montès 2323:World War I 2240:Protestants 2176:Franz Sigel 2172:Carl Schurz 2157:Württemberg 2097:von Wrangel 2062:Robert Blum 2013:regionalism 1987:Donnersberg 1957:Café Milani 1720:Lola Montez 1667:Karl Hecker 1443:catafalques 1426:bivouacking 1420:of mounted 1418:va-et-vient 1125:Reichenbach 1090:Switzerland 967:Franz Sigel 955:Joseph Moll 943:Amand Goegg 752:Württemberg 672:Ladenburg I 473:Lola Montez 5494:Categories 5060:Zollverein 4910:Luxembourg 4787:Liberalism 4309:Marx, Karl 3989:. Oxford: 3924:. London: 3252:1006205627 2433:Marx, Karl 2412:References 2370:Max Ophüls 2303:Metternich 2262:Copenhagen 2161:Palatinate 1937:parliament 1918:Heidelberg 1575:Düsseldorf 1285:Tiergarten 1246:March 2018 1216:newspapers 1073:Karl Blind 931:Zychlinski 902:. Finally 861:Palatinate 801:Karl Mathy 677:Hirschhorn 647:Heppenheim 619:Dossenbach 609:Günterstal 586:of 1848/49 454:ex officio 5462:Sonderweg 5373:Wilhelm I 5348:Ludwig II 5268:Charles I 5234:1870–1871 5194:1850-1851 5165:1848–1849 5106:1815–1848 5097:1814–1815 4923:Wallachia 4888:Vojvodina 4833:Schleswig 4811:By nation 4802:Socialism 4733:21 August 4728:Omniatlas 4509:0032-3195 4447:930492299 4399:144825914 4383:0022-2801 4346:0002-8762 4301:0013-8266 4056:829661791 3814:"Landrat" 3554:21 August 3323:, p. 613. 3232:, p. 673. 3184:, p. 447. 3111:914905293 2668:Dill 1970 2518:Dill 1970 2485:Dill 1970 2467:925314360 2417:Citations 2380:courtesan 2236:Catholics 1969:Landsberg 1922:Frankfurt 1865:does not 1834:in 1866. 1792:Pomerelia 1628:Elberfeld 1563:North Sea 1400:from the 1372:von Below 1324:June 2020 1100:Karl Marx 1027:Franconia 1023:Nuremberg 1015:Stuttgart 1011:Hechingen 971:Nerlinger 857:Karlsruhe 849:Elberfeld 707:Gernsbach 682:Waghäusel 604:Scheideck 497:Innsbruck 404:‹See Tfd› 348:Wisconsin 299:‹See Tfd› 285:‹See Tfd› 4918:Moldavia 4893:Slovakia 4840:Italians 4669:18 March 4646:18 March 4639:Die Welt 4623:18 March 4409:Bismarck 4315:(1977). 4129:(2023). 4110:82210275 4083:44077068 3981: ; 3370:, p. 16. 2391:See also 2384:Ludwig I 2335:peasants 2329:and the 1745:Aloys II 1716:Ludwig I 1641:Landwehr 1636:Solingen 1632:Iserlohn 1619:Landwehr 1613:Landwehr 1357:Spielhof 1145:Gräfrath 1141:Solingen 969:, Major 748:Mannheim 692:Sinsheim 667:Käfertal 652:Weinheim 614:Freiburg 446:Napoleon 407:German: 302:German: 288:German: 263:Germania 244:~45,000 239:Strength 83:Location 40:and the 5382:Related 5283:Franz I 5111:Vormärz 4999:(later 4938:Ireland 4933:Britain 4900:Belgium 4878:Hungary 4828:Germans 4517:2147265 4391:1877214 4354:1904890 4258:1842744 4194:Longman 2347:Prussia 2339:serfdom 2238:versus 2140:Landtag 2085:Hanover 1886:removed 1871:sources 1714:, King 1712:Bavaria 1706:Bavaria 1571:Cologne 1504:Dresden 1445:on the 1430:Potsdam 1317:resolve 1230:scholar 1162:Prussia 1129:Hexamer 1104:Cologne 961:, Herr 929:, Herr 917:, were 733:Leopold 729:Louis I 712:Rastatt 702:Durlach 697:Ubstadt 632:Staufen 529:Moravia 525:Olomouc 485:Hofburg 430:Austria 339:liberal 5256:People 5245: 5236: 5223: 5214: 5205: 5196: 5185: 5176: 5167: 5146: 5137: 5128: 5119: 5108: 5099: 5090:Events 5042:Unions 4989:States 4905:Brazil 4883:Prague 4857:Swedes 4845:Sicily 4823:French 4780:Ideals 4588: 4563: 4540: 4515: 4507: 4472: 4445: 4420: 4397: 4389: 4381: 4352: 4344: 4299: 4256: 4223: 4200: 4175: 4148: 4108: 4081: 4054: 4044: 3997: 3969: 3411: 3343: 3250: 3109: 2619: 2465: 2455: 2319:states 1963:Casino 1816:Polish 1767:. 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German revolutions of 1848–1849

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