Gestational diabetes

1318:). Macrosomia may affect 12% of normal women compared to 20% of women with GDM. However, the evidence for each of these complications is not equally strong; in the Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcome (HAPO) study for example, there was an increased risk for babies to be large but not small for gestational age in women with uncontrolled GDM. In a recent birth cohot study of 5150 deliveries, a research group active at the University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Finland demonstrated that the mother's GDM is an independent factor that increases the risk of fetal hypoxia, during labour. The study was published in the 1375:(before the 13th week) of pregnancy, whereas GDM gradually develops and is least pronounced during the first and early second trimester. Studies have shown that the offspring of women with GDM are at a higher risk for congenital malformations. A large case-control study found that gestational diabetes was linked with a limited group of birth defects, and that this association was generally limited to women with a higher body mass index (≥ 25 kg/m). It is difficult to make sure that this is not partially due to the inclusion of women with pre-existent type 2 diabetes who were not diagnosed before pregnancy. 1329:"The risk of hypoxia and the resulting risk of poor condition in newborn infants was nearly seven-fold in the fetuses of mothers with gestational diabetes compared to the fetuses of non-diabetic mothers," says researcher Mikko Tarvonen. According to the findings, the risk of needing to perform resuscitation on the newborn was ten-fold.Research into complications for GDM is difficult because of the many confounding factors (such as obesity). Labelling a woman as having GDM may in itself increase the risk of having an unnecessary caesarean section. 612: 42: 1236:), women with more than two previous pregnancies, and women who were obese (in order of importance). Women requiring insulin to manage gestational diabetes have a 50% risk of developing diabetes within the next five years. Depending on the population studied, the diagnostic criteria and the length of follow-up, the risk can vary enormously. The risk appears to be highest in the first 5 years, reaching a plateau thereafter. One of the longest studies followed a group of women from 1058: 6030: 7927: 7173: 7197: 7185: 724:(RTK) that is activated by its ligand, hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), and is involved in the activation of several cellular processes. When HGF binds c-MET, the receptor homodimerizes and self-phosphorylates to form an SH2 recognition domain. The downstream pathways activated include common signaling molecules such as RAS and MAPK, which affect cell motility, and cell cycle progression. 324:, who pioneered research on the effect of diabetes types on perinatal outcome, is widely used to assess maternal and fetal risk. It distinguishes between gestational diabetes (type A) and pregestational diabetes (diabetes that existed prior to pregnancy). These two groups are further subdivided according to their associated risks and management. 728:

neither of the processes occur, then markers for gestational diabetes are observed. It has been observed that pregnancy increases HGF levels, showing a correlation that suggests a connection between the signaling pathway and increased insulin needs. In fact, when no signaling is present, gestational diabetes is more likely to occur.

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solution and measuring glucose concentration thereafter in the blood; in diabetes, they tend to remain high. The glucose solution has a very sweet taste which some women find unpleasant; sometimes, therefore, artificial flavours are added. Some women may experience nausea during the test, and more so with higher glucose levels.

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Insulin resistance is a normal phenomenon emerging in the second trimester of pregnancy, which in cases of GDM progresses thereafter to levels seen in a non-pregnant woman with type 2 diabetes. It is thought to secure glucose supply to the growing fetus. Women with GDM have an insulin resistance that

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pathway beyond the insulin receptor. Since insulin promotes the entry of glucose into most cells, insulin resistance prevents glucose from entering the cells properly. As a result, glucose remains in the bloodstream, where glucose levels rise. More insulin is needed to overcome this resistance; about

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with onset or first recognition during pregnancy". This definition acknowledges the possibility that a woman may have previously undiagnosed diabetes mellitus, or may have developed diabetes coincidentally with pregnancy. Whether symptoms subside after pregnancy is also irrelevant to the diagnosis. A

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Self monitoring can be accomplished using a handheld capillary glucose dosage system. Compliance with these glucometer systems can be low. There is not a lot of research into what target blood sugar levels should be for women with gestational diabetes and targets recommended to women vary around the

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to support large national screening programs. The most elaborate regimen entails a random blood glucose test during a booking visit, a screening glucose challenge test around 24–28 weeks' gestation, followed by an OGTT if the tests are outside normal limits. If there is a high suspicion, a woman may

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in defined circumstances. One method is a stepwise approach where a suspicious result on a screening test is followed by diagnostic test. Alternatively, a more involved diagnostic test can be used directly at the first prenatal visit for a woman with a high-risk pregnancy. (for example in those with

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Though the clinical presentation of gestational diabetes is well characterized, the biochemical mechanism behind the disease is not well known. One proposed biochemical mechanism involves insulin-producing β-cell adaptation controlled by the HGF/c-MET signaling pathway. β-cell adaption refers to the

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Children of women with GDM have an increased risk for childhood and adult obesity and an increased risk of glucose intolerance and type 2 diabetes later in life. This risk relates to increased maternal glucose values. It is currently unclear how much genetic susceptibility and environmental factors

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Almost half of the women did not reach sufficient control with metformin alone and needed supplemental therapy with insulin; compared to those treated with insulin alone, they required less insulin, and they gained less weight. With no long-term studies into children of women treated with the drug,

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There is some evidence that certain medications by mouth might be safe in pregnancy, or at least, are less dangerous to the developing fetus than poorly controlled diabetes. When comparing which diabetes tablets (medication by mouth) work best and are safest, there is not enough quality research to

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Regular moderately intense physical exercise is advised, although there is no consensus on the specific structure of exercise programs for GDM. Pregnant women who exercise have lower blood sugar levels when fasting and after meals compared to those who do not exercise. It is not clear which form of

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Any diet needs to provide sufficient calories for pregnancy, typically 2,000–2,500 kcal with the exclusion of simple carbohydrates. The main goal of dietary modifications is to avoid peaks in blood sugar levels. This can be done by spreading carbohydrate intake over meals and snacks throughout

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If the cut-off point is set at 140 mg/dL (7.8 mmol/L), 80% of women with GDM will be detected. If this threshold for further testing is lowered to 130 mg/dL, 90% of GDM cases will be detected, but there will also be more women who will be subjected to a consequent OGTT unnecessarily.

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When a plasma glucose level is found to be higher than 126 mg/dL (7.0 mmol/L) after fasting, or over 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L) on any occasion, and if this is confirmed on a subsequent day, the diagnosis of GDM is made, and no further testing is required. These tests are typically

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Non-challenge blood glucose tests involve measuring glucose levels in blood samples without challenging the subject with glucose solutions. A blood glucose level is determined when fasting, two hours after a meal, or simply at any random time. In contrast, challenge tests involve drinking a glucose

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Lifestyle interventions include exercise, diet advice, behavioural interventions, relaxation, self-monitoring glucose, and combined interventions. Women with gestational diabetes who receive lifestyle interventions seem to have less postpartum depression, and were more likely to reach their weight

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The screening glucose challenge test (sometimes called the O'Sullivan test) is performed between 24 and 28 weeks, and can be seen as a simplified version of the oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). No previous fasting is required for this screening test, in contrast to the OGTT. The O'Sullivan test

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Some pregnant women and careproviders choose to forgo routine screening due to the absence of risk factors, however this is not advised due to the large proportion of women who develop gestational diabetes despite having no risk factors present and the dangers to the mother and baby if gestational

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If monitoring reveals failing control of glucose levels with these measures, or if there is evidence of complications like excessive fetal growth, treatment with insulin might be necessary. This is most commonly fast-acting insulin given just before eating to blunt glucose rises after meals. Care

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supplementation during pregnancy may help to prevent gestational diabetes. A 2015 review found that when done during pregnancy moderate physical exercise is effective for the prevention of gestational diabetes. A 2014 review however did not find a significant effect. It is uncertain if additional

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Studies have shown that HGF is an important signaling molecule in stress related situations where more insulin is needed. Pregnancy causes increased insulin resistance and so a higher insulin demand. The β-cells must compensate for this by either increasing insulin production or proliferating. If

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are involved in the decrease in insulin sensitivity occurring during pregnancy, with tumor necrosis factor alpha named as the strongest independent predictor of insulin sensitivity in pregnancy. An inverse correlation with the changes in insulin sensitivity from the time before conception through

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Saldanha IJ, Adam GP, Kanaan G, Zahradnik ML, Steele DW, Danilack VA, Peahl AF, Chen KK, Stuebe AM, Balk EM. Postpartum Care up to 1 Year After Pregnancy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Comparative Effectiveness Review No. 261. (Prepared by the Brown Evidence-based Practice Center under

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in June 2021. Another finding was that GDM increased the susceptibility of the fetus to intrapartum hypoxia, regardless of the size of the fetus. The risk of hypoxia and the resulting risk of poor condition in newborn infants was nearly 7-fold in the fetuses of mothers with GDM compared to the

444:

OGTT is performed in pregnant women by measuring the plasma glucose after 2 hours of fasting or non-fasting after ingesting 75 grams of glucose (Monohydrate Dextrose Anhydrous). The Indian Guidelines (DIPSI Test) are simple for diagnosing gestational diabetes (GDM). They can be done quickly in

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Gestational diabetes generally resolves once the baby is born. Based on different studies, the chances of developing GDM in a second pregnancy, if a woman had GDM in her first pregnancy, are between 30 and 84%, depending on ethnic background. A second pregnancy within one year of the previous

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loss targets after giving birth, than women who had no intervention. Their babies are also less likely to be large for their gestational age, and have less percentage of fat when they are born. More research is needed to find out which lifestyle interventions are best. Some women with GDM use

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are at higher risk. However, the variations in prevalence are also due to different screening strategies and diagnostic criteria being used. In 90% of cases, gestational diabetes resolves after the baby is born. Affected people, however, are at an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

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It has been suggested that for women who have had gestational diabetes, diet, exercise, education, and lifestyle changes between pregnancies may lower their chances of having gestational diabetes again in future pregnancies. However, there is no research to show whether interventions between

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Because women diagnosed with Gestational Diabetes (GDM) during pregnancy are at an increased risk for developing Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus after pregnancy, post pregnancy glucose tolerance testing is needed. Based on the recent meta-analysis conducted by the Patient-Centered Outcomes Research

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There is currently not enough research to show which way is best at diagnosing gestational diabetes. Routine screening of women with a glucose challenge test may find more women with gestational diabetes than only screening women with risk factors. Hemoglobin A (HbA1c) is not recommended for

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carrier), which is located in the syncytiotrophoblast on both the microvillus and basal membranes, these membranes may be the rate-limiting step in placental glucose transport. There is a two- to three-fold increase in the expression of syncytiotrophoblast glucose transporters with advancing

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Although the mechanism of HGF/c-MET control of gestational diabetes is not yet well understood, there is a strong correlation between the signaling pathway and the inability to produce an adequate amount of insulin during pregnancy and thus it may be the target for future diabetic therapies.

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There are scarce statistical data on the risk of other conditions in women with GDM; in the Jerusalem Perinatal study, 410 out of 37,962 women were reported to have GDM, and there was a tendency towards more breast and pancreatic cancer, but more research is needed to confirm this finding.

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change that pancreatic islet cells undergo during pregnancy in response to maternal hormones in order to compensate for the increased physiological needs of mother and baby. These changes in the β-cells cause increased insulin secretion as a result of increased β-cell proliferation. HGF/

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Bennett CJ, Walker RE, Blumfield ML, Gwini SM, Ma J, Wang F, et al. (July 2018). "Interventions designed to reduce excessive gestational weight gain can reduce the incidence of gestational diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials".

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GDM poses a risk to mother and child. This risk is largely related to uncontrolled blood glucose levels and its consequences. The risk increases with higher blood glucose levels. Treatment resulting in better control of these levels can reduce some of the risks of GDM considerably.

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Sanabria-Martínez G, García-Hermoso A, Poyatos-León R, Álvarez-Bueno C, Sánchez-López M, Martínez-Vizcaíno V (August 2015). "Effectiveness of physical activity interventions on preventing gestational diabetes mellitus and excessive maternal weight gain: a meta-analysis".

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IADPSG (International Association of Diabetes and Pregnancy Study Groups) has developed diagnostic criteria for GDM, based on the results of adverse pregnancy outcomes in the Hyperglycemia and Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes (HAPO) study. These were recommended by WHO 2013.

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late gestation accounts for about half of the variance in the decrease in insulin sensitivity during gestation: in other words, low levels or alteration of TNF alpha factors corresponds with a greater chance of, or predisposition to, insulin resistance or sensitivity.

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The exact mechanism of HGF/c-MET regulated β-cell adaptation is not yet known but there are several hypotheses about how the signaling molecules contribute to insulin levels during pregnancy. c-MET may interact with FoxM1, a molecule important in the cell cycle, as

1201:. If blood glucose cannot be adequately controlled with a single agent, the combination of metformin and insulin may be better than insulin alone. Another review found good short term safety for both the mother and baby with metformin but unclear long term safety. 716:

has also been implicated in β-cell regeneration, which suggests that HGF/c-MET may help increase β-cell mass in order to compensate for insulin needs during pregnancy. Recent studies support that loss of HGF/c-MET signaling results in aberrant β-cell adaptation.

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Moderate-quality evidence suggest that there is a reduced risk of gestational diabetes mellitus and caesarean section with combined diet and exercise interventions during pregnancy as well as reductions in gestational weight gain, compared with standard care.

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Jovanovic-Peterson L, Bevier W, Peterson CM (April 1997). "The Santa Barbara County Health Care Services program: birth weight change concomitant with screening for and treatment of glucose-intolerance of pregnancy: a potential cost-effective intervention?".

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About 40–60% of women with GDM have no demonstrable risk factor; for this reason many advocate to screen all women. Typically, women with GDM exhibit no symptoms (another reason for universal screening), but some women may demonstrate increased

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Martínez-Frías ML, Frías JP, Bermejo E, Rodríguez-Pinilla E, Prieto L, Frías JL (June 2005). "Pre-gestational maternal body mass index predicts an increased risk of congenital malformations in infants of mothers with gestational diabetes".

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Research is being conducted to develop a web-based clinical decision support system for GDM prediction using machine learning techniques. Results so far demonstrated great potential in clinical practicality for automatic GDM prognosis.

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supplements) and multidisciplinary management are important for good pregnancy outcomes. Most women can manage their GDM with dietary changes and exercise. Self monitoring of blood glucose levels can guide therapy. Some women will need

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Perrin MC, Terry MB, Kleinhaus K, Deutsch L, Yanetz R, Tiram E, Calderon-Margalit R, Friedlander Y, Paltiel O, Harlap S (March 2008). "Gestational diabetes and the risk of breast cancer among women in the Jerusalem Perinatal Study".

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there remains a possibility of long-term complications from metformin therapy. Babies born to women treated with metformin have been found to develop less visceral fat, making them less prone to insulin resistance in later life.

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as the protein levels increase with c-MET is not present. Another hypothesis says that c-MET may control β-cell apoptosis because a lack of c-MET causes increases cell death but the signaling mechanisms have not been elucidated.

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during pregnancy contribute to some 50% of women having glucose in their urine on dipstick tests at some point during their pregnancy. The sensitivity of glucosuria for GDM in the first two trimesters is only around 10% and the

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Effect of insulin on glucose uptake and metabolism. Insulin binds to its receptor (1) on the cell membrane which in turn starts many protein activation cascades (2). These include: translocation of Glut-4 transporter to the

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found there is insufficient evidence to recommend for or against routine screening, and a 2017 a Cochrane review found that there is not evidence to determine which screening method is best for women and their babies.

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Sievenpiper JL, Jenkins DJ, Josse RG, Vuksan V (February 2001). "Dilution of the 75-g oral glucose tolerance test improves overall tolerability but not reproducibility in subjects with different body compositions".

552:. The MTNR1B gene is a common gene that is associated with how the body handles insulin and glucose. When this gene is not working properly, it can lead to less insulin production and higher blood glucose levels. 7235: 5883: 5868: 3570:

Yin YN, Li XL, Tao TJ, Luo BR, Liao SJ (February 2014). "Physical activity during pregnancy and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials".

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Contract No. 75Q80120D00001.) AHRQ Publication No. 23-EHC010. PCORI Publication No. 2023-SR-01. Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality; June 2023. DOI: https://doi.org/10.23970/AHRQEPCCER261.

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Butalia S, Gutierrez L, Lodha A, Aitken E, Zakariasen A, Donovan L (January 2017). "Short- and long-term outcomes of metformin compared with insulin alone in pregnancy: a systematic review and meta-analysis".

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gestation. Finally, the role of GLUT3/GLUT4 transport remains speculative. If the untreated gestational diabetes fetus is exposed to consistently higher glucose levels, this leads to increased fetal levels of

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Reece EA, Holford T, Tuck S, Bargar M, O'Connor T, Hobbins JC (January 1987). "Screening for gestational diabetes: one-hour carbohydrate tolerance test performed by a virtually tasteless polymer of glucose".

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due to excessive insulin. Insulin therapy can be normal or very tight; more injections can result in better control but requires more effort, and there is no consensus that it has large benefits. A 2016

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women, the risk of diabetes after GDM was estimated to be 50 to 70% after 11 years. Another study found a risk of diabetes after GDM of more than 25% after 15 years. In populations with a low risk for

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Canadian Diabetes Association Clinical Practice Guidelines Expert Committee. Canadian Diabetes Association 2003 Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Management of Diabetes in Canada.

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reduce the rates of gestational diabetes. However, the impact of these interventions varies with the body-mass index of the person as well as with the region in which the studies were performed.

949:(OGTT) should be done in the morning after an overnight fast of between 8 and 14 hours. During the three previous days the subject must have an unrestricted diet (containing at least 150 g 7228: 987:

testing is widely practiced, it performs poorly, and discontinuing routine dipstick testing has not been shown to cause underdiagnosis where universal screening is performed. Increased

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Type A1: abnormal oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT), but normal blood glucose levels during fasting and two hours after meals; diet modification is sufficient to control glucose levels

276:), and sometimes insulin injections. Most people manage blood sugar with diet and exercise. Blood sugar testing among those who are affected is often recommended four times a day. 1189:(updated in 2023) concluded that quality evidence is not yet available to determine the best blood sugar range for improving health for pregnant women with GDM and their babies. 7221: 4455:

Taylor JS, Kacmar JE, Nothnagle M, Lawrence RA (October 2005). "A systematic review of the literature associating breastfeeding with type 2 diabetes and gestational diabetes".

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Metzger BE, Coustan DR (August 1998). "Summary and recommendations of the Fourth International Workshop-Conference on Gestational Diabetes Mellitus. The Organizing Committee".

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low-resource settings, where many pregnant women visit for ANC check-ups in a Non-fasting state. A single value of ≥140 mg/dl is diagnostic for Gestational Diabetes Mellitus.

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Women diagnosed with gestational diabetes have an increased risk of developing diabetes mellitus in the future. The risk is highest in women who needed insulin treatment, had

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Agarwal MM, Dhatt GS, Punnose J, Zayed R (April 2007). "Gestational diabetes: fasting and postprandial glucose as first prenatal screening tests in a high-risk population".

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https://www.uwmedicine.org/sites/stevie/files/2020-11/Gestational-Diabetes-Screening-Strategies%2C-Glycemic-Targets-and-Pharmacologic-Management-OB-Consensus-Conference.pdf

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People may prefer metformin by mouth to insulin injections. Treatment of polycystic ovarian syndrome with metformin during pregnancy has been noted to decrease GDM levels.

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may be associated with reduced incidence of gestational diabetes. However, there is not enough evidence to indicate if one type of dietary advice is better than another.

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It is unclear why some women are unable to balance insulin needs and develop GDM; however, a number of explanations have been given, similar to those in type 2 diabetes:

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Sorenson RL, Brelje TC (June 1997). "Adaptation of islets of Langerhans to pregnancy: beta-cell growth, enhanced insulin secretion and the role of lactogenic hormones".

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Institute, research has shown that post pregnancy testing reminders are associated with greater adherence to oral glucose tolerance testing up to 1 year postpartum.

2307:"Maternal circulating concentrations of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, leptin, and adiponectin in gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis" 765:). After birth, the high glucose environment disappears, leaving these newborns with ongoing high insulin production and susceptibility to low blood glucose levels ( 5346:

Metzger BE, Lowe LP, Dyer AR, Trimble ER, Chaovarindr U, Coustan DR, Hadden DR, McCance DR, Hod M, McIntyre HD, Oats JJ, Persson B, Rogers MS, Sacks DA (May 2008).

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Zhang Y, Xia M, Weng S, Wang C, Yuan P, Tang S (December 2022). "Effect of Mediterranean diet for pregnant women: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials".

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performed at the first antenatal visit. They are simple to administer and inexpensive, but have a lower test performance compared to the other tests, with moderate

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Steinhart JR, Sugarman JR, Connell FA (June 1997). "Gestational diabetes is a herald of NIDDM in Navajo women. High rate of abnormal glucose tolerance after GDM".

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A repeat OGTT should be carried out 6 weeks after delivery, to confirm the diabetes has disappeared. Afterwards, regular screening for type 2 diabetes is advised.

960:

According to these gestational diabetes mellitus should be diagnosed at any time in pregnancy if one of the following criteria are met, using a 75 g glucose OGTT:

858:

Opinions differ about optimal screening and diagnostic measures, in part due to differences in population risks, cost-effectiveness considerations, and lack of an

334:

Type A2: abnormal OGTT compounded by abnormal glucose levels during fasting and/or after meals; additional therapy with insulin or other medications is required

3434:

Ritterath C, Siegmund T, Rad NT, Stein U, Buhling KJ (2006). "Accuracy and influence of ascorbic acid on glucose-test with urine dip sticks in prenatal care".

1233: 4378:

Langer O, Rodriguez DA, Xenakis EM, McFarland MB, Berkus MD, Arrendondo F (April 1994). "Intensified versus conventional management of gestational diabetes".

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fetuses of non-diabetic mothers. Furthermore, according to the findings, the risk of needing to perform resuscitation on the newborn after birth was 10-fold.

879: 7486: 5974: 5031:"Gestational diabetes mellitus: clinical predictors and long-term risk of developing type 2 diabetes: a retrospective cohort study using survival analysis" 3167:

Sacks DA, Chen W, Wolde-Tsadik G, Buchanan TA (June 2003). "Fasting plasma glucose test at the first prenatal visit as a screen for gestational diabetes".

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has a potential beneficial effect of improving insulin sensitivity, which suggested that it may be useful for women in preventing gestational diabetes″.

891: 4416:

Hofer OJ, Martis R, Alsweiler J, Crowther CA (October 2023). "Different intensities of glycaemic control for women with gestational diabetes mellitus".

7828: 1482: 1326:

Another finding was that gestational diabetes increased the susceptibility of the fetus to intrapartal hypoxia, regardless of the size of the fetus.

8174: 3905: 437:

The third criterion used was endorsed by Diabetes in Pregnancy Study Group India and approved by the National Health Mission in its Guidelines

8287: 2291: 1382:. In the HAPO study, the risk of preeclampsia was between 13% and 37% higher, although not all possible confounding factors were corrected. 5430:"Intrapartal cardiotocographic patterns and hypoxia-related perinatal outcomes in pregnancies complicated by gestational diabetes mellitus" 1838: 4871:"Gestational diabetes identifies women at risk for permanent type 1 and type 2 diabetes in fertile age: predictive role of autoantibodies" 1286:

The two main risks GDM imposes on the baby are growth abnormalities and chemical imbalances after birth, which may require admission to a

6019: 3239: 846:

diagnosing gestational diabetes, as it's a less reliable marker of glycemia during pregnancy than oral glucose tolerance testing (OGTT).

7095: 5980: 2945:

Gabbe SG, Gregory RP, Power ML, Williams SB, Schulkin J (June 2004). "Management of diabetes mellitus by obstetrician-gynecologists".

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per day) and unlimited physical activity. The subject should remain seated during the test and should not smoke throughout the test.

761:(insulin itself cannot cross the placenta). The growth-stimulating effects of insulin can lead to excessive growth and a large body ( 5726:

Correa A, Gilboa SM, Besser LM, Botto LD, Moore CA, Hobbs CA, Cleves MA, Riehle-Colarusso TJ, Waller DK, Reece EA (September 2008).

2806:"Screening for gestational diabetes mellitus based on different risk profiles and settings for improving maternal and infant health" 2534:"Loss of HGF/c-Met signaling in pancreatic β-cells leads to incomplete maternal β-cell adaptation and gestational diabetes mellitus" 2532:

Demirci C, Ernst S, Alvarez-Perez JC, Rosa T, Valle S, Shridhar V, Casinelli GP, Alonso LC, Vasavada RC, García-Ocana A (May 2012).

2242: 7154: 3247: 2478:

Alvarez-Perez JC, Ernst S, Demirci C, Casinelli GP, Mellado-Gil JM, Rausell-Palamos F, Vasavada RC, Garcia-Ocaña A (January 2014).

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Noctor, E., & Dunne, F. P. (2015). Type 2 diabetes after gestational diabetes: The influence of changing diagnostic criteria.

7201: 7077: 5819: 3269: 2988:

Mires GJ, Williams FL, Harper V (February 1999). "Screening practices for gestational diabetes mellitus in UK obstetric units".

7115: 1937:"Association of paternal age with perinatal outcomes between 2007 and 2016 in the United States: population based cohort study" 5986: 5231:

Perrin MC, Terry MB, Kleinhaus K, Deutsch L, Yanetz R, Tiram E, Calderon R, Friedlander Y, Paltiel O, Harlap S (August 2007).

5152:

Metzger BE (December 2007). "Long-term outcomes in mothers diagnosed with gestational diabetes mellitus and their offspring".

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Treatment of GDM with diet and insulin reduces health problems mother and child. Treatment of GDM is also accompanied by more

7466: 7433: 2365: 2226: 1796:

Committee on Practice Bulletins—Obstetrics (February 2018). "ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 190: Gestational Diabetes Mellitus".

1701: 292: 1240:; half of them developed diabetes after 6 years, and more than 70% had diabetes after 28 years. In a retrospective study in 8051: 7996: 1357: 1256: 268:

Maintenance of healthy weight and exercising before pregnancy assist in prevention. Gestational diabetes is treated with a

3665:"Prepregnancy plant-based diets and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: a prospective cohort study of 14,926 women" 283:

Gestational diabetes affects 3–9% of pregnancies, depending on the population studied. It is especially common during the

8518: 8492: 7049: 3855: 1102:. Women who use insulin, with a history of stillbirth, or with hypertension are managed like women with overt diabetes. 895: 5284:"An explainable machine learning-based clinical decision support system for prediction of gestational diabetes mellitus" 4604:"Glibenclamide, metformin, and insulin for the treatment of gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis" 1892:"Risk of gestational diabetes mellitus in women with polycystic ovary syndrome: a systematic review and a meta-analysis" 882:

recommend routine screening unless the woman is low risk (this means the woman must be younger than 25 years and have a

7966: 7481: 7189: 7159: 5479:"Selective screening for gestational diabetes mellitus. Toronto Trihospital Gestational Diabetes Project Investigators" 4825:

Löbner K, Knopff A, Baumgarten A, Mollenhauer U, Marienfeld S, Garrido-Franco M, Bonifacio E, Ziegler AG (March 2006).

1332:

Neonates born from women with consistently high blood sugar levels are also at an increased risk of low blood glucose (

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contribute, too. Multivariate stepwise regression analysis reveals that, in combination with other placental hormones,

505: 3124:

Agarwal MM, Dhatt GS (February 2007). "Fasting plasma glucose as a screening test for gestational diabetes mellitus".

2906:

Berger H, Crane J, Farine D, Armson A, De La Ronde S, Keenan-Lindsay L, Leduc L, Reid G, Van Aerde J (November 2002).

1367:

Unlike pre-gestational diabetes, gestational diabetes has not been clearly shown to be an independent risk factor for

287:. It affects 1% of those under the age of 20 and 13% of those over the age of 44. A number of ethnic groups including 8446: 8096: 7884: 7739: 7666: 7361: 7054: 6202: 5072:"Metabolic syndrome in childhood: association with birth weight, maternal obesity, and gestational diabetes mellitus" 1081: 917: 913: 603:

Pregnant women with these risk factors may need to undergo an early screening in addition to the routine screening.

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woman is diagnosed with gestational diabetes when glucose intolerance continues beyond 24 to 28 weeks of gestation.

8322: 7911: 6387: 3380:

Rhode MA, Shapiro H, Jones OW (March 2007). "Indicated vs. routine prenatal urine chemical reagent strip testing".

4500:"Twice daily versus four times daily insulin dose regimens for diabetes in pregnancy: randomised controlled trial" 4031: 3924:"Interconception care for women with a history of gestational diabetes for improving maternal and infant outcomes" 396:

Two other sets of criteria are available for diagnosis of gestational diabetes, both based on blood-sugar levels.

7532: 7270: 6756: 6579: 6353: 6012: 1299: 338: 4139:

Kapoor N, Sankaran S, Hyer S, Shehata H (December 2007). "Diabetes in pregnancy: a review of current evidence".

1407: 1266:

Relative benefits and harms of different oral anti-diabetic medications are not yet well understood as of 2017.

1095:, exercise, and oral medication are inadequate to control glucose levels, insulin therapy may become necessary. 7413: 6042: 4092:"Probiotic treatment for women with gestational diabetes to improve maternal and infant health and well-being" 3856:

Soana K Motuhifonuaa, Luling Lina. Jane Alsweiler, Tineke J Crawford, Caroline A Crowther (15 February 2023).

3085:"Screening for gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force" 1016:

is associated with lower risk for GDM. Diet and physical activity interventions designed to prevent excessive

640:. Pregnancy hormones and other factors are thought to interfere with the action of insulin as it binds to the 8212: 7615: 7137: 7105: 7003: 5775:

Leguizamón GF, Zeff NP, Fernández A (August 2006). "Hypertension and the pregnancy complicated by diabetes".

5608:

Allen VM, Armson BA (November 2007). "Teratogenicity associated with pre-existing and gestational diabetes".

4745:"Metformin in reproductive health, pregnancy and gynaecological cancer: established and emerging indications" 933:

involves drinking a solution containing 50 grams of glucose, and measuring blood levels one hour later.

887: 875: 486:

Maternal age – a woman's risk factor increases as she gets older (especially for women over 35 years of age).

3477:

Palacios C, Trak-Fellermeier MA, Martinez RX, Lopez-Perez L, Lips P, Salisi JA, et al. (October 2019).

8252: 8179: 7899: 7682: 7527: 7082: 6998: 6336: 1287: 1474: 8164: 8089: 8084: 7695: 7213: 6611: 6554: 6118: 3807:"The Role of Phytochemicals and Plant-Based Diets in Gestational Diabetes: Evidence from Clinical Trials" 1378:

Because of conflicting studies, it is unclear at the moment whether women with GDM have a higher risk of

946: 831: 808: 689: 393:

An early age of onset or long-standing disease comes with greater risks, hence the first three subtypes.

321: 250: 138: 8523: 4697:

Simmons D, Walters BN, Rowan JA, McIntyre HD (May 2004). "Metformin therapy and diabetes in pregnancy".

1839:

https://nhm.gov.in/New_Updates_2018/NHM_Components/RMNCH_MH_Guidelines/Gestational-Diabetes-Mellitus.pdf

636:

The precise mechanisms underlying gestational diabetes remain unknown. The hallmark of GDM is increased

8513: 8396: 8225: 8032: 7806: 7605: 7579: 7315: 7261: 7177: 7142: 7132: 6172: 6054: 6005: 2127:"Relation of height and body mass index to renal cell carcinoma in two million Norwegian men and women" 1131:. Since insulin resistance is highest in mornings, breakfast carbohydrates need to be restricted more. 988: 471: 467: 8299: 8247: 8144: 7843: 7833: 7751: 7651: 6935: 6805: 6763: 6624: 1295: 1291: 1099: 1008:

dietary advice interventions help to reduce the risk of gestational diabetes. However, data from the

993: 535: 477: 457: 3236: 8482: 8220: 8027: 7369: 7147: 6671: 6487: 6454: 6346: 5898: 4552:"Oral anti-diabetic pharmacological therapies for the treatment of women with gestational diabetes" 1761:

Carpenter MW, Coustan DR (December 1982). "Criteria for screening tests for gestational diabetes".

721: 673: 481: 4869:

Järvelä IY, Juutinen J, Koskela P, Hartikainen AL, Kulmala P, Knip M, Tapanainen JS (March 2006).

2279: 8374: 8339: 7768: 7690: 7448: 7100: 6954: 6746: 6439: 5347: 4328:"Exercise for pregnant women with gestational diabetes for improving maternal and fetal outcomes" 1225: 1017: 1009: 859: 83: 2754:"Different strategies for diagnosing gestational diabetes to improve maternal and infant health" 870:, most obstetricians prefer universal screening with a screening glucose challenge test. In the 8169: 8139: 8129: 8044: 8015: 7959: 7889: 7863: 7641: 7461: 7456: 7428: 7405: 7305: 7013: 6881: 6871: 6736: 6459: 6392: 6367: 6303: 6177: 2166:

Ma RM, Lao TT, Ma CL, Liao SJ, Lu YF, Du MY, Xiao H, Zhang L, Yang MH, Xiao X (November 2007).

1146:

world. Target ranges advised by the Australasian Diabetes in Pregnancy Society are as follows:

545: 400: 383: 296: 214:. Babies born to individuals with poorly treated gestational diabetes are at increased risk of 5938: 3048:

Gabbe SG, Graves CR (October 2003). "Management of diabetes mellitus complicating pregnancy".

2854: 8317: 8312: 8106: 7853: 7848: 7300: 6993: 6795: 6599: 6274: 3899: 3316:

Metzger BE, Lowe LP, Dyer AR, Trimble ER, Chaovarindr U, Coustan DR, et al. (May 2008).

3101: 3084: 2168:"Relationship between leg length and gestational diabetes mellitus in Chinese pregnant women" 1237: 1229: 749: 5688: 1890:

Toulis KA, Goulis DG, Kolibianakis EM, Venetis CA, Tarlatzis BC, Papadimas I (August 2009).

8477: 8436: 8369: 8359: 8354: 8242: 7858: 7727: 7622: 7443: 7008: 6959: 6279: 6269: 6192: 6167: 6152: 6147: 5295: 5113:"Childhood obesity and metabolic imprinting: the ongoing effects of maternal hyperglycemia" 835: 358: 254: 2076:"Update on the genetic and epigenetic etiology of gestational diabetes mellitus: a review" 1667: 420:

Criteria for diagnosis of gestational diabetes according to National Diabetes Data Group:

249:, previously having gestational diabetes, a family history of type 2 diabetes, and having 8: 8487: 8472: 8401: 8386: 8381: 8364: 8349: 8334: 8277: 8272: 8237: 8204: 8134: 7894: 7838: 7732: 7661: 7646: 7627: 7476: 7290: 6512: 6469: 6434: 6341: 6321: 5887: 5233:"Gestational diabetes as a risk factor for pancreatic cancer: a prospective cohort study" 3858:"Antenatal dietary supplementation with myo-inositol for preventing gestational diabetes" 1066: 1052: 490: 313: 5299: 4843: 4826: 4292: 4275: 3833: 3806: 3616:"Dietary advice interventions in pregnancy for preventing gestational diabetes mellitus" 3525: 3407:

Alto WA (November 2005). "No need for glycosuria/proteinuria screen in pregnant women".

3061: 1390:

Gestational diabetes affects 3–10% of pregnancies, depending on the population studied.

8451: 8039: 7868: 7823: 7798: 7763: 7610: 7600: 7295: 7110: 6839: 6693: 6464: 6449: 5992: 5800: 5752: 5727: 5669: 5590: 5544: 5454: 5429: 5316: 5283: 5259: 5232: 5213: 5111:

Hillier TA, Pedula KL, Schmidt MM, Mullen JA, Charles MA, Pettitt DJ (September 2007).

5011: 4911: 4887: 4870: 4722: 4710: 4679: 4630: 4603: 4576: 4551: 4480: 4352: 4327: 4305: 4276:"The role of exercise in the prevention and treatment of gestational diabetes mellitus" 4251: 4226: 4207: 4164: 4116: 4091: 4067: 4000: 3975: 3948: 3923: 3882: 3857: 3782: 3758:"Combined diet and exercise interventions for preventing gestational diabetes mellitus" 3757: 3738: 3689: 3664: 3640: 3615: 3596: 3552: 3503: 3478: 3459: 3192: 3149: 3013: 2970: 2958: 2830: 2805: 2778: 2657: 2640: 2607: 2582: 2558: 2533: 2504: 2479: 2455: 2407: 2382: 2333: 2306: 2087: 2051: 2026: 1961: 1936: 1821: 1302:

in managed GDM. Macrosomia in turn increases the risk of instrumental deliveries (e.g.

1135: 1116: 637: 238: 122: 70: 5892: 5621: 4391: 3359:"Diagnostic criteria and classification of hyperglycaemia first detected in pregnancy" 3180: 2923: 2694: 8257: 8194: 8124: 8079: 7952: 7773: 7745: 7705: 7700: 7635: 7509: 7310: 7285: 7253: 6930: 6849: 6773: 6751: 6264: 6182: 6033: 5909: 5792: 5757: 5708: 5704: 5661: 5657: 5625: 5582: 5536: 5500: 5459: 5370: 5321: 5264: 5205: 5169: 5134: 5093: 5052: 5003: 4968: 4892: 4848: 4807: 4766: 4714: 4671: 4635: 4581: 4529: 4524: 4499: 4472: 4437: 4395: 4357: 4309: 4297: 4256: 4211: 4199: 4156: 4121: 4072: 4005: 3953: 3887: 3838: 3787: 3730: 3694: 3645: 3588: 3544: 3508: 3451: 3416: 3389: 3339: 3261: 3219: 3184: 3141: 3106: 3065: 3005: 3001: 2962: 2927: 2835: 2783: 2734: 2730: 2698: 2662: 2641:"Controversies around gestational diabetes. Practical information for family doctors" 2612: 2563: 2509: 2447: 2412: 2361: 2338: 2222: 2189: 2148: 2107: 2056: 2027:"Genetic variants and the risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review" 2007: 1966: 1913: 1908: 1891: 1872: 1813: 1778: 1774: 1743: 1697: 1649: 1645: 1614: 1567: 1372: 1315: 1311: 1080:

but it is very uncertain if there are any benefits in terms of blood glucose levels,

817:

A number of screening and diagnostic tests have been used to look for high levels of

653:

they cannot compensate for with increased production in the β-cells of the pancreas.

577: 513: 497: 211: 145: 96: 54: 5673: 5594: 5548: 5015: 4726: 4484: 4168: 3742: 3600: 3556: 3196: 3153: 3017: 2974: 2459: 1984:

Chu SY, Callaghan WM, Kim SY, Schmid CH, Lau J, England LJ, Dietz PM (August 2007).

1356:). Untreated GDM also interferes with maturation, causing dysmature babies prone to 8232: 7656: 7595: 7327: 6492: 6259: 6254: 5949: 5804: 5784: 5747: 5739: 5700: 5653: 5617: 5574: 5528: 5490: 5449: 5441: 5401: 5362: 5311: 5303: 5254: 5244: 5217: 5197: 5161: 5124: 5083: 5042: 4995: 4958: 4882: 4838: 4797: 4756: 4706: 4683: 4663: 4625: 4615: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4519: 4511: 4468: 4464: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4387: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4287: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4191: 4148: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4062: 4054: 4050: 4046: 4030:

Brown J, Alwan NA, West J, Brown S, McKinlay CJ, Farrar D, Crowther CA (May 2017).

3995: 3991: 3987: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3828: 3818: 3777: 3773: 3769: 3756:

Shepherd E, Gomersall JC, Tieu J, Han S, Crowther CA, Middleton P (November 2017).

3722: 3684: 3676: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3580: 3536: 3498: 3490: 3463: 3443: 3362: 3329: 3176: 3133: 3096: 3057: 2997: 2954: 2919: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2726: 2690: 2652: 2602: 2594: 2553: 2545: 2499: 2491: 2439: 2402: 2394: 2328: 2318: 2179: 2138: 2097: 2046: 2038: 1997: 1956: 1948: 1903: 1825: 1805: 1770: 1733: 1641: 1604: 1538: 1028: 1013: 641: 300: 4602:

Balsells M, García-Patterson A, Solà I, Roqué M, Gich I, Corcoy R (January 2015).

4195: 3726: 3290: 1263:

contribute to this risk, and whether treatment of GDM can influence this outcome.

874:, obstetric units often rely on risk factors and a random blood glucose test. The 560:. Some studies have looked at more controversial potential risk factors, such as 8431: 8101: 8002: 7989: 7811: 7778: 7567: 7552: 7332: 6988: 6844: 6708: 6666: 6527: 6502: 6426: 6316: 6298: 6244: 6128: 5903: 5565:

Jones CW (September 2001). "Gestational diabetes and its impact on the neonate".

5165: 4152: 3663:

Chen Z, Qian F, Liu G, Li M, Voortman T, Tobias DK, et al. (December 2021).

3584: 1809: 1543: 1526: 1253: 1245: 1186: 883: 736:

levels decrease when c-MET is not present. Additionally, c-MET may interact with

617: 593: 501: 284: 231: 107: 5997: 5495: 5478: 4947:"Gestational diabetes and the incidence of type 2 diabetes: a systematic review" 4227:"Different types of dietary advice for women with gestational diabetes mellitus" 1609: 1596: 664:

deposits during pregnancy, seem to mediate insulin resistance during pregnancy.

531:

or severely obese increases the risk by a factor 2.1, 3.6 and 8.6, respectively.

8391: 8264: 7906: 7816: 7712: 7572: 7561: 7501: 7379: 7031: 6858: 6834: 6778: 6656: 6651: 6641: 6629: 6507: 6291: 6162: 6108: 5743: 5445: 5307: 4963: 4946: 4827:"Predictors of postpartum diabetes in women with gestational diabetes mellitus" 3358: 2102: 2075: 1353: 1341: 921: 871: 645: 597: 327:

The two subtypes of gestational diabetes under this classification system are:

262: 230:. Long term, children are at higher risk of being overweight and of developing 7040:

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women

5914: 5788: 5578: 5201: 4515: 4032:"Lifestyle interventions for the treatment of women with gestational diabetes" 3494: 3137: 3083:

Hillier TA, Vesco KK, Pedula KL, Beil TL, Whitlock EP, Pettitt DJ (May 2008).

2480:"Hepatocyte growth factor/c-Met signaling is required for β-cell regeneration" 1061:

A kit with a glucose meter and diary used by a woman with gestational diabetes

1043:

pregnancies lower the number of women who develop gestational diabetes again.

1031:(including fruits, vegetables, whole grains, nuts and seeds, and tea) rich in 8507: 8408: 8329: 8307: 7788: 7758: 7491: 7374: 7069: 6983: 6944: 6920: 6829: 6713: 6646: 6517: 6421: 6382: 6239: 6074: 4999: 3243: 2598: 2111: 1241: 1168: 1088: 1032: 867: 611: 561: 538:(high birth weight: >90th centile or >4000 g (8 lbs 12.8 oz)) 277: 269: 207: 195: 166: 137:, previously having gestational diabetes, family history of type 2 diabetes, 88: 63: 5877: 5406: 5389: 4761: 4744: 3540: 2042: 1171:

to reduce the risk of diabetes and related risks for both mother and child.

548:

are associated with an increased risk of gestational diabetes, most notably

8413: 8154: 8149: 7783: 7717: 6898: 6893: 6634: 6534: 6479: 6207: 6086: 6081: 5796: 5761: 5712: 5665: 5642: 5629: 5586: 5463: 5374: 5325: 5268: 5249: 5209: 5173: 5138: 5097: 5088: 5071: 5056: 4972: 4896: 4852: 4811: 4770: 4718: 4675: 4639: 4585: 4533: 4476: 4441: 4361: 4301: 4260: 4225:

Han S, Middleton P, Shepherd E, Van Ryswyk E, Crowther CA (February 2017).

4203: 4160: 4125: 4076: 4009: 3957: 3891: 3842: 3823: 3791: 3734: 3698: 3680: 3649: 3592: 3548: 3512: 3476: 3455: 3420: 3393: 3343: 3223: 3188: 3145: 3110: 3069: 3009: 2966: 2931: 2839: 2787: 2702: 2666: 2616: 2567: 2513: 2416: 2342: 2193: 2152: 2060: 2011: 1970: 1917: 1876: 1817: 1747: 1653: 1618: 1379: 1368: 1349: 1345: 1333: 1249: 1181: 1057: 950: 822: 790: 766: 701: 669: 219: 41: 7243: 5540: 5532: 5504: 5366: 5007: 4399: 3334: 3317: 2738: 2451: 2443: 2323: 1795: 1782: 1571: 8456: 8184: 8022: 7722: 7471: 7423: 7356: 7337: 7322: 6888: 6824: 6661: 6604: 6544: 6539: 6377: 6326: 6187: 5933: 4090:

Okesene-Gafa KA, Moore AE, Jordan V, McCowan L, Crowther CA (June 2020).

3447: 2143: 2126: 1164:

levels, which give an idea of glucose control over a longer time period.

1098:

The development of macrosomia can be evaluated during pregnancy by using

826: 463: 376: 372: 365: 129: 6029: 2880: 8116: 7342: 7249: 6286: 6226: 6157: 5981:

Managing Gestational Diabetes: A Patient's Guide to a Healthy Pregnancy

5944: 5428:

Tarvonen M, Hovi P, Sainio S, Vuorela P, Andersson S, Teramo K (2021).

4058: 3366: 2804:

Tieu J, McPhee AJ, Crowther CA, Middleton P, Shepherd E (August 2017).

2002: 1985: 1361: 1111: 1077: 980: 762: 737: 629: 625: 524: 517: 246: 227: 215: 134: 92: 59: 5860: 5129: 5112: 5047: 5030: 4802: 4785: 4667: 2549: 2495: 2184: 2167: 1952: 1738: 1721: 1153:

1 hour postprandial capillary blood glucose levels <8.0 mmol/L

544:

Other genetic risk factors: There are at least 10 genes where certain

8159: 7386: 7245: 6676: 6549: 6409: 6399: 6234: 6212: 6139: 4620: 2398: 1198: 1194: 1128: 1092: 1035:

lowers the risk of GDM. A Cochrane review, updated 2023, stated that

1004: 705: 681: 677: 573: 509: 273: 258: 199: 1411: 345:

Type B: onset at age 20 or older and duration of less than 10 years.

8189: 7975: 7280: 7059: 6876: 6790: 6768: 6688: 6589: 6497: 6404: 6331: 6249: 6069: 2092: 2025:

Zhang C, Bao W, Rong Y, Yang H, Bowers K, Yeung E, Kiely M (2013).

1337: 1307: 1221: 1036: 984: 886:

less than 27, with no personal, ethnic or family risk factors) The

693: 665: 657: 654: 649:

1.5–2.5 times more insulin is produced than in a normal pregnancy.

621: 589: 585: 399:

Criteria for diagnosis of gestational diabetes, using the 100 gram

223: 203: 191: 76: 4786:"Recurrence of gestational diabetes mellitus: a systematic review" 4550:

Brown J, Martis R, Hughes B, Rowan J, Crowther CA (January 2017).

3479:"Regimens of vitamin D supplementation for women during pregnancy" 2477: 1410:. International Diabetes Federation. 17 March 2006. Archived from 1127:

the day, and using slow-release carbohydrate sources—known as the

7585: 6978: 6949: 6925: 6907: 6703: 6683: 5282:

Du Y, Rafferty AR, McAuliffe FM, Wei L, Mooney C (January 2022).

4868: 4824: 4743:

Sivalingam VN, Myers J, Nicholas S, Balen AH, Crosbie EJ (2014).

4601: 3811:

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

1303: 1120: 818: 758: 557: 528: 242: 170: 118: 5517: 5029:

Lee AJ, Hiscock RJ, Wein P, Walker SP, Permezel M (April 2007).

453:

Classical risk factors for developing gestational diabetes are:

8072: 8069: 8066: 8063: 8060: 8057: 7589: 6816: 6698: 6522: 6444: 6103: 6098: 6093: 5872: 4377: 2280:"Gestational Diabetes: Detection, Management, and Implications" 1889: 1668:"Priscilla White - White Classification, Diabetes in Pregnancy" 685: 581: 569: 549: 438: 288: 4224: 4089: 2360:(6th ed.). Philadelphia: Elsevier/Saunders. p. 890. 2305:

Xu J, Zhao YH, Chen YP, Yuan XL, Wang J, Zhu H, Lu CM (2014).

354:

Type E: overt diabetes mellitus with calcified pelvic vessels.

351:

Type D: onset before age 10 or duration greater than 20 years.

7548: 7519: 7352: 6578: 6113: 6064: 5963: 4454: 3921: 3614:

Tieu J, Shepherd E, Middleton P, Crowther CA (January 2017).

3613: 3166: 2679: 2531: 1719: 1594: 1290:. Infants born to mothers with GDM are at risk of being both 1161: 753: 733: 713: 556:

In addition to this, statistics show a double risk of GDM in

7487:

Pruritic urticarial papules and plaques of pregnancy (PUPPP)

4742: 4498:

Nachum Z, Ben-Shlomo I, Weiner E, Shalev E (November 1999).

4497: 4415: 3922:

Tieu J, Shepherd E, Middleton P, Crowther CA (August 2017).

2855:"HbA1c Can Underestimate Maternal Glycemia During Pregnancy" 1986:"Maternal obesity and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus" 1632:

White P (November 1949). "Pregnancy complicating diabetes".

1156:

2 hour postprandial blood glucose levels <6.7 mmol/L

1110:

Counselling before pregnancy (for example, about preventive

979:

Women with GDM may have high glucose levels in their urine (

970:

2 hour blood glucose level ≥153 mg/dL (8.5 mmol/L)

964:

Fasting blood glucose level ≥92 mg/dL (5.1 mmol/L)

158:

Maintaining a healthy weight and exercising before pregnancy

8441: 7944: 6783: 5979:

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development –

5973:

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development –

5817: 5230: 5186: 4696: 4652: 3711: 2803: 2074:

Yahaya TO, Salisu T, Abdulrahman YB, Umar AK (2020-03-23).

2073: 1930: 967:

1 hour blood glucose level ≥180 mg/dL (10 mmol/L)

312:

Gestational diabetes is formally defined as "any degree of

237:

Gestational diabetes can occur during pregnancy because of

5110: 1150:

fasting capillary blood glucose levels <5.5 mmol/L

341:

is also split up into several subtypes under this system:

6594: 5427: 4138: 3433: 3356: 2944: 2751: 661: 261:. For those at high risk, testing may occur at the first 253:. Diagnosis is by blood tests. For those at normal risk, 7045:

Declaration on the elimination of violence against women

4985: 4916:

Diabetes Mellitus & Pregnancy – Gestational Diabetes

3755: 3283: 3209: 2752:

Farrar D, Duley L, Dowswell T, Lawlor DA (August 2017).

5968: 5774: 5725: 5477:

Naylor CD, Sermer M, Chen E, Farine D (November 1997).

2905: 644:. The interference probably occurs at the level of the 5636: 5476: 5345: 5281: 4738: 4736: 4549: 3315: 3082: 2715: 2527: 2525: 2523: 2473: 2471: 2469: 1371:. Birth defects usually originate sometime during the 534:

A previous pregnancy which resulted in a child with a

348:

Type C: onset at age 10–19 or duration of 10–19 years.

6735: 4184:

The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine

3259: 1983: 1224:

associated with diabetes (such as antibodies against

880:

Society of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada

748:

Because glucose travels across the placenta (through

5850: 5069: 5028: 4325: 3804: 2124: 1696:(Fourth ed.). New York: Churchill Livingstone. 1217:

pregnancy has a large likelihood of GDM recurrence.

1193:

support one medication over another. The medication

906: 441:(Diabetes in Pregnancy Study Group India Guidelines 5070:Boney CM, Verma A, Tucker R, Vohr BR (March 2005). 4733: 4029: 2987: 2638: 2520: 2466: 2273: 2271: 927: 892:

American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists

5689:"Embryonal risks in gestational diabetes mellitus" 5686: 5388:Setji TL, Brown AJ, Feinglos MN (1 January 2005). 5387: 2423: 1691: 496:Ethnicity (those with higher risk factors include 7829:Childbirth-related post-traumatic stress disorder 6027: 5560: 5558: 5275: 5063: 4132: 3973: 3379: 2901: 2899: 8505: 8175:Metabolic Score for Insulin Resistance (METS-IR) 4909: 4783: 4181: 3805:Jaworsky K, DeVillez P, Basu A (February 2023). 3262:"What I need to know about Gestational Diabetes" 2634: 2632: 2630: 2628: 2626: 2268: 2219:Precis V. An Update on Obstetrics and Gynecology 2125:Bjørge T, Tretli S, Engeland A (December 2004). 2024: 1760: 462:A previous diagnosis of gestational diabetes or 280:is recommended as soon as possible after birth. 202:. Gestational diabetes generally results in few 5601: 2981: 2938: 2374: 2245:. American Pregnancy Association. 27 April 2020 1858: 1856: 1854: 1852: 1850: 1848: 1846: 1524: 1360:due to incomplete lung maturation and impaired 1314:) or problems during vaginal delivery (such as 1160:Regular blood samples can be used to determine 5555: 5348:"Hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcomes" 4944: 4491: 4141:Current Opinion in Obstetrics & Gynecology 3318:"Hyperglycemia and adverse pregnancy outcomes" 2896: 2429: 2304: 1720:American Diabetes Association (January 2017). 1595:American Diabetes Association (January 2004). 1557: 940: 7960: 7229: 6013: 5768: 5732:American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 5719: 5511: 4864: 4862: 4545: 4543: 4448: 4380:American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 4373: 4371: 3662: 2908:"Screening for gestational diabetes mellitus" 2719:American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 2623: 2380: 1883: 1763:American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 1722:"2. Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes" 1252:, there is a higher rate of women developing 5610:Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada 4457:Journal of the American College of Nutrition 4326:Brown J, Ceysens G, Boulvain M (June 2017). 3904:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 3705: 3427: 3123: 3076: 2912:Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada 2583:"An overview of the c-MET signaling pathway" 1863:Ross G (June 2006). "Gestational diabetes". 1843: 226:. If untreated, diabetes can also result in 95:, depression, increased risk of requiring a 5820:"Diabetes and the Risk to Your Family Tree" 5607: 5341: 5339: 5337: 5335: 4945:Kim C, Newton KM, Knopp RH (October 2002). 4818: 4556:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 4418:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 4332:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 4231:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 4096:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 4039:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 3980:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 3928:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 3762:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 3620:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 3569: 3483:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 3266:National Diabetes Information Clearinghouse 3047: 2852: 2810:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2799: 2797: 2758:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2574: 2165: 7967: 7953: 7236: 7222: 7096:International Center for Research on Women 6020: 6006: 5680: 5104: 4859: 4777: 4597: 4595: 4540: 4368: 3974:Alwan N, Tuffnell DJ, West J (July 2009). 3669:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 3400: 3291:"Glucose screening tests during pregnancy" 3260:Metzger BE, Biastre SA, Gardner B (2006). 2639:Kelly L, Evans L, Messenger D (May 2005). 2080:Egyptian Journal of Medical Human Genetics 1715: 1713: 1694:OBSTETRICS: Normal and Problem Pregnancies 1469: 1467: 1465: 1463: 1461: 1459: 1457: 1455: 1453: 1451: 1449: 1447: 1445: 1443: 1441: 974: 40: 5811: 5751: 5494: 5453: 5405: 5315: 5258: 5248: 5145: 5128: 5087: 5046: 4962: 4886: 4842: 4801: 4760: 4690: 4629: 4619: 4575: 4523: 4351: 4291: 4250: 4115: 4066: 3999: 3969: 3967: 3947: 3881: 3832: 3822: 3781: 3688: 3639: 3502: 3333: 3117: 3100: 2829: 2777: 2656: 2606: 2580: 2557: 2503: 2406: 2358:Obstetrics normal and problem pregnancies 2332: 2322: 2277: 2209: 2207: 2205: 2203: 2183: 2142: 2101: 2091: 2050: 2001: 1960: 1907: 1737: 1685: 1608: 1590: 1588: 1586: 1584: 1582: 1551: 1542: 1520: 1439: 1437: 1435: 1433: 1431: 1429: 1427: 1425: 1423: 1421: 339:Diabetes which existed prior to pregnancy 49:Universal blue circle symbol for diabetes 5687:Savona-Ventura C, Gatt M (August 2004). 5470: 5332: 5224: 4784:Kim C, Berger DK, Chamany S (May 2007). 4267: 3248:Dwight D. Eisenhower Army Medical Center 3102:10.7326/0003-4819-148-10-200805200-00009 2794: 2587:Therapeutic Advances in Medical Oncology 1692:Gabbe SG, Niebyl JR, Simpson JL (2002). 1525:Donovan PJ, McIntyre HD (October 2010). 1518: 1516: 1514: 1512: 1510: 1508: 1506: 1504: 1502: 1500: 1167:Research suggests a possible benefit of 1056: 708:, obesity, along with other mechanisms. 610: 257:is recommended between 24 and 28 weeks' 190:is a condition in which a woman without 5151: 5022: 4592: 4273: 3715:Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 3373: 3203: 3024: 2709: 2683:Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 2118: 1977: 1710: 480:revealing a first-degree relative with 8506: 5985:Gestational Diabetes Resource Guide – 5975:Am I at Risk for Gestational Diabetes? 5180: 4979: 4940: 4938: 4936: 3964: 2200: 1579: 1418: 489:Paternal age – one study found that a 403:, according to Carpenter and Coustan: 320:The White classification, named after 7948: 7467:Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy 7434:Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy 7217: 6815: 6001: 5830:from the original on 10 December 2014 5728:"Diabetes mellitus and birth defects" 5564: 5423: 5421: 5419: 5417: 4411: 4409: 4321: 4319: 4025: 4023: 4021: 4019: 3976:"Treatments for gestational diabetes" 3917: 3915: 3253: 3126:Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics 2881:https://doi.org/10.4239/wjd.v6.i2.234 2673: 2387:The Journal of Clinical Investigation 2355: 2159: 1935:, Lu Y, Eisenberg ML (October 2018). 1754: 1631: 1625: 1603:. 27 Suppl 1 (Supplement 1): S88-90. 1497: 1248:, in lean subjects and in women with 660:, and, to a lesser extent, increased 8217:Metabolic assessment and monitoring 7533:Pregnancy-induced hypercoagulability 7184: 7078:Office of Research on Women's Health 5190:Breast Cancer Research and Treatment 3406: 3382:The Journal of Reproductive Medicine 3212:The Journal of Reproductive Medicine 3041: 2381:Buchanan TA, Xiang AH (March 2005). 2213: 1862: 493:over 55 years was associated with GD 206:; however, it increases the risk of 8493:Notable people with type 1 diabetes 8005:(SIDD, SIRD, MOD and MARD clusters) 7196: 7116:Society for Women's Health Research 7050:International Day of the Girl Child 5483:The New England Journal of Medicine 5355:The New England Journal of Medicine 4933: 4903: 4844:10.2337/diabetes.55.03.06.db05-0746 4293:10.1097/01.csmr.0000305617.87993.51 3322:The New England Journal of Medicine 3297:. U.S. National Library of Medicine 3160: 3062:10.1016/j.obstetgynecol.2003.07.001 2581:Organ SL, Tsao MS (November 2011). 1485:from the original on 16 August 2016 1294:(macrosomic) in unmanaged GDM, and 896:U.S. Preventive Services Task Force 894:recommend universal screening. The 35:Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) 13: 7482:Pruritic folliculitis of pregnancy 7160:Birth control in the United States 5414: 5154:Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology 4888:10.2337/diacare.29.03.06.dc05-1118 4711:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2004.tb06024.x 4406: 4316: 4016: 3912: 3573:British Journal of Sports Medicine 3357:World Health Organization (2013). 2959:10.1097/01.AOG.0000128045.50439.89 2853:Powe CE, Edelson PK (2020-05-27). 1576:And the rest of the issue B1–B167. 1012:shows that adherence to a healthy 606: 14: 8535: 8447:International Diabetes Federation 7740:Pain management during childbirth 7667:Twin-to-twin transfusion syndrome 7055:Commission on the Status of Women 6065:External female genitalia (vulva) 5969:International Diabetes Federation 5846: 4386:(4): 1036–46, discussion 1046–7. 3250:. Last Modified November 25, 2009 1931:Khandwala YS, Baker VL, Shaw GM, 907:Non-challenge blood glucose tests 803:Screening glucose challenge test 783:Non-challenge blood glucose test 307: 8323:Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state 7926: 7925: 7912:Sexual activity during pregnancy 7195: 7183: 7172: 7171: 6388:Assisted reproductive technology 6028: 5705:10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2004.04.007 5658:10.1111/j.1464-5491.2005.01492.x 5521:American Journal of Perinatology 4910:Janzen C, Greenspoon JS (2006). 4699:The Medical Journal of Australia 3002:10.1046/j.1464-5491.1999.00011.x 2294:from the original on 2007-10-10. 2131:American Journal of Epidemiology 1909:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.06.045 1634:The American Journal of Medicine 1527:"Drugs for gestational diabetes" 1277: 1142:exercise is best when pregnant. 928:Screening glucose challenge test 389:Type T: prior kidney transplant. 272:, exercise, medication (such as 6354:Breastfeeding and mental health 5390:"Gestational Diabetes Mellitus" 5381: 4922:from the original on 2007-01-05 4646: 4280:Current Sports Medicine Reports 4218: 4175: 4083: 3849: 3798: 3749: 3656: 3607: 3563: 3519: 3470: 3350: 3309: 3272:from the original on 2006-11-26 3230: 2886: 2865: 2846: 2745: 2383:"Gestational diabetes mellitus" 2349: 2298: 2257: 2235: 2067: 2018: 1924: 1832: 1789: 1674:from the original on 2017-03-02 1597:"Gestational diabetes mellitus" 1385: 1300:Intrauterine growth retardation 778:Tests for gestational diabetes 541:Previous poor obstetric history 448: 210:, depression, and of needing a 7414:Acute fatty liver of pregnancy 4568:10.1002/14651858.CD011967.pub2 4469:10.1080/07315724.2005.10719480 4430:10.1002/14651858.CD011624.pub3 4344:10.1002/14651858.CD012202.pub2 4243:10.1002/14651858.CD009275.pub3 4108:10.1002/14651858.CD012970.pub2 4051:10.1002/14651858.CD011970.pub2 3992:10.1002/14651858.CD003395.pub2 3940:10.1002/14651858.CD010211.pub3 3874:10.1002/14651858.CD011507.pub3 3774:10.1002/14651858.cd010443.pub3 3632:10.1002/14651858.CD006674.pub3 3409:The Journal of Family Practice 2859:Massachusetts General Hospital 2822:10.1002/14651858.CD007222.pub4 2770:10.1002/14651858.CD007122.pub4 2432:Hormone and Metabolic Research 1660: 1400: 516:, and people originating from 108:last three months of pregnancy 1: 8382:Diabetes-related skin disease 7616:Prelabor rupture of membranes 7004:Social determinants of health 5987:American Diabetes Association 5622:10.1016/s1701-2163(16)32653-6 4392:10.1016/S0002-9378(94)70097-4 4196:10.1080/14767058.2020.1868429 3727:10.1016/j.diabres.2018.04.010 3436:Journal of Perinatal Medicine 3181:10.1016/s0029-7844(03)00049-8 2924:10.1016/s1701-2163(16)31047-7 2695:10.1016/S0168-8227(00)00209-6 1408:"Diabetes Blue Circle Symbol" 1393: 1358:respiratory distress syndrome 1174: 1082:high blood pressure disorders 1046: 999: 888:Canadian Diabetes Association 876:American Diabetes Association 245:. Risk factors include being 8180:Homeostatic model assessment 7974: 7895:Systemic lupus erythematosus 7546:Maternal care related to the 7528:Gestational thrombocytopenia 6999:Gender disparities in health 6337:Mother-to-child transmission 5166:10.1097/GRF.0b013e31815a61d6 4918:. Armenian Medical Network. 4274:Mottola MF (December 2007). 4153:10.1097/GCO.0b013e3282f20aad 3585:10.1136/bjsports-2013-092596 2731:10.1016/0002-9378(87)90223-7 2221:. ACOG (1994). p. 170. 1810:10.1097/AOG.0000000000002501 1775:10.1016/0002-9378(82)90349-0 1646:10.1016/0002-9343(49)90382-4 1544:10.18773/austprescr.2010.066 1288:neonatal intensive care unit 1211: 1105: 903:diabetes remains untreated. 772: 7: 8165:Noninvasive glucose monitor 7696:Cephalopelvic disproportion 6612:Pelvic inflammatory disease 6555:Hormone replacement therapy 6119:Reproductive system disease 5496:10.1056/NEJM199711273372204 3089:Annals of Internal Medicine 1865:Australian Family Physician 1610:10.2337/diacare.27.2007.s88 1180:needs to be taken to avoid 1027:A 2023 review found that a 989:glomerular filtration rates 947:oral glucose tolerance test 941:Oral glucose tolerance test 853: 832:polycystic ovarian syndrome 809:Oral glucose tolerance test 793:(after a meal) glucose test 690:tumor necrosis factor alpha 672:are the main culprits, but 620:and influx of glucose (3), 251:polycystic ovarian syndrome 139:polycystic ovarian syndrome 10: 8540: 8519:Health issues in pregnancy 8397:Diabetic cheiroarthropathy 8226:Ambulatory glucose profile 8033:Impaired glucose tolerance 7807:Breastfeeding difficulties 7606:Constriction ring syndrome 7580:Braxton Hicks contractions 7106:Black Women's Health Study 6173:Complications of pregnancy 5744:10.1016/j.ajog.2008.06.028 5446:10.1007/s00592-021-01756-0 5308:10.1038/s41598-022-05112-2 4964:10.2337/diacare.25.10.1862 2103:10.1186/s43042-020-00054-8 1050: 472:impaired fasting glycaemia 468:impaired glucose tolerance 8465: 8422: 8298: 8203: 8145:Postprandial glucose test 8115: 7982: 7920: 7877: 7844:Peripartum cardiomyopathy 7834:Pubic symphysis diastasis 7797: 7681: 7545: 7518: 7500: 7442: 7404: 7395: 7351: 7269: 7260: 7167: 7124: 7083:Women's Health Initiative 7068: 7030: 7021: 6970: 6936:Major depressive disorder 6804: 6764:Intimate partner violence 6726: 6625:Female genital mutilation 6620: 6569: 6478: 6420: 6366: 6312: 6225: 6138: 6127: 6053: 6040: 5924: 5854: 5789:10.1007/s11892-006-0064-1 5579:10.1891/0730-0832.20.6.17 5202:10.1007/s10549-007-9585-9 4749:Human Reproduction Update 4516:10.1136/bmj.319.7219.1223 3495:10.1002/14651858.CD013446 3169:Obstetrics and Gynecology 3138:10.1007/s00404-006-0245-9 3050:Obstetrics and Gynecology 2947:Obstetrics and Gynecology 2873:World journal of diabetes 2645:Canadian Family Physician 2311:TheScientificWorldJournal 2278:Carr DB, Gabbe S (1998). 2031:Human Reproduction Update 1798:Obstetrics and Gynecology 1348:) and low blood calcium ( 1296:small for gestational age 1292:large for gestational age 994:positive predictive value 458:Polycystic ovary syndrome 241:or reduced production of 177: 162: 154: 144: 128: 113: 102: 82: 69: 53: 48: 39: 31: 26: 8483:Epidemiology of diabetes 8221:Blood glucose monitoring 8097:Type 3c (pancreatogenic) 8028:Impaired fasting glucose 7370:Gestational hypertension 6672:Gynaecological disorders 6488:Culture and menstruation 6455:Contraceptive prevalence 6347:Compulsory sterilization 5777:Current Diabetes Reports 5000:10.2337/diacare.20.6.943 2599:10.1177/1758834011422556 1084:or induction of labour. 722:receptor tyrosine kinase 674:human placental lactogen 8340:Neuropathic arthropathy 7769:Umbilical cord prolapse 7691:Amniotic fluid embolism 7449:dermatoses of pregnancy 6955:Urinary tract infection 6747:Abuse during childbirth 5693:Early Human Development 5407:10.2337/diaclin.23.1.17 3541:10.1111/1471-0528.13429 1896:Fertility and Sterility 1226:glutamate decarboxylase 1018:gestational weight gain 975:Urinary glucose testing 8288:Gastric bypass surgery 8170:Insulin tolerance test 8140:Glucose tolerance test 8045:Ketosis-prone diabetes 8016:Diabetes and pregnancy 7885:Concomitant conditions 7864:Postpartum thyroiditis 7642:Circumvallate placenta 7462:Impetigo herpetiformis 7457:Gestational pemphigoid 7429:Hyperemesis gravidarum 7362:hypertensive disorders 6872:Cardiovascular disease 6460:Contraceptive security 6393:In vitro fertilization 6304:Postpartum confinement 6178:Hyperemesis gravidarum 5250:10.1186/1741-7015-5-25 5089:10.1542/peds.2004-1808 4912:"Gestational Diabetes" 3824:10.3390/ijerph20054188 3237:GLUCOSE TOLERANCE TEST 2243:"Gestational Diabetes" 1475:"Gestational Diabetes" 1182:low blood sugar levels 1062: 633: 433:3 hours 145 mg/dl 430:2 hours 165 mg/dl 424:Fasting 105 mg/dl 416:3 hours 140 mg/dl 413:2 hours 155 mg/dl 401:Glucose Tolerance Test 384:ischemic heart disease 364:Type R: proliferative 297:Indigenous Australians 7854:Postpartum infections 7849:Postpartum depression 6994:Healthcare inequality 6796:Gender discrimination 6600:Human papilloma virus 6275:Vesicovaginal fistula 5533:10.1055/s-2007-994131 5367:10.1056/NEJMoa0707943 4762:10.1093/humupd/dmu037 3335:10.1056/NEJMoa0707943 2444:10.1055/s-2007-979040 2043:10.1093/humupd/dmt013 1531:Australian Prescriber 1238:Boston, Massachusetts 1230:islet cell antibodies 1060: 750:diffusion facilitated 614: 427:1 hour 190 mg/dl 410:1 hour 180 mg/dl 407:Fasting 95 mg/dl 150:Screening blood tests 8478:Glossary of diabetes 8437:Open Insulin Project 8273:Embryonic stem cells 8010:Gestational diabetes 7859:Postpartum psychosis 7728:Obstetrical bleeding 7623:Obstetrical bleeding 7444:Integumentary system 7419:Gestational diabetes 7398:related to pregnancy 7396:Other, predominantly 7101:Nurses' Health Study 7009:Reproductive justice 6960:Urinary incontinence 6580:Sexually transmitted 6435:Intrauterine devices 6280:Rectovaginal fistula 6270:Obstetrical fistulae 6198:Gestational diabetes 6193:Obstetrical bleeding 6168:Adolescent pregnancy 6153:Gravidity and parity 6148:Unintended pregnancy 5993:Gestational Diabetes 5950:Gestational diabetes 5826:. Diabetescare.net. 5824:www.diabetescare.net 3681:10.1093/ajcn/nqab275 3448:10.1515/JPM.2006.054 1732:(Suppl 1): S11–S24. 1234:insulinoma antigen-2 1067:inductions of labour 1010:Nurses' Health Study 836:acanthosis nigricans 786:Fasting glucose test 359:diabetic nephropathy 222:after birth, and of 188:Gestational diabetes 27:Gestational diabetes 8488:History of diabetes 8473:Outline of diabetes 8402:Diabetic foot ulcer 8387:Diabetic dermopathy 8346:Organs in diabetes 8278:Artificial pancreas 8238:Diabetes medication 8135:Glycated hemoglobin 7839:Postpartum bleeding 7662:Placental abruption 7647:Monochorionic twins 7477:Prurigo gestationis 7014:Women's empowerment 6882:Alzheimer's disease 6513:Cloth menstrual pad 6470:Fertility awareness 6440:Oral contraceptives 6322:Perinatal mortality 5300:2022NatSR..12.1170D 2593:(1 Suppl): S7–S19. 2324:10.1155/2014/926932 1566:(Suppl 2): B161-7. 1053:Diabetes management 863:be tested earlier. 796:Random glucose test 779: 314:glucose intolerance 8452:World Diabetes Day 8040:Insulin resistance 7869:Puerperal mastitis 7824:Breast engorgement 7611:Monoamniotic twins 7601:Chorionic hematoma 7111:Cartwright Inquiry 7022:Politics, research 6840:Endometrial cancer 6694:Sexual intercourse 6465:Planned parenthood 6450:Male contraceptive 5964:IDF Diabetes Atlas 5925:External resources 5434:Acta Diabetologica 5288:Scientific Reports 2144:10.1093/aje/kwh345 2003:10.2337/dc06-2559a 1481:. September 2014. 1320:Acta Diabetologica 1136:Mediterranean diet 1117:antidiabetic drugs 1063: 777: 638:insulin resistance 634: 239:insulin resistance 181:~6% of pregnancies 123:insulin resistance 121:in the setting of 8514:Types of diabetes 8501: 8500: 8195:Disposition index 8125:Blood sugar level 7995:Type 1 diabetes ( 7942: 7941: 7900:Thyroid disorders 7890:Diabetes mellitus 7774:Uterine inversion 7706:Shoulder dystocia 7701:Obstructed labour 7677: 7676: 7541: 7540: 7510:Chorea gravidarum 7286:Ectopic pregnancy 7211: 7210: 7091: 7090: 6916: 6915: 6867: 6866: 6850:Papanicolaou test 6806:Non-communicable 6774:Sexual harassment 6752:Domestic violence 6722: 6721: 6565: 6564: 6362: 6361: 6265:Retained placenta 6183:Ectopic pregnancy 5959: 5958: 5646:Diabetic Medicine 5440:(11): 1563–1573. 5394:Clinical Diabetes 5361:(19): 1991–2002. 5130:10.2337/dc06-2361 5048:10.2337/dc06-1816 4803:10.2337/dc06-2517 4668:10.1111/dme.13150 4656:Diabetic Medicine 4190:(24): 4824–4829. 3328:(19): 1991–2002. 2990:Diabetic Medicine 2550:10.2337/db11-1154 2496:10.2337/db13-0333 2367:978-1-4557-3395-8 2356:Gabbe SG (2012). 2228:978-0-915473-22-9 2217:(December 1994). 2185:10.2337/dc07-0763 1953:10.1136/bmj.k4372 1739:10.2337/dc17-S005 1703:978-0-443-06572-9 1414:on 5 August 2007. 1352:) and magnesium ( 1316:shoulder dystocia 1312:caesarean section 815: 814: 590:bladder infection 514:Pacific Islanders 498:African-Americans 301:Pacific Islanders 212:Caesarean section 185: 184: 146:Diagnostic method 97:Caesarean section 21:Medical condition 16:Medical condition 8531: 8233:Diet in diabetes 7969: 7962: 7955: 7946: 7945: 7929: 7928: 7764:Postmature birth 7752:Placenta accreta 7657:Placenta praevia 7652:Placenta accreta 7596:Chorioamnionitis 7406:Digestive system 7402: 7401: 7328:Fetal resorption 7316:Rudimentary horn 7273:abortive outcome 7267: 7266: 7238: 7231: 7224: 7215: 7214: 7199: 7198: 7187: 7186: 7175: 7174: 7028: 7027: 6813: 6812: 6733: 6732: 6727:Non-reproductive 6576: 6575: 6493:Feminine hygiene 6260:Cesarian section 6255:Obstructed labor 6136: 6135: 6051: 6050: 6032: 6022: 6015: 6008: 5999: 5998: 5991:Diabetes.co.uk: 5852: 5851: 5840: 5839: 5837: 5835: 5815: 5809: 5808: 5772: 5766: 5765: 5755: 5723: 5717: 5716: 5684: 5678: 5677: 5640: 5634: 5633: 5605: 5599: 5598: 5567:Neonatal Network 5562: 5553: 5552: 5515: 5509: 5508: 5498: 5474: 5468: 5467: 5457: 5425: 5412: 5411: 5409: 5385: 5379: 5378: 5352: 5343: 5330: 5329: 5319: 5279: 5273: 5272: 5262: 5252: 5228: 5222: 5221: 5184: 5178: 5177: 5149: 5143: 5142: 5132: 5108: 5102: 5101: 5091: 5067: 5061: 5060: 5050: 5026: 5020: 5019: 4983: 4977: 4976: 4966: 4942: 4931: 4930: 4928: 4927: 4907: 4901: 4900: 4890: 4866: 4857: 4856: 4846: 4822: 4816: 4815: 4805: 4781: 4775: 4774: 4764: 4740: 4731: 4730: 4694: 4688: 4687: 4650: 4644: 4643: 4633: 4623: 4621:10.1136/bmj.h102 4599: 4590: 4589: 4579: 4547: 4538: 4537: 4527: 4510:(7219): 1223–7. 4495: 4489: 4488: 4452: 4446: 4445: 4436: 10563388. 4424:(10): CD011624. 4413: 4404: 4403: 4375: 4366: 4365: 4355: 4323: 4314: 4313: 4295: 4271: 4265: 4264: 4254: 4222: 4216: 4215: 4179: 4173: 4172: 4136: 4130: 4129: 4119: 4087: 4081: 4080: 4070: 4036: 4027: 4014: 4013: 4003: 3971: 3962: 3961: 3951: 3919: 3910: 3909: 3903: 3895: 3885: 3853: 3847: 3846: 3836: 3826: 3802: 3796: 3795: 3785: 3768:(11): CD010443. 3753: 3747: 3746: 3709: 3703: 3702: 3692: 3675:(6): 1997–2005. 3660: 3654: 3653: 3643: 3611: 3605: 3604: 3567: 3561: 3560: 3523: 3517: 3516: 3506: 3489:(10): CD013446. 3474: 3468: 3467: 3431: 3425: 3424: 3404: 3398: 3397: 3377: 3371: 3370: 3354: 3348: 3347: 3337: 3313: 3307: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3287: 3281: 3280: 3278: 3277: 3257: 3251: 3234: 3228: 3227: 3207: 3201: 3200: 3164: 3158: 3157: 3121: 3115: 3114: 3104: 3080: 3074: 3073: 3045: 3039: 3028: 3022: 3021: 2985: 2979: 2978: 2942: 2936: 2935: 2903: 2894: 2890: 2884: 2869: 2863: 2862: 2850: 2844: 2843: 2833: 2801: 2792: 2791: 2781: 2749: 2743: 2742: 2713: 2707: 2706: 2677: 2671: 2670: 2660: 2636: 2621: 2620: 2610: 2578: 2572: 2571: 2561: 2529: 2518: 2517: 2507: 2475: 2464: 2463: 2427: 2421: 2420: 2410: 2399:10.1172/JCI24531 2378: 2372: 2371: 2353: 2347: 2346: 2336: 2326: 2302: 2296: 2295: 2275: 2266: 2261: 2255: 2254: 2252: 2250: 2239: 2233: 2232: 2211: 2198: 2197: 2187: 2163: 2157: 2156: 2146: 2122: 2116: 2115: 2105: 2095: 2071: 2065: 2064: 2054: 2022: 2016: 2015: 2005: 1981: 1975: 1974: 1964: 1928: 1922: 1921: 1911: 1887: 1881: 1880: 1860: 1841: 1836: 1830: 1829: 1793: 1787: 1786: 1758: 1752: 1751: 1741: 1717: 1708: 1707: 1689: 1683: 1682: 1680: 1679: 1664: 1658: 1657: 1629: 1623: 1622: 1612: 1592: 1577: 1575: 1555: 1549: 1548: 1546: 1522: 1495: 1494: 1492: 1490: 1471: 1416: 1415: 1404: 1119:, most commonly 1029:plant-based diet 1014:plant-based diet 780: 776: 642:insulin receptor 594:yeast infections 506:Native Americans 293:American Indians 196:high blood sugar 44: 24: 23: 8539: 8538: 8534: 8533: 8532: 8530: 8529: 8528: 8504: 8503: 8502: 8497: 8461: 8432:T1International 8424: 8423:Advocacy & 8418: 8294: 8243:Insulin therapy 8199: 8111: 7978: 7973: 7943: 7938: 7916: 7873: 7817:Cracked nipples 7812:Low milk supply 7793: 7779:Uterine rupture 7673: 7568:Oligohydramnios 7553:amniotic cavity 7547: 7537: 7514: 7496: 7447: 7438: 7397: 7391: 7360: 7347: 7333:Molar pregnancy 7272: 7256: 7242: 7212: 7207: 7163: 7148:Family planning 7126: 7120: 7087: 7064: 7023: 7017: 6989:Gender equality 6972: 6966: 6912: 6863: 6845:Cervical cancer 6807: 6800: 6738: 6728: 6718: 6709:Sex differences 6667:Forced marriage 6616: 6581: 6571: 6561: 6503:Menstrual cycle 6474: 6427:Family planning 6425: 6416: 6369: 6358: 6317:Maternal deaths 6308: 6299:Postpartum care 6245:Multiple births 6221: 6130: 6123: 6056: 6047: 6044: 6036: 6026: 5960: 5955: 5954: 5920: 5919: 5863: 5849: 5844: 5843: 5833: 5831: 5816: 5812: 5773: 5769: 5738:(3): 237.e1–9. 5724: 5720: 5685: 5681: 5641: 5637: 5616:(11): 927–934. 5606: 5602: 5563: 5556: 5516: 5512: 5475: 5471: 5426: 5415: 5386: 5382: 5350: 5344: 5333: 5280: 5276: 5229: 5225: 5185: 5181: 5150: 5146: 5109: 5105: 5068: 5064: 5027: 5023: 4984: 4980: 4943: 4934: 4925: 4923: 4908: 4904: 4867: 4860: 4823: 4819: 4782: 4778: 4741: 4734: 4695: 4691: 4651: 4647: 4600: 4593: 4562:(1): CD011967. 4548: 4541: 4496: 4492: 4453: 4449: 4414: 4407: 4376: 4369: 4338:(6): CD012202. 4324: 4317: 4272: 4268: 4237:(2): CD009275. 4223: 4219: 4180: 4176: 4137: 4133: 4102:(6): CD012970. 4088: 4084: 4045:(5): CD011970. 4034: 4028: 4017: 3986:(3): CD003395. 3972: 3965: 3934:(8): CD010211. 3920: 3913: 3897: 3896: 3868:(2): CD011507. 3862:Cochrane Review 3854: 3850: 3803: 3799: 3754: 3750: 3710: 3706: 3661: 3657: 3626:(1): CD006674. 3612: 3608: 3568: 3564: 3524: 3520: 3475: 3471: 3432: 3428: 3405: 3401: 3378: 3374: 3355: 3351: 3314: 3310: 3300: 3298: 3289: 3288: 3284: 3275: 3273: 3258: 3254: 3235: 3231: 3208: 3204: 3175:(6): 1197–203. 3165: 3161: 3122: 3118: 3081: 3077: 3046: 3042: 3029: 3025: 2986: 2982: 2943: 2939: 2918:(11): 894–912. 2904: 2897: 2891: 2887: 2870: 2866: 2851: 2847: 2816:(8): CD007222. 2802: 2795: 2764:(8): CD007122. 2750: 2746: 2714: 2710: 2678: 2674: 2637: 2624: 2579: 2575: 2530: 2521: 2476: 2467: 2428: 2424: 2379: 2375: 2368: 2354: 2350: 2303: 2299: 2276: 2269: 2262: 2258: 2248: 2246: 2241: 2240: 2236: 2229: 2212: 2201: 2164: 2160: 2137:(12): 1168–76. 2123: 2119: 2072: 2068: 2023: 2019: 1982: 1978: 1929: 1925: 1888: 1884: 1861: 1844: 1837: 1833: 1794: 1790: 1759: 1755: 1718: 1711: 1704: 1690: 1686: 1677: 1675: 1666: 1665: 1661: 1630: 1626: 1593: 1580: 1556: 1552: 1523: 1498: 1488: 1486: 1473: 1472: 1419: 1406: 1405: 1401: 1396: 1388: 1373:first trimester 1280: 1254:type 1 diabetes 1250:auto-antibodies 1246:type 2 diabetes 1214: 1197:is better than 1187:Cochrane review 1177: 1108: 1055: 1049: 1002: 996:is around 20%. 977: 945:A standardized 943: 930: 909: 884:body mass index 856: 775: 624:synthesis (4), 618:plasma membrane 609: 607:Pathophysiology 502:Afro-Caribbeans 482:type 2 diabetes 451: 322:Priscilla White 310: 285:third trimester 232:type 2 diabetes 22: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8537: 8527: 8526: 8524:Women's health 8521: 8516: 8499: 8498: 8496: 8495: 8490: 8485: 8480: 8475: 8469: 8467: 8463: 8462: 8460: 8459: 8454: 8449: 8444: 8439: 8434: 8428: 8426: 8420: 8419: 8417: 8416: 8411: 8406: 8405: 8404: 8399: 8394: 8392:Diabetic bulla 8389: 8379: 8378: 8377: 8372: 8367: 8362: 8357: 8352: 8344: 8343: 8342: 8337: 8327: 8326: 8325: 8320: 8315: 8308:Diabetic comas 8304: 8302: 8296: 8295: 8293: 8292: 8291: 8290: 8282: 8281: 8280: 8275: 8267: 8265:Diabetic shoes 8262: 8261: 8260: 8255: 8250: 8240: 8235: 8230: 8229: 8228: 8223: 8215: 8209: 8207: 8201: 8200: 8198: 8197: 8192: 8187: 8182: 8177: 8172: 8167: 8162: 8157: 8152: 8147: 8142: 8137: 8132: 8127: 8121: 8119: 8113: 8112: 8110: 8109: 8104: 8099: 8094: 8093: 8092: 8087: 8077: 8076: 8075: 8048: 8042: 8037: 8036: 8035: 8030: 8020: 8019: 8018: 8006: 8000: 7993: 7992:(SAID cluster) 7986: 7984: 7980: 7979: 7972: 7971: 7964: 7957: 7949: 7940: 7939: 7937: 7936: 7921: 7918: 7917: 7915: 7914: 7909: 7907:Maternal death 7904: 7903: 7902: 7897: 7892: 7881: 7879: 7875: 7874: 7872: 7871: 7866: 7861: 7856: 7851: 7846: 7841: 7836: 7831: 7826: 7821: 7820: 7819: 7814: 7803: 7801: 7795: 7794: 7792: 7791: 7786: 7781: 7776: 7771: 7766: 7761: 7756: 7755: 7754: 7742: 7737: 7736: 7735: 7725: 7720: 7715: 7713:Fetal distress 7710: 7709: 7708: 7698: 7693: 7687: 7685: 7679: 7678: 7675: 7674: 7672: 7671: 7670: 7669: 7664: 7659: 7654: 7649: 7644: 7632: 7631: 7630: 7620: 7619: 7618: 7613: 7608: 7603: 7598: 7582: 7577: 7576: 7575: 7573:Polyhydramnios 7570: 7562:amniotic fluid 7557: 7555: 7543: 7542: 7539: 7538: 7536: 7535: 7530: 7524: 7522: 7516: 7515: 7513: 7512: 7506: 7504: 7502:Nervous system 7498: 7497: 7495: 7494: 7489: 7484: 7479: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7459: 7453: 7451: 7440: 7439: 7437: 7436: 7431: 7426: 7421: 7416: 7410: 7408: 7399: 7393: 7392: 7390: 7389: 7384: 7383: 7382: 7380:HELLP syndrome 7372: 7366: 7364: 7349: 7348: 7346: 7345: 7340: 7335: 7330: 7325: 7320: 7319: 7318: 7313: 7308: 7303: 7298: 7293: 7283: 7277: 7275: 7271:Pregnancy with 7264: 7258: 7257: 7241: 7240: 7233: 7226: 7218: 7209: 7208: 7206: 7205: 7193: 7181: 7168: 7165: 7164: 7162: 7157: 7152: 7151: 7150: 7140: 7135: 7130: 7128: 7125:Women's health 7122: 7121: 7119: 7118: 7113: 7108: 7103: 7098: 7092: 7089: 7088: 7086: 7085: 7080: 7074: 7072: 7066: 7065: 7063: 7062: 7057: 7052: 7047: 7042: 7036: 7034: 7032:United Nations 7025: 7024:& advocacy 7019: 7018: 7016: 7011: 7006: 7001: 6996: 6991: 6986: 6981: 6976: 6974: 6971:Sociocultural 6968: 6967: 6965: 6964: 6963: 6962: 6957: 6952: 6942: 6941: 6940: 6939: 6938: 6928: 6917: 6914: 6913: 6911: 6910: 6905: 6904: 6903: 6902: 6901: 6886: 6885: 6884: 6874: 6868: 6865: 6864: 6862: 6861: 6859:Ovarian cancer 6856: 6855: 6854: 6853: 6852: 6842: 6835:Uterine cancer 6832: 6827: 6821: 6819: 6810: 6802: 6801: 6799: 6798: 6793: 6788: 6787: 6786: 6779:Sexual assault 6776: 6771: 6766: 6761: 6760: 6759: 6749: 6743: 6741: 6730: 6724: 6723: 6720: 6719: 6717: 6716: 6711: 6706: 6701: 6696: 6691: 6686: 6681: 6680: 6679: 6669: 6664: 6659: 6657:Child marriage 6654: 6652:Breast ironing 6649: 6644: 6642:Breast binding 6639: 6638: 6637: 6632: 6630:Clitoridectomy 6621: 6618: 6617: 6615: 6614: 6609: 6608: 6607: 6597: 6592: 6586: 6584: 6573: 6567: 6566: 6563: 6562: 6560: 6559: 6558: 6557: 6547: 6542: 6537: 6532: 6531: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6508:Menstrual aids 6505: 6500: 6495: 6490: 6484: 6482: 6476: 6475: 6473: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6437: 6431: 6429: 6418: 6417: 6415: 6414: 6413: 6412: 6407: 6397: 6396: 6395: 6390: 6385: 6374: 6372: 6364: 6363: 6360: 6359: 6357: 6356: 6351: 6350: 6349: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6324: 6319: 6313: 6310: 6309: 6307: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6295: 6294: 6292:Husband stitch 6284: 6283: 6282: 6277: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6231: 6229: 6223: 6222: 6220: 6219: 6218: 6217: 6216: 6215: 6210: 6200: 6195: 6190: 6185: 6180: 6170: 6165: 6163:Antenatal care 6160: 6155: 6150: 6144: 6142: 6133: 6125: 6124: 6122: 6121: 6116: 6111: 6109:Fallopian tube 6106: 6101: 6096: 6091: 6090: 6089: 6084: 6079: 6078: 6077: 6061: 6059: 6055:Reproductive 6048: 6041: 6038: 6037: 6034:Women's health 6025: 6024: 6017: 6010: 6002: 5996: 5995: 5989: 5983: 5977: 5971: 5966: 5957: 5956: 5953: 5952: 5941: 5929: 5928: 5926: 5922: 5921: 5918: 5917: 5906: 5895: 5880: 5864: 5859: 5858: 5856: 5855:Classification 5848: 5847:External links 5845: 5842: 5841: 5810: 5783:(4): 297–304. 5767: 5718: 5679: 5635: 5600: 5554: 5510: 5489:(22): 1591–6. 5469: 5413: 5380: 5331: 5274: 5223: 5179: 5144: 5123:(9): 2287–92. 5103: 5062: 5021: 4978: 4957:(10): 1862–8. 4932: 4902: 4858: 4817: 4776: 4732: 4689: 4645: 4591: 4539: 4490: 4447: 4405: 4367: 4315: 4266: 4217: 4174: 4131: 4082: 4015: 3963: 3911: 3848: 3797: 3748: 3704: 3655: 3606: 3562: 3535:(9): 1167–74. 3518: 3469: 3426: 3415:(11): 978–83. 3399: 3372: 3349: 3308: 3282: 3252: 3242:2012-12-12 at 3229: 3218:(4): 299–305. 3202: 3159: 3116: 3095:(10): 766–75. 3075: 3040: 3032:Can J Diabetes 3023: 2980: 2953:(6): 1229–34. 2937: 2895: 2885: 2879:(2), 234–244. 2864: 2845: 2793: 2744: 2708: 2672: 2622: 2573: 2544:(5): 1143–52. 2519: 2465: 2422: 2373: 2366: 2348: 2297: 2267: 2256: 2234: 2227: 2199: 2178:(11): 2960–1. 2158: 2117: 2066: 2017: 1976: 1923: 1882: 1842: 1831: 1804:(2): e49–e64. 1788: 1753: 1709: 1702: 1684: 1659: 1624: 1578: 1550: 1537:(5): 141–144. 1496: 1417: 1398: 1397: 1395: 1392: 1387: 1384: 1354:hypomagnesemia 1342:red blood cell 1279: 1276: 1213: 1210: 1176: 1173: 1158: 1157: 1154: 1151: 1107: 1104: 1051:Main article: 1048: 1045: 1033:phytochemicals 1001: 998: 976: 973: 972: 971: 968: 965: 942: 939: 929: 926: 922:false positive 908: 905: 872:United Kingdom 855: 852: 813: 812: 805: 804: 800: 799: 798: 797: 794: 787: 774: 771: 704:, single gene 646:cell signaling 632:synthesis (6). 608: 605: 598:blurred vision 554: 553: 542: 539: 532: 521: 494: 487: 484: 478:family history 474: 460: 450: 447: 435: 434: 431: 428: 425: 418: 417: 414: 411: 408: 391: 390: 387: 380: 369: 362: 355: 352: 349: 346: 336: 335: 332: 309: 308:Classification 306: 263:prenatal visit 198:levels during 183: 182: 179: 175: 174: 164: 160: 159: 156: 152: 151: 148: 142: 141: 132: 126: 125: 115: 111: 110: 104: 100: 99: 86: 80: 79: 75:Typically few 73: 67: 66: 57: 51: 50: 46: 45: 37: 36: 33: 29: 28: 20: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8536: 8525: 8522: 8520: 8517: 8515: 8512: 8511: 8509: 8494: 8491: 8489: 8486: 8484: 8481: 8479: 8476: 8474: 8471: 8470: 8468: 8464: 8458: 8455: 8453: 8450: 8448: 8445: 8443: 8440: 8438: 8435: 8433: 8430: 8429: 8427: 8425:Organizations 8421: 8415: 8412: 8410: 8409:Hyperglycemia 8407: 8403: 8400: 8398: 8395: 8393: 8390: 8388: 8385: 8384: 8383: 8380: 8376: 8373: 8371: 8368: 8366: 8363: 8361: 8358: 8356: 8353: 8351: 8350:Blood vessels 8348: 8347: 8345: 8341: 8338: 8336: 8333: 8332: 8331: 8330:Diabetic foot 8328: 8324: 8321: 8319: 8316: 8314: 8311: 8310: 8309: 8306: 8305: 8303: 8301: 8300:Complications 8297: 8289: 8286: 8285: 8283: 8279: 8276: 8274: 8271: 8270: 8268: 8266: 8263: 8259: 8256: 8254: 8251: 8249: 8246: 8245: 8244: 8241: 8239: 8236: 8234: 8231: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8219: 8218: 8216: 8214: 8211: 8210: 8208: 8206: 8202: 8196: 8193: 8191: 8188: 8186: 8183: 8181: 8178: 8176: 8173: 8171: 8168: 8166: 8163: 8161: 8158: 8156: 8153: 8151: 8148: 8146: 8143: 8141: 8138: 8136: 8133: 8131: 8128: 8126: 8123: 8122: 8120: 8118: 8114: 8108: 8105: 8103: 8100: 8098: 8095: 8091: 8088: 8086: 8083: 8082: 8081: 8078: 8074: 8071: 8068: 8065: 8062: 8059: 8056: 8055: 8053: 8049: 8046: 8043: 8041: 8038: 8034: 8031: 8029: 8026: 8025: 8024: 8021: 8017: 8014: 8013: 8011: 8007: 8004: 8001: 7998: 7994: 7991: 7988: 7987: 7985: 7981: 7977: 7970: 7965: 7963: 7958: 7956: 7951: 7950: 7947: 7935: 7934: 7930: 7923: 7922: 7919: 7913: 7910: 7908: 7905: 7901: 7898: 7896: 7893: 7891: 7888: 7887: 7886: 7883: 7882: 7880: 7876: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7818: 7815: 7813: 7810: 7809: 7808: 7805: 7804: 7802: 7800: 7796: 7790: 7789:Uterine atony 7787: 7785: 7782: 7780: 7777: 7775: 7772: 7770: 7767: 7765: 7762: 7760: 7759:Preterm birth 7757: 7753: 7750: 7749: 7748: 7747: 7743: 7741: 7738: 7734: 7731: 7730: 7729: 7726: 7724: 7721: 7719: 7716: 7714: 7711: 7707: 7704: 7703: 7702: 7699: 7697: 7694: 7692: 7689: 7688: 7686: 7684: 7680: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7640: 7639: 7638: 7637: 7633: 7629: 7626: 7625: 7624: 7621: 7617: 7614: 7612: 7609: 7607: 7604: 7602: 7599: 7597: 7594: 7593: 7592: 7591: 7587: 7583: 7581: 7578: 7574: 7571: 7569: 7566: 7565: 7564: 7563: 7559: 7558: 7556: 7554: 7550: 7544: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7526: 7525: 7523: 7521: 7517: 7511: 7508: 7507: 7505: 7503: 7499: 7493: 7492:Stretch marks 7490: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7455: 7454: 7452: 7450: 7445: 7441: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7420: 7417: 7415: 7412: 7411: 7409: 7407: 7403: 7400: 7394: 7388: 7385: 7381: 7378: 7377: 7376: 7375:Pre-eclampsia 7373: 7371: 7368: 7367: 7365: 7363: 7358: 7354: 7350: 7344: 7341: 7339: 7336: 7334: 7331: 7329: 7326: 7324: 7321: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7299: 7297: 7294: 7292: 7289: 7288: 7287: 7284: 7282: 7279: 7278: 7276: 7274: 7268: 7265: 7263: 7259: 7255: 7251: 7247: 7244:Pathology of 7239: 7234: 7232: 7227: 7225: 7220: 7219: 7216: 7204: 7203: 7194: 7192: 7191: 7182: 7180: 7179: 7170: 7169: 7166: 7161: 7158: 7156: 7153: 7149: 7146: 7145: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7123: 7117: 7114: 7112: 7109: 7107: 7104: 7102: 7099: 7097: 7094: 7093: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7075: 7073: 7071: 7070:United States 7067: 7061: 7058: 7056: 7053: 7051: 7048: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7037: 7035: 7033: 7029: 7026: 7020: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7005: 7002: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6992: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6984:Disadvantaged 6982: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6969: 6961: 6958: 6956: 6953: 6951: 6948: 6947: 6946: 6945:Urinary tract 6943: 6937: 6934: 6933: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6923: 6922: 6921:Mental health 6919: 6918: 6909: 6906: 6900: 6897: 6896: 6895: 6892: 6891: 6890: 6887: 6883: 6880: 6879: 6878: 6875: 6873: 6870: 6869: 6860: 6857: 6851: 6848: 6847: 6846: 6843: 6841: 6838: 6837: 6836: 6833: 6831: 6830:Breast cancer 6828: 6826: 6823: 6822: 6820: 6818: 6814: 6811: 6809: 6803: 6797: 6794: 6792: 6789: 6785: 6782: 6781: 6780: 6777: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6762: 6758: 6755: 6754: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6744: 6742: 6740: 6739:against women 6734: 6731: 6725: 6715: 6714:Sex education 6712: 6710: 6707: 6705: 6702: 6700: 6697: 6695: 6692: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6678: 6675: 6674: 6673: 6670: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6658: 6655: 6653: 6650: 6648: 6647:Breast health 6645: 6643: 6640: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6628: 6627: 6626: 6623: 6622: 6619: 6613: 6610: 6606: 6603: 6602: 6601: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6587: 6585: 6583: 6577: 6574: 6568: 6556: 6553: 6552: 6551: 6548: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6536: 6533: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6518:Menstrual cup 6516: 6514: 6511: 6510: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6485: 6483: 6481: 6477: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6443: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6432: 6430: 6428: 6423: 6422:Contraception 6419: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6402: 6401: 6398: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6383:Childlessness 6381: 6380: 6379: 6376: 6375: 6373: 6371: 6368:Reproductive 6365: 6355: 6352: 6348: 6345: 6344: 6343: 6342:Sterilization 6340: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6314: 6311: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6293: 6290: 6289: 6288: 6285: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6272: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6240:Preterm birth 6238: 6236: 6233: 6232: 6230: 6228: 6224: 6214: 6211: 6209: 6206: 6205: 6204: 6201: 6199: 6196: 6194: 6191: 6189: 6186: 6184: 6181: 6179: 6176: 6175: 6174: 6171: 6169: 6166: 6164: 6161: 6159: 6156: 6154: 6151: 6149: 6146: 6145: 6143: 6141: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6126: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6112: 6110: 6107: 6105: 6102: 6100: 6097: 6095: 6092: 6088: 6085: 6083: 6080: 6076: 6075:Clitoral hood 6073: 6072: 6071: 6068: 6067: 6066: 6063: 6062: 6060: 6058: 6052: 6049: 6046: 6043:Reproductive 6039: 6035: 6031: 6023: 6018: 6016: 6011: 6009: 6004: 6003: 6000: 5994: 5990: 5988: 5984: 5982: 5978: 5976: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5965: 5962: 5961: 5951: 5947: 5946: 5942: 5940: 5936: 5935: 5931: 5930: 5927: 5923: 5916: 5912: 5911: 5907: 5905: 5901: 5900: 5896: 5894: 5890: 5889: 5885: 5881: 5879: 5875: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5865: 5862: 5857: 5853: 5829: 5825: 5821: 5818:Schneider C. 5814: 5806: 5802: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5786: 5782: 5778: 5771: 5763: 5759: 5754: 5749: 5745: 5741: 5737: 5733: 5729: 5722: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5694: 5690: 5683: 5675: 5671: 5667: 5663: 5659: 5655: 5652:(6): 775–81. 5651: 5647: 5639: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5619: 5615: 5611: 5604: 5596: 5592: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5568: 5561: 5559: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5514: 5506: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5488: 5484: 5480: 5473: 5465: 5461: 5456: 5451: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5424: 5422: 5420: 5418: 5408: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5384: 5376: 5372: 5368: 5364: 5360: 5356: 5349: 5342: 5340: 5338: 5336: 5327: 5323: 5318: 5313: 5309: 5305: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5278: 5270: 5266: 5261: 5256: 5251: 5246: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5227: 5219: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5203: 5199: 5196:(1): 129–35. 5195: 5191: 5183: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5155: 5148: 5140: 5136: 5131: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5117:Diabetes Care 5114: 5107: 5099: 5095: 5090: 5085: 5082:(3): e290-6. 5081: 5077: 5073: 5066: 5058: 5054: 5049: 5044: 5041:(4): 878–83. 5040: 5036: 5035:Diabetes Care 5032: 5025: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4993: 4989: 4988:Diabetes Care 4982: 4974: 4970: 4965: 4960: 4956: 4952: 4951:Diabetes Care 4948: 4941: 4939: 4937: 4921: 4917: 4913: 4906: 4898: 4894: 4889: 4884: 4881:(3): 607–12. 4880: 4876: 4875:Diabetes Care 4872: 4865: 4863: 4854: 4850: 4845: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4821: 4813: 4809: 4804: 4799: 4796:(5): 1314–9. 4795: 4791: 4790:Diabetes Care 4787: 4780: 4772: 4768: 4763: 4758: 4755:(6): 853–68. 4754: 4750: 4746: 4739: 4737: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4708: 4704: 4700: 4693: 4685: 4681: 4677: 4673: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4649: 4641: 4637: 4632: 4627: 4622: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4598: 4596: 4587: 4583: 4578: 4573: 4569: 4565: 4561: 4557: 4553: 4546: 4544: 4535: 4531: 4526: 4521: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4501: 4494: 4486: 4482: 4478: 4474: 4470: 4466: 4462: 4458: 4451: 4443: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4412: 4410: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4389: 4385: 4381: 4374: 4372: 4363: 4359: 4354: 4349: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4322: 4320: 4311: 4307: 4303: 4299: 4294: 4289: 4285: 4281: 4277: 4270: 4262: 4258: 4253: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4221: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4197: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4178: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4147:(6): 586–90. 4146: 4142: 4135: 4127: 4123: 4118: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4086: 4078: 4074: 4069: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4033: 4026: 4024: 4022: 4020: 4011: 4007: 4002: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3970: 3968: 3959: 3955: 3950: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3929: 3925: 3918: 3916: 3907: 3901: 3893: 3889: 3884: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3852: 3844: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3825: 3820: 3816: 3812: 3808: 3801: 3793: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3752: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3708: 3700: 3696: 3691: 3686: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3670: 3666: 3659: 3651: 3647: 3642: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3610: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3566: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3522: 3514: 3510: 3505: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3473: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3430: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3403: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3383: 3376: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3353: 3345: 3341: 3336: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3312: 3296: 3292: 3286: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3256: 3249: 3245: 3244:archive.today 3241: 3238: 3233: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3206: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3163: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3120: 3112: 3108: 3103: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3079: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3056:(4): 857–68. 3055: 3051: 3044: 3037: 3033: 3027: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2996:(2): 138–41. 2995: 2991: 2984: 2976: 2972: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2941: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2902: 2900: 2889: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2868: 2860: 2856: 2849: 2841: 2837: 2832: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2800: 2798: 2789: 2785: 2780: 2775: 2771: 2767: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2748: 2740: 2736: 2732: 2728: 2724: 2720: 2712: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2676: 2668: 2664: 2659: 2654: 2651:(5): 688–95. 2650: 2646: 2642: 2635: 2633: 2631: 2629: 2627: 2618: 2614: 2609: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2577: 2569: 2565: 2560: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2528: 2526: 2524: 2515: 2511: 2506: 2501: 2497: 2493: 2490:(1): 216–23. 2489: 2485: 2481: 2474: 2472: 2470: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2426: 2418: 2414: 2409: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2393:(3): 485–91. 2392: 2388: 2384: 2377: 2369: 2363: 2359: 2352: 2344: 2340: 2335: 2330: 2325: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2301: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2284:Clin Diabetes 2281: 2274: 2272: 2265: 2260: 2244: 2238: 2230: 2224: 2220: 2216: 2210: 2208: 2206: 2204: 2195: 2191: 2186: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2172:Diabetes Care 2169: 2162: 2154: 2150: 2145: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2121: 2113: 2109: 2104: 2099: 2094: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2070: 2062: 2058: 2053: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2037:(4): 376–90. 2036: 2032: 2028: 2021: 2013: 2009: 2004: 1999: 1996:(8): 2070–6. 1995: 1991: 1990:Diabetes Care 1987: 1980: 1972: 1968: 1963: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1946: 1942: 1938: 1934: 1927: 1919: 1915: 1910: 1905: 1902:(2): 667–77. 1901: 1897: 1893: 1886: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1859: 1857: 1855: 1853: 1851: 1849: 1847: 1840: 1835: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1792: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1769:(7): 768–73. 1768: 1764: 1757: 1749: 1745: 1740: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1726:Diabetes Care 1723: 1716: 1714: 1705: 1699: 1695: 1688: 1673: 1669: 1663: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1640:(5): 609–16. 1639: 1635: 1628: 1620: 1616: 1611: 1606: 1602: 1601:Diabetes Care 1598: 1591: 1589: 1587: 1585: 1583: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1560:Diabetes Care 1554: 1545: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1521: 1519: 1517: 1515: 1513: 1511: 1509: 1507: 1505: 1503: 1501: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1470: 1468: 1466: 1464: 1462: 1460: 1458: 1456: 1454: 1452: 1450: 1448: 1446: 1444: 1442: 1440: 1438: 1436: 1434: 1432: 1430: 1428: 1426: 1424: 1422: 1413: 1409: 1403: 1399: 1391: 1383: 1381: 1376: 1374: 1370: 1369:birth defects 1365: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1330: 1327: 1324: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1284: 1278:Complications 1275: 1271: 1267: 1264: 1260: 1258: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1218: 1209: 1205: 1202: 1200: 1196: 1190: 1188: 1183: 1172: 1170: 1169:breastfeeding 1165: 1163: 1155: 1152: 1149: 1148: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1137: 1132: 1130: 1124: 1122: 1118: 1113: 1103: 1101: 1096: 1094: 1090: 1089:diabetic diet 1085: 1083: 1079: 1073: 1070: 1068: 1059: 1054: 1044: 1040: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1025: 1021: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1006: 997: 995: 990: 986: 982: 969: 966: 963: 962: 961: 958: 954: 952: 948: 938: 934: 925: 923: 919: 915: 904: 900: 897: 893: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 869: 868:United States 864: 861: 860:evidence base 851: 847: 843: 839: 837: 833: 828: 824: 820: 810: 807: 806: 802: 801: 795: 792: 788: 785: 784: 782: 781: 770: 768: 764: 760: 755: 751: 746: 742: 739: 735: 729: 725: 723: 718: 715: 709: 707: 703: 698: 695: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 667: 663: 659: 656: 650: 647: 643: 639: 631: 627: 623: 619: 613: 604: 601: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 565: 563: 562:short stature 559: 551: 547: 543: 540: 537: 533: 530: 526: 522: 519: 515: 511: 507: 503: 499: 495: 492: 488: 485: 483: 479: 475: 473: 469: 465: 461: 459: 456: 455: 454: 446: 442: 440: 432: 429: 426: 423: 422: 421: 415: 412: 409: 406: 405: 404: 402: 397: 394: 388: 385: 381: 378: 374: 370: 367: 363: 360: 356: 353: 350: 347: 344: 343: 342: 340: 333: 330: 329: 328: 325: 323: 318: 315: 305: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 281: 279: 278:Breastfeeding 275: 271: 270:diabetic diet 266: 264: 260: 256: 252: 248: 244: 240: 235: 233: 229: 225: 221: 217: 213: 209: 208:pre-eclampsia 205: 201: 197: 193: 189: 180: 176: 172: 168: 167:Diabetic diet 165: 161: 157: 153: 149: 147: 143: 140: 136: 133: 131: 127: 124: 120: 116: 112: 109: 105: 101: 98: 94: 90: 89:Pre-eclampsia 87: 85: 84:Complications 81: 78: 74: 72: 68: 65: 64:endocrinology 61: 58: 56: 52: 47: 43: 38: 34: 30: 25: 19: 8414:Hypoglycemia 8318:Ketoacidosis 8313:Hypoglycemia 8253:conventional 8155:Glucose test 8150:Fructosamine 8009: 7931: 7924: 7784:Vasa praevia 7744: 7718:Locked twins 7634: 7584: 7560: 7418: 7306:Interstitial 7200: 7188: 7176: 6899:Hip fracture 6894:Osteoporosis 6635:Infibulation 6535:Dysmenorrhea 6528:Sanitary pad 6480:Menstruation 6208:Preeclampsia 6203:Hypertension 6197: 6087:Labia majora 6082:Labia minora 5943: 5932: 5908: 5897: 5882: 5867: 5832:. 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Retrieved 4915: 4905: 4878: 4874: 4837:(3): 792–7. 4834: 4830: 4820: 4793: 4789: 4779: 4752: 4748: 4705:(9): 462–4. 4702: 4698: 4692: 4662:(1): 27–36. 4659: 4655: 4648: 4611: 4607: 4559: 4555: 4507: 4503: 4493: 4463:(5): 320–6. 4460: 4456: 4450: 4421: 4417: 4383: 4379: 4335: 4331: 4286:(6): 381–6. 4283: 4279: 4269: 4234: 4230: 4220: 4187: 4183: 4177: 4144: 4140: 4134: 4099: 4095: 4085: 4042: 4038: 3983: 3979: 3931: 3927: 3900:cite journal 3865: 3861: 3851: 3814: 3810: 3800: 3765: 3761: 3751: 3718: 3714: 3707: 3672: 3668: 3658: 3623: 3619: 3609: 3579:(4): 290–5. 3576: 3572: 3565: 3532: 3528: 3521: 3486: 3482: 3472: 3442:(4): 285–8. 3439: 3435: 3429: 3412: 3408: 3402: 3388:(3): 214–9. 3385: 3381: 3375: 3352: 3325: 3321: 3311: 3299:. Retrieved 3295:Medline Plus 3294: 3285: 3274:. Retrieved 3265: 3255: 3232: 3215: 3211: 3205: 3172: 3168: 3162: 3129: 3125: 3119: 3092: 3088: 3078: 3053: 3049: 3043: 3036:27 (Suppl 2) 3035: 3031: 3026: 2993: 2989: 2983: 2950: 2946: 2940: 2915: 2911: 2888: 2876: 2872: 2867: 2858: 2848: 2813: 2809: 2761: 2757: 2747: 2725:(1): 132–4. 2722: 2718: 2711: 2689:(2): 87–95. 2686: 2682: 2675: 2648: 2644: 2590: 2586: 2576: 2541: 2537: 2487: 2483: 2438:(6): 301–7. 2435: 2431: 2425: 2390: 2386: 2376: 2357: 2351: 2314: 2310: 2300: 2287: 2283: 2259: 2247:. Retrieved 2237: 2218: 2175: 2171: 2161: 2134: 2130: 2120: 2083: 2079: 2069: 2034: 2030: 2020: 1993: 1989: 1979: 1944: 1940: 1933:Stevenson DK 1926: 1899: 1895: 1885: 1871:(6): 392–6. 1868: 1864: 1834: 1801: 1797: 1791: 1766: 1762: 1756: 1729: 1725: 1693: 1687: 1676:. Retrieved 1662: 1637: 1633: 1627: 1600: 1563: 1559: 1553: 1534: 1530: 1487:. Retrieved 1478: 1412:the original 1402: 1389: 1386:Epidemiology 1380:preeclampsia 1377: 1366: 1350:hypocalcemia 1346:polycythemia 1334:hypoglycemia 1331: 1328: 1325: 1319: 1285: 1281: 1272: 1268: 1265: 1261: 1219: 1215: 1206: 1203: 1191: 1178: 1166: 1159: 1144: 1140: 1133: 1125: 1109: 1097: 1086: 1074: 1071: 1064: 1041: 1037:myo‐inositol 1026: 1022: 1003: 983:). Although 978: 959: 955: 951:carbohydrate 944: 935: 931: 910: 901: 865: 857: 848: 844: 840: 816: 791:postprandial 767:hypoglycemia 747: 743: 730: 726: 719: 710: 702:autoimmunity 699: 670:progesterone 651: 635: 602: 572:, increased 566: 555: 546:polymorphism 491:father's age 452: 449:Risk factors 443: 436: 419: 398: 395: 392: 337: 326: 319: 311: 282: 267: 236: 220:hypoglycemia 218:, of having 187: 186: 169:, exercise, 130:Risk factors 106:Most common 18: 8457:Diabetes UK 8185:SPINA-GBeta 8117:Blood tests 8023:Prediabetes 7723:Nuchal cord 7472:Linea nigra 7424:Hepatitis E 7357:proteinuria 7338:Miscarriage 7323:Embryo loss 7301:Heterotopic 7202:WikiProject 6889:Bone health 6825:Lung cancer 6662:Dyspareunia 6605:HPV vaccine 6545:Amenorrhoea 6540:Menorrhagia 6378:Infertility 6327:Stillbirths 6188:Miscarriage 5934:MedlinePlus 5294:(1): 1170. 4059:10292/10707 3817:(5): 4188. 3367:10665/85975 3132:(2): 81–7. 1364:synthesis. 918:specificity 914:sensitivity 720:c-MET is a 464:prediabetes 377:nephropathy 373:retinopathy 366:retinopathy 117:Not enough 103:Usual onset 32:Other names 8508:Categories 8213:Prevention 8205:Management 8130:Biomarkers 7733:Postpartum 7628:Antepartum 7343:Stillbirth 7254:puerperium 7252:, and the 7250:childbirth 7127:by country 6931:Depression 6582:infections 6287:Episiotomy 6227:Childbirth 6158:Obstetrics 5945:Patient UK 5910:DiseasesDB 5834:5 December 5076:Pediatrics 4926:2006-11-27 4554:. review. 3717:(Review). 3301:8 November 3276:2006-11-27 2317:: 926932. 2249:14 October 2093:2101.07350 1678:2017-02-20 1394:References 1362:surfactant 1222:antibodies 1175:Medication 1112:folic acid 1100:sonography 1078:probiotics 1047:Management 1000:Prevention 981:glucosuria 763:macrosomia 630:fatty acid 626:glycolysis 536:macrosomia 525:overweight 518:South Asia 247:overweight 228:stillbirth 216:macrosomia 173:injections 155:Prevention 135:Overweight 93:stillbirth 60:Obstetrics 8258:pulsatile 8248:intensive 8160:C-peptide 8090:Permanent 8085:Transient 8050:Type 3a ( 7799:Puerperal 7387:Eclampsia 7291:Abdominal 7262:Pregnancy 7246:pregnancy 6757:Pregnancy 6737:Violence 6677:Vaginitis 6550:Menopause 6410:Fostering 6400:Parenting 6370:life plan 6235:Midwifery 6213:Eclampsia 6140:Pregnancy 6129:Maternal 5243:(1): 25. 4310:220572575 4212:232058447 3721:: 69–79. 2112:2090-2441 2086:(1): 13. 1947:: k4372. 1212:Prognosis 1199:glyburide 1195:metformin 1129:G.I. Diet 1123:therapy. 1106:Lifestyle 1093:G.I. 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