33:
518:
579:. As both type 1 and 2 diabetes are associated with reduction of functional β cells, this effect is highly interesting regarding diabetes treatment. Considered almost as important as the effect of enhancing insulin secretion, GLP-1 has been shown to inhibit glucagon secretion at glucose levels above fasting levels. Critically, this does not affect the glucagon response to
618:. In accordance with the expression of GLP-1 receptor on brainstem and hypothalamus, GLP-1 has been shown to promote satiety and thereby reduce food and water intake. Consequently, diabetic subjects treated with GLP-1 receptor agonists often experience weight loss as opposed to the weight gain commonly induced with other treatment agents.
645:, where she was head of a peptide synthesis facility. To try to identify whether a specific fragment of GLP-q was an incretin, Mojsov created an incretin-antibody and developed ways to track its presence. She identified that a stretch of 31 amino acids in the GLP-1 was an incretin. Mojsov and her collaborators
1428:
Bertilsson G, Patrone C, Zachrisson O, Andersson A, Dannaeus K, Heidrich J, Kortesmaa J, Mercer A, Nielsen E, Rönnholm H, Wikström L (February 2008). "Peptide hormone exendin-4 stimulates subventricular zone neurogenesis in the adult rodent brain and induces recovery in an animal model of
Parkinson's
621:
In the stomach, GLP-1 inhibits gastric emptying, acid secretion and motility, which collectively decrease appetite. By decelerating gastric emptying GLP-1 reduces postprandial glucose excursion which is another attractive property regarding diabetes treatment. However, these gastrointestinal
181:). Pancreatic proglucagon gene expression is promoted upon fasting and hypoglycaemia induction and inhibited by insulin. Conversely, intestinal proglucagon gene expression is reduced during fasting and stimulated upon food consumption. In mammals, the transcription gives rise to identical
1802:
Perry T, Lahiri DK, Sambamurti K, Chen D, Mattson MP, Egan JM, Greig NH (June 2003). "Glucagon-like peptide-1 decreases endogenous amyloid-beta peptide (Abeta) levels and protects hippocampal neurons from death induced by Abeta and iron".
1381:
Li H, Lee CH, Yoo KY, Choi JH, Park OK, Yan BC, Byun K, Lee B, Hwang IK, Won MH (December 2010). "Chronic treatment of exendin-4 affects cell proliferation and neuroblast differentiation in the adult mouse hippocampal dentate gyrus".
350:
Fasting plasma concentration of biologically active GLP-1 range between 0 and 15 pmol/L in humans and is increased 2- to 3-fold upon food consumption depending on meal size and nutrient composition. Individual nutrients, such as
1055:
Meier JJ, Weyhe D, Michaely M, Senkal M, Zumtobel V, Nauck MA, Holst JJ, Schmidt WE, Gallwitz B (March 2004). "Intravenous glucagon-like peptide 1 normalizes blood glucose after major surgery in patients with type 2 diabetes".
568:, alters the ion channel activity causing elevated levels of cytosolic Ca that enhances exocytosis of insulin-containing granules. During the process, influx of glucose ensures sufficient ATP to sustain the stimulatory effect.
239:
of the MPGF, but sequencing experiments of endogenous GLP-1 revealed a structure corresponding to proglucagon (78–107) from which two discoveries were found. Firstly, the full-length GLP-1 (1–37) was found to be catalysed by
1758:
Wang XH, Li L, Hölscher C, Pan YF, Chen XR, Qi JS (November 2010). "Val8-glucagon-like peptide-1 protects against Aβ1-40-induced impairment of hippocampal late-phase long-term potentiation and spatial learning in rats".
652:
Mojsov fought to have her name included in patents, with the
Massachusetts General Hospital eventually agreeing to amend four patents to include her name. She received her one-third of drug royalties for one year.
441:, including those located directly adjacent to GLP-1 secretion sites. Consequently, less than 25% of secreted GLP-1 is estimated to leave the gut intact. Additionally, presumably due to the high concentration of
322:
is sufficient to account for the early phase secretion through direct contact with luminal nutrients. Less controversially, the second phase is likely caused by direct stimulation of L-cells by digested
533:, as these actions induce long-term improvements along with the immediate effects. Although reduced GLP-1 secretion has previously been associated with attenuated incretin effect in patients with
1653:
Iwai T, Sawabe T, Tanimitsu K, Suzuki M, Sasaki-Hamada S, Oka J (April 2014). "Glucagon-like peptide-1 protects synaptic and learning functions from neuroinflammation in rodents".
629:
GLP-1 has also shown signs of carrying out protective and regulatory effects in numerous other tissues, including heart, tongue, adipose, muscles, bones, kidneys, liver and lungs.
2346:
259:
resulting in the equally potent GLP-1 (7–36) amide. In humans, almost all (>80%) secreted GLP-1 is amidated, whereas a considerable part remains GLP-1 (7–37) in other species.
1699:
Li Y, Perry T, Kindy MS, Harvey BK, Tweedie D, Holloway HW, Powers K, Shen H, Egan JM, Sambamurti K, Brossi A, Lahiri DK, Mattson MP, Hoffer BJ, Wang Y, Greig NH (January 2009).
1526:
Wang MD, Huang Y, Zhang GP, Mao L, Xia YP, Mei YW, Hu B (December 2012). "Exendin-4 improved rat cortical neuron survival under oxygen/glucose deprivation through PKA pathway".
310:
pattern with an early phase after 10–15 minutes followed by a longer second phase after 30–60 minutes upon meal ingestion. As the majority of L-cells are located in the distal
102:. Beside the insulinotropic effects, GLP-1 has been associated with numerous regulatory and protective effects. Unlike GIP, the action of GLP-1 is preserved in patients with
3426:
3341:
125:
of approximately 2 minutes. Consequently, only 10–15 % of GLP-1 reaches circulation intact, leading to fasting plasma levels of only 0–15 pmol/L. To overcome this,
1610:
Perry T, Haughey NJ, Mattson MP, Egan JM, Greig NH (September 2002). "Protection and reversal of excitotoxic neuronal damage by glucagon-like peptide-1 and exendin-4".
3406:
3386:
3331:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
602:, and dysfunctions. In the diseased brain, GLP-1 receptor agonist treatment is associated with protection against a range of experimental disease models such as
3361:
3351:
2339:
2017:"Insulinotropin: glucagon-like peptide I (7-37) co-encoded in the glucagon gene is a potent stimulator of insulin release in the perfused rat pancreas"
2196:
1897:
571:
Additionally, GLP-1 ensures the β cell insulin stores are replenished to prevent exhaustion during secretion by promoting insulin gene transcription,
463:
24.11 (NEP 24.11) is a membrane-bound zinc metallopeptidase widely expressed in several tissues, but found in particularly high concentrations in the
1099:
Graaf C, Donnelly D, Wootten D, Lau J, Sexton PM, Miller LJ, Ahn JM, Liao J, Fletcher MM, Yang D, Brown AJ, Zhou C, Deng J, Wang MW (October 2016).
2332:
2324:
3043:
2813:
3063:
189:. However, as a result of tissue-specific posttranslational processing mechanisms, different peptides are produced in the different cells.
482:
and is estimated to contribute by up to 50% of the GLP-1 degradation. However, the activity only becomes apparent once the degradation of
1701:"GLP-1 receptor stimulation preserves primary cortical and dopaminergic neurons in cellular and rodent models of stroke and Parkinsonism"
1150:"Secretion of glucagon-like peptide-1 in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analyses of clinical studies"
917:
Ma X, Guan Y, Hua X (September 2014). "Glucagon-like peptide 1-potentiated insulin secretion and proliferation of pancreatic β-cells".
1242:"Exendin-4 induced glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor activation reverses behavioral impairments of mild traumatic brain injury in mice"
433:
is widely expressed in multiple tissues and cell types and exists in both a membrane-anchored and soluble circulating form. Notably,
71:, which gives rise to the two truncated and equipotent biologically active forms, GLP-1 (7–36) amide and GLP-1 (7–37). Active GLP-1
2922:
721:
107:
83:
575:
stability and biosynthesis. GLP-1 evidently also increases β cell mass by promoting proliferation and neogenesis while inhibiting
540:
The most noteworthy effect of GLP-1 is its ability to promote insulin secretion in a glucose-dependent manner. As GLP-1 binds to
3459:
2549:
2267:
17:
743:
Marathe CS, Rayner CK, Jones KL, Horowitz M (June 2013). "Glucagon-like peptides 1 and 2 in health and disease: a review".
3316:
1292:
Gautier JF, Choukem SP, Girard J (2008). "Physiology of incretins (GIP and GLP-1) and abnormalities in type 2 diabetes".
2074:"Glucagon-like peptide I stimulates insulin gene expression and increases cyclic AMP levels in a rat islet cell line"
1336:
1968:"Preproglucagon gene expression in pancreas and intestine diversifies at the level of post-translational processing"
3476:
3019:
2566:
667:
2354:
2774:
2765:
2499:
1848:"Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Analog, Liraglutide, Delays Onset of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalitis in Lewis Rats"
537:, it is now granted that GLP-1 secretion in patients with type 2 diabetes does not differ from healthy subjects.
467:, which is also identified accountable for the rapid degradation of GLP-1. It primarily cleaves peptides at the
2601:
642:
557:
1240:
Rachmany L, Tweedie D, Li Y, Rubovitch V, Holloway HW, Miller J, Hoffer BJ, Greig NH, Pick CG (October 2013).
2461:
526:
1571:"Neuroprotective and anti-apoptotic effects of liraglutide on SH-SY5Y cells exposed to methylglyoxal stress"
1101:"Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 and Its Class B G Protein-Coupled Receptors: A Long March to Therapeutic Successes"
3514:
2503:
583:
as this effect is also glucose-dependent. The inhibitory effect is presumably mediated indirectly through
3152:
2141:"The islet's bridesmaid becomes the bride: Proglucagon-derived peptides deliver transformative therapies"
72:
3114:
2980:
2513:
429:
resulting in the abundant GLP-1 (9–36) amide constituting 60–80 % of total GLP-1 in circulation.
3519:
3421:
3321:
3311:
2260:
622:
activities are also the reason why subjects treated with GLP-1-based agents occasionally experience
3396:
3301:
2234:
2230:
549:
1003:"Diabetes and Intestinal Incretin Hormones: A New Therapeutic Paradigm" at medscape.com (slide 36)
405:
Once secreted, GLP-1 is extremely susceptible to the catalytic activity of the proteolytic enzyme
3464:
3436:
3411:
3391:
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3336:
3326:
3306:
3296:
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2311:
672:
228:
3441:
3401:
3224:
716:
682:
611:
607:
603:
561:
406:
126:
114:
2701:
331:
is therefore an important aspect to consider, as it regulates the entry of nutrients into the
133:
have been developed to increase GLP-1 activity. As opposed to common treatment agents such as
3431:
3416:
3346:
2220:
460:
356:
268:
209:
2240:
590:
In the brain, GLP-1 receptor activation has been linked with neurotrophic effects including
223:
is catalysed by PC 1/3 giving rise to glicentin, which may be further processed to GRPP and
185:
in all three cell types, which is further translated to the 180 amino acid precursor called
3500:
3291:
2253:
2085:
1712:
1148:
Calanna S, Christensen M, Holst JJ, Laferrère B, Gluud LL, Vilsbøll T, Knop FK (May 2013).
882:
Deacon CF, Holst JJ (August 2009). "Immunoassays for the incretin hormones GIP and GLP-1".
472:
307:
201:
166:
68:
63:
in the brainstem upon food consumption. The initial product GLP-1 (1–37) is susceptible to
56:
8:
2356:
2197:
Her work paved the way for blockbuster obesity drugs. Now, she's fighting for recognition
1898:
Her work paved the way for blockbuster obesity drugs. Now, she's fighting for recognition
649:
and
Habener showed that small quantities of lab-synthesized GLP-1 could trigger insulin.
370:
2089:
1846:
DellaValle B, Brix GS, Brock B, Gejl M, Landau AM, Møller A, Rungby J, Larsen A (2016).
1716:
235:). Initially, GLP-1 was thought to correspond to proglucagon (72–108) suitable with the
2477:
2178:
1936:
1874:
1847:
1828:
1784:
1772:
1735:
1700:
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1635:
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1503:
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1331:
1266:
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1174:
1149:
1125:
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985:
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768:
615:
91:
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1984:
1967:
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2411:
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2103:
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1997:
1989:
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1037:
977:
934:
899:
864:
820:
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646:
553:
530:
438:
315:
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and colon, the early phase is likely explained by neural signalling, gut peptides or
1832:
1788:
1639:
1555:
1458:
1411:
989:
946:
772:
505:
of active GLP-1 is approximately 2 minutes, which is however sufficient to activate
3279:
2495:
2457:
2200:
2152:
2111:
2093:
2044:
2028:
1979:
1966:
Mojsov S, Heinrich G, Wilson IB, Ravazzola M, Orci L, Habener JF (September 1986).
1932:
1901:
1869:
1859:
1812:
1768:
1730:
1720:
1662:
1619:
1582:
1535:
1498:
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1353:
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1253:
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891:
856:
810:
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752:
336:
332:
328:
284:
130:
60:
2452:
2434:
1395:
1016:"Determinants of the effectiveness of glucagon-like peptide-1 in type 2 diabetes"
815:
798:
677:
638:
595:
534:
495:
288:
118:
103:
48:
32:
713:, the latter of which is marketed under the brands Ozempic, Rybelsus and Wegovy.
3470:
3214:
2879:
2808:
2560:
2509:
2416:
2406:
2386:
2364:
2157:
2140:
2078:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1705:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1002:
895:
860:
541:
506:
374:
335:
where the direct stimulation occurs. One of the actions of GLP-1 is to inhibit
1257:
1165:
393:. The mechanisms of protein-triggered GLP-1 secretion are less clear, but the
110:
gained approval as drugs to treat diabetes and obesity starting in the 2000s.
3508:
3260:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3083:
2839:
2798:
2686:
2681:
2671:
2666:
2472:
2291:
2166:
2107:
2040:
1993:
1944:
1864:
426:
386:
360:
241:
224:
138:
2204:
2098:
1921:"Structural requirements for biological activity of glucagon-like peptide-I"
1905:
1725:
1623:
930:
318:. Other evidence suggest that the amount of L-cells located in the proximal
3093:
3088:
3068:
2970:
2960:
2955:
2844:
2818:
2786:
2746:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2691:
2676:
2656:
2642:
2368:
2245:
2174:
1920:
1883:
1824:
1780:
1744:
1674:
1631:
1596:
1547:
1512:
1450:
1403:
1367:
1313:
1275:
1223:
1183:
1134:
1077:
1041:
1032:
1015:
981:
938:
903:
868:
824:
764:
702:
591:
584:
580:
418:
344:
178:
146:
2125:
2058:
2016:
2001:
1952:
1116:
973:
498:
appear more significant for the elimination of already inactivated GLP-1.
76:
3078:
3073:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3004:
2998:
2965:
2950:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2889:
2874:
2859:
2849:
2828:
2803:
2751:
2709:
2661:
2651:
2467:
2280:
710:
706:
698:
690:
686:
479:
476:
446:
382:
352:
220:
205:
186:
142:
52:
1332:"GIP and GLP-1, the two incretin hormones: Similarities and differences"
248:
corresponding to proglucagon(108) was found to serve as a substrate for
3255:
3142:
3132:
3127:
3122:
3038:
3033:
3028:
2869:
2854:
2823:
2628:
599:
468:
397:
proportion and composition appear important to the stimulatory effect.
394:
253:
236:
79:
from amino acid position 13–20 and 24–35 separated by a linker region.
2032:
1816:
1666:
1587:
1570:
1442:
1214:
1201:
847:
Holst JJ (October 2007). "The physiology of glucagon-like peptide 1".
216:, intervening peptide-1 (IP-1) and major proglucagon fragment (MPGF).
51:
deriving from the tissue-specific posttranslational processing of the
3265:
3180:
3170:
3137:
2988:
2945:
2864:
2623:
2610:
1479:"GLP-1 improves neuropathology after murine cold lesion brain trauma"
884:
Best
Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism
694:
576:
545:
502:
378:
340:
324:
300:
249:
174:
122:
95:
64:
2224:
1494:
1477:
DellaValle B, Hempel C, Johansen FF, Kurtzhals JA (September 2014).
1427:
1202:"Glucagon-like peptide-1: modulator of β-cell dysfunction and death"
564:. Subsequently, activation of secondary pathways, including PKA and
525:
GLP-1 possesses several physiological properties making it (and its
291:
and neuro-vascular tissue and are accordingly stimulated by various
197:
162:
3165:
3160:
2618:
2296:
2276:
2072:
Drucker DJ, Philippe J, Mojsov S, Chick WL, Habener JF (May 1987).
662:
529:) a subject of intensive investigation as a potential treatment of
517:
292:
280:
256:
213:
193:
158:
87:
1199:
960:
Deacon CF (2004). "Circulation and degradation of GIP and GLP-1".
157:
The proglucagon gene is expressed in several organs including the
149:, two important considerations for patients with type 2 diabetes.
2382:
2360:
1476:
565:
487:
464:
422:
390:
319:
276:
245:
134:
99:
1147:
457:
only 10–15 % of secreted GLP-1 reaches circulation intact.
117:(DPP-4), as well as neutral endopeptidase 24.11 (NEP 24.11) and
27:
Gastrointestinal peptide hormone involved in glucose homeostasis
2734:
1200:
Rondas D, D'Hertog W, Overbergh L, Mathieu C (September 2013).
623:
366:
296:
587:
secretion, but a direct effect cannot be completely excluded.
449:, 40–50% of the remaining active GLP-1 is degraded across the
267:
GLP-1 is packaged in secretory granules and secreted into the
212:(PC) 2 producing glicentin-related pancreatic peptide (GRPP),
2738:
1965:
491:
483:
454:
450:
442:
434:
430:
414:
410:
311:
272:
232:
170:
598:
effects including reduced necrotic and apoptotic signaling,
377:
of the L-cell membrane causing an elevated concentration of
572:
182:
2071:
1239:
742:
486:
has been prevented, as the majority of GLP-1 reaching the
271:
by the intestinal L-cells located primarily in the distal
2979:
1801:
1652:
1612:
The
Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics
3501:
http://diabetes.diabetesjournals.org/content/56/1/8.full
1054:
1013:
1845:
1609:
1098:
244:
to the biologically active GLP-1 (7–37). Secondly, the
1925:
International
Journal of Peptide and Protein Research
1472:
1470:
1468:
1423:
1421:
1235:
1233:
1568:
1291:
1020:
The
Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism
1014:
Toft-Nielsen MB, Madsbad S, Holst JJ (August 2001).
55:peptide. It is produced and secreted by intestinal
1698:
1465:
1418:
1329:
1230:
389:Ca stores and subsequently release of Ca into the
113:Endogenous GLP-1 is rapidly degraded primarily by
2014:
1757:
1569:Sharma MK, Jalewa J, Hölscher C (February 2014).
1525:
141:, GLP-1-based treatment has been associated with
3506:
169:), gut (intestinal enteroendocrine L-cells) and
1694:
1692:
94:in a glucose-dependent manner by enhancing the
1483:Annals of Clinical and Translational Neurology
385:have been associated with the mobilisation of
363:have also shown to stimulate GLP-1 secretion.
2340:
2261:
2138:
796:
2381:
2275:
2015:Mojsov S, Weir GC, Habener JF (1987-02-01).
1689:
1380:
1330:Seino Y, Fukushima M, Yabe D (April 2010).
881:
2347:
2333:
2268:
2254:
1287:
1285:
512:
227:, GLP-1, intervening peptide-2 (IP-2) and
2233:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
2156:
2115:
2097:
2048:
1983:
1873:
1863:
1734:
1724:
1586:
1502:
1357:
1265:
1213:
1195:
1193:
1173:
1124:
1031:
916:
842:
840:
838:
836:
834:
814:
792:
790:
788:
786:
784:
782:
738:
736:
641:worked on the identification of GLP-1 at
381:Ca which in turn induce GLP-1 secretion.
108:Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists
1325:
1323:
722:Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide
516:
84:glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide
31:
1282:
283:. The L-cells are open-type triangular
90:; thus, it has the ability to decrease
14:
3507:
2221:Banting and Best Diabetes Centre at UT
1918:
1190:
959:
831:
779:
733:
2589:
2380:
2328:
2249:
1320:
846:
799:"Biology of incretins: GLP-1 and GIP"
2367:, and other drugs used in diabetes (
3499:American diabetes association:link-
3337:Glibenclamide (glyburide)/metformin
3317:Dapagliflozin/saxagliptin/metformin
2189:
632:
24:
1937:10.1111/j.1399-3011.1992.tb00309.x
1890:
1773:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2010.08.028
1540:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.09.025
1206:Diabetes, Obesity & Metabolism
1070:10.1097/01.CCM.0000114811.60629.B5
797:Baggio LL, Drucker DJ (May 2007).
369:have been associated with various
152:
25:
3531:
2214:
2021:Journal of Clinical Investigation
1337:Journal of Diabetes Investigation
556:that increases the production of
275:and colon, but also found in the
47:) is a 30- or 31-amino-acid-long
2590:
1805:Journal of Neuroscience Research
1655:Journal of Neuroscience Research
1431:Journal of Neuroscience Research
1350:10.1111/j.2040-1124.2010.00022.x
668:Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor
2132:
2065:
2008:
1972:Journal of Biological Chemistry
1959:
1912:
1839:
1795:
1751:
1646:
1603:
1562:
1519:
1374:
1141:
1092:
490:have already been processed by
453:. Thus, due to the activity of
437:is expressed on the surface of
59:and certain neurons within the
1048:
1007:
996:
962:Hormone and Metabolic Research
953:
910:
875:
757:10.1016/j.peptides.2013.01.014
643:Massachusetts General Hospital
400:
13:
1:
1985:10.1016/s0021-9258(18)67324-7
1306:10.1016/S1262-3636(08)73397-4
727:
287:directly in contact with the
61:nucleus of the solitary tract
3153:Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors
1396:10.1016/j.neulet.2010.09.040
816:10.1053/j.gastro.2007.03.054
339:, thus slowing down its own
262:
7:
3115:Aldose reductase inhibitors
656:
73:protein secondary structure
10:
3536:
2981:GLP1 poly-agonist peptides
2158:10.1016/j.cell.2021.03.019
2139:O'Rahilly S (2021-04-15).
1208:. 15 Suppl 3 (3): 185–92.
896:10.1016/j.beem.2009.03.006
861:10.1152/physrev.00034.2006
548:, the receptors couple to
3427:Sitagliptin/ertugliflozin
3422:Sitagliptin/dapagliflozin
3342:Glimepiride/rosiglitazone
3322:Empagliflozin/linagliptin
3312:Dapagliflozin/saxagliptin
3287:
3278:
3248:
3179:
3151:
3113:
3106:
3018:
2921:
2888:
2840:Glibenclamide (glyburide)
2785:
2773:
2764:
2733:
2700:
2637:
2609:
2600:
2596:
2585:
2523:
2486:
2443:
2425:
2397:
2393:
2376:
2287:
1852:Frontiers in Pharmacology
1575:Journal of Neurochemistry
1294:Diabetes & Metabolism
1258:10.1007/s11357-012-9464-0
1166:10.1007/s00125-013-2841-0
3407:Pioglitazone/sitagliptin
3397:Pioglitazone/glimepiride
3387:Phenformin/sulfonylureas
3332:Gemigliptin/rosuvastatin
3302:Cagrilintide/semaglutide
2241:Insulin release pathways
2235:Medical Subject Headings
1865:10.3389/fphar.2016.00433
3437:Sitagliptin/simvastatin
3412:Rosiglitazone/metformin
3392:Pioglitazone/alogliptin
3382:Metformin/teneligliptin
3377:Metformin/sulfonylureas
3357:Metformin/ertugliflozin
3327:Empagliflozin/metformin
3307:Dapagliflozin/metformin
3297:Canagliflozin/metformin
2923:GLP-1 receptor agonists
2303:Glucagon-like peptides
2231:Glucagon-Like+Peptide+1
2205:10.1126/science.adk7627
2099:10.1073/pnas.84.10.3434
1906:10.1126/science.adk7627
1726:10.1073/pnas.0806720106
1624:10.1124/jpet.102.037481
1105:Pharmacological Reviews
931:10.1111/1753-0407.12161
683:GLP-1 receptor agonists
673:Glucagon-like peptide-2
513:Physiological functions
306:GLP-1 is released in a
229:glucagon-like peptide-2
127:GLP-1 receptor agonists
57:enteroendocrine L-cells
41:Glucagon-like peptide-1
3442:Vildagliptin/metformin
3402:Pioglitazone/metformin
2199:(Report). 2023-09-08.
1900:(Report). 2023-09-08.
1058:Critical Care Medicine
1033:10.1210/jcem.86.8.7743
717:Dipeptidyl peptidase-4
612:traumatic brain injury
552:subunits and activate
522:
407:dipeptidyl peptidase-4
219:In the gut and brain,
115:dipeptidyl peptidase-4
37:
3432:Sitagliptin/metformin
3417:Saxagliptin/metformin
3372:Metformin/repaglinide
3367:Metformin/gemigliptin
3347:Linagliptin/metformin
1117:10.1124/pr.115.011395
974:10.1055/s-2004-826160
849:Physiological Reviews
520:
461:Neutral endopeptidase
357:essential amino acids
269:hepatic portal system
210:prohormone convertase
35:
18:Glucagon-like peptide
3362:Metformin/evogliptin
3292:Alogliptin/metformin
1384:Neuroscience Letters
473:aromatic amino acids
202:islets of Langerhans
167:islets of Langerhans
145:and a lower risk of
69:proteolytic cleavage
3515:Anti-diabetic drugs
2602:Insulin sensitizers
2357:diabetes medication
2090:1987PNAS...84.3434D
1978:(25): 11880–11889.
1717:2009PNAS..106.1285L
919:Journal of Diabetes
608:Alzheimer's disease
604:Parkinson's disease
371:signalling pathways
86:(GIP), GLP-1 is an
3481:Never to phase III
3352:Metformin/acarbose
2702:Dual PPAR agonists
2571:Never to phase III
2478:Ultralente insulin
616:multiple sclerosis
546:pancreatic β cells
527:functional analogs
523:
521:Functions of GLP-1
92:blood sugar levels
38:
36:GLP-1 and diabetes
3495:
3494:
3491:
3490:
3454:
3453:
3450:
3449:
3274:
3273:
3102:
3101:
3014:
3013:
2917:
2916:
2760:
2759:
2581:
2580:
2544:
2543:
2488:ultra-long-acting
2412:Insulin glulisine
2322:
2321:
2084:(10): 3434–3438.
2033:10.1172/JCI112855
1919:Mojsov S (1992).
1817:10.1002/jnr.10611
1667:10.1002/jnr.23335
1588:10.1111/jnc.12469
1443:10.1002/jnr.21483
1215:10.1111/dom.12165
647:Daniel J. Drucker
554:adenylate cyclase
544:expressed on the
531:diabetes mellitus
439:endothelial cells
413:). Specifically,
373:, which initiate
316:neurotransmitters
121:, resulting in a
16:(Redirected from
3527:
3520:Peptide hormones
3285:
3284:
3181:SGLT2 inhibitors
3111:
3110:
3020:DPP-4 inhibitors
3001:(GLP-1/GIP/GCGR)
2977:
2976:
2783:
2782:
2771:
2770:
2607:
2606:
2598:
2597:
2587:
2586:
2496:Insulin degludec
2458:Insulin glargine
2395:
2394:
2378:
2377:
2349:
2342:
2335:
2326:
2325:
2270:
2263:
2256:
2247:
2246:
2209:
2208:
2193:
2187:
2186:
2160:
2151:(8): 1945–1948.
2136:
2130:
2129:
2119:
2101:
2069:
2063:
2062:
2052:
2012:
2006:
2005:
1987:
1963:
1957:
1956:
1931:(3–4): 333–343.
1916:
1910:
1909:
1894:
1888:
1887:
1877:
1867:
1843:
1837:
1836:
1799:
1793:
1792:
1755:
1749:
1748:
1738:
1728:
1696:
1687:
1686:
1650:
1644:
1643:
1607:
1601:
1600:
1590:
1566:
1560:
1559:
1523:
1517:
1516:
1506:
1474:
1463:
1462:
1425:
1416:
1415:
1378:
1372:
1371:
1361:
1327:
1318:
1317:
1289:
1280:
1279:
1269:
1237:
1228:
1227:
1217:
1197:
1188:
1187:
1177:
1145:
1139:
1138:
1128:
1096:
1090:
1089:
1052:
1046:
1045:
1035:
1011:
1005:
1000:
994:
993:
968:(11–12): 761–5.
957:
951:
950:
914:
908:
907:
879:
873:
872:
844:
829:
828:
818:
803:Gastroenterology
794:
777:
776:
740:
633:Research history
337:gastric emptying
333:small intestines
329:gastric emptying
285:epithelial cells
131:DPP-4 inhibitors
21:
3535:
3534:
3530:
3529:
3528:
3526:
3525:
3524:
3505:
3504:
3498:
3496:
3487:
3486:
3471:Clinical trials
3446:
3270:
3244:
3175:
3147:
3098:
3010:
2975:
2913:
2884:
2778:
2756:
2729:
2696:
2641:/"glitazones" (
2633:
2592:
2577:
2576:
2561:Clinical trials
2540:
2519:
2500:+insulin aspart
2482:
2453:Insulin detemir
2439:
2435:Regular insulin
2421:
2389:
2387:insulin analogs
2372:
2365:insulin analogs
2353:
2323:
2318:
2283:
2274:
2217:
2212:
2195:
2194:
2190:
2137:
2133:
2070:
2066:
2013:
2009:
1964:
1960:
1917:
1913:
1896:
1895:
1891:
1844:
1840:
1800:
1796:
1756:
1752:
1697:
1690:
1651:
1647:
1608:
1604:
1567:
1563:
1524:
1520:
1495:10.1002/acn3.99
1475:
1466:
1426:
1419:
1379:
1375:
1328:
1321:
1290:
1283:
1238:
1231:
1198:
1191:
1146:
1142:
1111:(4): 954–1013.
1097:
1093:
1053:
1049:
1012:
1008:
1001:
997:
958:
954:
915:
911:
880:
876:
845:
832:
795:
780:
741:
734:
730:
678:Type 2 diabetes
659:
639:Svetlana Mojsov
635:
596:neuroprotective
542:GLP-1 receptors
535:type 2 diabetes
515:
507:GLP-1 receptors
496:renal clearance
403:
265:
155:
153:Gene expression
119:renal clearance
104:type 2 diabetes
49:peptide hormone
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3533:
3523:
3522:
3517:
3493:
3492:
3489:
3488:
3485:
3484:
3483:
3482:
3479:
3468:
3462:
3456:
3455:
3452:
3451:
3448:
3447:
3445:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3288:
3282:
3276:
3275:
3272:
3271:
3269:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3252:
3250:
3246:
3245:
3243:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3215:Luseogliflozin
3212:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3186:
3184:
3177:
3176:
3174:
3173:
3168:
3163:
3157:
3155:
3149:
3148:
3146:
3145:
3140:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3119:
3117:
3108:
3104:
3103:
3100:
3099:
3097:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3025:
3023:
3016:
3015:
3012:
3011:
3009:
3008:
3002:
2996:
2985:
2983:
2974:
2973:
2968:
2963:
2958:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2927:
2925:
2919:
2918:
2915:
2914:
2912:
2911:
2906:
2901:
2895:
2893:
2886:
2885:
2883:
2882:
2880:Glyclopyramide
2877:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2836:2nd generation
2832:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2809:Chlorpropamide
2806:
2801:
2795:1st generation
2791:
2789:
2780:
2776:
2768:
2762:
2761:
2758:
2757:
2755:
2754:
2749:
2743:
2741:
2731:
2730:
2728:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2706:
2704:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2648:
2646:
2635:
2634:
2632:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2615:
2613:
2604:
2594:
2593:
2583:
2582:
2579:
2578:
2575:
2574:
2573:
2572:
2569:
2558:
2552:
2546:
2545:
2542:
2541:
2539:
2538:
2535:
2531:
2529:
2521:
2520:
2518:
2517:
2510:Insulin icodec
2507:
2492:
2490:
2484:
2483:
2481:
2480:
2475:
2470:
2465:
2455:
2449:
2447:
2441:
2440:
2438:
2437:
2431:
2429:
2423:
2422:
2420:
2419:
2417:Insulin lispro
2414:
2409:
2407:Insulin aspart
2403:
2401:
2391:
2390:
2374:
2373:
2352:
2351:
2344:
2337:
2329:
2320:
2319:
2317:
2316:
2315:
2314:
2309:
2301:
2300:
2299:
2288:
2285:
2284:
2273:
2272:
2265:
2258:
2250:
2244:
2243:
2238:
2228:
2216:
2215:External links
2213:
2211:
2210:
2188:
2131:
2064:
2027:(2): 616–619.
2007:
1958:
1911:
1889:
1838:
1794:
1767:(4): 1239–48.
1750:
1711:(4): 1285–90.
1688:
1645:
1602:
1561:
1518:
1464:
1417:
1373:
1319:
1281:
1252:(5): 1621–36.
1229:
1189:
1140:
1091:
1047:
1026:(8): 3853–60.
1006:
995:
952:
925:(5): 394–402.
909:
874:
855:(4): 1409–39.
830:
809:(6): 2131–57.
778:
731:
729:
726:
725:
724:
719:
714:
680:
675:
670:
665:
658:
655:
637:In the 1980s,
634:
631:
514:
511:
501:The resulting
402:
399:
375:depolarisation
327:. The rate of
264:
261:
208:is cleaved by
154:
151:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3532:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3512:
3510:
3503:
3502:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3457:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3289:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3277:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3261:Bromocriptine
3259:
3257:
3254:
3253:
3251:
3247:
3241:
3240:Velagliflozin
3238:
3236:
3235:Tofogliflozin
3233:
3231:
3230:Sotagliflozin
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3220:Remogliflozin
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3210:Ipragliflozin
3208:
3206:
3205:Ertugliflozin
3203:
3201:
3200:Empagliflozin
3198:
3196:
3195:Dapagliflozin
3193:
3191:
3190:Canagliflozin
3188:
3187:
3185:
3183:/"gliflozins"
3182:
3178:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3154:
3150:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3120:
3118:
3116:
3112:
3109:
3105:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3084:Teneligliptin
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3017:
3006:
3003:
3000:
2997:
2994:
2990:
2987:
2986:
2984:
2982:
2978:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2928:
2926:
2924:
2920:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2887:
2881:
2878:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2868:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2848:
2846:
2843:
2841:
2837:
2834:
2833:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2799:Acetohexamide
2796:
2793:
2792:
2790:
2788:
2787:Sulfonylureas
2784:
2781:
2779:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2766:Secretagogues
2763:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2744:
2742:
2740:
2736:
2732:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2711:
2708:
2707:
2705:
2703:
2699:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2687:Rosiglitazone
2685:
2683:
2682:Rivoglitazone
2680:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2672:Netoglitazone
2670:
2668:
2667:Lobeglitazone
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2616:
2614:
2612:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2599:
2595:
2588:
2584:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2547:
2536:
2533:
2532:
2530:
2528:
2527:
2522:
2515:
2511:
2508:
2505:
2501:
2497:
2494:
2493:
2491:
2489:
2485:
2479:
2476:
2474:
2473:Lente insulin
2471:
2469:
2466:
2463:
2462:+lixisenatide
2459:
2456:
2454:
2451:
2450:
2448:
2446:
2442:
2436:
2433:
2432:
2430:
2428:
2424:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2404:
2402:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2379:
2375:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2350:
2345:
2343:
2338:
2336:
2331:
2330:
2327:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2304:
2302:
2298:
2295:
2294:
2293:
2292:Oxyntomodulin
2290:
2289:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2271:
2266:
2264:
2259:
2257:
2252:
2251:
2248:
2242:
2239:
2236:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2226:
2222:
2219:
2218:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2192:
2184:
2180:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2135:
2127:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2068:
2060:
2056:
2051:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2011:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1962:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1915:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1893:
1885:
1881:
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1842:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1811:(5): 603–12.
1810:
1806:
1798:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1754:
1746:
1742:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1695:
1693:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1661:(4): 446–54.
1660:
1656:
1649:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1606:
1598:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1581:(3): 459–71.
1580:
1576:
1572:
1565:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1522:
1514:
1510:
1505:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1489:(9): 721–32.
1488:
1484:
1480:
1473:
1471:
1469:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1437:(2): 326–38.
1436:
1432:
1424:
1422:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1377:
1369:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1344:(1–2): 8–23.
1343:
1339:
1338:
1333:
1326:
1324:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1288:
1286:
1277:
1273:
1268:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1236:
1234:
1225:
1221:
1216:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1196:
1194:
1185:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1160:(5): 965–72.
1159:
1155:
1151:
1144:
1136:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1095:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1064:(3): 848–51.
1063:
1059:
1051:
1043:
1039:
1034:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1010:
1004:
999:
991:
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
956:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
913:
905:
901:
897:
893:
890:(4): 425–32.
889:
885:
878:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
850:
843:
841:
839:
837:
835:
826:
822:
817:
812:
808:
804:
800:
793:
791:
789:
787:
785:
783:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
739:
737:
732:
723:
720:
718:
715:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
681:
679:
676:
674:
671:
669:
666:
664:
661:
660:
654:
650:
648:
644:
640:
630:
627:
625:
619:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
588:
586:
582:
578:
574:
569:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
538:
536:
532:
528:
519:
510:
508:
504:
499:
497:
494:. Similarly,
493:
489:
485:
481:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
398:
396:
392:
388:
387:intracellular
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
362:
361:dietary fibre
358:
354:
348:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
321:
317:
313:
309:
304:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
260:
258:
255:
251:
247:
243:
242:endopeptidase
238:
234:
230:
226:
225:oxyntomodulin
222:
217:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
190:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
150:
148:
144:
140:
139:sulphonylurea
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
111:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
80:
78:
75:includes two
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
34:
30:
19:
3497:
3280:Combinations
3225:Sergliflozin
3094:Vildagliptin
3089:Trelagliptin
3069:Omarigliptin
3044:Garvagliptin
2971:Taspoglutide
2961:Orforglipron
2956:Lixisenatide
2890:Meglitinides
2845:Glibornuride
2835:
2819:Metahexamide
2814:Glycyclamide
2794:
2747:Cagrilintide
2737:analogs and
2725:Tesaglitazar
2720:Saroglitazar
2715:Muraglitazar
2692:Troglitazone
2677:Pioglitazone
2657:Darglitazone
2591:Non-insulins
2524:
2514:+semaglutide
2504:+liraglutide
2487:
2444:
2427:short-acting
2426:
2398:
2306:
2223:
2191:
2148:
2144:
2134:
2081:
2077:
2067:
2024:
2020:
2010:
1975:
1971:
1961:
1928:
1924:
1914:
1892:
1855:
1851:
1841:
1808:
1804:
1797:
1764:
1761:Neuroscience
1760:
1753:
1708:
1704:
1658:
1654:
1648:
1618:(3): 881–8.
1615:
1611:
1605:
1578:
1574:
1564:
1531:
1528:Neuroscience
1527:
1521:
1486:
1482:
1434:
1430:
1390:(1): 38–42.
1387:
1383:
1376:
1341:
1335:
1297:
1293:
1249:
1245:
1205:
1157:
1154:Diabetologia
1153:
1143:
1108:
1104:
1094:
1061:
1057:
1050:
1023:
1019:
1009:
998:
965:
961:
955:
922:
918:
912:
887:
883:
877:
852:
848:
806:
802:
748:
744:
703:lixisenatide
651:
636:
628:
620:
592:neurogenesis
589:
585:somatostatin
581:hypoglycemia
570:
539:
524:
500:
459:
419:peptide bond
417:cleaves the
404:
365:
349:
347:activation.
345:postprandial
305:
266:
218:
191:
179:hypothalamus
156:
147:hypoglycemia
112:
81:
44:
40:
39:
29:
3467:from market
3079:Sitagliptin
3074:Saxagliptin
3064:Melogliptin
3059:Linagliptin
3054:Gosogliptin
3049:Gemigliptin
3022:/"gliptins"
3007:(GLP-1/GIP)
3005:Tirzepatide
2999:Retatrutide
2966:Semaglutide
2951:Liraglutide
2941:Dulaglutide
2936:Danuglipron
2931:Albiglutide
2909:Repaglinide
2904:Nateglinide
2899:Mitiglinide
2892:/"glinides"
2875:Glisoxepide
2860:Glimepiride
2850:Glicaramide
2829:Tolbutamide
2804:Carbutamide
2752:Pramlintide
2710:Aleglitazar
2662:Englitazone
2652:Ciglitazone
2557:from market
2468:NPH insulin
2445:long-acting
2399:fast-acting
2281:proglucagon
1300:: S65–S72.
711:semaglutide
707:tirzepatide
699:liraglutide
691:dulaglutide
687:albiglutide
480:amino acids
477:hydrophobic
447:hepatocytes
401:Degradation
383:Fatty acids
353:fatty acids
221:proglucagon
206:proglucagon
187:proglucagon
143:weight loss
53:proglucagon
3509:Categories
3256:Benfluorex
3143:Zenarestat
3133:Ranirestat
3128:Fidarestat
3123:Epalrestat
3039:Evogliptin
3034:Anagliptin
3029:Alogliptin
2870:Gliquidone
2855:Gliclazide
2824:Tolazamide
2629:Phenformin
2611:Biguanides
1534:: 388–96.
1429:disease".
728:References
610:, stroke,
600:cell death
469:N-terminal
395:amino acid
254:C-terminal
237:N-terminal
82:Alongside
3477:Phase III
3465:Withdrawn
3266:Imeglimin
3171:Voglibose
3138:Tolrestat
2989:Mazdutide
2946:Exenatide
2865:Glipizide
2624:Metformin
2567:Phase III
2555:Withdrawn
2526:inhalable
2183:233131461
2167:0092-8674
2108:0027-8424
2041:0021-9738
1994:0021-9258
1945:0367-8377
1683:206129862
751:: 75–86.
695:exenatide
577:apoptosis
550:G-protein
503:half-life
445:found on
379:cytosolic
341:secretion
325:nutrients
303:factors.
301:endocrine
263:Secretion
250:amidation
175:brainstem
123:half-life
96:secretion
77:α-helices
65:amidation
3166:Miglitol
3161:Acarbose
2619:Buformin
2383:Insulins
2361:insulins
2297:Glucagon
2277:Glucagon
2175:33831374
1884:27917122
1833:83852654
1825:12749025
1789:44318394
1781:20727946
1745:19164583
1675:24464856
1640:43716740
1632:12183643
1597:24112036
1556:36908739
1548:23000625
1513:25493285
1459:40330443
1451:17803225
1412:33327108
1404:20854877
1368:24843404
1314:18640588
1276:22892942
1224:24003936
1184:23377698
1135:27630114
1078:15090972
1042:11502823
990:24730915
982:15655705
947:13300428
939:24725840
904:19748060
869:17928588
825:17498508
773:22641629
765:23523778
745:Peptides
685: :
663:Glucagon
657:See also
471:side of
421:between
308:biphasic
293:nutrient
281:duodenum
257:arginine
214:glucagon
194:pancreas
173:(caudal
159:pancreas
88:incretin
2991:(GLP-1/
2537:Afrezza
2534:Exubera
2126:3033647
2086:Bibcode
2059:3543057
2002:3528148
1953:1478791
1875:5114298
1858:: 433.
1736:2633544
1713:Bibcode
1504:4241798
1359:4020673
1267:3776106
1175:3687347
1126:5050443
1086:2382791
488:kidneys
465:kidneys
391:cytosol
320:jejunum
277:jejunum
252:of the
246:glycine
200:of the
198:α-cells
192:In the
165:of the
163:α-cells
135:insulin
100:insulin
3460:WHO-EM
2739:DACRAs
2735:Amylin
2550:WHO-EM
2237:(MeSH)
2181:
2173:
2165:
2124:
2117:304885
2114:
2106:
2057:
2050:424143
2047:
2039:
2000:
1992:
1951:
1943:
1882:
1872:
1831:
1823:
1787:
1779:
1743:
1733:
1681:
1673:
1638:
1630:
1595:
1554:
1546:
1511:
1501:
1457:
1449:
1410:
1402:
1366:
1356:
1312:
1274:
1264:
1222:
1182:
1172:
1133:
1123:
1084:
1076:
1040:
988:
980:
945:
937:
902:
867:
823:
771:
763:
624:nausea
614:, and
367:Sugars
297:neural
3249:Other
3107:Other
2355:Oral
2179:S2CID
1829:S2CID
1785:S2CID
1679:S2CID
1636:S2CID
1552:S2CID
1455:S2CID
1408:S2CID
1082:S2CID
986:S2CID
943:S2CID
769:S2CID
566:Epac2
560:from
492:DPP-4
484:DPP-4
455:DPP-4
451:liver
443:DPP-4
435:DPP-4
431:DPP-4
415:DPP-4
411:DPP-4
343:upon
312:ileum
289:lumen
273:ileum
233:GLP-2
171:brain
45:GLP-1
2993:GCGR
2643:PPAR
2639:TZDs
2363:and
2312:GLP2
2307:GLP1
2279:and
2225:glp1
2171:PMID
2163:ISSN
2145:Cell
2122:PMID
2104:ISSN
2055:PMID
2037:ISSN
1998:PMID
1990:ISSN
1949:PMID
1941:ISSN
1880:PMID
1821:PMID
1777:PMID
1741:PMID
1671:PMID
1628:PMID
1593:PMID
1544:PMID
1509:PMID
1447:PMID
1400:PMID
1364:PMID
1310:PMID
1272:PMID
1220:PMID
1180:PMID
1131:PMID
1074:PMID
1038:PMID
978:PMID
935:PMID
900:PMID
865:PMID
821:PMID
761:PMID
709:and
594:and
573:mRNA
558:cAMP
359:and
299:and
279:and
183:mRNA
177:and
137:and
129:and
67:and
2777:ATP
2369:A10
2201:doi
2153:doi
2149:184
2112:PMC
2094:doi
2045:PMC
2029:doi
1980:doi
1976:261
1933:doi
1902:doi
1870:PMC
1860:doi
1813:doi
1769:doi
1765:170
1731:PMC
1721:doi
1709:106
1663:doi
1620:doi
1616:302
1583:doi
1579:128
1536:doi
1532:226
1499:PMC
1491:doi
1439:doi
1392:doi
1388:486
1354:PMC
1346:doi
1302:doi
1262:PMC
1254:doi
1246:Age
1210:doi
1170:PMC
1162:doi
1121:PMC
1113:doi
1066:doi
1028:doi
970:doi
927:doi
892:doi
857:doi
811:doi
807:132
753:doi
562:ATP
475:or
427:Glu
423:Ala
204:),
98:of
3511::
3473::
2838::
2797::
2563::
2502:,
2359:,
2177:.
2169:.
2161:.
2147:.
2143:.
2120:.
2110:.
2102:.
2092:.
2082:84
2080:.
2076:.
2053:.
2043:.
2035:.
2025:79
2023:.
2019:.
1996:.
1988:.
1974:.
1970:.
1947:.
1939:.
1929:40
1927:.
1923:.
1878:.
1868:.
1854:.
1850:.
1827:.
1819:.
1809:72
1807:.
1783:.
1775:.
1763:.
1739:.
1729:.
1719:.
1707:.
1703:.
1691:^
1677:.
1669:.
1659:92
1657:.
1634:.
1626:.
1614:.
1591:.
1577:.
1573:.
1550:.
1542:.
1530:.
1507:.
1497:.
1485:.
1481:.
1467:^
1453:.
1445:.
1435:86
1433:.
1420:^
1406:.
1398:.
1386:.
1362:.
1352:.
1340:.
1334:.
1322:^
1308:.
1298:34
1296:.
1284:^
1270:.
1260:.
1250:35
1248:.
1244:.
1232:^
1218:.
1204:.
1192:^
1178:.
1168:.
1158:56
1156:.
1152:.
1129:.
1119:.
1109:68
1107:.
1103:.
1080:.
1072:.
1062:32
1060:.
1036:.
1024:86
1022:.
1018:.
984:.
976:.
966:36
964:.
941:.
933:.
921:.
898:.
888:23
886:.
863:.
853:87
851:.
833:^
819:.
805:.
801:.
781:^
767:.
759:.
749:44
747:.
735:^
705:,
701:,
697:,
693:,
689:,
626:.
606:,
509:.
355:,
295:,
106:.
2995:)
2775:K
2645:)
2516:)
2512:(
2506:)
2498:(
2464:)
2460:(
2385:/
2371:)
2348:e
2341:t
2334:v
2269:e
2262:t
2255:v
2207:.
2203::
2185:.
2155::
2128:.
2096::
2088::
2061:.
2031::
2004:.
1982::
1955:.
1935::
1908:.
1904::
1886:.
1862::
1856:7
1835:.
1815::
1791:.
1771::
1747:.
1723::
1715::
1685:.
1665::
1642:.
1622::
1599:.
1585::
1558:.
1538::
1515:.
1493::
1487:1
1461:.
1441::
1414:.
1394::
1370:.
1348::
1342:1
1316:.
1304::
1278:.
1256::
1226:.
1212::
1186:.
1164::
1137:.
1115::
1088:.
1068::
1044:.
1030::
992:.
972::
949:.
929::
923:6
906:.
894::
871:.
859::
827:.
813::
775:.
755::
425:-
409:(
231:(
196:(
161:(
43:(
20:)
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