747:
452:
1710:
33:
566:
594:. In unison, railroads began to establish living facilities for the strikebreakers inside their railway shops and in railroad cars and railroad guards were hired to protect property and defend strikebreakers. Commissaries and kitchens were established to provide for newly-hired workers, and newspaper advertising was published by a number of railway companies in an attempt to win public support for their strikebreaking efforts.
658:
845:
824:
shut down some railroads completely, but the strike eventually died out, as many shopmen made deals with the railroads on the local level. The often-unpalatable concessions, coupled with memories of the violence and tension during the strike, soured relations between the railroads and the shopmen for
648:
rights. Seniority was important to railroad shop workers in the process of promotion to skilled status as positions became available and in the avoidance of layoffs during slack times, with employees with the least seniority laid off first. The strategy of stripping strikers of their seniority spread
637:, pushed through a so-called "outlaw resolution" that declared that all strikers had forfeited their arbitration rights guaranteed under the Transportation Act of 1920. Railroads were encouraged by the Railway Labor Board to hire replacement workers, who were to be regarded as permanent by the board.
528:
In 1922 the
Railroad Labor Board approved yet another cut in wages, this time a cut of 7 cents an hour targeted at railway repair and maintenance workers, representing a loss of an average of 12% for these workers. The overall economy had subsequently improved from its condition in the previous year,
729:
Some strikers did not hesitate to sabotage trains and tracks when the opportunity arose. In one case a train was switched onto side tracks and the cars set upon by a mob, with rocks and metal parts thrown through glass windows. Sections of track were occasionally disrupted with explosives. Vigilante
722:" by a non-striking railroad engineer and shot him dead. In Buffalo, a woman and two boys were shot by railroad detectives; the boys suffered mortal injuries according to contemporary newspaper accounts. In addition, at least one company guard was shot and killed following the stopping of a train at
552:
Strike ballots were sent out to the members of all railway unions over the 1922 wage cuts, but when the votes were counted the members of the "Big Four" brotherhoods broke ranks over the question of a work stoppage. Seven unions representing the railroad shopmen and maintenance of way workers voted
507:
across the
American economy. Price levels began to turn in the other direction in the first years of the 1920s as increased wartime demands upon production were regularized and labor supply was expanded with the reintegration of millions of former soldiers into the employment market. In response to
758:
The
Railroad Labor Board attempted to mediate an end to the dispute, bringing together union and railroad representatives on July 14 in a joint conference. While the railroad officials pledged to end the subcontracting of work to non-union shops, no retreat was to be made on the issue of restoring
754:
The opportunity for a mediated solution to the strike was brief. On July 11, 1922, President
Harding issued a proclamation that attempted to split the difference between the two sides in the conflict, recognizing the merit of the workers' grievances and promising not to destroy organized labor but
808:
Harding proposed a settlement on July 28 that would have granted little to the labor unions, but the railroad companies still rejected the compromise, despite interest from the desperate workers. Daugherty, who opposed the unions, pushed for national action against the strike, and on
September 1,
515:
movement, which was fostered by large employers throughout the
American economy, with an increasing percentage of shop work contracted out by the railway companies to non-union subcontractors. During the war, the various railway shop crafts (machinists, boilermakers, blacksmiths, electricians,
686:
and repair shops. Private guards and law enforcement authorities were quick to remove strikers from private property, however, and with the strikebreakers frequently domiciled on the job site, new and more-violent tactics were used, including the issuance of physical threats, the vandalism of
673:
Women came to the aid of striking men by both provisioning those who walked picket lines and walking the lines themselves. Women were also instrumental in some places in pressuring strikers to appear on the picket line and in dissuading strikebreakers from continuing to cross strike lines. In
605:
workers membership in their ranks on strictly racial grounds; the excluded workers had no economic or moral incentive to honor the work stoppage. Thousands of black railway workers crossed picket lines and helped to undermine strike efforts, but that was not universal; in places like
817:, and a variety of other union activities; it was colloquially known as the "Daugherty Injunction": "One of the most extreme pronouncements in American history violating any number of constitutional guarantees of free speech and free assembly. (But) it effectively broke the strike".
770:
was called out, on a state-by-state basis, by various state governors. Troops bolstered armed company guards in their work protecting railroad property and aiding in the defense and transportation of strikebreakers, thereby working to undermine the strike effort.
780:, an outspoken opponent of the labor movement, was instrumental in escalating the federal government's role in bringing about the defeat of the striking railway workers. Daugherty sensationally charged strikers with conducting "a conspiracy worthy of
788:" and sent US Marshals into the field to aid the railroads in their efforts to defend their property and defeat the strike. Deputy US Marshals were appointed freely, sometimes from pools of "thugs" that had been gathered by the railways themselves.
805:, who sought a negotiated end to the strike. Harding was won over to that approach and professed the belief that the role of the federal government in the dispute should be one of an "honest broker" rather than as a violent authority figure.
532:
The targeted 1922 cut did not affect the members of the "Big Four" railway brotherhoods, however, and these unions were not affected as were the shop workers. Promises were made by the
Railroad Labor Board to the so-called "Big Four" (the
738:, with kidnappings and floggings of strikebreakers common. Union leaders condemned the spontaneous violence of strikers and the sometimes-brutal response of company guards and police officials but with little practical effect.
569:
Office for the recruiting of strikebreakers in the 1922 Shopmen's Strike. Strikebreakers were frequently housed and fed on-site to avoid having to cross picket lines, leading to promises of "Free Board â Room" in the painted
681:
Attempts by state and federal authorities to impose order proved to be an accelerant to the physical nature of the conflict. In the initial phase of the conflict, strikers attempted to set up pickets to close down railroad
516:
sheet-metal workers, and laborers) had fully obtained the right to unionize, and they sought to maintain this economic clout. Deep tension developed between employers and railway workers across the country. Attempts by the
669:
and the extension of free goods and discounts to strikers. Picnics were held in support of strikers and in some places, railway guards were disarmed by local sheriffs who were seeking to avert the chance of violence.
825:
quite some time. The outcome of the strike was a major blow to the
Harding administration who were criticzed for their inability to resolve the situation and would be a major factor to the Republicans losing the
759:
seniority to striking workers, and the impasse remained unsettled. Following the failure of this conference, the
Railroad Labor Board declared that its efforts to resolve the stoppage had reached an end.
553:
to go on strike, however, and the date July 1, 1922, was set for the launch of a coordinated work stoppage. On that day some 400,000 railway workers walked off the job, including nearly 100,000 in the
755:
also recognizing the decision of the
Railroad Labor Board that strikebreakers were to be regarded as permanent employees, with "the same indisputable right to work as others have to decline work."
665:
Bitter labor discord followed. In some towns, local merchants and authorities gave moral and actual help to the strikers, including refusal to sell groceries to strikebreakers and other commercial
432:
At least ten strikers or family members were killed during the work stoppage. The collective action of some 400,000 workers in the summer of 1922 was the largest railroad strike since the
549:) that no additional wage cuts would be forthcoming. Several others of the 16 American railway unions in existence at the time similarly escaped the latest round of wage reductions.
366:
750:
Attorney General Harry M. Daugherty sought an aggressive approach to end the 1922 Railroad Strike and made use of legal injunctions and US Marshals on the railway companies' behalf.
1750:
508:
the changing economic conditions, railway companies obtained approval from the Railroad Labor Board in 1921 for deep reductions in wage rates for workers across the industry.
621:
The railroads took advantage of the strike to undermine the bargaining position of the workers in their maintenance facilities. On July 3, head of the Railroad Labor Board
661:
One of the tens of thousands of private guards hired by railroad companies to protect company assets and guard strikebreakers during the 1922 Railway Shopmen's Strike.
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who actually operated the trains unaffected by the strike, the railroad companies immediately began to replace the skilled and semi-skilled maintenance workers with
262:
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rapidly across the country and the issue of retaining seniority, and its associated benefits thereafter became one of the paramount issues of the strike.
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of the Railroad Labor Board, which approved the wage cut for train maintenance workers that prompted the 1922 Railroad Shopmen's Strike.
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678:, Pennsylvania, for example, a crowd of 50 women and children pelted strikebreakers with sour milk, rotten eggs, and spoiled produce.
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This interval of labor peace proved short-lived, however, following the return of control of the rail system to private hands by the
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500:. This body was given the power to oversee the wages and working conditions of more than 2 million American railway workers.
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470:, the American railroad system, the primary mode of freight and passenger transportation in the era, was nationalized by an
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For their part, armed company guards fired upon striking workers with a number of deaths resulting, including incidents in
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strikebreakers' homes, the destruction of railroad property, and instances of physical violence against strikebreakers.
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496:. A new bureaucratic entity for coordination of the industry was created at this time, a 9-member panel known as the
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Railroad Workers' Section, Trade Union Educational League (August 1922). "Railroad Workers Stand Together".
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329:
942:
History of the Labor Movement in the United States: Volume 9: The TUEL to the End of the Gompers Era
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1244:
Wolf, H.D. (January 1927). "Criticisms of the Railroad Labor Board and an Evaluation of Its Work".
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426:
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644:, a number of railroads attempted to bring pressure to end the strike by stripping strikers of
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however, and railway workers were particularly aggrieved by the new round of wage reductions.
425:, the strike continued into August before collapsing. A sweeping judicial injunction by Judge
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Railway shopmen walked off the job on July 1, 1922 launching a nationwide railway strike.
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Davis, Colin J. (Fall 1992). "Bitter Conflict: The 1922 Railroad Shopmen's Strike".
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was not used to defend railroad company interests in the 1922 Shopmen's Strike, the
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in December 1921 to arrive at an amicable remedy to the conflict were unsuccessful.
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Presidential Proclamation 1419, December 26, 1917, under authority of the
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Opposing Daugherty in the inner circle of the Harding administration were
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Bloomington and Normal Trades and Labor Assembly, www.bntrades.org/
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There was widespread opposition to the injunction, and a number of
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Railway workers were divided not only by craft, however, but also
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666:
554:
1312:"Nationâs 1922 Railroad Strike Became Matter of Life and Death,"
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of 1894 and the biggest American strike of any kind since the
1003:
History of the Labor Movement in the United States: Volume 9,
706:, (a worker's teenaged son, July 8; the worker was wounded),
1060:
History of the Labor Movement in the United States: Volume 9
813:
issued a sweeping injunction against striking, assembling,
695:
1228:
Power at Odds: The 1922 National Railroad Shopmen's Strike
421:. Launched on July 1, 1922 by seven of the sixteen extant
1143:
1141:
1751:
Rail transportation labor disputes in the United States
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1168:
511:
Additionally, the railway industry was affected by the
1138:
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1101:
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618:, black workers actively supported the work stoppage.
1574:
List of federal judges appointed by Warren G. Harding
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1084:
1082:
1080:
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718:, a company guard took exception to being called a "
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429:effectively ended the strike on September 1, 1922.
1274:
1077:
1065:
1027:
944:. New York: International Publishers. p. 174.
633:and political appointee of conservative President
16:1922 nationwide railroad workers' strike in the US
1727:
1281:. Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky Press.
1220:The Encyclopedia of Strikes in American History
829:along with Harding's controversial veto of the
539:Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen
884:History of rail transport in the United States
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601:. Several of the railway brotherhoods denied
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37:Workers leave their railroad duties to strike
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503:The war years had been a period of dramatic
1189:Merging Lines: American Railroads 1900â1970
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1632:Historical reputation of Warren G. Harding
1579:Warren G. Harding Supreme Court candidates
1421:1914 United States Senate election in Ohio
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79:A cut in wages paid to maintenance workers
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894:Timeline of United States railway history
1617:Cultural depictions of Warren G. Harding
1426:1920 United States presidential election
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1477:Agricultural Appropriations Act of 1922
1239:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
1230:. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
730:violence was particularly acute in the
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1622:List of memorials to Warren G. Harding
1416:Electoral history of Warren G. Harding
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1191:(Revised ed.). DeKalb, Illinois:
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1627:Warren G. Harding Presidential Center
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1438:1920 Republican National Convention
535:Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers
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1756:1920s strikes in the United States
1193:Northern Illinois University Press
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1462:Inauguration of Warren G. Harding
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466:During American participation in
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1381:28th Lieutenant Governor of Ohio
1277:Republicans and Labor, 1919â1929
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547:Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen
1736:1922 labor disputes and strikes
1524:Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921
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889:List of American railway unions
869:1922 New England textile strike
367:Patco (air traffic controllers)
1373:President of the United States
1246:University Journal of Business
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489:across the railroad industry.
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1544:Great Railroad Strike of 1922
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874:Great Railroad Strike of 1877
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407:Great Railroad Strike of 1922
26:Great Railroad Strike of 1922
864:1922 UMW General coal strike
458:, R.M. Barton, and Chairman
423:railroad labor organizations
7:
1467:Washington Naval Conference
1218:Brenner, Aaron, ed. (2009)
1187:Saunders, Richard (2001) .
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726:, Wisconsin, on August 12.
714:, California (July 12). In
543:Order of Railway Conductors
417:of railroad workers in the
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859:List of US strikes by size
716:Wilmington, North Carolina
494:Transportation Act of 1920
441:Great Steel Strike of 1919
1741:1922 in the United States
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1492:General Accounting Office
1482:Budget and Accounting Act
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986:10.1080/00236569200890221
940:Foner, Philip S. (1991).
557:metropolitan area alone.
518:National Civic Federation
413:Strike, was a nationwide
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1611:The President's Daughter
1519:Emergency Tariff of 1921
1237:The Railroad Labor Board
1226:Davis, Colin J. (1997).
561:Company counteroffensive
434:American Railway Union's
269:Illinois Central shopmen
112:United States Government
1589:Voyage of Understanding
1564:Veterans Administration
1534:FordneyâMcCumber Tariff
1509:Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill
1472:Depression of 1920â1921
1321:"1922 Railroad Strike,"
1315:Cumberland Times-News,
1273:Zieger, Robert (1969).
1235:Wolf, Harry D. (1927).
879:Railroad strike of 1946
851:Organized labour portal
811:James Herbert Wilkerson
708:Port Morris, New Jersey
427:James Herbert Wilkerson
1746:1922 in rail transport
1654:Elizabeth Ann Blaesing
1549:KnoxâPorter Resolution
1297:Railway Age: Volume 73
913:Army Appropriation Act
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698:(July 8 and July 16),
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324:NYC teamsters truckers
238:New Orleans waterfront
46:July 1, 1922
1666:Carolyn Harding Votaw
1300:, JulyâDecember 1922.
793:Secretary of Commerce
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742:Termination of strike
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653:Conflict and violence
642:Eastern United States
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391:Montreal longshoremen
318:Minneapolis teamsters
312:West Coast waterfront
275:West Coast waterfront
208:Great Railroad Strike
54:â September 1922
1660:George Tryon Harding
1584:Harding Railroad Car
1487:Bureau of the Budget
1431:Front porch campaign
498:Railroad Labor Board
330:Vancouver waterfront
1594:Teapot Dome scandal
1559:SheppardâTowner Act
1554:Revenue Act of 1921
1514:Emergency Quota Act
1504:CapperâVolstead Act
775:US Attorney General
373:SEPTA Regional Rail
336:Gulf Coast maritime
293:Portland waterfront
1529:Future Trading Act
923:, August 29, 1916.
800:Secretary of Labor
778:Harry M. Daugherty
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710:(July 12), and in
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287:Seattle waterfront
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1700:Calvin Coolidge â
1569:Willis Graham Act
1539:Grain Futures Act
1358:Warren G. Harding
1202:978-0-87580-265-7
1150:, pp. 89â90.
768:US National Guard
704:Clinton, Illinois
700:Buffalo, New York
635:Warren G. Harding
411:Railway Shopmen's
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263:New Orleans Levee
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28:
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15:
9:
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1322:
1319:
1317:June 4, 2011.
1316:
1313:
1309:
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1299:
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1288:9780813111803
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1162:, p. 92.
1161:
1156:
1149:
1144:
1142:
1135:, p. 89.
1134:
1129:
1127:
1120:, p. 87.
1119:
1114:
1108:, p. 86.
1107:
1102:
1100:
1093:, p. 84.
1092:
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1081:
1074:, p. 74.
1073:
1068:
1061:
1055:
1053:
1051:
1049:
1047:
1045:
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1036:, p. 75.
1035:
1030:
1022:
1018:
1011:
1004:
998:
996:
987:
983:
979:
975:
974:Labor History
968:
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930:
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870:
867:
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857:
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852:
846:
841:
834:
832:
828:
827:1922 midterms
823:
818:
816:
812:
806:
804:
801:
797:
794:
789:
787:
783:
779:
776:
772:
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739:
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733:
727:
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713:
709:
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688:
685:
679:
677:
671:
668:
659:
650:
647:
643:
638:
636:
632:
628:
624:
623:Ben W. Hooper
619:
617:
613:
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604:
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585:
581:
577:
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558:
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514:
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501:
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495:
490:
488:
484:
480:
477:
473:
469:
461:
460:Ben W. Hooper
457:
456:G.W.W. Hanger
453:
444:
442:
438:
435:
430:
428:
424:
420:
419:United States
416:
412:
408:
392:
389:
386:
383:
380:
377:
374:
371:
368:
365:
364:
360:
359:
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138:
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126:
121:
107:
100:
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95:
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
68:
64:
45:
41:
34:
29:
24:
19:
1707:
1698:
1691:
1609:
1603:Public image
1543:
1408:
1404:Harding Tomb
1399:Harding Home
1314:
1296:
1276:
1249:
1245:
1236:
1227:
1219:
1188:
1182:
1155:
1113:
1067:
1059:
1029:
1020:
1017:Labor Herald
1016:
1010:
1002:
977:
973:
941:
907:
819:
807:
790:
773:
761:
757:
753:
728:
689:
680:
672:
664:
639:
629:governor of
620:
596:
573:
551:
531:
527:
510:
502:
491:
465:
431:
406:
404:
354:Longshoremen
298:
18:
1672:Nan Britton
1383:(1904â1906)
1375:(1921â1923)
1252:(1): 1â34.
1023:(6): 17â19.
684:roundhouses
625:, a former
468:World War I
361:1980sâ2000s
342:NYC tugboat
306:1930sâ1970s
251:1900sâ1920s
1730:Categories
1678:Laddie Boy
1674:(mistress)
1656:(daughter)
1448:Presidency
1175:Davis 1997
1160:Davis 1997
1148:Davis 1997
1133:Davis 1997
1118:Davis 1997
1106:Davis 1997
1091:Davis 1997
1072:Davis 1997
1034:Davis 1997
915:, 39
900:References
831:Bonus Bill
762:While the
702:(July 8),
627:Republican
576:conductors
545:, and the
487:8-hour day
447:Background
226:Burlington
147:Casualties
70:Nationwide
50:1922-07-01
1680:(pet dog)
1499:Cable Act
1062:, p. 176.
815:picketing
736:Southwest
692:Cleveland
646:seniority
631:Tennessee
612:Louisiana
580:engineers
574:With the
513:open shop
505:inflation
476:President
409:, or the
214:Camp Dump
76:Caused by
1714:Category
1668:(sister)
1662:(father)
1453:timeline
1005:pg. 175.
837:See also
786:Zinoviev
724:Superior
667:boycotts
588:brakemen
152:Death(s)
66:Location
1266:2354731
1213:Sources
1058:Foner,
1001:Foner,
764:US Army
712:Needles
640:In the
599:by race
584:firemen
570:window.
555:Chicago
134:400,000
92:Parties
84:Methods
58:1922-09
56: (
48: (
1650:(wife)
1641:Family
1285:
1264:
1199:
919:
809:Judge
676:Easton
614:, and
586:, and
541:, the
415:strike
379:Pan Am
123:Number
1262:JSTOR
1222:p 524
917:Stat.
782:Lenin
732:South
202:1800s
1392:Life
1370:29th
1283:ISBN
1197:ISBN
798:and
784:and
734:and
720:scab
696:Ohio
405:The
393:2020
387:1997
381:1985
375:1983
369:1981
356:1971
350:1970
348:USPS
344:1946
338:1936
332:1935
326:1938
320:1934
314:1934
301:1922
295:1922
289:1919
283:1919
277:1916
271:1911
265:1907
259:1905
246:1894
240:1892
234:1892
228:1888
222:1886
216:1882
210:1877
43:Date
1254:doi
982:doi
474:by
385:UPS
1732::
1260:.
1248:.
1195:.
1167:^
1140:^
1125:^
1098:^
1079:^
1041:^
1019:.
994:^
978:33
976:.
950:^
928:^
921:45
833:.
694:,
610:,
582:,
578:,
537:,
443:.
155:10
1455:)
1451:(
1350:e
1343:t
1336:v
1291:.
1268:.
1256::
1250:5
1205:.
1021:1
988:.
984::
184:e
177:t
170:v
60:)
52:)
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