559:
173:
253:
108:
2426:
20:
519:
442:(meaning the orbital plane is not tilted relative to the Earth's equator). The "ground track" in this case consists of a single point on the Earth's equator, above which the satellite sits at all times. Note that the satellite is still orbiting the Earth — its apparent lack of motion is due to the fact that the Earth is rotating about its own
1256:
498:, which may not always be feasible given other launch constraints. At the extremes, a launch site located on the equator can launch directly into any desired inclination, while a hypothetical launch site at the north or south pole would only be able to launch into polar orbits. (While it is possible to perform an
505:
In addition to providing for a wider range of initial orbit inclinations, low-latitude launch sites offer the benefit of requiring less energy to make orbit (at least for prograde orbits, which comprise the vast majority of launches), due to the initial velocity provided by the Earth's rotation. The
348:
than one day will tend to move from east to west along its ground track, in what is called "apparent retrograde" motion. This effect occurs because the satellite orbits more slowly than the speed at which the Earth rotates beneath it. Any satellite in a true retrograde orbit will always move from
566:
As orbital operations are often required to monitor a specific location on Earth, orbits that cover the same ground track periodically are often used. On earth, these orbits are commonly referred to as Earth-repeat orbits, and are often designed with "frozen orbit" parameters to achieve a repeat
85:
A satellite ground track may be thought of as a path along the Earth's surface that traces the movement of an imaginary line between the satellite and the center of the Earth. In other words, the ground track is the set of points at which the satellite will pass directly overhead, or cross the
356:
orbit moves faster near perigee and slower near apogee, it is possible for a satellite to track eastward during part of its orbit and westward during another part. This phenomenon allows for ground tracks that cross over themselves in a single orbit, as in the geosynchronous and
Molniya orbits
550:= 0.72). This causes the satellite to "hover" over a region of the northern hemisphere for a long time, while spending very little time over the southern hemisphere. This phenomenon is known as "apogee dwell", and is desirable for communications for high latitude regions.
1025:
571:
effect to shift the orbit so the ground track coincides with that of a previous orbit, so that this essentially balances out the offset in the revolution of the orbited body. The longitudinal rotation after a certain period of time of a planet is given by:
489:
sites at lower latitudes are often preferred partly for the flexibility they allow in orbital inclination; the initial inclination of an orbit is constrained to be greater than or equal to the launch latitude. Vehicles launched from
833:
397:(in other words, as its average orbital speed slows towards the rotational speed of the Earth), its sinusoidal ground track will become compressed longitudinally, meaning that the "nodes" (the points at which it crosses the
474:
is the orbital inclination. In other words, the greater the inclination of a satellite's orbit, the further north and south its ground track will pass. A satellite with an inclination of exactly 90° is said to be in a
389:
of the orbit. If the period of the satellite is slightly longer than an integer fraction of a day, the ground track will shift west over time; if it is slightly shorter, the ground track will shift east.
1019:(sidereal) days. Hence, equating the elapsed time to the orbital period of the satellite and combining the above two equations yields an equation which holds for any orbit that is a repeat orbit:
632:
416:. Its ground track will have a "figure eight" shape over a fixed location on the Earth, crossing the equator twice each day. It will track eastward when it is on the part of its orbit closest to
366:
331:, meaning that it orbits in the same direction as the planet's rotation. A satellite with an orbital inclination between 90° and 180° (or, equivalently, between 0° and −90°) is said to be in a
1251:{\displaystyle j\left|\Delta L_{1}+\Delta L_{2}\right|=j\left|-2\pi {\frac {2\pi {\sqrt {\frac {a^{3}}{\mu }}}}{T_{E}}}-{\frac {3\pi J_{2}R_{e}^{2}cos(i)}{a^{2}(1-e^{2})^{2}}}\right|=k2\pi }
530:
is zero, meaning that perigee and apogee lie in the equatorial plane, then the ground track of the satellite will appear the same above and below the equator (i.e., it will exhibit 180°
502:
maneuver once on orbit, such maneuvers are typically among the most costly, in terms of fuel, of all orbital maneuvers, and are typically avoided or minimized to the extent possible.)
494:, for instance, will have an initial orbital inclination of at least 28°27′, the latitude of the launch site—and to achieve this minimum requires launching with a due east
381:
fraction of a day (e.g., 24 hours, 12 hours, 8 hours, etc.) will follow roughly the same ground track every day. This ground track is shifted east or west depending on the
344:
less than one day will tend to move from west to east along its ground track. This is called "apparent direct" motion. A satellite in a direct orbit with an orbital period
898:
866:
687:
1282:
1330:
1308:
1017:
997:
970:
945:
920:
658:
506:
desire for equatorial launch sites, coupled with geopolitical and logistical realities, has fostered the development of floating launch platforms, most notably
405:
than the Earth's rotational period, an increase in the orbital period corresponds to a longitudinal stretching out of the (apparent retrograde) ground track.
706:
211:, this being the shortest distance between two points on the Earth's surface. In order to follow a specified ground track, a pilot must adjust their
1420:
Direct orbits are by far the most common for artificial satellites, as the initial velocity imparted by the Earth's rotation at launch reduces the
1615:
562:
Plot of repeat ground track solutions at different mean altitudes from 300km to 1000km, for a circular orbit at inclination 97.44 degrees.
538:.) If the argument of perigee is non-zero, however, the satellite will behave differently in the northern and southern hemispheres. The
1474:
2303:
1483:
2363:
578:
1529:
Low, Samuel Y. W. (January 2022). "Designing a
Reference Trajectory for Frozen Repeat Near-Equatorial Low Earth Orbits".
401:) will become closer together until at geosynchronous orbit they lie directly on top of each other. For orbital periods
1580:
1513:
300:
155:
542:, with an argument of perigee near −90°, is an example of such a case. In a Molniya orbit, apogee occurs at a high
282:
137:
2358:
2238:
1657:
1285:
2323:
2077:
382:
2396:
2035:
2026:
1763:
948:
278:
133:
274:
129:
1625:
31:. The light and dark regions represent the regions of the Earth in daylight and in the night, respectively.
2343:
1813:
2288:
1593:
439:
24:
458:
is the angle formed between the plane of an orbit and the equatorial plane of the Earth. The geographic
2268:
2095:
499:
2406:
1382:, the moving line that separates the illuminated day side and the dark night side of a planetary body
235:
The ground track of a satellite can take a number of different forms, depending on the values of the
2391:
1916:
1362:
386:
263:
184:
118:
2465:
2401:
1709:
1351:
267:
122:
2450:
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1865:
1785:
1773:
1570:
2386:
2328:
2298:
2086:
1963:
1931:
1901:
1860:
1845:
1724:
1408:
567:
ground track orbit with stable (minimally time-varying) orbit elements. These orbits use the
527:
869:
2411:
2233:
2017:
1906:
1875:
1803:
1778:
1753:
1714:
1695:
1650:
1538:
1404:
1400:
973:
876:
844:
665:
432:
413:
353:
1267:
8:
2460:
2273:
2068:
1808:
1346:
923:
531:
428:
220:
212:
1542:
16:
Path on the surface of the Earth or another body directly below an aircraft or satellite
1946:
1835:
1733:
1554:
1379:
1368:
1356:
1315:
1293:
1002:
982:
955:
930:
905:
643:
91:
72:
558:
2313:
2211:
2141:
1896:
1850:
1768:
1576:
1558:
1509:
1479:
828:{\displaystyle \Delta L_{2}=-{\frac {3\pi J_{2}R_{e}^{2}cos(i)}{a^{2}(1-e^{2})^{2}}}}
480:
349:
east to west along its ground track, regardless of the length of its orbital period.
239:, parameters that define the size, shape, and orientation of the satellite's orbit.
2293:
2225:
1989:
1951:
1825:
1795:
1748:
1546:
697:
568:
333:
236:
2455:
2333:
1926:
1830:
1820:
1719:
1643:
1619:
1365:, the time elapsed between observations of the same point on Earth by a satellite
1310:
is the number of orbital revolutions after which the same ground track is covered
689:
is the time for a full revolution of the orbiting body, in the case of Earth one
1444:
365:
2429:
2381:
2373:
2368:
2253:
2248:
2179:
2159:
2150:
1743:
1729:
1705:
1700:
1675:
1374:
491:
443:
394:
341:
327:
204:
28:
2444:
2283:
2278:
2197:
1840:
1758:
1333:
690:
539:
486:
370:
75:
82:
onto the surface of the Earth (or whatever body the satellite is orbiting).
2258:
2132:
2115:
1973:
1870:
1738:
535:
435:
of zero (meaning the orbit is circular), and an inclination of zero in the
208:
2353:
2188:
1958:
1938:
1855:
476:
455:
318:
172:
1921:
1635:
507:
60:
2338:
1690:
1550:
1359:, the period in which a spacecraft is visible above the local horizon
314:
56:
252:
107:
543:
459:
52:
19:
321:
between zero and ninety degrees is said to be in what is called a
2243:
1421:
495:
417:
398:
378:
1604:
393:
As the orbital period of a satellite increases, approaching the
421:
224:
87:
2048:
1667:
79:
48:
44:
1622: (archived 2020-09-30) Small Satellites (software code)
436:
216:
1599:
518:
412:
to the rotational period of the Earth is said to be in a
1609:
1630:
1399:
This article discusses closed orbits, or orbits with
1318:
1296:
1270:
1028:
1005:
985:
958:
933:
908:
879:
847:
709:
668:
646:
627:{\displaystyle \Delta L_{1}=-2\pi {\frac {T}{T_{E}}}}
581:
479:, meaning it passes over the Earth's north and south
63:. In the case of satellites, it is also known as a
1324:
1302:
1276:
1250:
1011:
991:
964:
939:
914:
892:
860:
827:
681:
652:
626:
207:, ground tracks typically approximate an arc of a
223:and dangerous areas, and to pass near navigation
2442:
513:
427:A special case of the geosynchronous orbit, the
1503:
446:at the same rate as the satellite is orbiting.
242:
979:These two effects must cancel out after a set
1651:
1504:Montenbruck, Oliver; Gill, Eberhard (2000),
1336:after which the same ground track is covered
462:covered by the ground track will range from
1508:(1st ed.), The Netherlands: Springer,
360:
317:ground track. A satellite with an orbital
281:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
136:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
2425:
1658:
1644:
1478:(1st ed.), Amsterdam: Elsevier Ltd.,
1475:Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students
546:(63°), and the orbit is highly eccentric (
373:orbit, as viewed from above the North Pole
230:
301:Learn how and when to remove this message
215:in order to compensate for the effect of
156:Learn how and when to remove this message
97:
1665:
1467:
1465:
557:
517:
449:
364:
18:
1499:
1497:
1495:
377:A satellite whose orbital period is an
219:. Aircraft routes are planned to avoid
2443:
2304:Transposition, docking, and extraction
1531:AIAA Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets
1471:
340:A satellite in a direct orbit with an
1639:
1569:Lyle, S. and Capderou, Michel (2006)
1462:
420:, and westward when it is closest to
313:Typically, satellites have a roughly
1492:
408:A satellite whose orbital period is
279:adding citations to reliable sources
246:
167:
134:adding citations to reliable sources
101:
1528:
1449:AMetSoc.org Glossary of Meteorology
522:The ground track of a Molniya orbit
13:
1616:Satellite Ground Track, GPS BII-10
1053:
1037:
710:
582:
385:, which can vary over time due to
14:
2477:
2364:Kepler's laws of planetary motion
1587:
1403:less than one, and thus excludes
2424:
2359:Interplanetary Transport Network
2239:Collision avoidance (spacecraft)
1286:standard gravitational parameter
553:
251:
171:
106:
2324:Astronomical coordinate systems
2078:Longitude of the ascending node
1572:Satellites: Orbits and Missions
383:longitude of the ascending node
2397:Retrograde and prograde motion
1522:
1437:
1414:
1393:
1219:
1199:
1184:
1178:
813:
793:
778:
772:
395:rotational period of the Earth
1:
1431:
514:Effect of argument of perigee
2344:Equatorial coordinate system
243:Direct and retrograde motion
7:
1340:
437:Earth-Centered, Earth-Fixed
47:on the surface of a planet
25:International Space Station
10:
2482:
2096:Longitude of the periapsis
1472:Curtis, Howard D. (2005),
1288:for the body being orbited
870:second dynamic form factor
500:orbital inclination change
352:Because a satellite in an
2420:
2407:Specific angular momentum
2312:
2224:
2168:
2104:
2057:
1997:
1988:
1884:
1794:
1683:
1674:
1424:needed to achieve orbit.
1386:
1363:Satellite revisit period
999:orbital revolutions and
361:Effect of orbital period
2402:Specific orbital energy
1352:Ground tracking station
231:Satellite ground tracks
1814:Geostationary transfer
1326:
1304:
1278:
1252:
1013:
993:
966:
941:
916:
894:
862:
829:
700:can be quantified as:
683:
654:
628:
563:
523:
374:
98:Aircraft ground tracks
94:of a ground observer.
32:
27:for approximately two
2387:Orbital state vectors
2329:Characteristic energy
2299:Trans-lunar injection
2087:Argument of periapsis
1764:Prograde / Retrograde
1725:Hyperbolic trajectory
1610:https://isstracker.pl
1327:
1305:
1279:
1253:
1014:
994:
967:
942:
917:
895:
893:{\displaystyle R_{e}}
863:
861:{\displaystyle J_{2}}
830:
684:
682:{\displaystyle T_{E}}
655:
629:
561:
521:
450:Effect of inclination
368:
22:
2234:Bi-elliptic transfer
1754:Parabolic trajectory
1316:
1294:
1277:{\displaystyle \mu }
1268:
1026:
1003:
983:
974:orbital eccentricity
956:
931:
906:
900:is the body's radius
877:
845:
707:
666:
644:
579:
414:geosynchronous orbit
275:improve this section
130:improve this section
23:Ground track of the
2274:Low-energy transfer
1543:2022JSpRo..59...84L
1347:Course (navigation)
1168:
924:orbital inclination
762:
660:is the time elapsed
532:rotational symmetry
528:argument of perigee
429:geostationary orbit
221:restricted airspace
78:of the satellite's
2269:Inclination change
1917:Distant retrograde
1626:infosatellites.com
1445:"suborbital track"
1380:Terminator (solar)
1369:Satellite watching
1357:Pass (spaceflight)
1322:
1300:
1274:
1248:
1154:
1009:
989:
962:
937:
912:
890:
858:
825:
748:
696:The effect of the
679:
650:
624:
564:
524:
375:
183:. You can help by
92:frame of reference
69:subsatellite track
33:
2438:
2437:
2412:Two-line elements
2220:
2219:
2142:Eccentric anomaly
1984:
1983:
1851:Orbit of the Moon
1710:Highly elliptical
1605:heavens-above.com
1594:Satellite Tracker
1485:978-0-7506-6169-0
1332:is the number of
1325:{\displaystyle k}
1303:{\displaystyle j}
1229:
1130:
1117:
1116:
1012:{\displaystyle k}
992:{\displaystyle j}
965:{\displaystyle e}
940:{\displaystyle a}
915:{\displaystyle i}
823:
653:{\displaystyle T}
622:
440:coordinate system
357:discussed below.
311:
310:
303:
201:
200:
166:
165:
158:
2473:
2428:
2427:
2369:Lagrangian point
2264:Hohmann transfer
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2084:
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2024:
2015:
1995:
1994:
1964:Heliosynchronous
1913:Lagrange points
1866:Transatmospheric
1681:
1680:
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1646:
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1636:
1563:
1562:
1551:10.2514/1.A34934
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1506:Satellite Orbits
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698:nodal precession
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633:
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569:nodal precession
334:retrograde orbit
306:
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255:
247:
237:orbital elements
196:
193:
175:
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110:
102:
65:suborbital track
2481:
2480:
2476:
2475:
2474:
2472:
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2440:
2439:
2434:
2416:
2334:Escape velocity
2315:
2308:
2289:Rocket equation
2216:
2208:
2202:
2193:
2184:
2175:
2164:
2155:
2146:
2137:
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2124:
2120:
2111:
2100:
2091:
2082:
2073:
2064:
2053:
2044:
2040:
2036:Semi-minor axis
2031:
2027:Semi-major axis
2022:
2013:
2007:
1980:
1902:Areosynchronous
1886:
1880:
1861:Sun-synchronous
1846:Near-equatorial
1790:
1670:
1664:
1620:Wayback Machine
1596:at eoPortal.org
1590:
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1024:
1023:
1004:
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1000:
984:
981:
980:
957:
954:
953:
949:semi-major axis
947:is the orbit's
932:
929:
928:
907:
904:
903:
884:
880:
878:
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874:
852:
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197:
191:
188:
181:needs expansion
162:
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111:
100:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2479:
2469:
2468:
2466:Air navigation
2463:
2458:
2453:
2436:
2435:
2433:
2432:
2430:List of orbits
2421:
2418:
2417:
2415:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2394:
2389:
2384:
2382:Orbit equation
2379:
2371:
2366:
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2326:
2320:
2318:
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2301:
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2286:
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2276:
2271:
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2261:
2256:
2254:Gravity assist
2251:
2249:Delta-v budget
2246:
2241:
2236:
2230:
2228:
2222:
2221:
2218:
2217:
2215:
2214:
2206:
2200:
2191:
2182:
2180:Orbital period
2172:
2170:
2166:
2165:
2163:
2162:
2160:True longitude
2153:
2151:Mean longitude
2144:
2135:
2118:
2108:
2106:
2102:
2101:
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2098:
2089:
2080:
2071:
2061:
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2020:
2010:
2008:
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2002:
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1961:
1956:
1955:
1954:
1941:
1936:
1935:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1911:
1910:
1909:
1907:Areostationary
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260:This section
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179:This section
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115:This section
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71:, and is the
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26:
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2392:Perturbation
2374:
2349:Ground track
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2259:Gravity turn
2210:
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2133:True anomaly
2131:
2116:Mean anomaly
2114:
2094:
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2047:
2034:
2025:
2018:Eccentricity
2016:
1974:Lunar cycler
1947:Heliocentric
1887:other points
1836:Medium Earth
1734:Non-inclined
1571:
1537:(1): 84–93.
1534:
1530:
1524:
1505:
1473:
1452:. Retrieved
1448:
1439:
1416:
1401:eccentricity
1395:
1371:, as a hobby
1260:
978:
837:
695:
691:sidereal day
636:
565:
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525:
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467:
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433:eccentricity
426:
409:
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392:
376:
351:
345:
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332:
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322:
312:
297:
288:
273:Please help
261:
234:
209:great circle
202:
189:
185:adding to it
180:
152:
143:
128:Please help
116:
84:
68:
64:
41:ground trace
40:
37:ground track
36:
34:
2354:Hill sphere
2189:Mean motion
2069:Inclination
2058:Orientation
1959:Mars cycler
1897:Areocentric
1769:Synchronous
1612:ISS Tracker
1600:satview.org
477:polar orbit
456:inclination
319:inclination
2461:Satellites
2445:Categories
2294:Rendezvous
1990:Parameters
1826:High Earth
1796:Geocentric
1749:Osculating
1706:Elliptical
1583:pp 175–264
1432:References
1409:hyperbolic
534:about the
508:Sea Launch
315:sinusoidal
291:April 2024
146:April 2024
76:projection
61:trajectory
2339:Ephemeris
2316:mechanics
2226:Maneuvers
2169:Variation
1932:Libration
1927:Lissajous
1831:Low Earth
1821:Graveyard
1720:Horseshoe
1575:Springer
1559:236275629
1405:parabolic
1272:μ
1246:π
1206:−
1142:π
1133:−
1114:μ
1098:π
1089:π
1083:−
1054:Δ
1038:Δ
800:−
736:π
727:−
711:Δ
605:π
599:−
583:Δ
460:latitudes
431:, has an
354:eccentric
262:does not
117:does not
90:, in the
57:satellite
2105:Position
1730:Inclined
1701:Circular
1631:n2yo.com
1454:15 March
1341:See also
544:latitude
470:, where
454:Orbital
192:May 2015
73:vertical
53:aircraft
2314:Orbital
2284:Phasing
2244:Delta-v
2049:Apsides
2043:,
1841:Molniya
1759:Parking
1696:Capture
1684:General
1618:at the
1539:Bibcode
1422:delta-v
1284:is the
972:is the
922:is the
526:If the
496:azimuth
418:perigee
399:equator
379:integer
346:greater
283:removed
268:sources
225:beacons
213:heading
138:removed
123:sources
43:is the
29:periods
2456:Curves
1970:Other
1871:Tundra
1739:Kepler
1715:Escape
1668:orbits
1579:
1557:
1512:
1482:
1261:where
838:where
637:where
487:Launch
422:apogee
403:longer
323:direct
88:zenith
55:'s or
2212:Epoch
2001:Shape
1939:Lunar
1893:Mars
1885:About
1856:Polar
1676:Types
1555:S2CID
1387:Notes
481:poles
410:equal
80:orbit
2004:Size
1943:Sun
1922:Halo
1774:semi
1577:ISBN
1510:ISBN
1480:ISBN
1456:2022
1407:and
266:any
264:cite
217:wind
121:any
119:cite
45:path
1779:sub
1691:Box
1547:doi
466:to
325:or
277:by
203:In
187:.
132:by
67:or
59:'s
51:an
39:or
2447::
2127:,
2123:,
1732:/
1708:/
1553:.
1545:.
1535:59
1533:.
1494:^
1464:^
1447:.
510:.
483:.
464:–i
424:.
369:A
337:.
227:.
35:A
2375:n
2207:0
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2156:l
2147:L
2138:E
2129:f
2125:θ
2121:ν
2112:M
2092:ϖ
2083:ω
2074:Ω
2065:i
2045:q
2041:Q
2032:b
2023:a
2014:e
1659:e
1652:t
1645:v
1561:.
1549::
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1489:.
1458:.
1320:k
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1237:=
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1200:(
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1191:a
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1072:=
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1062:2
1058:L
1051:+
1046:1
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1034:|
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1007:k
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960:e
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814:)
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794:(
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776:i
773:(
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767:o
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724:=
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715:L
675:E
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648:T
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610:T
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596:=
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548:e
472:i
468:i
304:)
298:(
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289:(
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271:.
194:)
190:(
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153:(
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144:(
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126:.
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