690:
The two voiced retroflex plosives /ɖʱ, ɖ/ and the retroflex nasal /ɳ/ have flapped subphonemic allophones . The plosives /ɖʱ, ɖ/ are unflapped initially, geminated, and after nasal vowels; and flapped intervocalically, finally, and before or after other consonants. The nasal /ɳ/ is unflapped before
707:
Some dialects only have , others prefer , while another system has them non-contrasting, with occurring contiguous to palatal segments. Retroflex still appears in clusters in which it precedes another retroflex:
1553:
Between a stem ending in a vowel and its suffix starting with a vowel, a is inserted. #V + V# → #VʋV#. This can be seen in the formation of passive and causative forms of verb stems.
746:
Lastly, a colloquial register has , or both and , replaced by voiceless . For educated speakers speaking this register, this replacement does not extend to
Sanskrit borrowings.
2013:
One other predictable source for murmur is voiced aspirated stops. A clear vowel followed by a voiced aspirated stop can vary with a pair gaining murmur and losing aspiration:
888:
Gemination can serve as intensification. In some adjectives and adverbs, a singular consonant before the agreement vowel can be doubled for intensification. #VCũ → #VCCũ.
2697:
1389:. #ɑC(C) + ɑ# → #əC(C)ɑ#. This can be seen in the derivation of nouns from adjective stems, and in the formation of passive and causative forms of verb stems.
45:
996:
This does not apply for monosyllabic stems and consonant clusters. So, better put, #VCəC + V# → #VCCV#. It also doesn't apply when the addition is an
806:
as a second member in consonantal clusters is one of
Gujarati's conservative features as a modern Indo-Aryan language. For example, languages used in
2735:
854:
Geminates were previously treated as long consonants, but they are better analyzed as clusters of two identical segments. Two proofs for this:
2667:
964:
Stress typically falls on the penultimate syllable of a word, however, if the penultimate vowel in a word with more than two syllables is
2587:
2252:
1841:
The table below compares declensions of the verbs ('to do') and ('to say'). The former follows the regular pattern of the stable root
3401:
3002:
629:
1909:, this time with the application of the murmur rules on the root shown, also to which a preceding rule must be taken into account:
666:
are unreleased; they are optionally unreleased in final position. The absence of release entails deaspiration of voiceless stops.
3007:
2970:
2464:
2361:
1845:
serving as a point for characteristic suffixations. The latter, on the other hand, is deviant and irregular in this respect.
2349:
659:
of a preceding vowel . Before velar and palatal stops, there is variation between these; e.g. ~ ('ask for'), ~ ('swing').
599:
2728:
2702:
2837:
541:
370:
3540:
3238:
3225:
2764:
2580:
519:
27:
3436:
2789:
977:
Schwa-deletion, along with a-reduction and -insertion, is a phonological process at work in the combination of
592:
3396:
3361:
2992:
2779:
2721:
534:
416:
2454:
2982:
2935:
2774:
691:
retroflex plosives and intervocalically, and in final position varies freely between flapped and unflapped.
527:
2014:
2007:
2003:
1906:
1902:
1887:
1842:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1767:
1760:
1719:
1711:
1685:
1654:
1611:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1363:
1251:
1119:
1088:
986:
955:
848:
841:
834:
830:
823:
819:
815:
803:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
760:
756:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
694:
684:
673:
663:
496:
491:
486:
481:
476:
460:
455:
450:
445:
440:
238:
219:
215:
209:
205:
198:
194:
177:
171:
158:
153:
141:
136:
131:
119:
112:
41:
37:
363:
3535:
3374:
2910:
2860:
2794:
2769:
2573:
609:
349:
186:
Sanskrit's phonemic vowel length has been lost. Vowels are long when nasalized or in a final syllable.
3083:
3012:
2870:
2850:
1890:
these rules are considered then predicted, explained, and made regular is the irregularity that is (
564:
3406:
3088:
3022:
2987:
578:
409:
356:
231:
2613:
3250:
3133:
3103:
3068:
2855:
2799:
2784:
1021:
981:. It is a common feature among Indo-Aryan languages, referring to the deletion of a stem's final
395:
377:
2713:
3504:
3291:
3098:
2997:
822:
in their occurrence in inscriptions elsewhere. This is maintained even to today, with
Gujarati
322:
280:
23:
2249:
1891:
3148:
3115:
3108:
3017:
2930:
2925:
586:
402:
315:
308:
223:
669:
3494:
3356:
3266:
3245:
3155:
3143:
3138:
2882:
2865:
1608:
943:
423:
58:
8:
3484:
3391:
3369:
3326:
3311:
3276:
3220:
3165:
3160:
3029:
2915:
2892:
2832:
2674:
2662:
1006:
683:. Spirantization of non-palatal voiceless aspirates has been reported as well, including
505:
434:
275:
227:
3381:
3190:
3125:
3075:
3034:
2822:
2748:
2628:
2526:
2439:
2431:
2403:
2395:
270:
3281:
3509:
3474:
3459:
3443:
3431:
3416:
3386:
3346:
3316:
3296:
3286:
3230:
3210:
3200:
3185:
3170:
3055:
3050:
2977:
2947:
2942:
2920:
2902:
2897:
2887:
2877:
2650:
2608:
2596:
2460:
2443:
2407:
2387:
2357:
1886:
The situation can be explained through murmur. If to a formal or historical root of
766:
652:
554:
388:
295:
285:
54:
3489:
3421:
3411:
3351:
3341:
3336:
3321:
3306:
3301:
3215:
3205:
3063:
2957:
2845:
2827:
2817:
2684:
2657:
2635:
2546:
2518:
2423:
2379:
1800:
Gujarati spelling reflects this mode. The script has no direct notation for murmur.
807:
770:
716:
712:
265:
260:
3499:
3479:
3464:
3426:
3331:
3271:
3195:
3180:
3175:
2965:
2952:
2679:
2645:
2623:
2256:
1913:
0. A final root vowel gets deleted before a suffix starting with a non-consonant.
1254:
in its final syllable, with a suffix starting with a vowel (adjectival marking).
302:
290:
126:
3514:
3469:
2341:
810:(3rd century BC) display contemporary regional variations, with words found in
662:
Stops occurring at first members of clusters followed by consonants other than
621:
336:
148:
2550:
2427:
2383:
3529:
2391:
1658:
1015:
792:
as second members. In addition to these, in loans from
Sanskrit the clusters
511:
470:
342:
190:
95:
2618:
2565:
2450:
1366:
in its final syllable, with a suffix starting with a vowel (noun marking).
2345:
656:
107:
90:
1122:
in its final syllable, with a suffix starting with a semi-vowel (verbal
882:
Geminates behave towards (that is, disallow) -deletion like clusters do.
1123:
1092:
165:
100:
2530:
2491:
Mistry, P.J. (2001), "Gujarati", in Garry, Jane; Rubino, Carl (eds.),
2435:
2399:
2744:
680:
251:
70:
2473:
Mistry, P.J. (1996), "Gujarati
Writing", in Daniels; Bright (eds.),
2522:
1091:
in its final syllable, with a suffix starting with a vowel (verbal
1034:
982:
978:
951:
701:
204:
In absolute word-final position the higher and lower vowels of the
74:
33:
2743:
811:
677:
648:
66:
2509:
Pandit, P.B. (1961), "Historical
Phonology of Gujarati Vowels",
2493:
An encyclopedia of the world's major languages, past and present
2334:
Compendium of the world's languages, volume 1. Abaza to
Lusatian
2482:
Mistry, P.J. (1997), "Gujarati
Phonology", in Kaye, A.S (ed.),
2182:
2180:
2178:
1000:
2557:
Turner, Ralph Lilley (1915), "Indo-Aryan Nasals in
Gujarati",
2141:
2139:
2137:
2135:
2133:
2064:
2062:
2504:, vol. 2 (2nd ed.), Oxford: Oxford University Press
990:
965:
827:
62:
2500:
Mistry, P.J. (2003), "Gujarati", in
Frawley, William (ed.),
2298:
2175:
2130:
2059:
2006:
become murmured and not all murmur comes from instances of
1530:
It can take place after an ə-deletion. #ɑCəC + ɑ# → #əCCɑ#.
739:('thing'). The same cannot be so easily said for English:
2414:
Firth, J.R. (1957), "Phonetic Observations on Gujarati",
2310:
2262:
776:
Biconsonantal initial clusters beginning with stops have
672:
and with murmuring of vowels, the voiced aspirated stops
2221:
2219:
2086:
2074:
2120:
2118:
2116:
2049:
2047:
2045:
2043:
2041:
2698:
List of states of India by number of Gujarati speakers
2416:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies
2103:
2101:
2286:
2274:
2231:
2216:
2204:
2192:
2163:
2151:
2113:
2038:
2026:
32:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
2537:Turner, Ralph Lilley (1921), "Gujarati Phonology",
2098:
687:
being usually realized as in the standard dialect.
2370:Dave, T.N. (1931), "Notes on Gujarati Phonology",
1809:Rule 1 creates allomorphs for nouns. For example,
1614:and consonant-terminating words it postpositions.
1599:The second example shows an ɑ-reduction as well.
3527:
814:'s Girnar inscriptions containing clusters with
46:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
2729:
2581:
2340:
2304:
2186:
2145:
2068:
1607:ə finds itself inserted between the emphatic
2595:
2352:, in Cardona, George; Jain, Dhanesh (eds.),
865:"pronunciation" sounds more like the one in
16:Indo-Aryan language native to Gujarat, India
2517:(1), Linguistic Society of America: 54–66,
840:Initially, s clusters biconsonantally with
2736:
2722:
2588:
2574:
2372:Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies
2250:UCLA Language Materials Project: Gujarati.
2502:International Encyclopedia of Linguistics
2459:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2002:However, in the end not all instances of
968:, stress falls on the preceding syllable.
2331:
2237:
847:Triconsonantal initial clusters include
769:occur initially, medially, and finally.
723:'s have by and large been transposed to
2336:, New York: Routledge, pp. 541–545
189:Gujarati contrasts oral and nasal, and
3528:
2556:
2536:
2508:
2499:
2490:
2481:
2472:
2449:
2316:
2292:
2280:
2268:
2225:
2210:
2198:
2169:
2157:
2124:
2107:
2092:
2080:
2053:
2032:
2717:
2569:
2413:
2559:Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
2539:Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
2369:
851:- most of which occur in borrowings.
711:Some speakers maintain as well for
704:varies over dialects and registers.
193:and non-murmured vowels, except for
36:. For the distinction between ,
2495:, New England Publishing Associates
2332:Campbell, G.L. (1991), "Gujarati",
1905:-possessing, murmur-eliciting root
1901:Thus below are the declensions of
1828:
1803:
1794:
752:Phonotactical constraints include:
13:
1661:, of which there are three rules:
1524:
1515:
1152:Suffix starting with a consonant.
844:, and non-palatal voiceless stops.
237:English loanwords are a source of
14:
3552:
1521:It does not happen a second time.
628:
608:
598:
591:
577:
563:
540:
526:
518:
422:
415:
408:
401:
394:
376:
369:
362:
355:
348:
321:
314:
307:
1138:masculine singular, imperfective
989:before a suffix starting with a
818:as the second member not having
2325:
2243:
222:developed in the 15th century.
28:International Phonetic Alphabet
2484:Phonologies of Asia and Africa
1602:
1385:before a suffix starting with
1372:
1022:Gujarati grammar#Postpositions
872:('utterance') than the one in
1:
2020:
1537:
972:
961:Stress is barely perceptible.
958:and the second syllable does.
245:
1164:2nd person singular, present
1107:masculine plural, perfective
954:except when it doesn't have
763:do not occur word-initially.
7:
2971:Orsmaal-Gussenhoven dialect
2475:The World's Writing Systems
2305:Cardona & Suthar (2003)
2187:Cardona & Suthar (2003)
2146:Cardona & Suthar (2003)
2069:Cardona & Suthar (2003)
1813:('limit') by itself can be
1073:1st person singular, future
10:
3557:
2629:Gujarati related languages
2486:, Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns
1377:A stem's final syllable's
3452:
3259:
3043:
2810:
2755:
2693:
2604:
2551:10.1017/S0035869X00149287
2477:, Oxford University Press
2428:10.1017/S0041977X00061802
2384:10.1017/S0041977X00093174
1759:
1756:
1710:
1707:
1683:
1680:
1666:
1649:
1564:
1558:
1489:
1457:
1445:
1440:
1423:
1411:
1408:
1400:
1394:
1298:
1265:
1263:
1246:
1225:
1210:1st person plural, future
1148:
1083:
1062:
1048:
1045:
1042:
937:
620:
585:
504:
335:
301:
257:
176:
135:
118:
80:
2456:The Indo-Aryan Languages
2354:The Indo-Aryan Languages
697:has and as allophones.
3003:Regional North American
2259:Retrieved on 2007-04-29
1657:serves as a source for
1362:Polysyllabic stem with
1250:Polysyllabic stem with
1118:Polysyllabic stem with
1087:Polysyllabic stem with
950:Stress is on the first
24:phonetic transcriptions
3541:Indo-Aryan phonologies
3437:Dialects and varieties
2998:Received Pronunciation
2838:American Sign Language
1333:number marker suffix.
1306:as a locative marker.
1281:as a locative marker.
1195:CVCCəC + VC → CVCCəCVC
1007:Gujarati grammar#Nouns
719:borrowings. Persian's
651:is postulated for the
21:This article contains
2668:Children's literature
1467:cause to cause to cut
1218:VCoC + VCV → VCoCVCV
1187:feminine, perfective
946:is not quite clear:
773:occur only medially.
700:The distribution of
3362:Proto-Indo-European
3008:White South African
2319:, pp. 666–668.
2271:, pp. 661–662.
2095:, pp. 391–393.
2083:, pp. 115–116.
1198:Consonant cluster.
1115:CVCəC + CV → CVCCCV
1081:CVCəC + VC → CVCCVC
808:Asokan inscriptions
254:
59:Indo-Aryan language
2255:2011-06-05 at the
1817:, but can only be
1326:CVCəC + V → CVCəCV
1296:CVCəC + V → CVCəCV
1169:swimming, floating
1146:VCəC + CV → VCəCCV
1029:doesn't apply for
802:The occurrence of
250:
3536:Gujarati language
3523:
3522:
3013:Standard Canadian
2749:world's languages
2711:
2710:
2614:Gurjar Apabhraṃśa
2609:Gujarati language
2597:Gujarati language
2466:978-0-521-29944-2
2363:978-0-415-77294-5
2000:
1999:
1884:
1883:
1790:
1789:
1647:
1646:
1597:
1596:
1511:
1510:
1470:Double Causative
1455:Causative Passive
1370:
1369:
1356:CVCəC + V → CVCCV
1274:CVCəC + V → CVCCV
1236:adjectival marker
1215:will wallow, roll
935:
934:
826:corresponding to
644:
643:
557:
514:
473:
437:
391:
345:
183:
182:
55:Gujarati language
3548:
3375:Kerkrade dialect
2988:General American
2738:
2731:
2724:
2715:
2714:
2590:
2583:
2576:
2567:
2566:
2562:
2553:
2533:
2505:
2496:
2487:
2478:
2469:
2446:
2410:
2366:
2337:
2320:
2314:
2308:
2302:
2296:
2290:
2284:
2278:
2272:
2266:
2260:
2247:
2241:
2235:
2229:
2223:
2214:
2208:
2202:
2196:
2190:
2184:
2173:
2167:
2161:
2155:
2149:
2143:
2128:
2122:
2111:
2105:
2096:
2090:
2084:
2078:
2072:
2066:
2057:
2051:
2036:
2030:
2016:
2009:
2005:
1917:
1916:
1908:
1904:
1889:
1848:
1847:
1844:
1835:
1832:
1826:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1807:
1801:
1798:
1769:
1762:
1721:
1713:
1687:
1664:
1663:
1656:
1617:
1616:
1613:
1556:
1555:
1550:
1549:
1545:
1542:-insertion": -->
1531:
1528:
1522:
1519:
1392:
1391:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1365:
1277:Sometimes yes —
1253:
1121:
1090:
1040:
1039:
988:
957:
891:
890:
850:
843:
836:
832:
825:
821:
817:
805:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
779:
762:
758:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
696:
686:
675:
670:Intervocalically
665:
632:
612:
602:
595:
581:
567:
553:
544:
530:
522:
510:
498:
493:
488:
483:
478:
469:
462:
457:
452:
447:
442:
433:
426:
419:
412:
405:
398:
387:
380:
373:
366:
359:
352:
341:
325:
318:
311:
255:
249:
240:
221:
217:
211:
207:
200:
196:
179:
173:
160:
155:
143:
138:
133:
121:
114:
85:
84:
73:is derived from
43:
39:
3556:
3555:
3551:
3550:
3549:
3547:
3546:
3545:
3526:
3525:
3524:
3519:
3448:
3402:Scottish Gaelic
3255:
3099:Standard Modern
3039:
2846:Modern Standard
2806:
2751:
2742:
2712:
2707:
2689:
2624:Middle Gujarati
2600:
2594:
2467:
2364:
2342:Cardona, George
2328:
2323:
2315:
2311:
2303:
2299:
2291:
2287:
2279:
2275:
2267:
2263:
2257:Wayback Machine
2248:
2244:
2238:Campbell (1991)
2236:
2232:
2224:
2217:
2209:
2205:
2197:
2193:
2185:
2176:
2168:
2164:
2156:
2152:
2144:
2131:
2123:
2114:
2106:
2099:
2091:
2087:
2079:
2075:
2067:
2060:
2052:
2039:
2031:
2027:
2023:
1839:
1838:
1833:
1829:
1808:
1804:
1799:
1795:
1765:
1727:
1718:
1716:
1652:
1605:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1541:
1540:
1535:
1534:
1529:
1525:
1520:
1516:
1452:cause to be cut
1442:
1381:will reduce to
1375:
1302:Sometimes no —
1266:locative marker
1244:VCəC + V → VCCV
975:
940:
801:
647:A fourth nasal
283:
269:
248:
232:Middle Gujarati
83:
51:
50:
49:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3554:
3544:
3543:
3538:
3521:
3520:
3518:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3456:
3454:
3450:
3449:
3447:
3446:
3441:
3440:
3439:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3407:Serbo-Croatian
3404:
3399:
3394:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3378:
3377:
3372:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3309:
3304:
3299:
3294:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3269:
3263:
3261:
3257:
3256:
3254:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3242:
3241:
3233:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3203:
3198:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3173:
3168:
3163:
3158:
3153:
3152:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3112:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3093:
3092:
3091:
3086:
3078:
3073:
3072:
3071:
3066:
3058:
3053:
3047:
3045:
3041:
3040:
3038:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3026:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2975:
2974:
2973:
2968:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2939:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2874:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2825:
2820:
2814:
2812:
2808:
2807:
2805:
2804:
2803:
2802:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2767:
2762:
2756:
2753:
2752:
2741:
2740:
2733:
2726:
2718:
2709:
2708:
2706:
2705:
2700:
2694:
2691:
2690:
2688:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2671:
2670:
2660:
2655:
2654:
2653:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2632:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2605:
2602:
2601:
2593:
2592:
2585:
2578:
2570:
2564:
2563:
2554:
2545:(4): 505–544,
2534:
2523:10.2307/411249
2506:
2497:
2488:
2479:
2470:
2465:
2447:
2422:(1): 231–241,
2411:
2378:(3): 673–678,
2367:
2362:
2338:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2321:
2309:
2307:, p. 667.
2297:
2295:, p. 663.
2285:
2283:, p. 662.
2273:
2261:
2242:
2230:
2228:, p. 660.
2215:
2213:, p. 670.
2203:
2201:, p. 274.
2191:
2189:, p. 666.
2174:
2172:, p. 658.
2162:
2160:, p. 275.
2150:
2148:, p. 665.
2129:
2127:, p. 659.
2112:
2097:
2085:
2073:
2071:, p. 662.
2058:
2056:, p. 116.
2037:
2035:, p. 115.
2024:
2022:
2019:
1998:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1985:
1984:
1982:
1980:
1978:
1976:
1972:
1971:
1969:
1967:
1965:
1963:
1959:
1958:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1950:
1946:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1934:
1933:
1930:
1927:
1924:
1921:
1915:
1914:
1882:
1881:
1879:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1871:
1869:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1861:
1858:
1855:
1852:
1837:
1836:
1827:
1825:('limitless').
1802:
1792:
1791:
1788:
1787:
1784:
1782:
1779:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1771:
1763:
1758:
1754:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1744:
1741:
1739:
1736:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1728:
1722:
1714:
1709:
1705:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1688:
1682:
1678:
1677:
1674:
1671:
1668:
1651:
1648:
1645:
1644:
1639:
1637:
1635:
1631:
1630:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1604:
1601:
1595:
1594:
1593:cause to sing
1591:
1589:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1580:
1577:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1567:
1566:
1565:Suffixed stem
1563:
1560:
1539:
1536:
1533:
1532:
1523:
1513:
1512:
1509:
1508:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1498:
1496:
1492:
1491:
1488:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1478:
1476:
1472:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1460:
1459:
1456:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1438:
1437:
1434:
1431:
1429:
1426:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1410:
1406:
1405:
1402:
1401:Suffixed Stem
1399:
1396:
1374:
1371:
1368:
1367:
1360:
1357:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1335:
1334:
1327:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1308:
1307:
1300:
1297:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1283:
1282:
1275:
1272:
1269:
1267:
1264:
1262:
1259:
1256:
1255:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1223:
1222:
1219:
1216:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1200:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1190:
1188:
1185:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1176:
1175:Monosyllabic.
1173:
1172:CəC + V → CəCV
1170:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1154:
1153:
1150:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1127:
1116:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1097:
1096:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1064:
1060:
1059:
1056:
1053:
1050:
1049:Suffixed stem
1047:
1044:
974:
971:
970:
969:
962:
959:
942:The matter of
939:
936:
933:
932:
927:
925:
923:
919:
918:
913:
911:
909:
905:
904:
899:
897:
895:
886:
885:
884:
883:
880:
852:
845:
838:
774:
764:
750:
749:
748:
747:
744:
709:
698:
692:
688:
667:
660:
642:
641:
639:
637:
635:
633:
626:
624:
618:
617:
615:
613:
606:
603:
596:
589:
583:
582:
575:
573:
571:
569:
560:
558:
550:
549:
547:
545:
538:
531:
524:
515:
508:
502:
501:
499:
494:
489:
484:
479:
474:
466:
465:
463:
458:
453:
448:
443:
438:
430:
429:
427:
420:
413:
406:
399:
392:
384:
383:
381:
374:
367:
360:
353:
346:
339:
333:
332:
330:
328:
326:
319:
312:
305:
299:
298:
293:
288:
278:
273:
263:
258:
247:
244:
243:
242:
235:
213:
202:
187:
181:
180:
175:
168:
162:
161:
156:
151:
145:
144:
139:
134:
129:
123:
122:
117:
115:
110:
104:
103:
98:
93:
88:
82:
79:
69:. Much of its
61:native to the
44:⟩, see
20:
19:
18:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3553:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3533:
3531:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3457:
3455:
3451:
3445:
3442:
3438:
3435:
3434:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3423:
3420:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3367:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3264:
3262:
3258:
3252:
3251:Luxembourgish
3249:
3247:
3244:
3240:
3239:Maastrichtian
3237:
3236:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3212:
3209:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3131:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3096:
3094:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3081:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3061:
3059:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3048:
3046:
3042:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2980:
2979:
2976:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2963:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2908:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2844:
2843:
2841:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2824:
2821:
2819:
2816:
2815:
2813:
2809:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2772:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2765:Orthographies
2763:
2761:
2758:
2757:
2754:
2750:
2746:
2739:
2734:
2732:
2727:
2725:
2720:
2719:
2716:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2695:
2692:
2686:
2683:
2681:
2678:
2676:
2673:
2669:
2666:
2665:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2652:
2649:
2648:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2611:
2610:
2607:
2606:
2603:
2598:
2591:
2586:
2584:
2579:
2577:
2572:
2571:
2568:
2560:
2555:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2535:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2507:
2503:
2498:
2494:
2489:
2485:
2480:
2476:
2471:
2468:
2462:
2458:
2457:
2452:
2451:Masica, Colin
2448:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2412:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2381:
2377:
2373:
2368:
2365:
2359:
2356:, Routledge,
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2330:
2329:
2318:
2317:Mistry (1997)
2313:
2306:
2301:
2294:
2293:Mistry (1997)
2289:
2282:
2281:Mistry (1997)
2277:
2270:
2269:Mistry (1997)
2265:
2258:
2254:
2251:
2246:
2239:
2234:
2227:
2226:Mistry (1997)
2222:
2220:
2212:
2211:Mistry (1997)
2207:
2200:
2199:Mistry (2001)
2195:
2188:
2183:
2181:
2179:
2171:
2170:Mistry (1997)
2166:
2159:
2158:Mistry (2001)
2154:
2147:
2142:
2140:
2138:
2136:
2134:
2126:
2125:Mistry (1997)
2121:
2119:
2117:
2110:, p. 97.
2109:
2108:Masica (1991)
2104:
2102:
2094:
2093:Mistry (1996)
2089:
2082:
2081:Mistry (2003)
2077:
2070:
2065:
2063:
2055:
2054:Mistry (2003)
2050:
2048:
2046:
2044:
2042:
2034:
2033:Mistry (2003)
2029:
2025:
2018:
2011:
1996:
1994:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1986:
1983:
1981:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1951:
1948:
1947:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1938:
1936:
1935:
1931:
1928:
1925:
1922:
1919:
1918:
1912:
1911:
1910:
1899:
1897:
1893:
1880:
1878:
1876:
1874:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1866:
1864:
1863:
1859:
1856:
1853:
1850:
1849:
1846:
1831:
1806:
1797:
1793:
1785:
1783:
1781:
1780:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1755:
1751:
1749:
1747:
1746:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1737:
1733:
1731:
1729:
1726:
1706:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1697:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1684:Word-initial
1679:
1675:
1672:
1669:
1665:
1662:
1660:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1618:
1615:
1610:
1600:
1592:
1590:
1588:
1586:
1583:
1582:
1578:
1576:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1568:
1561:
1557:
1554:
1546:
1527:
1518:
1514:
1506:
1503:
1501:
1499:
1497:
1494:
1493:
1486:
1483:
1481:
1479:
1477:
1474:
1473:
1469:
1466:
1464:
1462:
1461:
1454:
1451:
1449:
1447:
1439:
1435:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1427:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1413:
1407:
1403:
1397:
1393:
1390:
1361:
1358:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1320:
1318:plural marker
1317:
1315:
1312:
1310:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1295:
1292:
1290:
1287:
1285:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1273:
1271:at (the) time
1270:
1268:
1260:
1258:
1257:
1249:
1243:
1240:
1238:
1235:
1233:
1230:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1217:
1214:
1212:
1209:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1201:
1197:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1178:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1166:
1163:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1155:
1151:
1145:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1135:
1132:
1130:
1129:
1125:
1117:
1114:
1111:
1109:
1106:
1104:
1101:
1099:
1098:
1094:
1086:
1080:
1077:
1075:
1072:
1070:
1067:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1041:
1038:
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1023:
1017:
1016:ergative case
1013:
1009:
1008:
1002:
999:
994:
992:
984:
980:
967:
963:
960:
953:
949:
948:
947:
945:
931:
928:
926:
924:
921:
920:
917:
914:
912:
910:
907:
906:
903:
900:
898:
896:
893:
892:
889:
881:
878:
875:
871:
868:
864:
861:in geminated
860:
856:
855:
853:
849:/stɾ,spɾ,smɾ/
846:
839:
829:
813:
809:
775:
772:
768:
765:
755:
754:
753:
745:
735:('life') and
718:
714:
710:
706:
705:
703:
699:
693:
689:
682:
679:
671:
668:
661:
658:
654:
650:
646:
645:
640:
638:
636:
634:
631:
627:
625:
623:
619:
616:
614:
611:
607:
604:
601:
597:
594:
590:
588:
584:
580:
576:
574:
572:
570:
566:
561:
559:
556:
552:
551:
548:
546:
543:
539:
536:
532:
529:
525:
521:
516:
513:
509:
507:
503:
500:
495:
490:
485:
480:
475:
472:
468:
467:
464:
459:
454:
449:
444:
439:
436:
432:
431:
428:
425:
421:
418:
414:
411:
407:
404:
400:
397:
393:
390:
386:
385:
382:
379:
375:
372:
368:
365:
361:
358:
354:
351:
347:
344:
340:
338:
334:
331:
329:
327:
324:
320:
317:
313:
310:
306:
304:
300:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
267:
264:
262:
259:
256:
253:
236:
233:
229:
225:
214:
203:
192:
188:
185:
184:
169:
167:
164:
163:
157:
152:
150:
147:
146:
140:
130:
128:
125:
124:
116:
111:
109:
106:
105:
102:
99:
97:
94:
92:
89:
87:
86:
78:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
47:
35:
31:
29:
25:
3505:West Frisian
3292:Massachusett
3120:
2790:Prepositions
2759:
2640:
2619:Old Gujarati
2558:
2542:
2538:
2514:
2510:
2501:
2492:
2483:
2474:
2455:
2419:
2415:
2375:
2371:
2353:
2346:Suthar, Babu
2333:
2326:Bibliography
2312:
2300:
2288:
2276:
2264:
2245:
2240:, p. ?.
2233:
2206:
2194:
2165:
2153:
2088:
2076:
2028:
2012:
2001:
1932:1sg. Future
1900:
1895:
1885:
1860:1sg. Future
1840:
1830:
1805:
1796:
1724:
1653:
1641:
1627:
1606:
1598:
1552:
1526:
1517:
1433:cause to cut
1376:
1330:
1303:
1293:on (the) day
1278:
1205:wallow, roll
1078:will educate
1030:
1026:
1019:
1011:
1004:
997:
995:
976:
941:
930:considerably
929:
922:considerably
915:
901:
887:
879:('anxiety').
876:
873:
869:
866:
862:
858:
751:
676:have voiced
657:nasalization
224:Old Gujarati
52:
40:and ⟨
22:
3235:Limburgish
3116:Greenlandic
2993:New Zealand
2926:Northern Wu
2780:Determiners
2760:Phonologies
2745:Phonologies
2561:: 1033–1038
1603:ə-insertion
1373:ɑ-reduction
1348:noun marker
1159:swim, float
842:/ɾ,j,ʋ,n,m/
743:('cheese').
587:Approximant
226:split into
3530:Categories
3495:Vietnamese
3366:Ripuarian
3357:Portuguese
3267:Macedonian
3246:Lithuanian
3156:Hindustani
2983:Australian
2936:Historical
2883:Belarusian
2775:Adjectives
2675:Journalism
2663:Literature
2350:"Gujarati"
2021:References
2015:#VCʱ←→#V̤C
1929:Imperative
1926:Perfective
1923:Infinitive
1857:Imperative
1854:Perfective
1851:Infinitive
1834:More open.
1723:non-high,
1538:-insertion
1436:Causative
1143:descending
1124:declension
1112:understood
1102:understand
1093:declension
973:ə-deletion
800:may occur.
708:('clear').
681:allophones
674:/ɡʱ,dʱ,bʱ/
252:Consonants
246:Consonants
228:Rajasthani
212:sets vary.
3485:Ukrainian
3392:Sardinian
3370:Colognian
3327:Old Saxon
3312:Norwegian
3277:Maldivian
3221:Latgalian
3166:Icelandic
3161:Hungarian
3149:Samaritan
3030:Esperanto
2916:Cantonese
2893:Bulgarian
2861:Levantine
2833:Afrikaans
2641:Phonology
2444:130969268
2408:169852062
2392:1356-1898
1892:romanized
1725:more open
1338:adjective
1192:described
1063:verb root
1027:sometimes
979:morphemes
874:shortened
867:clustered
771:Geminates
733:/dʒindɡi/
702:sibilants
512:voiceless
506:Fricative
435:aspirated
343:voiceless
276:Retroflex
127:Close-mid
71:phonology
65:state of
3382:Romanian
3191:Japanese
3144:Tiberian
3139:Biblical
3126:Hawaiian
3121:Gujarati
3084:Standard
3076:Galician
3064:Parisian
3035:Estonian
2966:Standard
2911:Mandarin
2907:Chinese
2871:Tunisian
2866:Moroccan
2851:Egyptian
2823:Acehnese
2795:Pronouns
2770:Grammars
2651:Numerals
2511:Language
2453:(1991),
2348:(2003),
2253:Archived
1715:non-high
1676:English
1609:particle
1579:be seen
1404:Reduced
1231:laziness
1182:describe
1037:marker.
1035:locative
1018:marker (
1003:marker (
983:syllable
952:syllable
916:straight
908:straight
767:Clusters
737:/tʃidʒʱ/
655:and the
471:murmured
271:Alveolar
191:murmured
149:Open-mid
75:Sanskrit
38:/ /
34:Help:IPA
3510:Yiddish
3475:Turkish
3460:Tagalog
3444:Swedish
3432:Spanish
3417:Slovene
3387:Russian
3347:Persian
3317:Occitan
3297:Medumba
3287:Marathi
3231:Latvian
3211:Kurdish
3201:Konkani
3186:Italian
3171:Ingrian
3130:Hebrew
3104:Ancient
3089:Bernese
3080:German
3060:French
3056:Finnish
3051:Faroese
2978:English
2948:Cornish
2943:Chukchi
2921:Hokkien
2903:Catalan
2898:Burmese
2888:Bengali
2878:Avestan
2842:Arabic
2747:of the
2703:Writers
2685:Theatre
2658:Braille
2636:Grammar
1777:stayed
1770:(glide)
1487:Passive
1484:be used
1421:Passive
1398:Suffix
1329:Plural
1221:Non-ə.
1133:descend
1068:educate
1046:Suffix
812:Gujarat
717:English
713:Persian
678:spirant
664:/ɾ,j,ʋ/
649:phoneme
337:Plosive
296:Glottal
286:Palatal
281:Postal.
96:Central
67:Gujarat
26:in the
3490:Uyghur
3422:Somali
3412:Slovak
3352:Polish
3342:Pashto
3337:Ottawa
3322:Ojibwe
3307:Nepali
3302:Navajo
3216:Kyrgyz
3206:Korean
3134:Modern
3095:Greek
3069:Quebec
3023:Middle
2962:Dutch
2958:Danish
2856:Hejazi
2828:Adyghe
2818:Abkhaz
2680:Cinema
2646:Script
2599:topics
2531:411249
2529:
2463:
2442:
2436:610376
2434:
2406:
2400:607202
2398:
2390:
2360:
1907:/kəɦe/
1896:kahevũ
1888:/kəɦe/
1743:large
1673:Casual
1670:Formal
1659:murmur
1650:Murmur
1562:Suffix
1504:length
1443:to cut
1441:cause
1418:be cut
1058:Notes
1025:). It
1014:as an
1001:plural
944:stress
938:Stress
788:, and
741:/tʃiz/
653:phones
555:voiced
389:voiced
266:Dental
261:Labial
81:Vowels
63:Indian
57:is an
42:
3500:Welsh
3480:Ubykh
3465:Tamil
3427:Sotho
3397:Scots
3332:Oromo
3282:Māori
3272:Malay
3226:Latin
3196:Kiowa
3181:Irish
3176:Inuit
3109:Koine
2953:Czech
2800:Verbs
2785:Nouns
2527:JSTOR
2440:S2CID
2432:JSTOR
2404:S2CID
2396:JSTOR
1843:/kəɾ/
1823:beɦəd
1811:/ɦəd/
1786:very
1768:ə̤/ɑ̤
1761:ə/aɦV
1734:easy
1703:bone
1686:ɦV→V̤
1507:Noun
1395:Stem
1323:games
1043:Stem
1033:as a
1010:) or
991:vowel
966:schwa
870:udgār
863:uccār
828:Hindi
729:/dʒʱ/
303:Nasal
291:Velar
108:Close
91:Front
30:(IPA)
3515:Zuni
3470:Taos
2461:ISBN
2388:ISSN
2358:ISBN
1920:Rule
1764:high
1752:day
1694:now
1667:Rule
1642:that
1634:that
1612:/dʒ/
1584:sing
1559:Stem
1544:edit
1495:long
1490:Yes
1424:Yes
1353:heat
1313:game
1261:time
1241:lazy
1226:noun
1055:Del
1052:C/V
1020:see
1005:see
877:ucāṭ
857:The
835:/tt/
833:and
824:/tɾ/
798:/kʃ/
796:and
794:/ɡn/
759:and
727:and
725:/dʒ/
715:and
685:/pʰ/
622:Flap
230:and
218:and
210:/oɔ/
208:and
206:/eɛ/
197:and
166:Open
101:Back
53:The
3453:T–Z
3260:M–S
3044:F–L
3018:Old
2931:Old
2811:A–E
2547:doi
2519:doi
2424:doi
2380:doi
2008:/ɦ/
2004:/ɦ/
1903:/ɦ/
1898:).
1894:as
1821:in
1819:ɦəd
1815:ə̤d
1712:əɦV
1655:/ɦ/
1628:one
1620:one
1570:see
1475:use
1458:No
1409:cut
1387:/ɑ/
1383:/ə/
1379:/ɑ/
1364:/ə/
1359:Yes
1343:hot
1288:day
1252:/ə/
1247:Yes
1126:).
1120:/ə/
1095:).
1089:/ə/
1084:Yes
987:/ə/
985:'s
956:/a/
902:big
894:big
831:/t/
820:/ɾ/
816:/ɾ/
804:/ɾ/
790:/l/
786:/ʋ/
782:/j/
778:/ɾ/
761:/ɳ/
757:/ɭ/
721:/z/
695:/ʋ/
492:dʒʱ
456:tʃʰ
239:/æ/
220:/ɔ/
216:/ɛ/
199:/o/
195:/e/
3532::
2543:53
2541:,
2525:,
2515:37
2513:,
2438:,
2430:,
2420:20
2418:,
2402:,
2394:,
2386:,
2374:,
2344:;
2218:^
2177:^
2132:^
2115:^
2100:^
2061:^
2040:^
2017:.
2010:.
1766:→
1720:V̤
1717:→
1299:No
1149:No
993:.
784:,
780:,
731::
605:ɭ
568:)
537:)
523:)
497:ɡʱ
487:ɖʱ
482:dʱ
477:bʱ
461:kʰ
451:ʈʰ
446:tʰ
441:pʰ
417:dʒ
371:tʃ
77:.
2737:e
2730:t
2723:v
2589:e
2582:t
2575:v
2549::
2521::
2426::
2382::
2376:6
1988:→
1975:3
1962:2
1949:0
1757:3
1708:2
1681:1
1548:]
1331:o
1304:e
1279:e
1031:e
1012:e
998:o
859:u
837:.
630:ɾ
610:j
600:l
593:ʋ
579:ɦ
565:z
562:(
542:ʃ
535:ʂ
533:(
528:s
520:f
517:(
424:ɡ
410:ɖ
403:d
396:b
378:k
364:ʈ
357:t
350:p
323:ɳ
316:n
309:m
284:/
268:/
241:.
234:.
201:.
178:ɑ
174:)
172:æ
170:(
159:ɔ
154:ɛ
142:o
137:ə
132:e
120:u
113:i
48:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.