214:
perceived as more attractive. WHR is related to various markers of health and fertility, for example a high WHR is correlated with: a low estrogen/testosterone ratio (this means that a woman has more of a 'T-shaped' body which is seen as less healthy and attractive); a high ratio is also correlated to circulatory system problems such as heart attacks and strokes; more disease (e.g. cancer); and is a general sign of increased age and hence lower fertility, therefore supporting the adaptive significance of an attractive WHR. This advantage of being more fertile has been supported by various studies, for example artificial insemination studies involving sperm donors, where the best predictor of success is a low WHR. Similarly, a high WHR has been associated with impairment in the pregnancy rate of IVF (
188:
20:
281:
107:
122:. When there are insufficient energy resources in the environment or health issues which require energy to combat, a woman's storage of gynoid fat is likely to be reduced. Therefore, a female with high levels of gynoid fat would be signalling to males that they are in an optimal state for reproduction and nurturing of offspring. This can be seen in the fact that a female's
260:(BMI), and this finding can be seen as consistent across Indonesian, Chinese, White and African-American young men and women. Psychologists have argued that evolutionary selection processes have facilitated this relationship between WHR and female attractiveness, which has resulted in a consensus that seems to transcend cultural boundaries.
55:. It is proposed that babies which are breast-fed are more likely to have increased cognitive capabilities due to these fatty acids being present in the breast milk, as they have been suggested to aid early brain development in fetuses and newborns. The most notable fatty acids found in human breast milk are
268:
Gynoid fat is not associated with as severe health effects as android fat. Gynoid fat is a lower risk factor for cardiovascular disease than android fat. However, excess body fat is the main source of estrogen in the body and therefore particularly high levels of gynoid fat can increase the risk of
213:
is also related to WHR, but is the opposite to gynoid fat. The ratio of a woman’s gynoid to android fat is used to measure her WHR, whereby the lower the WHR, the higher gynoid to android fat ratio. Research into human attraction suggests that women with higher levels of gynoid fat distribution are
97:
The location of android fat differs in that it assembles around internal fat depots and the trunk (includes thorax and abdomen). Android fat has more of a survival role and is utilised by the body as an energy source when energy supplies are low, in contrast to the reproductive functions of gynoid
238:
which give the illusion of attractive gynoid fat distribution, and can create a lower waist-to-hip ratio than one naturally has. Other examples include micrograft surgery, which involves the deposition of adipose tissue, previously taken from the waist, into the buttocks. This achieves again, the
133:
As a female's capacity for reproduction comes to an end, the fat distribution within the female body begins a transition from the gynoid type to more of an android type distribution. This is evidenced by the percentages of android fat being far higher in post-menopausal than pre-menopausal women.
171:, characterised by low estrogen, display more male type fat distributions such as a higher waist-to-hip ratio. Conversely, men who are treated with estrogen to offset testosterone related diseases such as prostate cancer may find a reduction in their waist-to-hip ratio.
166:
inhibits fat placement in the abdominal region of the body, and stimulates fat placement in the gluteofemoral areas (the buttocks and hips). Certain hormonal imbalances can affect the fat distributions of both men and women. Women suffering from
151:" figure of a woman, compared to the inverted triangle which is typical of the male figure. Women commonly have a higher body fat percentage than men and the deposition of fat in particular areas is thought to be controlled by
251:
There has not been sufficient evidence to suggest there are significant differences in the perception of attractiveness across cultures. Females considered the most attractive are all within the normal weight range with a
207:(IQ) levels. It was found not only that women with a lower WHR (which signals higher levels of gynoid fat) had higher levels of IQ, but also that low WHR in mothers was correlated with higher IQ levels in their children.
226:. Further studies have also found that oestrogen replacement in women lowers the WHR in pre- and post-menopausal women, and that this is because oestrogen replacement maintains gynoid fat distribution in the body.
34:, specifically the hips, thighs and buttocks. Gynoid fat in females is used to provide nourishment for offspring, and is often referred to as 'reproductive fat'. This is because it contains long-chain
713:
Kirchengast, S.; Gruber, D.; Sator, M.; Hartmann, B.; Knogler, W.; Huber, J. (1997-01-01). "Menopause-associated differences in female fat patterning estimated by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry".
346:
Nteli
Chatzioglou, Gkionoul; Govsa, Figen; Bicer, Ahmet; Ozer, Mehmet Asim; Pinar, Yelda (2019). "Physical attractiveness: analysis of buttocks patterns for planning body contouring treatment".
38:(PUFAs), which are important in the development of fetuses. It is regarded as a physically attractive feature, serving as an indication towards a woman's reproductive potential.
569:
Kirchengast, S.; Gruber, D.; Sator, M.; Knogler, W.; Huber, J. (1997). "The fat distribution index-a new possibility to quantify sex specific fat patterning in females".
1237:
Singh, D.; Young, R. K. (1995). "Body weight, waist-to-hip ratio, breasts, and hips: Role in judgments of female attractiveness and desirability for relationships".
848:
1315:
Singh, Devendra; Dixson, B.J.; Jessop, T.S.; Morgan, B.; Dixson, A.F. (2010). "Cross-cultural consensus for waist–hip ratio and women's attractiveness".
918:
Lassek, W. D.; Gaulin, S. J. (2008). "Waist–hip ratio and cognitive ability: is gluteofemoral fat a privileged store of neurodevelopmental resources?".
1264:
Singh, Devendra; Luis, Suwardi (1995-03-01). "Ethnic and gender consensus for the effect of waist-to-hip ratio on judgment of women's attractiveness".
1131:
Genazzani, A. R.; Gambacciani, M. (2006). "Effect of climacteric transition and hormone replacement therapy on body weight and body fat distribution".
390:
Ma, Wenzhi; Zhu, Huiping; Yu, Xinyi; Zhai, Xiaobing; Li, Shiyang; Huang, Nian; Liu, Keyang; Shirai, Kokoro; Sheerah, Haytham A.; Cao, Jinhong (2023).
494:
Agostoni, C; Marangoni, F; Bernardo, L; Lammardo, Am; Galli, C; Riva, E (1999-09-01). "Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in human milk".
467:
Singh, Devendra (1994-01-01). "Is thin really beautiful and good? Relationship between waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) and female attractiveness".
114:
Gynoid fat is primarily a store of energy to be expended in the nurturing of offspring, both to provide adequate energy resources during
203:(WHR), whereby if a woman has a lower waist-to-hip ratio it is seen as more favourable. Studies have found correlations between WHR and
174:
Sexual dimorphism in distribution of gynoid fat was thought to emerge around puberty, but as of 2005 has been found to exist earlier.
1174:
Singh, D.; Randall, P. K. (2007). "Beauty is in the eye of the plastic surgeon: Waist–hip ratio (WHR) and women's attractiveness".
79:, the female sex hormone, causing the female form to store higher levels of fat than the male form, which is affected primarily by
392:"Association between android fat mass, gynoid fat mass and cardiovascular and all-cause mortality in adults: NHANES 2003–2007"
330:
873:
Singh, Devendra (August 1993). "Adaptive significance of female physical attractiveness: Role of waist-to-hip ratio".
1390:
1363:
588:
234:
Not all women have their desired distribution of gynoid fat, hence there are now trends of cosmetic surgery, such as
1041:
Zaadstra, B. M.; Seidell, J. C.; Van Noord, P.; te Velde, E. R.; Habbema, J. D.; Vrieswijk, B.; Karbaat, J. (1993).
1422:
1092:"An android body fat distribution in females impairs the pregnancy rate of in-vitro fertilization-embryo transfer"
75:
that girls begin to develop at puberty; it is stored in the hips, thighs and bottom. This process is modulated by
380:"As women reach puberty, fat accumulates in the gynoid fat regions, notably, on the buttocks, thighs, and hips ."
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Singh, D (1993). "Adaptive significance of female physical attractiveness: role of waist-to-hip ratio".
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1043:"Fat and female fecundity: prospective study of effect of body fat distribution on conception rates"
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The Fat-Burning Bible: 28 Days of Foods, Supplements, and
Workouts that Help You Lose Weight
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612:
Lancaster, J. B. (1986). Human adolescence and reproduction: An evolutionary perspective.
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797:"Preferred Women's Waist-to-Hip Ratio Variation over the Last 2,500 Years"
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Handbook of
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614:
School-Age
Pregnancy and Parenthood. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter
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493:
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849:"Gleaning New Perspectives by Measuring Body Proportions in Art"
668:"Sex- and menopause-associated changes in body-fat distribution"
345:
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126:
is at its optimal minimum during times of peak fertility—late
1090:
Wass, P.; Waldenström, U.; Rössner, S.; Hellberg, D. (1997).
568:
953:
Singh, D (1993). "Body shape and women's attractiveness".
627:
Exercise
Physiology for Health, Fitness, and Performance
1314:
759:. Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers, 2010, p. 7.
130:
and early adulthood, before increasing later in life.
118:
and for the infant during the stage in which they are
666:
Ley, C. J.; Lees, B.; Stevenson, J. C. (1992-05-01).
1130:
276:
16:
Female body fat around the hips, breasts and thighs
1351:
647:The Evolutionary Biology of Human Female Sexuality
447:The Evolutionary Biology of Human Female Sexuality
199:Gynoid fat bodily distribution is measured as the
1404:
795:Bovet, Jeanne; Raymond, Michel (17 April 2015).
665:
1203:
1199:
1197:
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1204:Dixson, B. J.; Li, B.; Dixson, A. F. (2010).
755:Jürimäe, J., Hills, A. P., & Jürimäe, T.
629:, p. 218. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
1173:
998:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
917:
875:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
794:
625:Plowman, Sharon & Smith, Denise (2007).
51:Gynoid fat is mainly composed of long-chain
1194:
441:
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437:
389:
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672:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
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649:, p. 117. Oxford University Press, USA.
449:, p. 113. Oxford University Press, USA.
434:
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1176:Personality and Individual Differences
469:Personality and Individual Differences
30:is the body fat that forms around the
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466:
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396:Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine
142:
1382:Cultural Encyclopedia of the Breast
339:
229:
13:
1337:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2009.09.001
940:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.07.005
781:Goran, M. I. & Sothern, M. S.
508:10.1111/j.1651-2227.1999.tb01303.x
256:(WHR) of about 0.7, regardless of
222:women due to the higher levels of
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71:Gynoid fat contributes toward the
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1350:Shilstone, Mackie (2004-12-03).
279:
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243:' or 'hourglass' feminine form.
1379:Smith, Merril D. (2014-09-08).
1372:
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847:Stephen Heyman (May 27, 2015).
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589:"Tanita - Women & Body Fat"
348:Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy
325:. Academic Press. p. 385.
772:. Nova Publishers, 2007, p. 3.
581:
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538:
487:
460:
383:
312:
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305:
1385:. Rowman & Littlefield.
1317:Evolution and Human Behavior
1251:10.1016/0162-3095(95)00074-7
920:Evolution and Human Behavior
822:10.1371/journal.pone.0123284
770:Exercise and Health Research
591:. 2009-02-16. Archived from
481:10.1016/0191-8869(94)90116-3
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1133:Gynecological Endocrinology
272:
87:Difference from android fat
66:
53:polyunsaturated fatty acids
36:polyunsaturated fatty acids
10:
1439:
1188:10.1016/j.paid.2006.12.003
1020:10.1037/0022-3514.65.2.293
897:10.1037/0022-3514.65.2.293
269:breast cancer developing.
90:
1358:. John Wiley & Sons.
1239:Ethology and Sociobiology
1145:10.1080/09513590600629092
785:. CRC Press, 2005, p. 42.
727:10.1080/03014469700004762
645:Thornhill, Randy (2008).
445:Thornhill, Randy (2008).
409:10.3389/fcvm.2023.1055223
360:10.1007/s00276-018-2083-4
169:polycystic ovary syndrome
1109:10.1093/humrep/12.9.2057
1059:10.1136/bmj.306.6876.484
322:Nutritional Biochemistry
295:Android fat distribution
224:android fat distribution
211:Android fat distribution
195:has a WHR value of 0.76.
93:Android fat distribution
1423:Physical attractiveness
1223:10.1093/czoolo/56.2.175
715:Annals of Human Biology
550:www.todaysdietitian.com
216:in vitro fertilisation
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178:Relevance in sexuality
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110:A baby being breastfed
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684:10.1093/ajcn/55.5.950
239:lowered WHR and the '
205:intelligence quotient
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102:Reproductive function
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595:on February 16, 2009
247:Cultural differences
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1329:2010EHumB..31..176S
932:2008EHumB..29...26L
813:2015PLoSO..1023284B
319:Brody, Tom (1999).
1278:10.1007/BF02734135
1096:Human Reproduction
967:10.1007/bf02692203
853:The New York Times
254:waist-to-hip ratio
201:waist-to-hip ratio
197:
183:Waist-to-hip ratio
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1053:(6876): 484–487.
332:978-0-12-134836-6
143:Sexual dimorphism
73:female body shape
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