481:
method of hapten conjugation is that there is automated analysis of sample and the testing of sample interactions can be determined in free solution. This method of hapten-protein conjugation is exceptionally effective with conjugates of low epitope densities, where it is otherwise very challenging by the use of other methods to determine their electrical or ionic mobility.
318:. However, to achieve the best and most desirable results, many factors are needed to be taken into the design of hapten conjugates. These include the method of hapten conjugation, the type of carrier used and the hapten density. Variations in these factors could lead to different strengths of immune response toward the newly formed antigenic determinant.
334:), either by itself, or it can be converted to a protein-reactive species for example by air oxidation or cutaneous metabolism. Haptens become fastened to a carrier molecule by a covalent bond. Depending on the haptens being used, other factors in considering the carrier proteins could include their in vivo toxicity, commercial availability and cost.
127:, the small-molecule hapten may also be able to bind to the antibody, but it will usually not initiate an immune response; usually only the hapten-carrier adduct can do this. Sometimes the small-molecule hapten can even block immune response to the hapten-carrier adduct by preventing the adduct from binding to the antibody, a process called
548:
Hapten-specific antibodies are used in broad area of different immunoassays, immunobiosensor technologies and immunoaffinity chromatography purification columns; those antibodies could be used to detect small environmental contaminants, drugs of abuse, vitamins, hormones, metabolites, food toxins and
376:
Most common reaction mechanisms forming covalent bonds and predicted to be involved in sensitization are nucleophilic substitution on a saturated centre, nucleophilic substitution on an unsaturated centre and nucleophilic addition. Other reactions are also possible, such as electrophilic substitution
289:
to crosslink these molecules to carrier proteins suitable for immune recognition. Notably, detection of such small molecules in tissues requires the tissue to be glutaraldehyde-fixed, as the glutaraldehyde covalent-linkage on the molecule of interest often forms a portion of the antibody recognized
480:
with a very high separation capacity. There are numerous advantages to using HPCE as a technique to investigate certain conjugates such as only requiring minute sample sizes (nl). In addition, the sample used does not need to be pure and no type of radiolabeling is needed. A great benefit to this
524:
Haptens are widely used in immunology and related fields. Sensitizing chemicals can cause different forms of allergy, allergic contact dermatitis, or sensitization of the respiratory tract. Interestingly, discrete types of chemicals induce divergent immune responses: contact allergens provoke
104:. The second elicitation phase where the hapten is applied to a different skin area starts with activation of effector T cells followed by T cell-mediated tissue damage and antibody-mediated immune responses. Haptens initially activate innate immune responses by complex mechanisms involving
88:. It consists of two phases: sensitization and elicitation. The sensitization phase where the hapten is applied to the skin for the first time is characterized by the activation of innate immune responses, including migration of dendritic cells to the lymph nodes, priming antigen-specific
733:
Sakamoto, Eri; Katahira, Yasuhiro; Mizoguchi, Izuru; Watanabe, Aruma; Furusaka, Yuma; Sekine, Ami; Yamagishi, Miu; Sonoda, Jukito; Miyakawa, Satomi; Inoue, Shinya; Hasegawa, Hideaki; Yo, Kazuyuki; Yamaji, Fumiya; Toyoda, Akemi; Yoshimoto, Takayuki (12 January 2023).
544:
tests for skin sensitization, hazard identification, and potency evaluation on different drug and cosmetic components are highly preferred in early product development. The ability of a drug to act as a hapten is a clear indication of potential immunogenicity.
422:: A group of compounds with a general formula of R-N=C=N-Râ˛, where R and RⲠare either aliphatic (i.e., diethylcarbodiimide) or aromatic (i.e., diphenylcarbodiimide). Conjugation using a carbodiimide requires the presence of Îą or É-amino and a
430:
residue of the carrier protein while the carboxyl group comes from the hapten. The exact mechanism for this reaction is still unknown. However, two pathways are proposed. The first postulates that an intermediate that can react with an
499:
response. In inhibition, free hapten molecules bind with antibodies toward that molecule without causing the immune response, leaving fewer antibodies left to bind to the immunogenic hapten-protein adduct. An example of a
415:
are to aid the conjugation of haptens to their carriers. The extent of cross-linkage is dependent upon the hapten/carrier to coupling agent ratio, hapten/carrier concentration and the temperature, pH of the environment.
150:-type molecule, which then reacts with skin proteins to form hapten adducts. After a second exposure, the proliferated T-cells become activated, generating an immune reaction that produces typical blisters of a
385:
While selecting a suitable method for hapten conjugation, functional groups on the hapten and its carrier must be identified. Depending on the groups present, one of the two main strategies could be employed:
998:"Studies on the immune response and preparation of antibodies against a large panel of conjugated neurotransmitters and biogenic amines: specific polyclonal antibody response and tolerance"
457:
of the reaction. Higher pH would give rise to more Schiff base intermediates and subsequently lead to the increase in hapten conjugates' number and size. Overall, cross-linkage involving
945:
Tagliaferro, P; Tandler, C.J; Ramos, A.J; Pecci
Saavedra, J; Brusco, A (1997). "Immunofluorescence and glutaraldehyde fixation. A new procedure based on the Schiff-quenching method".
46:
by itself. The mechanisms of absence of immune response may vary and involve complex immunological interactions, but can include absent or insufficient co-stimulatory signals from
357:
is often to bind to xenobiotics via its substrate-binding pockets and remove the invading chemical from the circulation or tissue, thus acting as a detoxification mechanism.
1278:
Frøkiaer, H.; Sørensen, H.; Sørensen, J. C.; Sørensen, S. (1995-11-24). "Optimization of hapten-protein conjugation by high-performance capillary electrophoresis".
169:
A lot of haptens are comprised in different kinds of drugs, pesticides, hormones, food toxins etc. Most important factor is the molecular mass, which is <1000
282:
353:(HSA) is often the model protein of choice for protein-binding assays. This is a well-characterized protein, and the role of albumin in blood and tissues
1522:
820:"Defining the complementarities between antibodies and haptens to refine our understanding and aid the prediction of a successful binding interaction"
1393:
Divkovic, Maja; Basketter, David A.; Gilmour, Nicola; Panico, Maria; Dell, Anne; Morris, Howard R.; Pease, Camilla K. Smith (2003-01-01).
330:
residues in the reactive side chains to conjugate with the haptens. For protein haptenation to occur, hapten must be electron deficient (
818:
Al
Qaraghuli, Mohammed M.; Palliyil, Soumya; Broadbent, Gillian; Cullen, David C.; Charlton, Keith A.; Porter, Andrew J. (2015-10-24).
473:
609:"Hapten-Induced Contact Hypersensitivity, Autoimmune Reactions, and Tumor Regression: Plausibility of Mediating Antitumor Immunity"
245:
Antibodies have successfully been raised against endogenous & unreactive small molecules such as some neurotransmitters (e.g.
1515:
512:) of the entire dextran complex, which is enough to bind anti-dextran antibodies, but insufficient to result in the formation of
1346:
Hopkins, Josephine E.; Naisbitt, Dean J.; Kitteringham, Neil R.; Dearman, Rebecca J.; Kimber, Ian; Park, B. Kevin (2005-02-01).
1333:
1262:
682:
1200:
Bauminger, Sara; Wilchek, Meir (1980). "[7] the use of carbodiimides in the preparation of immunizing conjugates".
891:
1348:"Selective Haptenation of Cellular or Extracellular Protein by Chemical Allergens: Association with Cytokine Polarization"
151:
109:
1508:
533:, which could be very suitable for modeling how the immune response is polarized towards different types of antigens.
1217:
1069:
1854:
476:(HPCE) is an alternative method in optimizing hapten-protein conjugation. HPCE is predominantly used in separating
1849:
1145:"Hapten-protein binding: from theory to practical application in the in vitro prediction of skin sensitization"
407:
This method mainly applies to nonreactive haptens. Agents with at least two chemically reactive groups such as
1792:
1095:"Synthesis and Characterization of HaptenâProtein Conjugates for Antibody Production against Small Molecules"
76:
Haptens applied on skin, when conjugate with a carrier, could induce contact hypersensitivity, which is a
54:
453:
or
Michael-type double bond addition products. The yield of conjugates can be controlled by varying the
1678:
1322:
Affinity probe capillary electrophoresis evaluation of aptamer binding to
Campylobacter jejuni bacteria
997:
698:
Shreder, Kevin (March 2000). "Synthetic
Haptens as Probes of Antibody Response and Immunorecognition".
58:
1441:
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Stratis-Cullum, D., McMasters, Sun, Pellegrino, Paul M, & U.S. Army
Research Laboratory. (2009).
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Although proteins are mostly employed for hapten conjugation, synthetic polypeptides such as
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105:
736:"Chemical- and Drug-Induced Allergic, Inflammatory, and Autoimmune Diseases Via Haptenation"
1844:
1777:
1688:
1612:
1395:"ProteinâHapten Binding: Challenges and Limitations for In Vitro Skin Sensitization Assays"
1093:
Singh, K. V.; Kaur, Jasdeep; Varshney, Grish C.; Raje, Manoj; Suri, C. Raman (2004-01-01).
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in certain individuals. This also appears to be the mechanism by which the anesthetic gas
161:, which is caused by nickel metal ions penetrating the skin and binding to skin proteins.
8:
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Divkovic, Maja; Pease, Camilla K.; Gerberick, G. Frank; Basketter, David A. (May 2005).
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1324:(ARL-TR (Aberdeen Proving Ground, Md.); 5015). Adelphi, MD: Army Research Laboratory.
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68:, who also pioneered the use of synthetic haptens to study immunochemical phenomena.
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401:. This method of conjugation is spontaneous and no cross-linking agents are needed.
314:. They are also vital in the development of sensitive quantitative and qualitative
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Due to their nature and properties, hapten-carrier adducts have been essential in
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Other haptens that are commonly used in molecular biology applications include
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142:. When absorbed through the skin from a poison ivy plant, urushiol undergoes
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203:, a blood pressure-lowering drug that occasionally can produce drug-induced
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439:, the main side product of the reaction at high temperature, has occurred.
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Sheedy, Claudia; Roger MacKenzie, C.; Hall, J. Christopher (2007-07-01).
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and antibodies. They are important in the purification and production of
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In general, carrier proteins should be immunogenic and contain enough
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The concept of haptens emerged from the work of
Austrian immunologist
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Molecule which triggers an immune response when attached to a carrier
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1056:. Methods in Molecular Medicine. Vol. 138. pp. 167â182.
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Lemus, Ranulfo; Karol, Meryl H. (2008). "Conjugation of
Haptens".
1925:
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1559:
1442:"Isolation and affinity maturation of hapten-specific antibodies"
1334:
Promiten, drug information from the
Swedish official drug catalog
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342:
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39:
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1243:"Conjugation of Peptides to Carrier Proteins via Glutaraldehyde"
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97:
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The
Specificity of Serological Reactions, 2nd Edition, revised
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is formed. The second stating that a rearrangement of an acyl
558:
529:
responses, whereas respiratory allergens stimulate selective
461:
is very stable. However, immunized animals tend to recognize
432:
427:
306:. They have been used to evaluate the properties of specific
71:
996:
Huisman, Han; Wynveen, Paul; Setter, Peter W. (2010-02-06).
146:
in the skin cells to generate the actual hapten, a reactive
436:
377:(diazonium salts), radical reactions, and ionic reactions.
258:
495:
Hapten inhibition or "semi-hapten" is the inhibition of a
1439:
1204:. Methods in Enzymology. Vol. 70. pp. 151â159.
393:
Used when hapten is a chemical reactive molecule such as
157:
Other example of a hapten-mediated contact dermatitis is
454:
1399:
Journal of Toxicology: Cutaneous and Ocular Toxicology
42:; the carrier may be one that also does not elicit an
1092:
92:, and the generation of antigen-specific effector or
995:
1249:. Springer Protocols Handbooks. pp. 679â687.
896:Current Opinion in Allergy and Clinical Immunology
1943:
1199:
380:
371:
38:only when attached to a large carrier such as a
1516:
1047:
1045:
1043:
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1039:
445:: This method works by the reaction between
672:
657:
606:
471:High performance capillary electrophoresis:
61:(IBD) to induce autoimmune-like responses.
1523:
1509:
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474:High performance capillary electrophoresis
72:Immune reaction on a hapten-carrier adduct
1493:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
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426:. The amino group usually comes from the
660:The Specificity of Serological Reactions
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697:
1944:
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878:The Specificity of Serologic Reactions
607:Erkes, Dan; Selvan, Senthamil (2014).
164:
1504:
1138:
1136:
465:'s cross-linking bridges as epitopes.
405:Intermediary molecules cross-linkage:
297:
584:"Hapten | biochemistry | Britannica"
490:
215:, as well as the mechanism by which
134:A well-known example of a hapten is
110:damage-associated molecular patterns
792:
152:urushiol-induced contact dermatitis
13:
1133:
176:The first researched haptens were
14:
1968:
1484:
1202:Immunochemical Techniques, Part A
890:Pichler, Werner J. (2003-08-01).
662:. Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press.
337:The most common carriers include
1458:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2007.02.003
1162:10.1111/j.0105-1873.2005.00683.x
1014:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.06492.x
908:10.1097/00130832-200308000-00003
516:and resultant immune responses.
78:type IV delayed hypersensitivity
53:Haptens have been used to study
1433:
1386:
1352:Chemical Research in Toxicology
1339:
1327:
1314:
1271:
1241:Carter, John (1 January 1996).
1234:
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989:
947:Journal of Neuroscience Methods
883:
876:Based on K. Landsteiner, 1962,
508:, which is a small fraction (1
485:
1850:Immunoglobulin class switching
1247:The Protein Protocols Handbook
870:
811:
786:
726:
691:
677:. Courier Dover Publications.
666:
651:
613:Journal of Immunology Research
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576:
391:Spontaneous chemical reaction:
219:-class drugs cause autoimmune
180:and its carboxyl derivatives (
138:, which is the toxin found in
1:
1255:10.1007/978-1-60327-259-9_117
1210:10.1016/s0076-6879(80)70046-0
1054:Allergy Methods and Protocols
959:10.1016/s0165-0270(97)00126-x
569:
381:Methods of hapten conjugation
372:Mechanisms of protein binding
211:can cause a life-threatening
1292:10.1016/0021-9673(95)00642-X
1062:10.1007/978-1-59745-366-0_14
119:Once the body has generated
57:(ACD) and the mechanisms of
7:
1280:Journal of Chromatography A
953:(2). Elsevier BV: 191â197.
892:"Drug-induced autoimmunity"
552:
519:
321:
55:allergic contact dermatitis
26:, meaning âto fastenâ) are
10:
1973:
1679:Polyclonal B cell response
673:Landsteiner, Karl (1990).
658:Landsteiner, Karl (1945).
549:environmental pollutants.
449:with amine groups to form
59:inflammatory bowel disease
1913:
1871:
1813:
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1552:
1545:
1002:Journal of Neurochemistry
837:10.1186/s12896-015-0217-x
497:type III hypersensitivity
1495:Medical Subject Headings
1336:Last updated: 2005-02-17
799:pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
195:Some haptens can induce
48:antigen-presenting cells
22:(derived from the Greek
753:10.3390/biology12010123
527:type I hypersensitivity
199:disease. An example is
100:and antibody-secreting
1793:Tolerance in pregnancy
1535:adaptive immune system
1446:Biotechnology Advances
1099:Bioconjugate Chemistry
712:10.1006/meth.1999.0929
364:, polysaccharides and
106:inflammatory cytokines
1828:Somatic hypermutation
1662:Polyclonal antibodies
1657:Monoclonal antibodies
1411:10.1081/CUS-120020382
312:monoclonal antibodies
273:), amino acids (e.g.
80:reaction mediated by
1845:Junctional diversity
1613:Antigen presentation
368:could also be used.
362:Poly-L-glutamic acid
123:to a hapten-carrier
1840:V(D)J recombination
1823:Affinity maturation
1575:Antigenic variation
626:10.1155/2014/175265
351:Human serum albumin
283:5-methoxytryptophan
279:5-hydroxytryptophan
205:lupus erythematosus
190:p-aminobenzoic acid
165:Examples of haptens
1149:Contact Dermatitis
588:www.britannica.com
298:Hapten conjugation
1939:
1938:
1867:
1866:
1617:professional APCs
1364:10.1021/tx049688+
1264:978-0-89603-338-2
1111:10.1021/bc034158v
824:BMC Biotechnology
684:978-0-486-66203-9
619:. Hindawi: 1â28.
531:type II responses
491:Hapten inhibition
349:and many others.
129:hapten inhibition
1964:
1833:Clonal selection
1805:Immune privilege
1800:Immunodeficiency
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502:hapten inhibitor
221:hemolytic anemia
66:Karl Landsteiner
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443:Glutaraldehyde
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424:carboxyl group
413:glutaraldehyde
402:
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339:serum globulin
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287:glutaraldehyde
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159:nickel allergy
94:memory T cells
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1952:Immune system
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29:
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21:
1750:Inflammation
1735:Alloimmunity
1730:Autoimmunity
1715:Immunity vs.
1667:Autoantibody
1581:
1565:Superantigen
1449:
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494:
486:Clinical use
470:
451:Schiff bases
420:Carbodiimide
409:carbodiimide
404:
390:
384:
375:
359:
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336:
325:
316:immunoassays
301:
285:), by using
244:
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175:
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156:
133:
128:
118:
114:inflammasome
102:plasma cells
75:
63:
52:
23:
19:
18:
1873:Lymphocytes
1532:Lymphocytic
399:isocyanates
236:digoxigenin
228:fluorescein
201:hydralazine
1957:Immunology
1946:Categories
1914:Substances
1778:Peripheral
1766:Inaction:
1645:Antibodies
1626:Macrophage
1539:complement
804:2023-01-23
795:"Urushiol"
746:(1): 123.
593:2023-01-23
570:References
510:kilodalton
395:anhydrides
328:amino acid
304:immunology
275:tryptophan
263:tryptamine
217:penicillin
197:autoimmune
140:poison ivy
121:antibodies
1931:Cytolysin
1921:Cytokines
1768:Tolerance
1717:tolerance
1636:Immunogen
1466:0734-9750
1419:0731-3829
1372:0893-228X
1300:0021-9673
1171:0105-1873
1119:1043-1802
1030:205621520
967:0165-0270
916:1528-4050
846:1472-6750
830:(1): 99.
793:PubChem.
762:2079-7737
542:in silico
506:dextran 1
366:liposomes
347:ovalbumin
251:glutamate
247:serotonin
213:hepatitis
209:halothane
144:oxidation
1881:Cellular
1725:Immunity
1723:Action:
1706:Paratope
1694:Idiotype
1684:Allotype
1652:Antibody
1606:Mimotope
1570:Allergen
1553:Antigens
1546:Lymphoid
1474:17383141
1427:72917520
1380:15720145
1179:16191014
1127:14733597
1080:18612607
1022:19912471
983:19400487
932:46521947
924:12865767
864:26498921
780:36671815
720:10694458
645:24949488
553:See also
538:in vitro
520:Research
343:albumins
322:Carriers
308:epitopes
255:dopamine
136:urushiol
1926:Opsonin
1905:NK cell
1893:Humoral
1773:Central
1740:Allergy
1689:Isotype
1589:Epitope
1560:Antigen
1491:Haptens
1308:8520687
1228:6999295
1187:9713648
975:9489897
855:4619568
771:9855847
740:Biology
700:Methods
636:4052058
564:Antigen
355:in vivo
292:epitope
267:glycine
249:(5HT),
178:aniline
148:quinone
98:B cells
82:T cells
40:protein
24:haptein
20:Haptens
1898:B cell
1886:T cell
1631:B cell
1594:Linear
1582:Hapten
1497:(MeSH)
1472:
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238:, and
232:biotin
188:, and
125:adduct
32:elicit
1423:S2CID
1183:S2CID
1026:S2CID
979:S2CID
928:S2CID
559:Toxin
433:amine
428:lysyl
30:that
1537:and
1470:PMID
1462:ISSN
1415:ISSN
1376:PMID
1368:ISSN
1304:PMID
1296:ISSN
1259:ISBN
1224:PMID
1214:ISBN
1175:PMID
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860:PMID
842:ISSN
776:PMID
758:ISSN
716:PMID
679:ISBN
641:PMID
617:2014
437:urea
397:and
259:GABA
96:and
84:and
1859:HLA
1855:MHC
1454:doi
1407:doi
1360:doi
1288:doi
1284:717
1251:doi
1206:doi
1157:doi
1107:doi
1058:doi
1010:doi
1006:112
955:doi
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850:PMC
832:doi
766:PMC
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