Heliocentrism - Knowledge

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expert opinion on the controversy, and the essay provided the "chief direct basis" for the ban. The essay focused on eighteen physical and mathematical arguments against heliocentrism. It borrowed primarily from the arguments of Tycho Brahe, and it notedly mentioned the problem that heliocentrism requires the stars to be much larger than the Sun. Ingoli wrote that the great distance to the stars in the heliocentric theory "clearly proves ... the fixed stars to be of such size, as they may surpass or equal the size of the orbit circle of the Earth itself." Ingoli included four theological arguments in the essay, but suggested to Galileo that he focus on the physical and mathematical arguments. Galileo did not write a response to Ingoli until 1624.

1385:(now known to be illusory), and used geometry to calculate that in order to both have those apparent sizes and be as far away as heliocentrism required, stars would have to be huge (much larger than the sun; the size of Earth's orbit or larger). Regarding this Tycho wrote, "Deduce these things geometrically if you like, and you will see how many absurdities (not to mention others) accompany this assumption by inference." He also cited the Copernican system's "opposition to the authority of Sacred Scripture in more than one place" as a reason why one might wish to reject it, and observed that his own geo-heliocentric alternative "offended neither the principles of physics nor Holy Scripture". 1752:. This placed heliocentrism on a firm theoretical foundation, although Newton's heliocentrism was of a somewhat modern kind. Already in the mid-1680s he recognized the "deviation of the Sun" from the center of gravity of the Solar System. For Newton it was not precisely the center of the Sun or any other body that could be considered at rest, but "the common centre of gravity of the Earth, the Sun and all the Planets is to be esteem'd the Centre of the World", and this center of gravity "either is at rest or moves uniformly forward in a right line". Newton adopted the "at rest" alternative in view of common consent that the center, wherever it was, was at rest. 1133: 1561:'s position on Scripture: not to take every passage literally when the scripture in question is in a Bible book of poetry and songs, not a book of instructions or history. The writers of the Scripture wrote from the perspective of the terrestrial world, and from that vantage point the Sun does rise and set. In fact, it is the Earth's rotation which gives the impression of the Sun in motion across the sky. In February 1615, prominent Dominicans including Thomaso Caccini and Niccolò Lorini brought Galileo's writings on heliocentrism to the attention of the Inquisition, because they appeared to violate Holy Scripture and the decrees of the 1268:"There is talk of a new astrologer who wants to prove that the earth moves and goes around instead of the sky, the sun, the moon, just as if somebody were moving in a carriage or ship might hold that he was sitting still and at rest while the earth and the trees walked and moved. But that is how things are nowadays: when a man wishes to be clever he must … invent something special, and the way he does it must needs be the best! The fool wants to turn the whole art of astronomy upside-down. However, as Holy Scripture tells us, so did Joshua bid the sun to stand still and not the earth." 656:, and other later authors, rejected his innovative view about the turning Earth. It has been argued that Aryabhatta's calculations were based on an underlying heliocentric model, in which the planets orbit the Sun, although this has been rebutted.The general consensus is that a synodic anomaly (depending on the position of the Sun) does not imply a physically heliocentric orbit (such corrections being also present in late Babylonian astronomical texts), and that Aryabhata's system was not explicitly heliocentric. He also made many astronomical calculations, such as the times of the 1163:. Copernicus discussed the philosophical implications of his proposed system, elaborated it in geometrical detail, used selected astronomical observations to derive the parameters of his model, and wrote astronomical tables which enabled one to compute the past and future positions of the stars and planets. In doing so, Copernicus moved heliocentrism from philosophical speculation to predictive geometrical astronomy. In reality, Copernicus' system did not predict the planets' positions any better than the Ptolemaic system. This theory resolved the issue of planetary 1642:. Urban VIII became hostile to Galileo and he was again summoned to Rome. Galileo's trial in 1633 involved making fine distinctions between "teaching" and "holding and defending as true". For advancing heliocentric theory Galileo was forced to recant Copernicanism and was put under house arrest for the last few years of his life. According to J. L. Heilbron, informed contemporaries of Galileo's "appreciated that the reference to heresy in connection with Galileo or Copernicus had no general or theological significance." 1774: 1488: 302:

Earth maintained the same hidden face towards the central fire, rendering both it and the "counter-earth" invisible from Earth. The Pythagorean concept of uniform circular motion remained unchallenged for approximately the next 2000 years, and it was to the Pythagoreans that Copernicus referred to show that the notion of a moving Earth was neither new nor revolutionary. Kepler gave an alternative explanation of the Pythagoreans' "central fire" as the Sun, "as most sects purposely hid their teachings".

752: 6556: 341: 5689:"on the basis of the presently accepted scientific view (in accordance with the theory of Relativity) that where two bodies in space are in motion relative to one another, it is impossible scientifically to ascertain which revolves around which, or which is stationary and the other in motion. Therefore, to say that there is, or can be, 'scientific proof' that the earth revolves around the sun is quite an unscientific and uncritical statement." 1462: 1340: 1479: 890: 7590: 1994: 1434:(1609), Kepler made a diagram of the movement of Mars in relation to Earth if Earth were at the center of its orbit, which shows that Mars' orbit would be completely imperfect and never follow along the same path. To solve the apparent derivation of Mars' orbit from a perfect circle, Kepler derived both a mathematical definition and, independently, a matching ellipse around the Sun to explain the motion of the red planet. 7614: 211: 35: 7566: 7602: 7578: 1942:, who argued against heliocentrism on the grounds it contradicted scripture. Nieto merely rejected the new system on those grounds without much passion, whereas Cohn went so far as to call Copernicus "a first-born of Satan", though he also acknowledged that he would have found it difficult to proffer one particular objection based on a passage from the Talmud. 1050:(1452–1519) wrote "Il sole non si move." ("The Sun does not move.") and he was a student of a student of Bessarion according to the Mathematics Genealogy Project. It has been suggested that the idea of the Tusi couple may have arrived in Europe leaving few manuscript traces, since it could have occurred without the translation of any Arabic text into Latin. 1118:). By 1470, the accuracy of observations by the Vienna school of astronomy, of which Peuerbach and Regiomontanus were members, was high enough to make the eventual development of heliocentrism inevitable, and indeed it is possible that Regiomontanus did arrive at an explicit theory of heliocentrism before his death in 1476, some 30 years before Copernicus. 455:, who thought it was the duty of Greeks to indict Aristarchus of Samos on the charge of impiety for putting in motion the Hearth of the Universe, this being the effect of his attempt to save the phenomena by supposing the heaven to remain at rest and the earth to revolve in an oblique circle, while it rotates, at the same time, about its own axis. 2216: – this effect can change the body's mechanical energy in heliocentric reference frame (although it will not changed in the planetary one). However, such selection of "geocentric" or "heliocentric" frames is merely a matter of computation. It does not have philosophical implications and does not constitute a distinct physical or 3446: 2393:

responsible for another famous quotation which has often been misattributed to him: "Who will venture to place the authority of Copernicus above that of the Holy Spirit?" It has long been established that this line cannot be found in any of Calvin's works. It has been suggested that the quotation was

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Seeing that the stars belonging to the Milky Way appeared to encircle the Earth, Herschel carefully counted stars of given apparent magnitudes, and after finding the numbers were the same in all directions, concluded Earth must be close to the center of the Milky Way. However, there were two flaws in

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Meanwhile, the Catholic Church remained opposed to heliocentrism as a literal description, but this did not by any means imply opposition to all astronomy; indeed, it needed observational data to maintain its calendar. In support of this effort it allowed the cathedrals themselves to be used as solar

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I might very rationally put it in dispute, whether there be any such centre in nature, or no; being that neither you nor any one else hath ever proved, whether the World be finite and figurate, or else infinite and interminate; yet nevertheless granting you, for the present, that it is finite, and of

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addressed an essay to Galileo disputing the Copernican system. Galileo later stated that he believed this essay to have been instrumental in the ban against Copernicanism that followed in February. According to Maurice Finocchiaro, Ingoli had probably been commissioned by the Inquisition to write an

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to abstain completely from teaching or defending this doctrine and opinion or from discussing it... to abandon completely... the opinion that the sun stands still at the center of the world and the earth moves, and henceforth not to hold, teach, or defend it in any way whatever, either orally or in

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that moved naturally. So Tycho said that the Copernican system "... expertly and completely circumvents all that is superfluous or discordant in the system of Ptolemy. On no point does it offend the principle of mathematics. Yet it ascribes to the Earth, that hulking, lazy body, unfit for motion, a

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Did Plato put the earth in motion, as he did the sun, the moon, and the five planets, which he called the instruments of time on account of their turnings, and was it necessary to conceive that the earth "which is globed about the axis stretched from pole to pole through the whole universe" was not

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You are aware that "universe" is the name given by most astronomers to the sphere, the centre of which is the centre of the earth, while its radius is equal to the straight line between the centre of the sun and the centre of the earth. This is the common account (τά γραφόμενα), as you have heard

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All Islamic astronomers from Thabit ibn Qurra in the ninth century to Ibn al-Shatir in the fourteenth, and all natural philosophers from al-Kindi to Averroes and later, are known to have accepted ... the Greek picture of the world as consisting of two spheres of which one, the celestial sphere ...

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mentions the "followers of Aristarchus" in passing, it is likely that there were other astronomers in the Classical period who also espoused heliocentrism, but whose work was lost. The only other astronomer from antiquity known by name who is known to have supported Aristarchus' heliocentric model

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revolved in uniform circular motion. This system postulated the existence of a counter-earth collinear with the Earth and central fire, with the same period of revolution around the central fire as the Earth. The Sun revolved around the central fire once a year, and the stars were stationary. The

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had the thought on different occasions that the Earth was spherical and revolving around a "mystical" central fire, and that this fire regulated the universe. In medieval Europe, however, Aristarchus' heliocentrism attracted little attention—possibly because of the loss of scientific works of the

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In February 1616, the Inquisition assembled a committee of theologians, known as qualifiers, who delivered their unanimous report condemning heliocentrism as "foolish and absurd in philosophy, and formally heretical since it explicitly contradicts in many places the sense of Holy Scripture." The

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The movements of the Moon, the planets, and the Sun around the static Earth in the Ptolemaic geocentric model (upper panel) in comparison to the orbits of the planets and the daily-rotating Earth around the Sun in the Copernican heliocentric model (lower panel). In both models, the Moon rotates

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was published in 1742 by Fathers le Seur and Jacquier of the Franciscan Minims, two Catholic mathematicians, with a preface stating that the author's work assumed heliocentrism and could not be explained without the theory. In 1758 the Catholic Church dropped the general prohibition of books

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lower than the Sun." However, after the advent of the telescope showed problems with some geocentric models (by demonstrating that Venus circles the Sun, for example), the Tychonic system and variations on that system became popular among geocentrists, and the Jesuit astronomer

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of the time (modern Newtonian physics was still a century away) offered no physical explanation for the motion of a massive body like Earth, whereas it could easily explain the motion of heavenly bodies by postulating that they were made of a different sort substance called

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In this depiction of the Tychonic system, the objects on blue orbits (the Moon and the Sun) revolve around the Earth. The objects on orange orbits (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) revolve around the Sun. Around all is a sphere of fixed stars, located just beyond

4805:, p. 159. Rosen disputes the earlier conclusion of another scholar that this was referring specifically to Copernicus' theory. According to Rosen, Calvin had very likely never heard of Copernicus and was referring instead to "the traditional geokinetic cosmology". 1381:

motion as quick as that of the aethereal torches, and a triple motion at that." Likewise, Tycho took issue with the vast distances to the stars that Aristarchus and Copernicus had assumed in order to explain the lack of any visible parallax. Tycho had measured the

1904:, Greek philosophy and science under the general name "Greek wisdom" were considered dangerous. They were put under ban then and later for some periods. The first Jewish scholar to describe the Copernican system, albeit without mentioning Copernicus by name, was 403:, and that the sphere of the fixed stars, situated about the same centre as the sun, is so great that the circle in which he supposes the earth to revolve bears such a proportion to the distance of the fixed stars as the centre of the sphere bears to its surface. 223:, says that any model for describing the motions of the planets is merely a mathematical device, and since there is no actual way to know which is true, the simplest model that gets the right numbers should be used. However, he rejected the idea of a 1605:, and the Pope banned all books and letters advocating the Copernican system, which they called "the false Pythagorean doctrine, altogether contrary to Holy Scripture." In 1618, the Holy Office recommended that a modified version of Copernicus' 4716:, Vol.16, No.1/Feb, P. 37, 1985. Philolaus had the Earth moving around a Central Fire which was not the Sun, so Copernicus's reference to Aristarchus's model as possibly geodynamic does not necessarily imply that he thought it was heliocentric. 1569:

was called upon to adjudicate, and wrote in April that treating heliocentrism as a real phenomenon would be "a very dangerous thing," irritating philosophers and theologians, and harming "the Holy Faith by rendering Holy Scripture as false."

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orbit. Furthermore, to the extent that a planet's mass cannot be neglected in comparison to the Sun's mass, the center of gravity of the Solar System is displaced slightly away from the center of the Sun. (The masses of the planets, mostly

1443:, in which all the planets have elliptical orbits. This provided significantly increased accuracy in predicting the position of the planets. Kepler's ideas were not immediately accepted, and Galileo for example ignored them. In 1621, 1194:(which still survives), stating: "Philolaus believed in the mobility of the earth, and some even say that Aristarchus of Samos was of that opinion." However, in the published version he restricts himself to noting that in works by 6059: 1306:

defending the system and arguing that it was useful for computation even if its hypotheses were not necessarily true. Possibly because of that preface, the work of Copernicus inspired very little debate on whether it might be

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Aristarchus of Samos, the ancient Copernicus; a history of Greek astronomy to Aristarchus, together with Aristarchus's Treatise on the sizes and distances of the sun and moon : a new Greek text with translation and

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The remaining references to Aristarchus' heliocentrism are extremely brief, and provide no more information beyond what can be gleaned from those already cited. Ones which mention Aristarchus explicitly by name occur in

1006:. Several Byzantine Greek manuscripts containing the Tusi couple are still extant in Italy. The Mathematics Genealogy Project suggests that there is a "genealogy" of Nasir al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī → Shams al‐Dīn al‐Bukhārī → 192:

in the 3rd century BC, these ideas were not successful in replacing the view of a static spherical Earth, and from the 2nd century AD the predominant model, which would be inherited by medieval astronomy, was the

2025:: magnitude is not a reliable index to the distance of stars, and some of the areas that he mistook for empty space were actually dark, obscuring nebulae that blocked his view toward the center of the Milky Way. 3922:

Ramasubramanian, K.; Srinivas, M. D.; Sriram, M. S. (1994). "Modification of the earlier Indian planetary theory by the Kerala astronomers (c. 1500 AD) and the implied heliocentric picture of planetary motion".

771:(1031), he expressed his faith in a geocentric and stationary Earth. He was aware that if the Earth rotated on its axis, it would be consistent with his astronomical observations, but considered it a problem of 2380:(printed 1578), allegedly after a (lost) self-portrait by Copernicus himself; the Murer portrait became the template for a number of later (17th century) woodcuts, copper engravings and paintings of Copernicus. 1364:, arguably the most accomplished astronomer of his time, advocated against Copernicus' heliocentric system and for an alternative to the Ptolemaic geocentric system: a geo-heliocentric system now known as the 1582:

Inquisition also determined that the Earth's motion "receives the same judgement in philosophy and ... in regard to theological truth it is at least erroneous in faith." Bellarmine personally ordered Galileo

782:, who considered the Ptolemaic model mathematical, and not physical. His system spread throughout most of Europe in the 13th century, with debates and refutations of his ideas continued to the 16th century. 993:

was used by Copernicus in his reformulation of mathematical astronomy, there is a growing consensus that he became aware of this idea in some way. One possible route of transmission may have been through

1550:(satisfying an argument that had been made against Copernicus). As the Jesuit astronomers confirmed Galileo's observations, the Jesuits moved away from the Ptolemaic model and toward Tycho's teachings. 1297:

in 1543. Copernicus began to write it in 1506 and finished it in 1530, but did not publish it until the year of his death. Although he was in good standing with the Church and had dedicated the book to

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asked whether there was any reason to assert that the Sun (or any other point) was the center of the universe. In parallel to a mystical definition of God, Cusa wrote that "Thus the fabric of the world

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I will endeavour to show that all experiments that can be made upon the Earth are insufficient means to conclude for its mobility but are indifferently applicable to the Earth, movable or immovable...

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are examples of geocentric coordinates, used in Earth-based observations, while the heliocentric latitude and longitude are used for orbital calculations. This leads to such terms as "heliocentric

1923:: a short one, "Magen David" (1612), and a full one, "Nehmad veNaim" (published only in 1743). He described objectively three systems: those of Ptolemy, Copernicus and Brahe, without taking sides. 2342:(1890), p. 76: "Copernicus started from the observed motions of the planets, on which astronomers were agreed, and worked them out on the new hypothesis of Heliocentrism"), modelled after German 1368:

in which the Sun and Moon orbit the Earth, Mercury and Venus orbit the Sun inside the Sun's orbit of the Earth, and Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun outside the Sun's orbit of the Earth.

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An actual controversy on the Copernican model within Judaism arises only in the early 18th century. Most authors in this period had accepted Copernican heliocentrism, with opposition from

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Other scholars have argued that Copernicus could well have developed these ideas independently of the late Islamic tradition. Copernicus explicitly references several astronomers of the "

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would continue Tycho's use of physics, stellar astronomy (now with a telescope), and religion to argue against heliocentrism and for Tycho's system well into the seventeenth century.

862:(1501), Somayaji further revised his planetary system, which was mathematically more accurate at predicting the heliocentric orbits of the interior planets than both the Tychonic and 4725:

A library catalogue of a 16th-century historian, Matthew of Miechow, bears that date and contains a reference to the manuscript, so it must have begun circulating before that date (

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Induction and Deduction: A Historical and Critical Sketch of Successive Philosophical Conceptions Respecting the Relations Between Inductive and Deductive Thought and Other Essays

443:. These mention one detail not stated explicitly in Archimedes' account—namely, that Aristarchus' theory had the Earth rotating on an axis. The first of these reference occurs in 6060:"How would astronomers in another solar system know by observing our Sun's wobble that our Sun has not just one big planet, but nine, each with a different mass? | Astronomy.com" 250:

Problems with Ptolemy's system were well recognized in medieval astronomy, and an increasing effort to criticize and improve it in the late medieval period eventually led to the

1325:

preached a sermon in which he denounced those who "pervert the order of nature" by saying that "the sun does not move and that it is the earth that revolves and that it turns".

1912:, arguing that no scientific theory can be reliable, which he illustrates by the new-fangled theory of heliocentrism upsetting even the most fundamental views on the cosmos. 6085:

Shen, J. & Confrey, J. (2010). "Justifying alternative models in learning the solar system: A case study on K-8 science teachers’ understanding of frames of reference".

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In Book 1 section 7 he admits that a model in which the Earth revolves with respect to the stars would be simpler but doesn't go as far as considering a heliocentric system.

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While the influence of the criticism of Ptolemy by Averroes on Renaissance thought is clear and explicit, the claim of direct influence of the Maragha school, postulated by

1833:. After the matter had been reconsidered by the Congregation of the Index and the Holy Office, Anfossi's decision was overturned. Pius VII approved a decree in 1822 by the 5581: 219:

The Ptolemaic system was a sophisticated astronomical system that managed to calculate the positions for the planets to a fair degree of accuracy. Ptolemy himself, in his

903:(5th century CE) expressed the opinion that the planets Venus and Mercury did not go about the Earth but instead circled the Sun. Capella's model was discussed in the 613:(5th century AD) expressed the opinion that the planets Venus and Mercury did not go about the Earth but instead circled the Sun. Capella's model was discussed in the 1153:("On the revolution of heavenly spheres", first printed in 1543 in Nuremberg), presented a discussion of a heliocentric model of the universe in much the same way as 373:. From his estimates, he concluded that the Sun was six to seven times wider than the Earth, and thought that the larger object would have the most attractive force. 866:, but did not propose any specific models of the universe. Nilakantha's planetary system also incorporated the Earth's rotation on its axis. Most astronomers of the 399:, wherein it appears, as a consequence of the assumptions made, that the universe is many times greater than the "universe" just mentioned. His hypotheses are that 2077:

However, "scientific arguments were marshalled against such a possibility," and this view was rejected by almost all scientists until the early 20th century, with

2009:. Herschel was the first to propose a model of the universe based on observation and measurement. At that time, the dominant assumption in cosmology was that the 1103:, who described how a reciprocating linear motion of a celestial body could be produced by a combination of circular motions similar to those proposed by al-Tusi. 7006: 2228:

do not exist at all, and any practical reference frame is only an approximation to the actual space-time, which can have higher or lower precision. Some forms of

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would otherwise be observed over the course of a year. The stars are in fact so far away that stellar parallax only became detectable when sufficiently powerful

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Swerdlow, Noel M. (December 31, 1973). "The Derivation and First Draft of Copernicus's Planetary Theory: A Translation of the Commentariolus with Commentary".

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in 1891). In spite of dropping its active resistance to heliocentrism, the Catholic Church did not lift the prohibition of uncensored versions of Copernicus'

848:, developed a computational system for a geo-heliocentric planetary model, in which the planets orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth, similar to the 486:(Πρὸς Ἀρίσταρχον) as one of Cleanthes' works, and some scholars have suggested that this might have been where Cleanthes had accused Aristarchus of impiety. 401:

the fixed stars and the sun remain unmoved, that the earth revolves about the sun on the circumference of a circle, the sun lying in the middle of the orbit

7043:- The development of the Heliocentric model with the contributions of Nicolaus Copernicus, Giordano Bruno, Tycho Brahe, Galileo Galilei and Johannes Kepler 1638:

Some ecclesiastics also interpreted the book as characterizing the Pope as a simpleton, since his viewpoint in the dialogue was advocated by the character

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afterwards maintained that it did, the former stating this as only a hypothesis (ὑποτιθέμενος μόνον), the latter as a definite opinion (καὶ ἀποφαινόμενος)?

5100: 5541:") before the Creator in order to accomplish His will. I acknowledge that the answer to this objection seems difficult for me to find", as translated by 567:. Seleucus was a proponent of the heliocentric system of Aristarchus. Seleucus may have proved the heliocentric theory by determining the constants of a 1829:, refused to license a book by a Catholic canon, Giuseppe Settele, because it openly treated heliocentrism as a physical fact. Settele appealed to pope 1927:(1591–1655) in his "Elim" (1629) says that the arguments of Copernicus are so strong, that only an imbecile will not accept them. Delmedigo studied at 5180: 2949: 1721:

became increasingly influential in the coming decades. By 1686, the model was well enough established that the general public was reading about it in

7068: 2829: 5202: 2763:). Most modern scholars share Heath's opinion that it is Cleanthes in this passage who is being held as having accused Aristarchus of impiety (see 2089:'s measurements in 1924. After Shapley and Hubble showed that the Sun is not the center of the universe, cosmology moved on from heliocentrism to 6332: 5190: 5110: 1617: 733:

based on a belief held by some of his contemporaries that the apparent motion of the stars was due to the Earth's movement, and not that of the

5310:"The Pontifical Decrees Against the Doctrine of the Earth's Movement, and the Ultramontane Defence of Them", Rev. William Roberts, 1885, London 5261: 4067: 1740: 748:("Doubts Concerning Ptolemy", c. 1028), who found contradictions in Ptolemy's model, but al-Haytham remained committed to a geocentric model. 78:, which placed the Earth at the center. The notion that the Earth revolves around the Sun had been proposed as early as the 3rd century BC by 1731:

and translated into English and other languages in the coming years. It has been called "one of the first great popularizations of science."

6263:. Translated by Coyne, George V. (3rd English ed.). Notre Dame, IN: Vatican Observatory Publications / University of Notre Dame Press. 5691: 5024:: "I laid aside, and fell back on ellipses, believing that this was quite a different hypothesis, whereas the two ... are one in [ 2013:

was the entire universe, an assumption that has since been proven wrong with observations. Herschel concluded that it was in the shape of a

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Tycho appreciated the Copernican system, but objected to the idea of a moving Earth on the basis of physics, astronomy, and religion. The

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The arguments and evidence used resemble those used by Copernicus to support the Earth's motion. The criticism of Ptolemy as developed by

590:, which he supposedly theorized to be caused by the attraction to the Moon and by the revolution of the Earth around the Earth and Moon's 376:

His writings on the heliocentric system are lost, but some information about them is known from a brief description by his contemporary,

2437:. The work of Aristarchus in which he proposed his heliocentric system has not survived. We only know of it now from a brief passage in 1949:

wrote books that were given approbations by him even though one supported heliocentrism and the other geocentrism. One, a commentary on

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of the Earth, of the Earth–Moon system, of the Sun, of the Sun plus the major planets, or of the entire Solar System, can be selected.

867: 474: 56: 3306:

From Deferent to Equant: A Volume of Studies in the History of Science in the Ancient and Medieval Near East in Honor of E. S. Kennedy

1698: 2136:, also eliminating any obvious "center" of the universe as a natural origin of coordinates. Even if the discussion is limited to the 1175:

effect, as an object that one is passing seems to move backwards against the horizon. This issue was also resolved in the geocentric

24: 960:, influenced Renaissance-era European astronomy, and thus was indirectly received by Renaissance-era European astronomy and thus by 7339: 1723: 621:(5th century CE) expressed the opinion that the planets Venus and Mercury did not go about the Earth but instead circled the Sun. 370: 5961: 7543: 5875:

Berendzen, Richard (1975). "Geocentric to heliocentric to galactocentric to acentric: the continuing assault to the egocentric".

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but it did not arrive at explicit heliocentrism. The observations of the Maragha school were further improved at the Timurid-era

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model for the heliocentric theory and developing methods to compute planetary positions using this model. He may have used early

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B.L. van der Waerden, "The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy", in David A. King and George Saliba, ed.,

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represented as being held together and at rest, but as turning and revolving (στρεφομένην καὶ ἀνειλουμένην), as Aristarchus and

380:, and from scattered references by later writers. Archimedes' description of Aristarchus' theory is given in the former's book, 6123:

di Bono, Mario (1995). "Copernicus, Amico, Fracastoro and Ṭūsï's Device: Observations on the Use and Transmission of a Model".

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In the 12th century, non-heliocentric alternatives to the Ptolemaic system were developed by some Islamic astronomers, such as

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written by R. Eliezer Lipmann Neusatz encouraged acceptance of the heliocentric model and other modern scientific thinking.

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that have come down to us are corrupted, however, and the traditional interpretation of the passage has been challenged by

1425: 2571: 1892:. Experiments like those of Foucault were performed by V. Viviani in 1661 in Florence and by Bartolini in 1833 in Rimini. 7533: 7329: 5987: 3535: 1669: 1292: 1149: 5272: 5048: 5011: 2177: 7014: 6348: 6320: 5555: 4647: 4072: 3668: 1183:, retained as a physical reality the irregular back-and-forth motion of the planets, which Kepler characterized as a " 7085: 6838:(1998). "Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy". 6730: 6516: 6328: 6268: 5439: 5350: 4900: 3067: 2855: 964:. Copernicus used such devices in the same planetary models as found in Arabic sources. The exact replacement of the 767:

Al-Biruni discussed the possibility of whether the Earth rotated about its own axis and orbited the Sun, but in his

7636: 7054: 6531: 3742: 2246: 1439: 1043: 20: 6692:, translated by Prickard, Arthur Octavius, Winchester and London: Warren & Son, Ltd. and Simpkin & Co. Ltd 7029: 2979: 2686: 1728: 6400:

Setting Aside All Authority: Giovanni Battista Riccioli and the Science against Copernicus in the Age of Galileo

5288: 3988:

Eastwood, Bruce S. (1982), "Kepler as Historian of Science: Precursors of Copernican Heliocentrism according to

3124:

Eastwood, Bruce S. (1982), "Kepler as Historian of Science: Precursors of Copernican Heliocentrism according to

1530:

Galileo was able to look at the night sky with the newly invented telescope. He published his observations that

4323: 3549: 1877: 1770:, where the Sun's image was projected from a hole in a window in the cathedral's lantern onto a meridian line. 1246: 1095:, which Copernicus cited. Another possible source for Copernicus' knowledge of this mathematical device is the 999: 347:

3rd century BC calculations on the relative sizes of the Earth, Sun and Moon, from a 10th-century AD Greek copy

6188: 4136:

Guessoum, N. (June 2008), "Copernicus and Ibn Al-Shatir: does the Copernican revolution have Islamic roots?",

1864:. Bradley discovered the stellar aberration, proving the relative motion of the Earth. Bessel proved that the 1249:

delivered in Rome a series of lectures outlining Copernicus' theory. The lectures were heard with interest by

7466: 6115:

Baker, A. and Chapter, L. (2002), "Part 4: The Sciences". In M. M. Sharif, "A History of Muslim Philosophy",

5378:

Curtis Wilson, "The Newtonian achievement in astronomy", pp. 233–274 in R Taton & C Wilson (eds) (1989),

2301: 1825:. The affair was revived in 1820, when the Master of the Sacred Palace (the Catholic Church's chief censor), 1701:

in which planets do not move relative to their immediate atmosphere, but are constituted around space-matter

1609:

be allowed for use in calendric calculations, though the original publication remained forbidden until 1758.

1084:

It has been argued that Copernicus could have independently discovered the Tusi couple or took the idea from

324:(AD 395—423) later described this as the "Egyptian System," stating that "it did not escape the skill of the 4736: 4542: 1272:

This was reported in the context of a conversation at the dinner table and not a formal statement of faith.

5533:(V,8) in which our Teachers, the Rabbis, of blessed memory, explain that if the Earth is called in Hebrew " 1957:

written by R. Israel David Schlesinger resisted a heliocentric model and supported geocentrism. The other,

907:

by various anonymous 9th-century commentators and Copernicus mentions him as an influence on his own work.

896:, 15th century, asked whether there was any reason to assert that any point was the center of the universe. 6555: 5935: 5529:(part 2, p. 52b): "Remark of the author: I fear that the incredulous may draw an objection from a text of 3531: 2886: 2776: 2232:

consider the frame at rest with respect to the distant masses in the universe to have special properties.

617:

by various anonymous 9th-century commentators and Copernicus mentions him as an influence on his own work.

6988: 6013: 5788: 4016:"The first Copernican was Copernicus: the difference between Pre-Copernican and Copernican heliocentrism" 3258: 3208:"The first Copernican was Copernicus: the difference between Pre-Copernican and Copernican heliocentrism" 3169:"The first Copernican was Copernicus: the difference between Pre-Copernican and Copernican heliocentrism" 2957: 2615:

Eastwood, B. S. (November 1, 1992), "Heraclides and Heliocentrism – Texts Diagrams and Interpretations",

2132:

The concept of an absolute velocity, including being "at rest" as a particular case, is ruled out by the

1797: 1651: 1081:, but he does not show awareness of the existence of any of the later astronomers of the Maragha school. 688: 5476: 4759: 2028:

The Herschel model remained relatively unchallenged for the next hundred years, with minor refinements.

1691:, included a heliocentric model, but Descartes abandoned it in the light of Galileo's treatment. In his 540:

reports that Seleucus the astronomer had affirmed the Earth's motion, but does not mention Aristarchus.

7556: 7040: 5336: 2100:

and acentric. As a result, soon after galactocentrism was formulated, it was abandoned in favor of the

2059: 1969: 1749: 1717:. The Galileo affair did little overall to slow the spread of heliocentrism across Europe, as Kepler's 1398: 1377: 698: 652:

and the periods of the planets were given with respect to the Sun. His immediate commentators, such as

6463:

Heilbron, John L. (2005). "Censorship of Astronomy in Italy after Galileo". In McMullin, Ernan (ed.).

2461: 1964:

Since the 20th century most Jews have not questioned the science of heliocentrism. Exceptions include

982:(d. c. 1375) of Damascus. Copernicus' lunar and Mercury models are also identical to Ibn al-Shatir's. 648:(499), influenced by Greek astronomy, propounded a planetary model in which the Earth was taken to be 7263: 4867: 2784: 2097: 1602: 1132: 472:

Only scattered fragments of Cleanthes' writings have survived in quotations by other writers, but in

439:. The earliest of the handful of other ancient references occur in two passages from the writings of 6014:"Geocentric to heliocentric to galactocentric to acentric: the continuing assault to the egocentric" 5789:"Geocentric to heliocentric to galactocentric to acentric: the continuing assault to the egocentric" 2917: 312:

explained the apparent daily motion of the celestial sphere. It used to be thought that he believed

6810:

Russo, Lucio; Medaglia, Silvio M. (1996). "Sulla presunta accusa di empietà ad Aristarco di Samo".

5632: 4077: 2225: 1924: 1857: 1693: 1222:. These authors had proposed a moving Earth, which did not, however, revolve around a central sun. 1127: 863: 560: 320:

to revolve around the Sun, which in turn (along with the other planets) revolves around the Earth.

251: 107: 6944:

Planetary astronomy from the Renaissance to the rise of astrophysics Part A: Tycho Brahe to Newton

2426: 2288: 285:(d. 390 BC), who taught that at the center of the universe was a "central fire", around which the 7258: 7077: 6871: 6701: 6678:, vol. 5, translated by Gent, A.G., Boston, MA: Little, Brown, and Company, pp. 234–292 2870: 2760: 2718: 2325: 2133: 2096:

Hubble's observations of redshift in light from distant galaxies indicated that the universe was

1673: 1447:

was placed on the Catholic Church's index of prohibited books despite Kepler being a Protestant.

263: 166: 6314: 5747: 5582:"Rabbi Reuven Landau and the Jewish Reaction to Copernican Thought in Nineteenth Century Europe" 5282: 5141:, pp. 68–69 Ingoli's essay was published in English translation for the first time in 2015. 5058: 5021: 4657: 2788: 2140:, the Sun is not at the geometric center of any planet's orbit, but rather approximately at one 1388:

The Jesuit astronomers in Rome were at first unreceptive to Tycho's system; the most prominent,

579:. A fragment of a work by Seleucus has survived in Arabic translation, which was referred to by 7405: 7278: 7213: 6709: 6671: 4872: 4677: 4671: 4358: 3338: 2912: 2768: 2508: 2502: 2109: 1905: 1881: 1783: 1254: 1039: 232: 5910: 5633:"The Sun's Path at Night: The Revolution in Rabbinic Perspectives on the Ptolemaic Revolution" 5383: 5298: 4459: 2849: 2475: 1557:", Galileo defended heliocentrism, and claimed it was not contrary to Holy Scripture. He took 1504:, despite remaining near the Sun in Earth's sky (first image). This proved that it orbits the 7646: 7441: 7370: 7108: 6716:, Harvard, MA and London: Harvard University Press and William Heinemann Ltd., pp. 1–223 6638:(1977). "Copernicus in the Hebraic Literature from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century". 5836:

van de Kamp, Peter (October 1965), "The Galactocentric Revolution, A Reminiscent Narrative",

4746: 4423: 4385: 2845: 2812: 2533: 2434: 2172:

In modern calculations, the terms "geocentric" and "heliocentric" are often used to refer to

1790:

In the mid-18th century the Church's opposition began to fade. An annotated copy of Newton's

1745: 1687: 1677: 1639: 1231: 821: 779: 178: 169:

was widely recognized in Greco-Roman astronomy from at least the 4th century BC, the Earth's

119: 6687: 5402: 3829:

Ramasubramanian, K. (1998). "Model of planetary motion in the works of Kerala astronomers".

3796:. The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China, and the West. Cambridge University Press. 2799:, who insists that it should be interpreted as having Aristarchus rhetorically suggest that 435:

No references to Aristarchus' heliocentrism are known in any other writings from before the

7512: 7253: 7203: 7123: 7098: 6753: 6403: 6132: 6099: 6025: 5884: 5845: 5800: 4554: 4399: 4307: 4287: 4252: 4145: 3943: 3838: 3754: 3332: 3146: 3079: 2991: 2904: 2695: 2624: 2241: 2196:". In this heliocentric picture, any planet of the Solar System can be used as a source of 2105: 1372: 1091: 949: 912: 806: 786: 549: 521: 499: 429: 352: 344: 240: 189: 79: 6184: 2017:, but assumed that the Sun was in the center of the disk, making the model heliocentric. 667:, and the instantaneous motion of the Moon. Early followers of Aryabhata's model included 479: 420:

Aristarchus presumably took the stars to be very far away because he was aware that their

231:

the distances of the Moon, Sun, planets and stars could be determined by treating orbits'

8: 7618: 7283: 7188: 7138: 7113: 6428: 6213: 4974: 4409: 4363: 2229: 2209: 2005:

attempted to determine the shape of the universe by examining stars through his handmade

1976:

who argued that the question of heliocentrism vs. geocentrism is obsolete because of the

1814: 1542: 1389: 1315:

that the teaching of heliocentrism should be banned, but nothing came of it at the time.

1288: 1242: 1211: 1144: 1137: 1107: 1015: 942: 928: 837: 817: 794: 718: 649: 387: 309: 305: 170: 115: 83: 6757: 6407: 6136: 6029: 5888: 5849: 5804: 4978: 4558: 4518:

Light from the East: How the Science of Medieval Islam Helped to Shape the Western World

4256: 4149: 3842: 3758: 2995: 2908: 2699: 2628: 2074:. The shape of the Milky Way galaxy was expected to resemble such "islands universes." 7606: 7594: 7517: 7431: 6855: 6823: 6713: 6655: 6549: 6148: 6064: 5769: 4863:

McGrath vs Russell on Calvin vs Copernicus: a case of the pot calling the kettle black?

4636: 4588: 4570: 4268: 4201: 4193: 4118: 3893: 3770: 3724: 3007: 3003: 2657: 2640: 2221: 2173: 1909: 1646: 1558: 1517: 1382: 1054: 1035: 1007: 986: 772: 602:

There were occasional speculations about heliocentrism in Europe before Copernicus. In

236: 103: 96: 28: 6574: 6563: 3663: 1621:(1632), clearly advocated heliocentrism, despite his declaration in the preface that, 1615:

encouraged Galileo to publish the pros and cons of heliocentrism. Galileo's response,

7426: 7273: 7178: 7133: 6973: 6948: 6927: 6906: 6887: 6859: 6789: 6761: 6736: 6726: 6621: 6601: 6582: 6536: 6512: 6504: 6489: 6468: 6449: 6411: 6384: 6365: 6344: 6304: 6286: 6274: 6264: 6239: 6219: 6194: 6170: 6152: 6037: 5993: 5967: 5896: 5812: 5773: 5728: 5718: 5672: 5662: 5435: 5346: 5340: 4937: 4906: 4896: 4681: 4640: 4596: 4574: 4521: 4465: 4295: 4260: 4223: 4205: 4122: 4035: 3969: 3897: 3885: 3797: 3774: 3728: 3673: 3646: 3634: 3626: 3500: 3475: 3450: 3342: 3274: 3264: 3227: 3188: 3105: 3063: 3037: 3011: 2930: 2735: 2665: 2644: 2539: 2512: 2481: 2443: 2197: 2154: 1977: 1714: 1710: 1566: 1164: 1047: 1027: 995: 904: 900: 711:

to show that the distance between the Sun and the Earth varies. In the 10th century,

692: 618: 614: 610: 382: 157:, was not central in the universe. Modern astronomy does not distinguish any center. 38: 6781:

The Forgotten Revolution: How Science Was Born in 300 BC and Why it Had to Be Reborn

4342: 3293:

Das heliozentrische System in der griechischen, persischen und indischen Astronomie.

2477:

The Forgotten Revolution: How Science Was Born in 300 BC and Why it Had to Be Reborn

2456: 1919:(1541–1613), who worked with Brahe and Kepler. Gans wrote two books on astronomy in 1682: 1437:

Between 1617 and 1621, Kepler developed a heliocentric model of the Solar System in

1412:(d. 1600) is the only known person to defend Copernicus' heliocentrism in his time. 451:

Only do not, my good fellow, enter an action against me for impiety in the style of

421: 7570: 7538: 7491: 7461: 7451: 7400: 7375: 6847: 6815: 6647: 6439: 6140: 6033: 5892: 5853: 5808: 5759: 4628: 4562: 4185: 4110: 4027: 3877: 3762: 3716: 3219: 3180: 3033: 2999: 2922: 2632: 2399: 2217: 2193: 2141: 2082: 2040:

to Herschel's star counts, which still implied a near-central location of the Sun.

2002: 1865: 1806: 1657: 1574: 1562: 1536: 1521: 1303: 1250: 1106:

The state of knowledge on planetary theory received by Copernicus is summarized in

1070: 1031: 1011: 923: 893: 634: 580: 529: 313: 194: 174: 146: 142: 75: 6164: 4333:

Viktor Blåsjö, "A Critique of the Arguments for Maragha Influence on Copernicus",

3966:

Ordering the Heavens: Roman Astronomy and Cosmology in the Carolingian Renaissance

3295:

Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zürich. Zürich:Kommissionsverlag Leeman AG, 1970.

3102:

Ordering the Heavens: Roman Astronomy and Cosmology in the Carolingian Renaissance

2153:, amount to 0.14% of that of the Sun.) Therefore, a hypothetical astronomer on an 1861: 603: 7486: 7421: 7390: 7288: 7218: 6942: 6921: 6779: 6526: 6483: 6443: 6233: 6209: 5209: 4879: 3925: 3791: 3627:"Biṭrūjī: Nūr al‐Dīn Abū Isḥāq [Abū Jaʿfar] Ibrāhīm ibn Yūsuf al‐Biṭrūjī" 3291:

The concept of Indian heliocentrism has been advocated by B. L. van der Waerden,

2721:). The italics and parenthetical comments are as they appear in Heath's original. 2575: 2181: 2090: 2049: 2029: 1950: 1826: 1612: 1547: 1501: 1497: 1466: 1430: 1421: 1392:, commented that Tycho was "confusing all of astronomy, because he wants to have 1365: 1334: 1312: 1176: 1023: 1019: 849: 702: 564: 131: 123: 4220:

A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam

2568: 1758: 7349: 7228: 7163: 7143: 6357: 6160: 6144: 4967: 4566: 4403: 4176: 4101: 4015: 3707:

Ragep, F. Jamil (2001a), "Tusi and Copernicus: The Earth's Motion in Context",

3392: 3207: 3168: 2899:

Murdin, Paul (2000), Murdin, Paul (ed.), "Seleucus of Seleucia (c. 190 BC–?)",

2731: 2636: 2213: 2078: 2053: 1965: 1889: 1767: 1531: 1456: 1409: 1003: 974: 858: 738: 224: 185: 127: 7034: 6635: 5490:

Noah J. Efron. Jewish Thought and Scientific Discovery in Early Modern Europe.

4923:

Blair, Ann, "Tycho Brahe's critique of Copernicus and the Copernican system",

4595:, vol. 2, Berlin / Heidelberg / New York: Springer-Verlag, p. 1035, 4031: 3743:"Freeing Astronomy from Philosophy: An Aspect of Islamic Influence on Science" 3720: 3223: 3184: 2338:

is more recent, recorded from the late 19th century (e.g. in Constance Naden,

1852:

Three apparent proofs of the heliocentric hypothesis were provided in 1727 by

1773: 1245:

was circulated in manuscript completed some time before May 1, 1514. In 1533,

7630: 7471: 7436: 6867: 6740: 5732: 5715:

New heavens and a new earth : the Jewish reception of Copernican thought

5676: 5659:

New heavens and a new earth : the Jewish reception of Copernican thought

4354: 4264: 4099:

Roberts, V.; Kennedy, E. S. (1959). "The Planetary Theory of Ibn al-Shatir".

4039: 3889: 3278: 3231: 3192: 2283: 2201: 2063: 2014: 1853: 1810: 1802: 1597:

In March 1616, after the Inquisition's injunction against Galileo, the papal

1487: 1299: 1261: 1115: 1100: 979: 922:

discussed the possibility that the Earth rotated on its axis, while Cardinal

919: 661: 657: 329: 6278: 4993: 4910: 3849: 3577:, 24 (1971): 59–81; reprinted in David A. King and Mary Helen Kennedy, ed., 2480:. Translated by Levy, Silvio. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 293–296. 2330:

Prodromus biceps cono ellipticæ et a priori demonstratæ planetarum theorices

1980:. Schneerson's followers in Chabad continue to deny the heliocentric model. 7582: 7319: 7168: 5764: 3025: 2137: 2104:

model of the acentric expanding universe. Further assumptions, such as the

2086: 1735: 1706: 1207: 668: 572: 366: 278: 228: 154: 59: 7046: 5168: 4461:

Intellectual Curiosity and the Scientific Revolution: A Global Perspective

3868:

Dutta, Amartya Kumar (May 2006), "Āryabhata and axial rotation of earth",

1469:

opposed the Roman Catholic Church by his strong support for heliocentrism.

7158: 7103: 6851: 6835: 6775: 4615:

Kren, Claudia (1971), "The Rolling Device of Naṣir al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī in the

3753:(Science in Theistic Contexts: Cognitive Dimensions): 49–64 & 66–71, 3693: 3055: 2982:(1987), "The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy", 2796: 2360: 2185: 2117: 2113: 2071: 2022: 1946: 1939: 1935: 1361: 1322: 1273: 1167:

by arguing that such motion was only perceived and apparent, rather than

990: 957: 853: 793:-era Persia further developed "non-Ptolemaic" planetary models involving 760: 751: 676: 672: 644: 111: 6827: 1685:' first cosmological treatise, written between 1629 and 1633 and titled 1236: 737:. Islamic astronomers began to criticize the Ptolemaic model, including 235:

as contiguous realities, which gave the stars' distance as less than 20

7476: 7293: 7238: 7198: 7128: 6659: 6424: 6341:

Defending Copernicus and Galileo: Critical Reasoning in the two Affairs

5489: 4068:"Favourite quote of founder Joost R. Ritman: God is an infinite sphere" 3881: 2926: 2438: 2364: 2205: 2121: 2037: 2006: 1916: 1869: 1634:

a terminate Spherical Figure, and that thereupon it hath its centre...

1513: 1078: 1074: 1062: 961: 953: 825: 707: 591: 576: 436: 377: 150: 6990:

Pattupattu – Ten Tamil Idylls (Tamil Verses with Englilsh Translation)

4272: 4197: 2376:

The image shows a woodcut by Christoph Murer, from Nicolaus Reusner's

536:, and an anonymous scholiast to Aristotle. Another passage in Aëtius' 340: 184:

While a moving Earth was proposed at least from the 4th century BC in

149:, and other astronomers, it was realized that the Sun, while near the 7380: 7233: 7223: 7208: 7153: 7148: 7093: 6819: 3308:, Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 500 (1987), pp. 529–534. 2738:, and to each other, caused by the Earth's revolution around the Sun. 2318: 2010: 1461: 1450: 1219: 1215: 1190:

Copernicus cited Aristarchus in an early (unpublished) manuscript of

969: 908: 756: 734: 726: 722: 639: 622: 575:

methods that were available in his time, as he was a contemporary of

452: 425: 325: 321: 282: 135: 87: 6651: 6532:

The Sleepwalkers: A history of man's changing vision of the universe

5342:

The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the History of Scientific Ideas

1908:, in his book "Be'er ha-Golah" (1593). Maharal makes an argument of 1360:

was the center of the universe and all celestial bodies orbited it.

915:(815-877 CE) proposed a model reminiscent of that from Tycho Brahe. 7481: 7309: 7173: 6697: 6683: 6667: 6300: 5858: 4632: 4189: 4114: 3766: 2395: 2189: 2101: 1873: 1868:

of a star was greater than zero by measuring the parallax of 0.314

1830: 1702: 1660:) which included all previous condemnations of heliocentric books. 1478: 1339: 1203: 1180: 1172: 1159: 1066: 889: 813: 790: 713: 586:

Alternatively, his explanation may have involved the phenomenon of

568: 555: 440: 274: 203: 71: 5213: 3030:

Studies in Arabic versions of Greek texts and in mediaeval science

1993: 1592:

Bellarmine and the Inquisition's injunction against Galileo, 1616.

1328: 351:

The first person known to have proposed a heliocentric system was

7385: 7248: 7243: 7193: 7183: 5445: 2150: 2145: 2093:, which states that the Milky Way is the center of the universe. 2043: 2033: 1837:

to allow the printing of heliocentric books in Rome. Copernicus'

1763: 1656:(Index of Prohibited Books, published by order of Alexander VII, 1353: 1199: 1184: 1168: 1154: 1085: 941:

have its center everywhere and circumference nowhere," recalling

798: 664: 198: 91: 5434:, University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, 2005, p. 307, IN. 4174:

Kennedy, E. S. (Autumn 1966), "Late Medieval Planetary Theory",

2684:

Rufus, W. Carl (1923), "The astronomical system of Copernicus",

2127: 369:, Aristarchus calculated the size of the Earth and measured the 247:

placed the stars at least two orders of magnitude more distant.

227:

as absurd as he believed it would create huge winds. Within his

86:(c. 470 – 385 BC). In the 5th century BC the Greek Philosophers 7496: 7446: 7395: 7268: 7118: 5607:"HebrewBooks.org Sefer Detail: מי מנוחות – נויזץ, אליעזר ליפמן" 5365:"Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion: 1609–1666", J. L. Russell, 4439: 3595: 2294: 2067: 1973: 1920: 1901: 1546:(1613), respectively. Around this time, he also announced that 1308: 1195: 965: 386:. The entire description comprises just three sentences, which 298: 34: 6618:

From Eudoxus to Einstein – A History of Mathematical Astronomy

5606: 4673:

Moving heaven and earth : Copernicus and the solar system

3417:

Alessandro Bausani (1973). "Cosmology and Religion in Islam".

3355: 3317:

Noel Swerdlow, "Review: A Lost Monument of Indian Astronomy,"

1744:, which provided an explanation for Kepler's laws in terms of 1311:

during the next 60 years. There was an early suggestion among

5457: 3921: 3855: 2747:

Although it could obviously be reasonably inferred therefrom.

2299: 2286: 1928: 1509: 1357: 1157:

in the 2nd century had presented his geocentric model in his

653: 607: 563:

astronomer who flourished a century after Aristarchus in the

317: 286: 210: 63: 7036:

The Heliocentric Model and Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion

5408: 5120: 5088: 2160: 2070:

were actually distant "island universes" consisting of many

1845:

were then subsequently omitted from the next edition of the

188:, and a fully developed heliocentric model was developed by 6886:(6th ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 2007. 6507:

The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics

5223: 5221: 3793:

The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West

3592:

History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations

3263:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 111–112. 2730:

That is, an apparent movement of the stars relative to the

2334: 1885: 1393: 587: 294: 7577: 6702:"Concerning the Face Which Appears in the Orb of the Moon" 6579:

The Astronomical Revolution: Copernicus – Kepler – Borelli

5144: 5064: 4712:

Gingerich, O. "Did Copernicus Owe a Debt to Aristarchus?"

4424:"Nasir al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī – the Mathematics Genealogy Project" 4386:"Nasir al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī – the Mathematics Genealogy Project" 3954:, 854, 857, New York: Columbia Univ. Pr, 1977, pp. 332–333 3157:, 854, 857, New York: Columbia Univ. Pr, 1977, pp. 332–333 3090:, 854, 857, New York: Columbia Univ. Pr, 1977, pp. 332–333 1279: 7030:

The Heliocentric Pantheon: An Interview with Walter Murch

5752:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London

5026: 1505: 290: 67: 6872:"Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe?" 6445:

The Sun in the Church: Cathedrals as Solar Observatories

5218: 4895:. New York: American Institute of Physics. p. 181. 1276:, however, opposed the doctrine over a period of years. 5838:

Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific

5556:"יפח לקץ – חלק א – שלזינגר, ישראל דוד (page 13 of 134)" 4946: 4694: 3238: 1352:, the most widely accepted system had been proposed by 4497: 4359:"Islamic Science and the Making of Renaissance Europe" 3513: 1302:, the published form contained an unsigned preface by 1241:

The first information about the heliocentric views of

952:, in particular the mathematical devices known as the 7554: 7007:"Does Heliocentrism Mean That the Sun is Stationary?" 5156: 5076: 5038: 5036: 4796: 3903: 3608: 3606: 3604: 3443:

Religion, Learning and Science in the 'Abbasid Period

3367: 3337:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 2807:

from its proper place at the center of the universe (

2664:, Berlin/Heidelberg/New York: Springer, p. 695, 2280:

The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (6th ed., 2007)

2120:, eventually lead to the current model of cosmology, 1237:

Circulation of Commentariolus (published before 1515)

328:," though there is no other evidence it was known in 6704:, in Cherniss, Harold; Helmbold, William C. (eds.), 4852:. Reprint, Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1977. 4822:, volume 21, no. 3, July, pp. 431–441. Reprinted in 2862: 2860: 2858: 2157:

would observe a small "wobble" in the Sun's motion.

1291:

published the definitive statement of his system in

82:, who had been influenced by a concept presented by 4485: 2507:. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. pp. 1988: 1225: 1179:; the latter, however, while eliminating the major 489:The second of the references by Plutarch is in his 41:'s illustration of the Copernican system, from the 19:"Heliocentric" redirects here. For the albums, see 6672:"On the Face Appearing within the Orb of the Moon" 5507: 5033: 4966: 3810: 3601: 3590:G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975). 3416: 2200:because it moves relatively to the Sun. A smaller 1451:Galileo Galilei and 1616 ban against Copernicanism 6723:Relativity: An introduction to the special theory 6183: 5692:""Igrot Kodesh" v. 7, p. 134, letter number 1996" 5397:(text quotations from 1729 translation of Newton 4245:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 4155: 3994:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 3472:An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines 3130:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 1809:in 1774 (nationalized in 1878, but re-founded by 948:Some historians maintain that the thought of the 816:and by the Maragha school explicitly address the 160: 7628: 6814:(in Italian). New Series, Vol. 53 (2): 113–121. 5717:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 362. 5661:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 262. 4451: 2950:"Index of Ancient Greek Philosophers-Scientists" 1420:Using measurements made at Tycho's observatory, 114:mathematician, astronomer, and Catholic cleric, 6292:Le Opere di Galileo Galilei, Edizione Nazionale 4321:Encyclopaedia of Islamic science and scientists 3828: 3740: 1997:William Herschel's model of the Milky Way, 1785 1618:Dialogue concerning the two chief world systems 1329:Tycho Brahe's geo-heliocentric system (c. 1587) 395:from astronomers. But Aristarchus brought out 134:presented supporting observations made using a 6612:. Original edition by Desclee (New York, 1966) 6568:From the Closed World to the Infinite Universe 6467:. University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame. 6321:Institute and Museum of the History of Science 6297:The Works of Galileo Galilei, National Edition 5992:, Cambridge University Press, pp. 67–71, 5428:Censorship of Astronomy in Italy after Galileo 5345:. Princeton University Press. pp. 92–93. 4893:The eye of heaven: Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler 4288:"Ibn al‐Shāṭir: ʿAlāʾ al‐Dīn ʿAlī ibn Ibrāhīm" 4098: 3541: 2791:; for example). The manuscripts of Plutarch's 2066:speculated that fuzzy patches of light called 2044:Replacement with galactocentrism and acentrism 7062: 6809: 6689:The Face Which appears on the Orb of the Moon 6319:A searchable online copy is available on the 6261:Galileo, for Copernicanism and for the church 6235:The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy 5870: 5868: 5318: 5316: 5256: 5254: 5214:arXiv:1402.6168 Original text of the decision 4408:. London: Constable and Company Ltd. p. 4056:, 2.12, p. 103, cited in Koyré (1957), p. 17. 3831:Bulletin of the Astronomical Society of India 2816: 989:in 1957, remains an open question. Since the 759:'s astronomical works explains the different 705:and the geocentric model, which were used by 243:'s heliocentric scheme had centuries earlier 74:. Historically, heliocentrism was opposed to 6215:A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler 5911:"The Shape of the Milky Way from Starcounts" 5238: 5236: 4292:The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers 3948:Martianus Capella and the Seven Liberal Arts 3785: 3783: 3631:The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers 3573:E. S. Kennedy, "Al-Bīrūnī's Masudic Canon", 3151:Martianus Capella and the Seven Liberal Arts 3084:Martianus Capella and the Seven Liberal Arts 2710: 2708: 1654:Alexandri VII Pontificis Maximi jussu editus 873: 7076: 6986: 6940: 6725:. Singapore Teaneck, NJ: World Scientific. 6448:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 6338: 5835: 5579: 5393: 5391: 5267:Dialogo sopra i Due Massi Sistemi del Mondo 5262:The Systeme of the World: in Four Dialogues 5242: 5150: 4958: 4772: 4593:A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy 4464:. Cambridge University Press. p. 263. 4436:Claudia Kren, "The Rolling Device," p. 497. 3856:Ramasubramanian, Srinivas & Sriram 1994 3330: 2803:was being impious for wanting to shift the 2662:A history of ancient mathematical astronomy 2599: 2282:. The term is a learned formation based on 1741:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica 1198:he had found an account of the theories of 1121: 870:seem to have accepted his planetary model. 7069: 7055: 6941:Taton, René; Wilson, Curtis, eds. (1989), 6666: 6087:International Journal of Science Education 5865: 5495:, Vol. 58, No. 4 (Oct., 1997), pp. 719–732 5367:British Journal for the History of Science 5313: 5251: 4587: 4540: 4503: 4014:Carman, Christián C. (December 23, 2017). 3499:. Cambridge University Press. p. 60. 3497:The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy 3206:Carman, Christián C. (December 23, 2017). 3167:Carman, Christián C. (December 23, 2017). 2984:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2901:Encyclopedia of Astronomy and Astrophysics 2764: 2656: 2538:. Cambridge University Press. p. 76. 1046:→ Nicolaus (Mikołaj Kopernik) Copernicus. 868:Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics 475:Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers 6947:, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 6905:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6620:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 6381:Copernicus and the Aristotelian tradition 6356: 6197:, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 6011: 5979: 5874: 5857: 5786: 5763: 5748:"XII. On the construction of the heavens" 5335: 5326:, p. 66, Princeton University Press, 2007 5233: 4890: 4730: 4700: 4065: 3780: 3741:Ragep, F. Jamil; Al-Qushji, Ali (2001b), 2916: 2705: 2363:, the heliocentric view was expounded in 1945:In the 19th century, two students of the 911:(420 CE) described a heliocentric model. 797:. Notable astronomers of this school are 682: 625:(420 CE) described a heliocentric model. 177:was never universally accepted until the 102:It was not until the 16th century that a 25:Heliocentric (The Ocean Collective album) 6967: 6900: 6696: 6682: 6595: 6581:. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. 6525: 6481: 6462: 6438: 6169:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 5985: 5831: 5829: 5745: 5463: 5451: 5414: 5388: 5294: 5278: 5227: 5126: 5094: 5070: 5054: 5017: 4991: 4653: 4294:. New York: Springer. pp. 569–570. 4290:. In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). 4242: 4236: 4135: 3987: 3963: 3661: 3633:. New York: Springer. pp. 133–134. 3629:. In Thomas Hockey; et al. (eds.). 3594:, p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 3436: 3434: 3432: 3244: 3123: 3099: 2828:Diogenes Laërtius (1972, Bk 7, ch 5, p. 2780: 2614: 2212:) may gain heliocentric velocity due to 1992: 1915:Copernicus is mentioned in the books of 1884:measured the parallaxes of other stars, 1772: 1724:Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds 1460: 1338: 1206:had provided him with an account of the 1131: 888: 763:with respect to the position of the Sun. 750: 559:was Seleucus of Seleucia (b. 190 BC), a 339: 244: 209: 33: 6919: 6600:(3rd ed.). St. Augustine's Press. 6511:(2nd ed.). London: Penguin Books. 6258: 6231: 6122: 5953: 5630: 5265:(1661) Thomas Salusbury translation of 4952: 4850:Religion and the rise of modern science 4742: 4491: 4173: 3256: 2841: 1895: 1762:; i.e., they were turned into "reverse 543: 397:a book consisting of certain hypotheses 371:sizes and distances of the Sun and Moon 335: 7629: 6866: 6615: 6502: 6397: 6285: 6208: 6057: 5989:Cosmology: The Science of the Universe 5959: 5483: 5186: 5174: 5162: 5138: 5106: 4515: 4509: 4353: 4217: 4066:van Limpt, Cokky (February 17, 2003). 4013: 4009: 4007: 3909: 3816: 3734: 3706: 3657: 3655: 3612: 3579:Studies in the Islamic Exact Sciences, 3494: 3445:. Cambridge University Press. p. 3361: 3205: 3166: 2978: 2898: 2882: 2772: 2430: 2422: 1835:Sacred Congregation of the Inquisition 273:The first non-geocentric model of the 257: 7050: 6923:Galileo's Inquisition Trial Revisited 6884:The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary 6834: 6812:Quaderni Urbinati di Cultura Classica 6786:Springer Science & Business Media 6774: 6747: 6720: 6634: 6573: 6423: 6378: 6159: 5826: 5746:Herschel, William (January 1, 1785). 5712: 5656: 5542: 5513: 5504:Sefer Elim, Amsterdam, 1629, стр. 304 5082: 5042: 4964: 4871:, volume 127, no. 6, June, pp. 8–10. 4823: 4802: 4726: 4669: 4543:"Copernicus and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi" 4445: 4161: 4020:Archive for History of Exact Sciences 3952:The Marriage of Philology and Mercury 3867: 3700: 3672:. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 3624: 3547: 3519: 3440: 3429: 3373: 3212:Archive for History of Exact Sciences 3173:Archive for History of Exact Sciences 3155:The Marriage of Philology and Mercury 3088:The Marriage of Philology and Mercury 3024: 2866: 2808: 2756: 2714: 2683: 2531: 2500: 2473: 2394:originally sourced from the works of 2332:, 1679, p. 28). The abstract noun in 1779:A Philosopher Lecturing on the Orrery 1555:Letter to the Grand Duchess Christina 1548:Venus exhibits a full range of phases 880:History of science in the Renaissance 6570:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Pr. 6323:, Florence, and a brief overview of 6125:Journal for the History of Astronomy 5928: 4992:David P., Stern (October 10, 2016). 4936:Gingerich, O. & Voelkel, J. R., 4760:"Religious Objections to Copernicus" 4714:Journal for the History of Astronomy 4614: 4547:Journal for the History of Astronomy 4457: 4398: 4335:Journal for the History of Astronomy 4285: 3789: 3469: 2617:Journal for the History of Astronomy 2176:. In such systems the origin in the 1786:, in which a lamp represents the Sun 1318:Some years after the publication of 254:developed in Renaissance astronomy. 6238:, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 5966:, HarperCollins, pp. 150–159, 5177:, pp. 66–76, 164–175, 187–195. 4816:Calvin’s attitude toward Copernicus 4004: 3968:, Leiden: Brill, pp. 244–259, 3652: 3536:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 3160: 3104:, Leiden: Brill, pp. 244–259, 2324:, in use from about the same time ( 2128:Special relativity and the "center" 2058:Already in the early 19th century, 1670:Science in the Age of Enlightenment 1629:and his straightforward statement, 1150:De revolutionibus orbium coelestium 13: 6434:. London: Oxford University Press. 6402:, University of Notre Dame Press, 6299:] (in Italian). Vol. 19. 4073:Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica 3669:Dictionary of Scientific Biography 3664:"Al-Bitruji Al-Ishbili, Abu Ishaq" 3380:concentrically envelops the other. 3117: 3093: 3073: 3004:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1987.tb37224.x 2793:On the Face in the Orb of the Moon 2504:Early Greek Astronomy to Aristotle 1795:advocating heliocentrism from the 1415: 884: 461:On the Face in the Orb of the Moon 445:On the Face in the Orb of the Moon 27:. For the heliocentric orbit, see 14: 7658: 6999: 6926:. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. 5247:. University of California Press. 4787: 2535:Man and nature in the Renaissance 2313:is first recorded in English (as 1983: 1931:and was acquainted with Galileo. 1500:observed with his telescope that 1404: 831: 597: 7612: 7600: 7588: 7576: 7564: 6993:. Tamil University (1985 print). 6554: 6218:, New York: Dover Publications, 6092: 6079: 6058:Fisher, Debra (August 1, 2006). 6051: 6005: 5986:Harrison, Edward Robert (2000), 5903: 5780: 5739: 5706: 5683: 5650: 5624: 5599: 5573: 5548: 5519: 5498: 5469: 5420: 5380:The General History of Astronomy 5372: 5359: 5329: 5304: 5196: 5132: 4985: 4930: 4917: 4884: 4855: 4842: 4829: 4808: 4781: 4766: 4752: 2383: 2247:Copernican Revolution (metaphor) 1989:William Herschel's heliocentrism 1663: 1534:and that the Sun rotates in his 1486: 1477: 1440:Epitome astronomiae Copernicanae 1226:Reception in Early Modern Europe 1090:Commentary on the First Book of 1044:Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara 978:was found in an earlier work by 775:rather than one of mathematics. 721:. According to later astronomer 628: 21:Heliocentric (Paul Weller album) 6712:, vol. 406, translated by 6640:Journal of the History of Ideas 6616:Linton, Christopher M. (2004). 6598:Galileo, Science and the Church 6398:Graney, Christopher M. (2015), 5493:Journal of the History of Ideas 4925:Journal of the History of Ideas 4820:Journal of the History of Ideas 4719: 4706: 4663: 4608: 4581: 4534: 4430: 4416: 4392: 4378: 4347: 4327: 4313: 4279: 4211: 4167: 4129: 4092: 4059: 4046: 3981: 3957: 3937: 3915: 3861: 3822: 3686: 3618: 3584: 3567: 3525: 3488: 3463: 3410: 3385: 3324: 3311: 3298: 3285: 3250: 3199: 3140: 3049: 3036:, pp. viii & 201–217, 3018: 2972: 2942: 2892: 2822: 2750: 2741: 2724: 2677: 2650: 2608: 2602:Epitome of Copernican Astronomy 2593: 2580: 2370: 1729:Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle 1719:Epitome of Copernican Astronomy 1445:Epitome astronomia Copernicanae 308:(4th century BC) said that the 268: 66:and planets revolve around the 16:Sun-centered astronomical model 6784:. Translated by Levy, Silvio. 6383:. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill. 6108: 5963:Coming of Age in the Milky Way 3550:"Rediscovering Arabic Science" 2600:Kepler, Johannes (1618–1621). 2561: 2552: 2525: 2494: 2467: 2450: 2416: 2353: 2264: 1878:Friedrich Georg Wilhelm Struve 1247:Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter 1057:" (10th to 12th centuries) in 844:, a commentary on Aryabhata's 642:(476–550), in his magnum opus 161:Ancient and medieval astronomy 1: 7467:Inferior and superior planets 6972:. New York: Springer-Verlag. 6750:Copernicus and his Successors 6596:Langford, Jerome K. (1998) . 6364:. London: William Heinemann. 6339:Finocchiaro, Maurice (2010), 6190:Lives of Eminent Philosophers 5537:" it is because it hastens (" 5243:Finochiario, Maurice (2007). 3470:Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1993). 3441:Young, M. J. L., ed. (2006). 3062:, Feltrinelli, Milano, 2003, 2389:On the other hand, Calvin is 2252: 1748:and what came to be known as 1697:(1644), Descartes introduced 719:Earth rotates around its axis 357: 106:of a heliocentric system was 7642:Early scientific cosmologies 6674:, in Godwin, William (ed.), 6038:10.1016/0083-6656(75)90049-5 5897:10.1016/0083-6656(75)90049-5 5813:10.1016/0083-6656(75)90049-5 4998:From Stargazers to Starships 4520:. I.B. Tauris. p. 179. 4319:N.K. Singh, M. Zaki Kirmani, 2409: 2257: 2220:. From the point of view of 2001:In 1783, amateur astronomer 1348:Prior to the publication of 918:In the 14th century, bishop 538:Opinions of the Philosophers 526:Opinions of the Philosophers 122:. In the following century, 7: 6903:Galileo: Decisive Innovator 6752:. London: Hambledon Press. 6012:Berendzen, Richard (1975). 5787:Berendzen, Richard (1975). 5580:Jeremy, Brown (2008–2009). 5337:Gillispie, Charles Coulston 4676:. Cambridge: Icon. p. 3964:Eastwood, Bruce S. (2007), 3474:. SUNY Press. p. 135. 3419:Scientia/Rivista di Scienza 3100:Eastwood, Bruce S. (2007), 2235: 1652:Index Librorum Prohibitorum 1599:Master of the Sacred Palace 1532:Jupiter is orbited by moons 998:, which translated some of 689:Astronomy in medieval Islam 467:, c. 6, pp. 922 F – 923 A.) 175:yearly orbit around the Sun 10: 7663: 7544:Medieval Islamic astronomy 7341:On the Sizes and Distances 6901:Sharratt, Michael (1994). 6503:Joseph, George G. (2000). 6482:Heilbron, John L. (2010). 6259:Fantoli, Annibale (2003). 6145:10.1177/002182869502600203 5525:In a marginal note in his 5369:, Vol. 2, No. 1, June 1964 4839:. New York: Walker and Co. 4567:10.1177/002182867300400205 4541:Veselovsky, I. N. (1973), 4448:, pp. 261–69, 476–86. 3581:Beirut, 1983, pp. 573–595. 2637:10.1177/002182869202300401 2300: 2287: 2047: 1849:when it appeared in 1835. 1667: 1565:. Cardinal and Inquisitor 1520:, and disproved Ptolemy's 1454: 1428:between 1609 and 1619. In 1399:Giovanni Battista Riccioli 1332: 1229: 1125: 1112:Theoricae Novae Planetarum 1002:'s works from Arabic into 972:used by Copernicus in the 877: 686: 632: 547: 534:Against the Mathematicians 428:had been developed in the 261: 18: 7534:Medieval European science 7526: 7505: 7414: 7363: 7302: 7264:Sosigenes the Peripatetic 7084: 6882: 6535:. London: Penguin Books. 5589:The Torah U-Madda Journal 5430:(in McMullin, Ernan ed., 4878:October 27, 2017, at the 4032:10.1007/s00407-017-0198-3 3721:10.1017/s0269889701000060 3224:10.1007/s00407-017-0198-3 3185:10.1007/s00407-017-0198-3 2817:Russo & Medaglia 1996 2588:A History of Mathematics. 2279: 2226:inertial reference frames 1801:. The Observatory of the 1727:, published in France by 1603:Congregation of the Index 1071:Thebit (Thabit Ibn Qurra) 874:Renaissance-era astronomy 141:With the observations of 5960:Ferris, Timothy (2003), 5454:, pp. 279, 312–313. 4965:Smith, Homer W. (1952). 4891:Gingerich, Owen (1993). 4835:Gingerich, Owen (2004), 3662:Samsó, Julio (1970–80). 3495:Hoskin, Michael (1999). 3364:, pp. 393–394, 408. 2532:Debus, Allen G. (1987). 2309:"center"; the adjective 2270:Optionally capitalised, 1925:Joseph Solomon Delmedigo 1858:Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel 1798:Index of Forbidden Books 1694:Principles of Philosophy 1465:In the 17th century AD, 1426:laws of planetary motion 1128:Copernican heliocentrism 1122:Copernican heliocentrism 1079:Alpetragius (Al-Bitruji) 1063:Albategnius (Al-Battani) 365:. Like his contemporary 252:Copernican heliocentrism 7637:Ancient Greek astronomy 7259:Sosigenes of Alexandria 7078:Ancient Greek astronomy 6968:Thurston, Hugh (1993). 6920:Speller, Jules (2008). 6840:Perspectives on Science 6232:Edwards, James (1998), 6210:Dreyer, John Louis Emil 4286:King, David A. (2007). 4218:Saliba, George (1995). 2462:Encyclopædia Britannica 2326:Johann Jakob Zimmermann 2134:principle of relativity 1750:Newton's laws of motion 1674:17th-century philosophy 1573:In January 1616, Msgr. 1383:apparent sizes of stars 789:school of astronomy in 725:, al-Sijzi invented an 390:translates as follows: 264:Ancient Greek astronomy 167:sphericity of the Earth 7331:On Sizes and Distances 6748:Rosen, Edward (1995). 6721:Qadir, Asghar (1989). 6710:Loeb Classical Library 6706:Plutarch's Moralia XII 6465:The Church and Galileo 5765:10.1098/rstl.1785.0012 5713:Brown, Jeremy (2013). 5657:Brown, Jeremy (2013). 5631:Rabbi Natan, Slifkin. 5531:Midrash Bereshit Rabba 5432:The Church and Galileo 5401:, Book 3 (1729 vol.2) 5208:March 2, 2021, at the 4873:Available online here. 4814:Rosen, Edward (1960), 3790:Huff, Toby E. (2003). 3382: 2787:; Cherniss 1957]], p. 2765:Gent & Godwin 1883 2574:July 29, 2012, at the 2110:cosmological principle 1998: 1787: 1709:; these rotate due to 1636: 1627: 1595: 1470: 1345: 1270: 1141: 1040:Johannes Regiomontanus 897: 764: 683:Medieval Islamic world 517: 512:Platonicae Quaestiones 484:A reply to Aristarchus 470: 465:De facie in orbe lunae 418: 348: 239:, a regression, since 216: 45: 7442:Deferent and epicycle 7371:Antikythera mechanism 6379:Goddu, André (2010). 5936:"Meet the Stargazers" 4994:"Kepler and His Laws" 4848:Hooykaas, R. (1973). 4790:Revolution in Science 4516:Freely, John (2015). 4400:Cook, Theodore Andrea 3625:Samsó, Julio (2007). 3377: 3321:, 64 (1973): 239–243. 3257:Plofker, Kim (2009). 2474:Russo, Lucio (2003). 1996: 1776: 1756:observatories called 1746:universal gravitation 1678:Scientific revolution 1668:Further information: 1631: 1623: 1584: 1464: 1342: 1266: 1253:and several Catholic 1232:Copernican Revolution 1135: 1075:Arzachel (Al-Zarqali) 892: 850:system later proposed 822:Samarkand observatory 780:Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji 755:An illustration from 754: 495: 449: 392: 343: 310:rotation of the Earth 213: 179:Copernican Revolution 120:Copernican Revolution 70:at the center of the 43:Harmonia Macrocosmica 37: 7513:Babylonian astronomy 7204:Hippocrates of Chios 6987:JV Chelliah (1946). 6852:10.1162/posc_a_00552 6362:The Book Nobody Read 6117:Philosophia Islamica 6100:center-of-mass frame 5477:"Viviani's pendulum" 5466:, pp. 279, 312. 5322:Weintraub, David A. 4975:Grosset & Dunlap 4861:Bye, Dan J. (2007). 4837:The Book Nobody Read 4773:Melanchthon (1549). 4670:Henry, John (2001). 4080:on November 27, 2018 3548:Covington, Richard. 3334:Mathematics in India 3331:Kim Plofker (2009). 3260:Mathematics in India 2819:, pp. 113–117). 2604:. Book IV, Part 1.2. 2501:Dicks, D.R. (1970). 2242:Copernican principle 2192:" and "heliocentric 2106:Copernican principle 1978:relativity of motion 1896:Reception in Judaism 1715:centripetal pressure 1373:Aristotelian physics 1114:(printed in 1472 by 950:Maragheh observatory 913:John Scotus Eriugena 840:(1444–1544), in his 650:spinning on its axis 550:Seleucus of Seleucia 544:Seleucus of Seleucia 353:Aristarchus of Samos 336:Aristarchus of Samos 306:Heraclides of Pontus 277:was proposed by the 241:Aristarchus of Samos 190:Aristarchus of Samos 80:Aristarchus of Samos 7284:Theon of Alexandria 6876:Columbia University 6758:1995cops.book.....R 6547:Available from the 6408:2015saaa.book.....G 6137:1995JHA....26..133D 6030:1975VA.....17...65B 6018:Vistas in Astronomy 5889:1975VA.....17...65B 5877:Vistas in Astronomy 5850:1965PASP...77..325V 5805:1975VA.....17...65B 5793:Vistas in Astronomy 5637:Rationalist Judaism 5560:www.hebrewbooks.org 5417:, pp. 147–175. 5129:, pp. 110–115. 5097:, pp. 110–111. 5030:] the same... " 4826:, pp. 161–171. 4788:Cohen, I. Bernard. 4775:Elements of Physics 4619:of Nicole Oresme", 4559:1973JHA.....4..128V 4458:Huff, T.E. (2010). 4364:Library of Congress 4257:1973PAPhS.117..423S 4150:2008Obs...128..231G 4054:De docta ignorantia 3843:1998BASI...26...11R 3759:2001Osir...16...49R 3532:Nicolaus Copernicus 2996:1987NYASA.500..525V 2960:on January 27, 2018 2909:2000eaa..bookE3998. 2700:1923PA.....31..510R 2658:Neugebauer, Otto E. 2629:1992JHA....23..233E 2032:introduced motion, 1876:. In the same year 1815:Vatican Observatory 1805:was established by 1543:Letters on Sunspots 1502:Venus showed phases 1289:Nicolaus Copernicus 1243:Nicolaus Copernicus 1212:Heraclides Ponticus 1145:Nicolaus Copernicus 1138:Nicolaus Copernicus 1108:Georg von Peuerbach 1097:Questiones de Spera 1016:Theodore Metochites 943:Hermes Trismegistus 838:Nilakantha Somayaji 258:Classical antiquity 116:Nicolaus Copernicus 84:Philolaus of Croton 62:model in which the 51:(also known as the 7518:Egyptian astronomy 7432:Circle of latitude 7017:on August 16, 2013 6195:Hicks, Robert Drew 6065:Astronomy Magazine 4405:The Curves of Life 4357:(April 27, 2006). 4052:Nicholas of Cusa, 3882:10.1007/BF02839373 3709:Science in Context 2927:10.1888/0333750888 2569:Ptolemy's Universe 2367:' work on gravity. 2222:general relativity 1999: 1970:R. M.M. Schneerson 1910:radical skepticism 1788: 1713:and the resulting 1699:a mechanical model 1647:Pope Alexander VII 1518:heliocentric model 1512:, as predicted by 1471: 1346: 1264:purportedly said: 1142: 1055:Islamic Golden Age 1036:Basilios Bessarion 1008:Gregory Chioniades 987:Otto E. Neugebauer 898: 773:natural philosophy 765: 761:phases of the Moon 717:accepted that the 699:Muslim astronomers 508:Platonic Questions 491:Platonic Questions 349: 237:Astronomical Units 217: 104:mathematical model 97:Hellenistic period 53:heliocentric model 46: 29:Heliocentric orbit 7552: 7551: 7427:Celestial spheres 6979:978-0-387-94107-3 6954:978-0-521-24254-7 6933:978-3-631-56229-1 6912:978-0-521-56671-1 6893:978-0-19-920687-2 6795:978-3-642-18904-3 6767:978-1-85285-071-5 6676:Plutarch's Morals 6627:978-0-521-82750-8 6607:978-1-890318-25-3 6588:978-0-8014-0504-4 6542:978-0-14-019246-9 6495:978-0-19-958352-2 6474:978-0-268-03483-2 6455:978-0-674-00536-5 6440:Heilbron, John L. 6425:Heath, Sir Thomas 6417:978-0-268-02988-3 6390:978-90-04-18107-6 6371:978-0-434-01315-9 6329:Finn's fine books 6327:is available at 6317:on July 13, 2007. 6310:978-88-09-20881-0 6245:978-0-19-509539-5 6225:978-0-486-60079-6 6185:Diogenes Laërtius 6176:978-0-226-16226-3 5999:978-0-521-66148-5 5973:978-0-06-053595-7 5724:978-0-19-975479-3 5668:978-0-19-975479-3 5426:John L.Heilbron, 5324:Is Pluto a Planet 5073:, pp. 56–57. 4687:978-1-84046-251-7 4602:978-0-387-06995-1 4527:978-1-78453-138-6 4471:978-1-139-49535-6 4301:978-0-387-31022-0 4229:978-0-8147-8023-7 3990:De revolutionibus 3975:978-90-04-16186-3 3803:978-0-521-52994-5 3679:978-0-684-10114-9 3640:978-0-387-31022-0 3522:, pp. 5–10.. 3506:978-0-521-57600-0 3481:978-1-4384-1419-5 3456:978-0-521-02887-5 3397:Famous Scientists 3376:, pp. 317f: 3348:978-0-691-12067-6 3270:978-1-4008-3407-5 3126:De revolutionibus 3111:978-90-04-16186-3 3060:Flussi e riflussi 3043:978-965-223-626-5 2936:978-0-333-75088-9 2687:Popular Astronomy 2671:978-3-540-06995-9 2545:978-0-521-29328-0 2518:978-0-8014-0561-7 2487:978-3-540-20068-0 2444:The Sand Reckoner 2317:) in 1685, after 2198:mechanical energy 2155:extrasolar planet 2083:globular clusters 1906:Maharal of Prague 1860:, and in 1851 by 1839:De Revolutionibus 1819:De Revolutionibus 1711:centrifugal force 1607:De Revolutionibus 1567:Robert Bellarmine 1350:De Revolutionibus 1320:De Revolutionibus 1294:De Revolutionibus 1282:De Revolutionibus 1192:De Revolutionibus 1165:retrograde motion 1059:De Revolutionibus 1048:Leonardo da Vinci 1028:Demetrios Kydones 996:Byzantine science 929:Learned Ignorance 905:Early Middle Ages 901:Martianus Capella 864:Copernican models 842:Aryabhatiyabhasya 693:Islamic cosmology 619:Martianus Capella 615:Early Middle Ages 611:Martianus Capella 480:Diogenes Laërtius 409:The Sand Reckoner 383:The Sand Reckoner 233:celestial spheres 215:around the Earth. 128:elliptical orbits 118:, leading to the 39:Andreas Cellarius 7654: 7617: 7616: 7615: 7605: 7604: 7603: 7593: 7592: 7591: 7581: 7580: 7569: 7568: 7567: 7560: 7539:Indian astronomy 7492:Sublunary sphere 7462:Hipparchic cycle 7401:Mural instrument 7376:Armillary sphere 7355: 7345: 7335: 7325: 7315: 7071: 7064: 7057: 7048: 7047: 7037: 7026: 7024: 7022: 7013:. Archived from 6994: 6983: 6964: 6963: 6961: 6937: 6916: 6897: 6879: 6863: 6831: 6820:10.2307/20547344 6806: 6804: 6802: 6771: 6744: 6717: 6714:Cherniss, Harold 6693: 6679: 6663: 6631: 6611: 6592: 6575:Koyré, Alexandre 6564:Koyré, Alexandre 6559: 6558: 6552: 6550:Internet Archive 6546: 6527:Koestler, Arthur 6522: 6499: 6478: 6459: 6435: 6420: 6394: 6375: 6353: 6318: 6313:. Archived from 6282: 6255: 6254: 6252: 6228: 6205: 6204: 6202: 6193:, translated by 6180: 6156: 6102: 6096: 6090: 6083: 6077: 6076: 6074: 6072: 6055: 6049: 6048: 6046: 6044: 6009: 6003: 6002: 5983: 5977: 5976: 5957: 5951: 5950: 5948: 5946: 5932: 5926: 5925: 5923: 5921: 5907: 5901: 5900: 5872: 5863: 5862: 5861: 5844:(458): 324–328, 5833: 5824: 5823: 5821: 5819: 5784: 5778: 5777: 5767: 5743: 5737: 5736: 5710: 5704: 5703: 5701: 5699: 5687: 5681: 5680: 5654: 5648: 5647: 5645: 5643: 5628: 5622: 5621: 5619: 5617: 5603: 5597: 5596: 5586: 5577: 5571: 5570: 5568: 5566: 5552: 5546: 5523: 5517: 5511: 5505: 5502: 5496: 5487: 5481: 5480: 5473: 5467: 5461: 5455: 5449: 5443: 5424: 5418: 5412: 5406: 5395: 5386: 5376: 5370: 5363: 5357: 5356: 5333: 5327: 5320: 5311: 5308: 5302: 5292: 5286: 5276: 5270: 5258: 5249: 5248: 5245:Retrying Galileo 5240: 5231: 5225: 5216: 5203:Domínguez (2014) 5200: 5194: 5184: 5178: 5172: 5166: 5160: 5154: 5151:Finocchiaro 2010 5148: 5142: 5136: 5130: 5124: 5118: 5116: 5104: 5098: 5092: 5086: 5080: 5074: 5068: 5062: 5052: 5046: 5040: 5031: 5015: 5009: 5008: 5006: 5004: 4989: 4983: 4982: 4972: 4969:Man and His Gods 4962: 4956: 4950: 4944: 4939:J. Hist. Astron. 4934: 4928: 4927:, 51, 1990, 364. 4921: 4915: 4914: 4888: 4882: 4859: 4853: 4846: 4840: 4833: 4827: 4812: 4806: 4800: 4794: 4793: 4785: 4779: 4778: 4770: 4764: 4763: 4756: 4750: 4740: 4734: 4723: 4717: 4710: 4704: 4698: 4692: 4691: 4667: 4661: 4651: 4645: 4644: 4612: 4606: 4605: 4589:Neugebauer, Otto 4585: 4579: 4578: 4538: 4532: 4531: 4513: 4507: 4501: 4495: 4489: 4483: 4482: 4480: 4478: 4455: 4449: 4443: 4437: 4434: 4428: 4427: 4420: 4414: 4413: 4396: 4390: 4389: 4382: 4376: 4375: 4373: 4371: 4351: 4345: 4341:(2014), 183–195 4331: 4325: 4317: 4311: 4305: 4283: 4277: 4276: 4240: 4234: 4233: 4215: 4209: 4208: 4171: 4165: 4159: 4153: 4152: 4133: 4127: 4126: 4096: 4090: 4089: 4087: 4085: 4076:. Archived from 4063: 4057: 4050: 4044: 4043: 4011: 4002: 4001: 3985: 3979: 3978: 3961: 3955: 3941: 3935: 3934: 3919: 3913: 3907: 3901: 3900: 3865: 3859: 3853: 3847: 3846: 3826: 3820: 3814: 3808: 3807: 3787: 3778: 3777: 3738: 3732: 3731: 3715:(1–2): 145–163, 3704: 3698: 3690: 3684: 3683: 3659: 3650: 3644: 3622: 3616: 3610: 3599: 3588: 3582: 3571: 3565: 3564: 3562: 3560: 3545: 3539: 3529: 3523: 3517: 3511: 3510: 3492: 3486: 3485: 3467: 3461: 3460: 3438: 3427: 3426: 3414: 3408: 3407: 3405: 3403: 3389: 3383: 3371: 3365: 3359: 3353: 3352: 3328: 3322: 3315: 3309: 3302: 3296: 3289: 3283: 3282: 3254: 3248: 3242: 3236: 3235: 3203: 3197: 3196: 3164: 3158: 3144: 3138: 3137: 3121: 3115: 3114: 3097: 3091: 3077: 3071: 3053: 3047: 3046: 3034:Brill Publishers 3022: 3016: 3015: 2976: 2970: 2969: 2967: 2965: 2956:. Archived from 2946: 2940: 2939: 2920: 2896: 2890: 2880: 2874: 2864: 2853: 2839: 2833: 2826: 2820: 2754: 2748: 2745: 2739: 2728: 2722: 2712: 2703: 2702: 2681: 2675: 2674: 2654: 2648: 2647: 2612: 2606: 2605: 2597: 2591: 2584: 2578: 2565: 2559: 2556: 2550: 2549: 2529: 2523: 2522: 2498: 2492: 2491: 2471: 2465: 2454: 2448: 2420: 2403: 2400:Abraham Calovius 2387: 2381: 2374: 2368: 2357: 2351: 2305: 2304: 2292: 2291: 2268: 2230:Mach's principle 2218:scientific model 2194:angular momentum 2174:reference frames 2003:William Herschel 1882:Thomas Henderson 1872:of a star named 1807:Pope Clement XIV 1593: 1575:Francesco Ingoli 1563:Council of Trent 1537:Sidereus Nuncius 1522:geocentric model 1490: 1481: 1251:Pope Clement VII 1032:Gemistos Plethon 1012:Manuel Bryennios 924:Nicholas of Cusa 894:Nicholas of Cusa 818:Earth's rotation 795:Earth's rotation 746:'alā Baṭalamiyūs 745: 716: 710: 703:Ptolemaic system 635:Indian astronomy 530:Sextus Empiricus 515: 514:viii. I, 1006 C) 468: 416: 364: 362: 359: 195:geocentric model 147:Friedrich Bessel 143:William Herschel 7662: 7661: 7657: 7656: 7655: 7653: 7652: 7651: 7627: 7626: 7623: 7613: 7611: 7601: 7599: 7589: 7587: 7575: 7565: 7563: 7555: 7553: 7548: 7522: 7501: 7487:Spherical Earth 7422:Callippic cycle 7410: 7391:Equatorial ring 7359: 7353: 7343: 7333: 7323: 7313: 7298: 7289:Theon of Smyrna 7080: 7075: 7035: 7020: 7018: 7005: 7002: 6997: 6980: 6970:Early Astronomy 6959: 6957: 6955: 6934: 6913: 6894: 6800: 6798: 6796: 6768: 6733: 6652:10.2307/2708908 6628: 6608: 6589: 6553: 6548: 6543: 6519: 6496: 6475: 6456: 6418: 6391: 6372: 6358:Gingerich, Owen 6351: 6311: 6287:Favaro, Antonio 6271: 6250: 6248: 6246: 6226: 6200: 6198: 6177: 6166:Galileo At Work 6161:Drake, Stillman 6111: 6106: 6105: 6097: 6093: 6089:, 32 (1), 1–29. 6084: 6080: 6070: 6068: 6056: 6052: 6042: 6040: 6010: 6006: 6000: 5984: 5980: 5974: 5958: 5954: 5944: 5942: 5934: 5933: 5929: 5919: 5917: 5909: 5908: 5904: 5873: 5866: 5834: 5827: 5817: 5815: 5785: 5781: 5744: 5740: 5725: 5711: 5707: 5697: 5695: 5690: 5688: 5684: 5669: 5655: 5651: 5641: 5639: 5629: 5625: 5615: 5613: 5611:hebrewbooks.org 5605: 5604: 5600: 5584: 5578: 5574: 5564: 5562: 5554: 5553: 5549: 5545:, p. 220). 5524: 5520: 5512: 5508: 5503: 5499: 5488: 5484: 5475: 5474: 5470: 5462: 5458: 5450: 5446: 5425: 5421: 5413: 5409: 5396: 5389: 5377: 5373: 5364: 5360: 5353: 5334: 5330: 5321: 5314: 5309: 5305: 5293: 5289: 5277: 5273: 5259: 5252: 5241: 5234: 5226: 5219: 5210:Wayback Machine 5201: 5197: 5185: 5181: 5173: 5169: 5161: 5157: 5149: 5145: 5137: 5133: 5125: 5121: 5114: 5105: 5101: 5093: 5089: 5081: 5077: 5069: 5065: 5053: 5049: 5041: 5034: 5016: 5012: 5002: 5000: 4990: 4986: 4963: 4959: 4951: 4947: 4941:, Vol. 29, 1998 4935: 4931: 4922: 4918: 4903: 4889: 4885: 4880:Wayback Machine 4868:The Freethinker 4860: 4856: 4847: 4843: 4834: 4830: 4813: 4809: 4801: 4797: 4786: 4782: 4771: 4767: 4758: 4757: 4753: 4741: 4737: 4724: 4720: 4711: 4707: 4699: 4695: 4688: 4668: 4664: 4652: 4648: 4613: 4609: 4603: 4586: 4582: 4539: 4535: 4528: 4514: 4510: 4504:Veselovsky 1973 4502: 4498: 4490: 4486: 4476: 4474: 4472: 4456: 4452: 4444: 4440: 4435: 4431: 4422: 4421: 4417: 4397: 4393: 4384: 4383: 4379: 4369: 4367: 4352: 4348: 4332: 4328: 4318: 4314: 4302: 4284: 4280: 4241: 4237: 4230: 4216: 4212: 4184:(3): 365–378 , 4172: 4168: 4160: 4156: 4138:The Observatory 4134: 4130: 4097: 4093: 4083: 4081: 4064: 4060: 4051: 4047: 4012: 4005: 3986: 3982: 3976: 3962: 3958: 3942: 3938: 3926:Current Science 3920: 3916: 3908: 3904: 3866: 3862: 3854: 3850: 3827: 3823: 3815: 3811: 3804: 3788: 3781: 3739: 3735: 3705: 3701: 3691: 3687: 3680: 3660: 3653: 3641: 3623: 3619: 3611: 3602: 3589: 3585: 3572: 3568: 3558: 3556: 3546: 3542: 3530: 3526: 3518: 3514: 3507: 3493: 3489: 3482: 3468: 3464: 3457: 3439: 3430: 3415: 3411: 3401: 3399: 3391: 3390: 3386: 3372: 3368: 3360: 3356: 3349: 3329: 3325: 3316: 3312: 3303: 3299: 3290: 3286: 3271: 3255: 3251: 3243: 3239: 3204: 3200: 3165: 3161: 3145: 3141: 3122: 3118: 3112: 3098: 3094: 3078: 3074: 3054: 3050: 3044: 3032:, vol. 2, 3023: 3019: 2990:(1): 525–545 , 2977: 2973: 2963: 2961: 2948: 2947: 2943: 2937: 2918:10.1.1.255.9251 2897: 2893: 2881: 2877: 2865: 2856: 2852:, for instance. 2848:and n. 104, p. 2840: 2836: 2827: 2823: 2755: 2751: 2746: 2742: 2732:celestial poles 2729: 2725: 2713: 2706: 2682: 2678: 2672: 2655: 2651: 2613: 2609: 2598: 2594: 2585: 2581: 2576:Wayback Machine 2566: 2562: 2557: 2553: 2546: 2530: 2526: 2519: 2499: 2495: 2488: 2472: 2468: 2455: 2451: 2421: 2417: 2412: 2407: 2406: 2388: 2384: 2375: 2371: 2358: 2354: 2348:Heliozentrismus 2344:Heliocentrismus 2278:, according to 2269: 2265: 2260: 2255: 2238: 2182:Right ascension 2170: 2130: 2091:galactocentrism 2072:stellar systems 2056: 2050:Galactocentrism 2048:Main articles: 2046: 2030:Jacobus Kapteyn 1991: 1986: 1955:Yafe’ah le-Ketz 1900:Already in the 1898: 1827:Filippo Anfossi 1768:pinhole cameras 1766:", or gigantic 1680: 1666: 1613:Pope Urban VIII 1594: 1591: 1528: 1527: 1526: 1525: 1524:(second image). 1498:Galileo Galilei 1493: 1492: 1491: 1483: 1482: 1467:Galileo Galilei 1459: 1453: 1431:Astronomia nova 1422:Johannes Kepler 1418: 1416:Johannes Kepler 1407: 1366:Tychonic system 1356:, in which the 1337: 1335:Tychonic system 1331: 1286: 1280:Publication of 1239: 1234: 1228: 1177:Tychonic system 1130: 1124: 1024:Nilos Kabasilas 1020:Gregory Palamas 1004:Byzantine Greek 887: 885:Medieval period 882: 876: 834: 805:(d. 1277), and 743: 712: 706: 695: 685: 637: 631: 600: 565:Seleucid Empire 552: 546: 516: 506: 469: 459: 417: 407: 360: 355: 338: 271: 266: 260: 163: 132:Galileo Galilei 124:Johannes Kepler 32: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7660: 7650: 7649: 7644: 7639: 7622: 7621: 7609: 7597: 7585: 7573: 7550: 7549: 7547: 7546: 7541: 7536: 7530: 7528: 7524: 7523: 7521: 7520: 7515: 7509: 7507: 7503: 7502: 7500: 7499: 7494: 7489: 7484: 7479: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7459: 7454: 7449: 7444: 7439: 7434: 7429: 7424: 7418: 7416: 7412: 7411: 7409: 7408: 7403: 7398: 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Otzar770.com 5682: 5667: 5649: 5623: 5598: 5572: 5547: 5518: 5506: 5497: 5482: 5468: 5456: 5444: 5419: 5407: 5403:at pp. 232–233 5387: 5371: 5358: 5351: 5328: 5312: 5303: 5287: 5271: 5250: 5232: 5230:, p. 218. 5217: 5195: 5179: 5167: 5165:, pp. 71. 5155: 5153:, pp. 72. 5143: 5131: 5119: 5099: 5087: 5085:, p. 240. 5075: 5063: 5047: 5032: 5010: 4984: 4957: 4955:, p. 109. 4945: 4929: 4916: 4901: 4883: 4854: 4841: 4828: 4807: 4795: 4792:. p. 497. 4780: 4765: 4751: 4735: 4733:, p. 32). 4731:Gingerich 2004 4729:, p. 85; 4718: 4705: 4701:Gingerich 2004 4693: 4686: 4662: 4646: 4633:10.1086/350791 4627:(4): 490–498, 4607: 4601: 4580: 4553:(2): 128–130, 4533: 4526: 4508: 4496: 4484: 4470: 4450: 4438: 4429: 4415: 4391: 4377: 4355:Saliba, George 4346: 4326: 4312: 4300: 4278: 4235: 4228: 4210: 4190:10.1086/350144 4166: 4154: 4128: 4115:10.1086/348774 4109:(3): 232–234. 4091: 4058: 4045: 4003: 3980: 3974: 3956: 3936: 3914: 3912:, p. 408. 3902: 3860: 3858:, p. 788. 3848: 3821: 3809: 3802: 3779: 3767:10.1086/649338 3749:, 2nd Series, 3733: 3699: 3694:Hikmat al-'Ain 3685: 3678: 3651: 3639: 3617: 3600: 3583: 3566: 3540: 3524: 3512: 3505: 3487: 3480: 3462: 3455: 3428: 3409: 3384: 3366: 3354: 3347: 3323: 3310: 3297: 3284: 3269: 3249: 3247:, p. 188. 3237: 3198: 3159: 3139: 3116: 3110: 3092: 3072: 3048: 3042: 3017: 2971: 2941: 2935: 2891: 2875: 2854: 2834: 2821: 2749: 2740: 2723: 2704: 2676: 2670: 2649: 2607: 2592: 2579: 2560: 2551: 2544: 2524: 2517: 2493: 2486: 2466: 2449: 2414: 2413: 2411: 2408: 2405: 2404: 2382: 2369: 2352: 2322:heliocentricus 2262: 2261: 2259: 2256: 2254: 2251: 2250: 2249: 2244: 2237: 2234: 2214:gravity assist 2178:center of mass 2169: 2161:Modern use of 2159: 2129: 2126: 2079:Harlow Shapley 2054:Big Bang model 2045: 2042: 1990: 1987: 1985: 1984:Modern science 1982: 1966:Shlomo Benizri 1897: 1894: 1890:Alpha Centauri 1841:and Galileo's 1683:René Descartes 1665: 1662: 1649:published his 1589: 1495: 1494: 1485: 1484: 1476: 1475: 1474: 1473: 1472: 1457:Galileo affair 1455:Main article: 1452: 1449: 1424:developed his 1417: 1414: 1410:Giordano Bruno 1406: 1405:Giordano Bruno 1403: 1333:Main article: 1330: 1327: 1285: 1278: 1238: 1235: 1230:Main article: 1227: 1224: 1126:Main article: 1123: 1120: 975:Commentariolus 886: 883: 875: 872: 859:Tantrasamgraha 833: 832:Medieval India 830: 739:Ibn al-Haytham 684: 681: 630: 627: 604:Roman Carthage 599: 598:Late antiquity 596: 592:center of mass 548:Main article: 545: 542: 504: 457: 405: 337: 334: 270: 267: 259: 256: 225:spinning Earth 186:Pythagoreanism 171:daily rotation 162: 159: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7659: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7635: 7634: 7632: 7625: 7620: 7610: 7608: 7598: 7596: 7586: 7584: 7579: 7574: 7572: 7562: 7561: 7558: 7545: 7542: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7532: 7531: 7529: 7525: 7519: 7516: 7514: 7511: 7510: 7508: 7504: 7498: 7495: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7472:Metonic cycle 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7457:Heliocentrism 7455: 7453: 7450: 7448: 7445: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7437:Counter-Earth 7435: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7420: 7419: 7417: 7413: 7407: 7404: 7402: 7399: 7397: 7394: 7392: 7389: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7374: 7372: 7369: 7368: 7366: 7362: 7356: 7352: 7348: 7346: 7344:(Aristarchus) 7342: 7338: 7336: 7332: 7328: 7326: 7322: 7318: 7316: 7312: 7308: 7307: 7305: 7301: 7295: 7292: 7290: 7287: 7285: 7282: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7272: 7270: 7267: 7265: 7262: 7260: 7257: 7255: 7252: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7242: 7240: 7237: 7235: 7232: 7230: 7227: 7225: 7222: 7220: 7217: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7207: 7205: 7202: 7200: 7197: 7195: 7192: 7190: 7187: 7185: 7182: 7180: 7177: 7175: 7172: 7170: 7167: 7165: 7162: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7132: 7130: 7127: 7125: 7122: 7120: 7117: 7115: 7112: 7110: 7107: 7105: 7102: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7091: 7089: 7087: 7083: 7079: 7072: 7067: 7065: 7060: 7058: 7053: 7052: 7049: 7042: 7038: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7016: 7012: 7008: 7004: 7003: 6992: 6991: 6985: 6981: 6975: 6971: 6966: 6956: 6950: 6946: 6945: 6939: 6935: 6929: 6925: 6924: 6918: 6914: 6908: 6904: 6899: 6895: 6889: 6885: 6881: 6877: 6873: 6869: 6865: 6861: 6857: 6853: 6849: 6845: 6841: 6837: 6833: 6829: 6825: 6821: 6817: 6813: 6808: 6797: 6791: 6787: 6783: 6782: 6777: 6773: 6769: 6763: 6759: 6755: 6751: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6734: 6732:9971-5-0612-2 6728: 6724: 6719: 6715: 6711: 6707: 6703: 6699: 6695: 6691: 6690: 6685: 6681: 6677: 6673: 6669: 6665: 6661: 6657: 6653: 6649: 6645: 6641: 6637: 6633: 6629: 6623: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6603: 6599: 6594: 6590: 6584: 6580: 6576: 6572: 6569: 6565: 6562: 6557: 6551: 6544: 6538: 6534: 6533: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6518:0-691-00659-8 6514: 6510: 6509: 6506: 6501: 6497: 6491: 6487: 6486: 6480: 6476: 6470: 6466: 6461: 6457: 6451: 6447: 6446: 6441: 6437: 6433: 6432: 6426: 6422: 6419: 6413: 6409: 6405: 6401: 6396: 6392: 6386: 6382: 6377: 6373: 6367: 6363: 6359: 6355: 6352: 6346: 6342: 6337: 6334: 6330: 6326: 6322: 6316: 6312: 6306: 6302: 6298: 6294: 6293: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6272: 6270:88-209-7427-4 6266: 6262: 6257: 6247: 6241: 6237: 6236: 6230: 6227: 6221: 6217: 6216: 6211: 6207: 6196: 6192: 6191: 6186: 6182: 6178: 6172: 6168: 6167: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6134: 6131:(2): 133–54. 6130: 6126: 6121: 6118: 6114: 6113: 6101: 6095: 6088: 6082: 6067: 6066: 6061: 6054: 6039: 6035: 6031: 6027: 6023: 6019: 6015: 6008: 6001: 5995: 5991: 5990: 5982: 5975: 5969: 5965: 5964: 5956: 5941: 5937: 5931: 5916: 5912: 5906: 5898: 5894: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5878: 5871: 5869: 5860: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5839: 5832: 5830: 5814: 5810: 5806: 5802: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5783: 5775: 5771: 5766: 5761: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5742: 5734: 5730: 5726: 5720: 5716: 5709: 5693: 5686: 5678: 5674: 5670: 5664: 5660: 5653: 5638: 5634: 5627: 5612: 5608: 5602: 5594: 5590: 5583: 5576: 5561: 5557: 5551: 5544: 5540: 5536: 5532: 5528: 5522: 5515: 5510: 5501: 5494: 5491: 5486: 5478: 5472: 5465: 5464:Heilbron 2005 5460: 5453: 5452:Heilbron 2005 5448: 5441: 5440:0-268-03483-4 5437: 5433: 5429: 5423: 5416: 5415:Heilbron 1999 5411: 5404: 5400: 5394: 5392: 5385: 5382:, Volume 2A, 5381: 5375: 5368: 5362: 5354: 5352:0-691-02350-6 5348: 5344: 5343: 5338: 5332: 5325: 5319: 5317: 5307: 5300: 5296: 5295:Heilbron 1999 5291: 5284: 5280: 5279:Koestler 1990 5275: 5268: 5264: 5263: 5257: 5255: 5246: 5239: 5237: 5229: 5228:Heilbron 2010 5224: 5222: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5204: 5199: 5192: 5188: 5183: 5176: 5171: 5164: 5159: 5152: 5147: 5140: 5135: 5128: 5127:Sharratt 1994 5123: 5112: 5108: 5103: 5096: 5095:Sharratt 1994 5091: 5084: 5079: 5072: 5071:Langford 1998 5067: 5060: 5056: 5055:Koestler 1990 5051: 5044: 5039: 5037: 5029: 5028: 5023: 5019: 5018:Koestler 1990 5014: 4999: 4995: 4988: 4980: 4976: 4971: 4970: 4961: 4954: 4949: 4942: 4940: 4933: 4926: 4920: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4902:0-88318-863-5 4898: 4894: 4887: 4881: 4877: 4874: 4870: 4869: 4864: 4858: 4851: 4845: 4838: 4832: 4825: 4821: 4817: 4811: 4804: 4799: 4791: 4784: 4776: 4769: 4761: 4755: 4748: 4744: 4739: 4732: 4728: 4722: 4715: 4709: 4703:, p. 51. 4702: 4697: 4689: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4674: 4666: 4659: 4655: 4654:Koestler 1990 4650: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4611: 4604: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4584: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4544: 4537: 4529: 4523: 4519: 4512: 4505: 4500: 4493: 4488: 4473: 4467: 4463: 4462: 4454: 4447: 4442: 4433: 4425: 4419: 4411: 4407: 4406: 4401: 4395: 4387: 4381: 4366: 4365: 4360: 4356: 4350: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4330: 4324: 4322: 4316: 4309: 4303: 4297: 4293: 4289: 4282: 4274: 4270: 4266: 4262: 4258: 4254: 4250: 4246: 4239: 4231: 4225: 4222:. NYU Press. 4221: 4214: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4178: 4170: 4163: 4158: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4132: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4103: 4095: 4079: 4075: 4074: 4069: 4062: 4055: 4049: 4041: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4010: 4008: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3984: 3977: 3971: 3967: 3960: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3944:William Stahl 3940: 3932: 3928: 3927: 3918: 3911: 3906: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3876:(5): 58–72 , 3875: 3871: 3864: 3857: 3852: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3825: 3818: 3813: 3805: 3799: 3795: 3794: 3786: 3784: 3776: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3760: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3737: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3718: 3714: 3710: 3703: 3696: 3695: 3689: 3681: 3675: 3671: 3670: 3665: 3658: 3656: 3648: 3642: 3636: 3632: 3628: 3621: 3614: 3609: 3607: 3605: 3597: 3593: 3587: 3580: 3576: 3570: 3555: 3551: 3544: 3537: 3533: 3528: 3521: 3516: 3508: 3502: 3498: 3491: 3483: 3477: 3473: 3466: 3458: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3437: 3435: 3433: 3424: 3420: 3413: 3398: 3394: 3388: 3381: 3375: 3370: 3363: 3358: 3350: 3344: 3340: 3336: 3335: 3327: 3320: 3314: 3307: 3301: 3294: 3288: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3266: 3262: 3261: 3253: 3246: 3245:Thurston 1993 3241: 3233: 3229: 3225: 3221: 3217: 3213: 3209: 3202: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3174: 3170: 3163: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3147:William Stahl 3143: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3120: 3113: 3107: 3103: 3096: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3080:William Stahl 3076: 3069: 3068:88-07-10349-4 3065: 3061: 3057: 3052: 3045: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3026:Pines, Shlomo 3021: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2980:Bartel, B. L. 2975: 2959: 2955: 2951: 2945: 2938: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2919: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2895: 2888: 2884: 2879: 2872: 2868: 2863: 2861: 2859: 2851: 2847: 2843: 2838: 2831: 2825: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2781:Prickard 1911 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2753: 2744: 2737: 2733: 2727: 2720: 2716: 2711: 2709: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2688: 2680: 2673: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2653: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2611: 2603: 2596: 2590:Wiley, p. 54. 2589: 2583: 2577: 2573: 2570: 2567:Dennis Duke, 2564: 2555: 2547: 2541: 2537: 2536: 2528: 2520: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2505: 2497: 2489: 2483: 2479: 2478: 2470: 2464: 2463: 2458: 2457:Heliocentrism 2453: 2446: 2445: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2424: 2419: 2415: 2401: 2397: 2392: 2386: 2379: 2373: 2366: 2362: 2359:According to 2356: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2336: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2320: 2316: 2315:heliocentrick 2312: 2308: 2303: 2297: 2296: 2290: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2276:heliocentrism 2273: 2272:Heliocentrism 2267: 2263: 2248: 2245: 2243: 2240: 2239: 2233: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2168: 2164: 2158: 2156: 2152: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2125: 2123: 2119: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2094: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2080: 2075: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2064:Immanuel Kant 2061: 2060:Thomas Wright 2055: 2051: 2041: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2026: 2024: 2018: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 1995: 1981: 1979: 1975: 1971: 1967: 1962: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1943: 1941: 1937: 1932: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1913: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1893: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1871: 1867: 1863: 1862:Léon Foucault 1859: 1856:, in 1838 by 1855: 1854:James Bradley 1850: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1824: 1821:or Galileo's 1820: 1816: 1812: 1811:Pope Leo XIII 1808: 1804: 1803:Roman College 1800: 1799: 1793: 1785: 1784:Joseph Wright 1781: 1780: 1775: 1771: 1769: 1765: 1761: 1760: 1753: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1742: 1737: 1732: 1730: 1726: 1725: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1695: 1690: 1689: 1684: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1664:Age of Reason 1661: 1659: 1655: 1653: 1648: 1643: 1641: 1635: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1620: 1619: 1614: 1610: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1588: 1583: 1579: 1576: 1571: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1553:In his 1615 " 1551: 1549: 1545: 1544: 1539: 1538: 1533: 1523: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1507: 1503: 1499: 1489: 1480: 1468: 1463: 1458: 1448: 1446: 1442: 1441: 1435: 1433: 1432: 1427: 1423: 1413: 1411: 1402: 1400: 1395: 1391: 1386: 1384: 1379: 1374: 1369: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1341: 1336: 1326: 1324: 1321: 1316: 1314: 1310: 1305: 1301: 1300:Pope Paul III 1296: 1295: 1290: 1283: 1277: 1275: 1269: 1265: 1263: 1262:Martin Luther 1258: 1256: 1252: 1248: 1244: 1233: 1223: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1188: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1161: 1156: 1152: 1151: 1146: 1139: 1134: 1129: 1119: 1117: 1116:Regiomontanus 1113: 1109: 1104: 1102: 1101:Nicole Oresme 1098: 1094: 1093: 1087: 1082: 1080: 1076: 1072: 1069:(Ibn Rushd), 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1051: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 992: 988: 983: 981: 980:Ibn al-Shatir 977: 976: 971: 967: 963: 959: 955: 951: 946: 944: 940: 936: 935:machina mundi 931: 930: 925: 921: 920:Nicole Oresme 916: 914: 910: 906: 902: 895: 891: 881: 871: 869: 865: 861: 860: 855: 851: 847: 843: 839: 829: 828:(1403–1474). 827: 823: 819: 815: 810: 808: 804: 800: 796: 792: 788: 783: 781: 776: 774: 770: 769:Masudic Canon 762: 758: 753: 749: 747: 740: 736: 732: 728: 724: 720: 715: 709: 704: 701:accepted the 700: 694: 690: 680: 678: 674: 670: 666: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 646: 641: 636: 629:Ancient India 626: 624: 620: 616: 612: 609: 605: 595: 593: 589: 584: 582: 578: 574: 573:trigonometric 570: 566: 562: 557: 551: 541: 539: 535: 531: 527: 523: 513: 509: 503: 501: 494: 492: 487: 485: 481: 477: 476: 466: 462: 456: 454: 448: 446: 442: 438: 433: 431: 427: 423: 414: 410: 404: 402: 398: 391: 389: 385: 384: 379: 374: 372: 368: 354: 346: 342: 333: 331: 330:ancient Egypt 327: 323: 319: 315: 311: 307: 303: 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 280: 276: 265: 255: 253: 248: 246: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 222: 212: 208: 206: 205: 200: 197:described in 196: 191: 187: 182: 180: 176: 172: 168: 158: 156: 152: 148: 144: 139: 137: 133: 129: 125: 121: 117: 113: 109: 105: 100: 98: 93: 89: 85: 81: 77: 73: 69: 65: 61: 58: 54: 50: 49:Heliocentrism 44: 40: 36: 30: 26: 22: 7647:Solar System 7624: 7619:Solar System 7456: 7350: 7340: 7334:(Hipparchus) 7330: 7321:Catasterismi 7320: 7310: 7169:Eratosthenes 7021:November 27, 7019:. Retrieved 7015:the original 7010: 6989: 6969: 6958:, retrieved 6943: 6922: 6902: 6883: 6875: 6843: 6839: 6836:Sabra, A. I. 6811: 6799:. Retrieved 6780: 6776:Russo, Lucio 6749: 6722: 6705: 6688: 6675: 6643: 6639: 6636:Neher, André 6617: 6597: 6578: 6567: 6530: 6508: 6505: 6484: 6464: 6444: 6429: 6399: 6380: 6361: 6343:, Springer, 6340: 6324: 6315:the original 6296: 6291: 6260: 6249:, retrieved 6234: 6214: 6199:, retrieved 6189: 6165: 6128: 6124: 6116: 6094: 6086: 6081: 6069:. Retrieved 6063: 6053: 6041:. Retrieved 6024:(1): 65–83. 6021: 6017: 6007: 5988: 5981: 5962: 5955: 5943:. Retrieved 5939: 5930: 5918:. Retrieved 5914: 5905: 5883:(1): 65–83. 5880: 5876: 5841: 5837: 5816:. Retrieved 5799:(1): 65–83. 5796: 5792: 5782: 5755: 5751: 5741: 5714: 5708: 5696:. Retrieved 5685: 5658: 5652: 5640:. Retrieved 5636: 5626: 5614:. Retrieved 5610: 5601: 5592: 5588: 5575: 5563:. Retrieved 5559: 5550: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5527:Massé Touvia 5526: 5521: 5509: 5500: 5492: 5485: 5471: 5459: 5447: 5431: 5427: 5422: 5410: 5398: 5379: 5374: 5366: 5361: 5341: 5331: 5323: 5306: 5290: 5274: 5266: 5260: 5244: 5198: 5182: 5170: 5158: 5146: 5134: 5122: 5115:(in Italian) 5102: 5090: 5078: 5066: 5050: 5025: 5013: 5003:September 5, 5001:. Retrieved 4997: 4987: 4973:. New York: 4968: 4960: 4953:Fantoli 2003 4948: 4938: 4932: 4924: 4919: 4892: 4886: 4866: 4862: 4857: 4849: 4844: 4836: 4831: 4819: 4815: 4810: 4798: 4789: 4783: 4774: 4768: 4754: 4743:Speller 2008 4738: 4721: 4713: 4708: 4696: 4672: 4665: 4649: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4610: 4592: 4583: 4550: 4546: 4536: 4517: 4511: 4499: 4492:di Bono 1995 4487: 4475:. Retrieved 4460: 4453: 4441: 4432: 4418: 4404: 4394: 4380: 4368:. Retrieved 4362: 4349: 4338: 4334: 4329: 4320: 4315: 4291: 4281: 4248: 4244: 4238: 4219: 4213: 4181: 4175: 4169: 4157: 4144:: 231–239 , 4141: 4137: 4131: 4106: 4100: 4094: 4084:November 27, 4082:. 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Retrieved 2958:the original 2954:Ics.forth.gr 2953: 2944: 2900: 2894: 2878: 2842:Edwards 1998 2837: 2824: 2804: 2800: 2792: 2752: 2743: 2726: 2694:: 511–512 , 2691: 2685: 2679: 2661: 2652: 2620: 2616: 2610: 2601: 2595: 2587: 2582: 2563: 2554: 2534: 2527: 2503: 2496: 2476: 2469: 2460: 2452: 2442: 2418: 2390: 2385: 2377: 2372: 2355: 2347: 2343: 2339: 2333: 2329: 2321: 2314: 2311:heliocentric 2310: 2306: 2293: 2275: 2271: 2266: 2171: 2167:heliocentric 2166: 2162: 2138:Solar System 2131: 2095: 2087:Edwin Hubble 2076: 2057: 2027: 2019: 2000: 1963: 1959:Mei Menuchot 1958: 1954: 1944: 1933: 1914: 1899: 1851: 1846: 1842: 1838: 1822: 1818: 1796: 1791: 1789: 1777: 1757: 1754: 1739: 1736:Isaac Newton 1733: 1722: 1718: 1707:curved space 1692: 1686: 1681: 1650: 1644: 1637: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1616: 1611: 1606: 1596: 1585: 1580: 1572: 1552: 1541: 1535: 1529: 1444: 1438: 1436: 1429: 1419: 1408: 1387: 1370: 1349: 1347: 1319: 1317: 1293: 1287: 1281: 1271: 1267: 1259: 1240: 1208:Pythagoreans 1191: 1189: 1158: 1148: 1143: 1136:Portrait of 1111: 1105: 1096: 1089: 1083: 1058: 1052: 984: 973: 947: 938: 934: 927: 917: 899: 857: 845: 841: 835: 811: 784: 777: 768: 766: 742: 730: 697:For a time, 696: 669:Varahamihira 643: 638: 601: 585: 553: 537: 533: 525: 518: 511: 507: 496: 490: 488: 483: 473: 471: 464: 460: 450: 444: 434: 419: 412: 408: 400: 396: 393: 388:Thomas Heath 381: 375: 367:Eratosthenes 350: 345:Aristarchus' 304: 281:philosopher 272: 269:Pythagoreans 249: 220: 218: 202: 183: 164: 155:Solar System 140: 101: 60:astronomical 52: 48: 47: 42: 7607:Outer space 7595:Spaceflight 7452:Geocentrism 7364:Instruments 7354:(Aristotle) 7159:Cleostratus 7124:Aristarchus 7104:Anaximander 7086:Astronomers 6960:November 6, 6303:: Barbera. 6109:Works cited 5758:: 213–266. 5698:December 4, 5543:Neher (1977 5187:Favaro 1907 5175:Graney 2015 5163:Graney 2015 5139:Graney 2015 5109:, pp. 5107:Favaro 1907 4977:. pp. 4943:, pp. 1, 24 4477:October 31, 4308:PDF version 4026:(1): 1–20. 3910:Joseph 2000 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577:Hipparchus 437:common era 426:telescopes 378:Archimedes 361: 270 262:See also: 165:While the 151:barycenter 57:superseded 7571:Astronomy 7381:Astrolabe 7314:(Ptolemy) 7234:Philolaus 7224:Oenopides 7209:Hypsicles 7154:Cleomedes 7149:Callippus 7139:Autolycus 7094:Aglaonice 6860:117426616 6741:841809663 6529:(1990) . 6212:(1953) , 6187:(1972) , 6153:118330488 5915:Astro 801 5774:186213203 5733:808316428 5677:808316428 5642:August 8, 5399:Principia 5384:at p. 233 4641:144526697 4575:118453340 4265:0003-049X 4206:143569912 4123:143592051 4040:0003-9519 3898:118434268 3890:0973-712X 3870:Resonance 3775:142586786 3729:145372613 3575:Al-Abhath 3279:650305544 3232:0003-9519 3193:0003-9519 3012:222087224 2913:CiteSeerX 2801:Cleanthes 2645:118643709 2410:Citations 2319:Neo-Latin 2258:Footnotes 2098:expanding 2011:Milky Way 1792:Principia 1759:meridiane 1734:In 1687, 1688:The World 1645:In 1664, 1640:Simplicio 1559:Augustine 1309:heretical 1260:In 1539, 1255:cardinals 1220:Ecphantus 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In the 803:Al-Katibi 757:al-Biruni 744:Al-Shukūk 735:firmament 731:al-zūraqī 727:astrolabe 723:al-Biruni 640:Aryabhata 623:Macrobius 569:geometric 453:Cleanthes 413:Arenarius 326:Egyptians 322:Macrobius 283:Philolaus 136:telescope 108:presented 88:Philolaus 7482:Solstice 7415:Concepts 7311:Almagest 7254:Seleucus 7214:Menelaus 7174:Euctemon 6870:(1999). 6828:20547344 6801:June 13, 6778:(2013). 6700:(1957), 6698:Plutarch 6686:(1911), 6684:Plutarch 6670:(1883), 6668:Plutarch 6577:(1973). 6566:(1957). 6442:(1999). 6427:(1913). 6360:(2004). 6325:Le Opere 6301:Florence 6279:52897897 6251:July 16, 6201:July 16, 6163:(1978). 6071:July 15, 5339:(1960). 5206:Archived 4911:24247242 4876:Archived 4617:De spera 4591:(1975), 4402:(1914). 4370:March 1, 3992:I, 10", 3128:I, 10", 3028:(1986), 2903:: 3998, 2660:(1975), 2572:Archived 2396:Lutheran 2236:See also 2204:(either 2190:velocity 2102:Big Bang 1874:61 Cygni 1866:parallax 1843:Dialogue 1831:Pius VII 1823:Dialogue 1764:sundials 1703:vortices 1590:— 1587:writing. 1508:and not 1496:In 1610 1304:Osiander 1204:Plutarch 1173:parallax 1160:Almagest 1067:Averroes 956:and the 814:Averroes 791:Ilkhanid 714:al-Sijzi 665:eclipses 556:Plutarch 505:— 500:Seleucus 458:— 441:Plutarch 422:parallax 406:— 275:universe 221:Almagest 204:Almagest 72:universe 7557:Portals 7386:Dioptra 7249:Pytheas 7244:Ptolemy 7194:Hicetas 7184:Geminus 7179:Eudoxus 7134:Attalus 7099:Agrippa 7041:YouTube 6754:Bibcode 6660:2708908 6488:. OUP. 6485:Galileo 6404:Bibcode 6133:Bibcode 6026:Bibcode 5945:June 6, 5920:June 5, 5885:Bibcode 5846:Bibcode 5801:Bibcode 5539:ratseta 5111:297–298 4979:310–311 4555:Bibcode 4253:Bibcode 4146:Bibcode 3839:Bibcode 3755:Bibcode 3697:, p. 78 3538:(2004). 2992:Bibcode 2905:Bibcode 2736:equator 2696:Bibcode 2625:Bibcode 2459:at the 2427:135–148 2307:kentron 2302:κέντρον 2210:natural 2151:Jupiter 2144:of the 2068:nebulae 2034:density 1953:titled 1951:Genesis 1813:as the 1390:Clavius 1354:Ptolemy 1344:Saturn. 1200:Hicetas 1185:pretzel 1155:Ptolemy 1147:in his 1086:Proclus 1000:al-Tusi 968:by two 937:) will 926:in his 807:Al-Tusi 799:Al-Urdi 787:Maragha 741:in his 729:called 415:I, 4–7) 314:Mercury 299:planets 199:Ptolemy 153:of the 110:by the 92:Hicetas 55:) is a 7497:Zodiac 7447:Equant 7396:Gnomon 7274:Thales 7269:Strabo 7119:Aratus 6976: 6951: 6930: 6909: 6890: 6858: 6826: 6792: 6764: 6739: 6729: 6658: 6624: 6604: 6585: 6539: 6515: 6492: 6471: 6452: 6414: 6387: 6368: 6347: 6331:, and 6307: 6277: 6267: 6242: 6222: 6173: 6151: 5996: 5970: 5772: 5731: 5721: 5675: 5665: 5595:: 142. 5438: 5349: 5269:(1632) 4909: 4899: 4684: 4639: 4599: 4573: 4524: 4468: 4298: 4273:986461 4271: 4263: 4226: 4204: 4198:228366 4196: 4121: 4038: 3972: 3896: 3888: 3800: 3773: 3747:Osiris 3727: 3676: 3637: 3596:UNESCO 3503: 3478: 3453: 3345: 3277: 3267: 3230: 3191: 3108: 3066: 3040: 3010: 2933: 2915: 2668: 2643: 2542: 2515: 2484: 2378:Icones 2295:Helios 2116:, and 2108:, the 2036:, and 1974:Chabad 1921:Hebrew 1902:Talmud 1676:, and 1378:aether 1284:(1543) 1218:, and 1196:Cicero 1140:(1578) 1092:Euclid 1077:, and 966:equant 826:Qushji 824:under 675:, and 606:, the 581:Rhazes 554:Since 522:Aëtius 482:lists 130:, and 7583:Stars 7303:Works 7219:Meton 7164:Conon 6856:S2CID 6824:JSTOR 6656:JSTOR 6431:notes 6295:[ 6149:S2CID 5770:S2CID 5585:(PDF) 5535:eretz 4637:S2CID 4571:S2CID 4269:JSTOR 4202:S2CID 4194:JSTOR 4119:S2CID 3894:S2CID 3771:S2CID 3725:S2CID 3008:S2CID 2844:, p. 2641:S2CID 2289:ἥλιος 2284:Greek 2142:focus 1929:Padua 1847:Index 1510:Earth 1358:Earth 939:quasi 662:lunar 658:solar 654:Lalla 608:pagan 588:tides 430:1830s 318:Venus 287:Earth 229:model 64:Earth 7144:Bion 7023:2018 6974:ISBN 6962:2009 6949:ISBN 6928:ISBN 6907:ISBN 6888:ISBN 6803:2017 6790:ISBN 6762:ISBN 6737:OCLC 6727:ISBN 6622:ISBN 6602:ISBN 6583:ISBN 6537:ISBN 6513:ISBN 6490:ISBN 6469:ISBN 6450:ISBN 6412:ISBN 6385:ISBN 6366:ISBN 6345:ISBN 6333:here 6305:ISBN 6275:OCLC 6265:ISBN 6253:2018 6240:ISBN 6220:ISBN 6203:2018 6171:ISBN 6129:xxvi 6098:See 6073:2024 6045:2020 5994:ISBN 5968:ISBN 5947:2018 5940:WHYY 5922:2018 5820:2020 5729:OCLC 5719:ISBN 5700:2012 5673:OCLC 5663:ISBN 5644:2017 5618:2017 5567:2017 5436:ISBN 5347:ISBN 5005:2019 4907:OCLC 4897:ISBN 4682:ISBN 4621:Isis 4597:ISBN 4522:ISBN 4479:2020 4466:ISBN 4372:2008 4296:ISBN 4261:ISSN 4224:ISBN 4177:Isis 4102:Isis 4086:2018 4036:ISSN 3970:ISBN 3886:ISSN 3798:ISBN 3674:ISBN 3635:ISBN 3561:2018 3501:ISBN 3476:ISBN 3451:ISBN 3404:2018 3343:ISBN 3319:Isis 3275:OCLC 3265:ISBN 3228:ISSN 3189:ISSN 3106:ISBN 3064:ISBN 3038:ISBN 2966:2018 2931:ISBN 2734:and 2666:ISBN 2540:ISBN 2513:ISBN 2482:ISBN 2435:38f. 2335:-ism 2202:body 2184:and 2165:and 2085:and 2062:and 2052:and 2015:disk 1968:and 1938:and 1888:and 1886:Vega 1880:and 1658:P.M. 1394:Mars 1169:real 785:The 691:and 660:and 316:and 297:and 295:Moon 173:and 90:and 23:and 7039:on 6848:doi 6816:doi 6648:doi 6141:doi 6034:doi 5893:doi 5854:doi 5809:doi 5760:doi 5299:203 5283:491 5191:320 5059:433 5027:sic 5022:338 4865:in 4818:in 4658:212 4629:doi 4563:doi 4410:390 4343:ADS 4249:117 4186:doi 4142:128 4111:doi 4028:doi 3998:126 3878:doi 3763:doi 3717:doi 3447:413 3423:108 3339:111 3220:doi 3181:doi 3134:126 3000:doi 2988:500 2923:doi 2887:139 2871:305 2850:455 2830:281 2805:Sun 2777:138 2769:240 2761:304 2719:302 2633:doi 2391:not 2346:or 2274:or 2208:or 1972:of 1705:in 1516:'s 1506:Sun 1187:". 1110:'s 1099:of 1088:'s 852:by 363:BC) 291:Sun 201:'s 68:Sun 7633:: 7009:. 6874:. 6854:. 6842:. 6822:. 6788:. 6760:. 6735:. 6708:, 6654:. 6644:38 6642:. 6410:, 6273:. 6147:. 6139:. 6127:. 6062:. 6032:. 6022:17 6020:. 6016:. 5938:. 5913:. 5891:. 5881:17 5879:. 5867:^ 5852:, 5842:77 5840:, 5828:^ 5807:. 5797:17 5795:. 5791:. 5768:. 5756:75 5754:. 5750:. 5727:. 5671:. 5635:. 5609:. 5593:15 5591:. 5587:. 5558:. 5405:). 5390:^ 5315:^ 5253:^ 5235:^ 5220:^ 5212:; 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