Herbicide - Knowledge

529: 918: 2007: 398:, light, precipitation, and temperature. Foliage-applied herbicides will enter the leaf more readily at high humidity by lengthening the drying time of the spray droplet and increasing cuticle hydration. Light of high intensity may break down some herbicides and cause the leaf cuticle to thicken, which can interfere with absorption. Precipitation may wash away or remove some foliage-applied herbicides, but it will increase root absorption of soil-applied herbicides. Drought-stressed plants are less likely to translocate herbicides. As temperature increases, herbicides' performance may decrease. Absorption and translocation may be reduced in very cold weather. 2604:

of the efficacy of each herbicide component is possible, provided that sufficient time elapses between each application. A disadvantage with sequences is that two separate applications have to be made and it is possible that the later application will be less effective on weeds surviving the first application. If these are resistant, then the second herbicide in the sequence may increase selection for resistant individuals by killing the susceptible plants which were damaged but not killed by the first application, but allowing the larger, less affected, resistant plants to survive. This has been cited as one reason why ALS-resistant

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In 2017, the USEPA issued a revised Pesticide Registration Notice (PRN 2017-1), which provides guidance to pesticide registrants on required pesticide resistance management labeling. This requirement applies to all conventional pesticides and is meant to provide end-users with guidance on managing pesticide resistance. An example of a fully executed label compliant with the USEPA resistance management labeling guidance can be seen on the specimen label for the herbicide, cloransulam-methyl, updated in 2022.

1930: 38: 7755: 2664:, while good for grazing sheep, compete intensely with wheat. Ryegrasses produce so many seeds that, if left unchecked, they can completely choke a field. Herbicides provided excellent control, while reducing soil disrupting because of less need to plough. Within little more than a decade, ryegrass and other weeds began to develop resistance. In response Australian farmers changed methods. By 1983, patches of ryegrass had become immune to Hoegrass ( 6471: 2271:, rendering the herbicides ineffective against target plants. Out of 31 known herbicide modes of action, weeds have evolved resistance to 21. 268 plant species are known to have evolved herbicide resistance at least once. Herbicide resistance was first observed in 1957, and since has evolved repeatedly in weed species from 30 families across the globe. Weed resistance to herbicides has become a major concern in crop production worldwide. 1942: 5341: 991: 7779: 46: 7767: 544:. They interfere with the metabolism in the target plants. Herbicides are often classified according to their site of action because as a general rule, herbicides within the same site of action class produce similar symptoms on susceptible plants. Classification based on the site of action of the herbicide is preferable as herbicide resistance management can be handled more effectively. Classification by 2042:(MNLA) insurgents of cover, potential sources of food and to flush them out of the jungle. Deployment of herbicides and defoliants served the dual purpose of thinning jungle trails to prevent ambushes and destroying crop fields in regions where the MNLA was active to deprive them of potential sources of food. As part of this process, herbicides and defoliants were also sprayed from 2255:, can cause significant drops in bird populations. Even when herbicides which have low toxicity to birds are used, they decrease the abundance of many types of vegetation on which the birds rely. Herbicide use in agriculture in the UK has been linked to a decline in seed-eating bird species which rely on the weeds killed by the herbicides. Heavy use of herbicides in 466:: These herbicides are applied after weed seedlings have emerged through the soil surface. They can be foliar or root absorbed, selective or nonselective, and contact or systemic. Application of these herbicides is avoided during rain since being washed off the soil makes it ineffective. 2,4-D is a selective, systemic, foliar-absorbed postemergence herbicide. 664:: The discovery of synthetic auxins inaugurated the era of organic herbicides. They were discovered in the 1940s after a long study of the plant growth regulator auxin. Synthetic auxins mimic this plant hormone in some way. They have several points of action on the cell membrane, and are effective in the control of dicot plants. 479:: Herbicides applied to the soil are usually taken up by the root or shoot of the emerging seedlings and are used as preplant or preemergence treatment. Several factors influence the effectiveness of soil-applied herbicides. Weeds absorb herbicides by both passive and active mechanisms. Herbicide adsorption to soil 2459:

genus (wild oat) can often be controlled adequately when herbicides are applied at the 2-3 leaf stage, whereas later applications at the 2-3 tiller stage can fail badly. Patch spraying, or applying herbicide to only the badly infested areas of fields, is another means of reducing total herbicide use.

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equipped with long booms, of 60 to 120 feet (18 to 37 m) with spray nozzles spaced every 20–30 inches (510–760 mm) apart. Towed, handheld, and even horse-drawn sprayers are also used. On large areas, herbicides may also at times be applied aerially using helicopters or airplanes, or through

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No mixture is likely to have all these attributes, but the first two listed are the most important. There is a risk that mixtures will select for resistance to both components in the longer term. One practical advantage of sequences of two herbicides compared with mixtures is that a better appraisal

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should be reduced. By relying on diverse weed control methods, including non-herbicide methods of weed control, the selection pressure on weeds to evolve resistance can be lowered. Researchers warn that if herbicide resistance is combatted only with more herbicides, "evolution will most likely win."

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Cross-resistance: In this case, a single resistance mechanism causes resistance to several herbicides. The term target-site cross-resistance is used when the herbicides bind to the same target site, whereas non-target-site cross-resistance is due to a single non-target-site mechanism (e.g., enhanced

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in 41 Missouri counties revealed glyphosate resistance in 69%. Weeds from some 500 sites throughout Iowa in 2011 and 2012 revealed glyphosate resistance in approximately 64% of waterhemp samples. As of 2023, 58 weed species have developed glyphosate resistance. Weeds resistant to multiple herbicides

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Some herbicides cause a range of health effects ranging from skin rashes to death. The pathway of attack can arise from intentional or unintentional direct consumption, improper application resulting in the herbicide coming into direct contact with people or wildlife, inhalation of aerial sprays, or

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or organic matter often reduces the amount available for weed absorption. Positioning of the herbicide in the correct layer of soil is very important, which can be achieved mechanically and by rainfall. Herbicides on the soil surface are subjected to several processes that reduce their availability.

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When mutations occur in the genes responsible for the biological mechanisms that herbicides interfere with, these mutations may cause the herbicide mode of action to work less effectively. This is called target-site resistance. Specific mutations that have the most helpful effect for the plant have

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and annual bluegrass share the distinction of the species with confirmed resistance to the largest number of herbicide modes of action, both with confirmed resistance to 12 different modes of action; however, this number references how many forms of herbicide resistance are known to have emerged in

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in the early growth stages, when the height similarities between growing trees and growing annual crops yields a similar problem with weed competition. Unlike with annuals however, application is mostly unnecessary thereafter and is thus mostly used to decrease the delay between productive economic

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An herbicide is described as having low residual activity if it is neutralized within a short time of application (within a few weeks or months) – typically this is due to rainfall, or reactions in the soil. A herbicide described as having high residual activity will remain potent for the long term

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had been first prepared in the 1950s but its herbicidal activity was only recognized in the 1960s. It was marketed as Roundup in 1971. The development of glyphosate-resistant crop plants, it is now used very extensively for selective weed control in growing crops. The pairing of the herbicide with

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Lock, E. A.; Ellis, M. K.; Gaskin, P; Robinson, M; Auton, T. R.; Provan, W. M.; Smith, L. L.; Prisbylla, M. P.; Mutter, L. C.; Lee, D. L. (1998). "From toxicological problem to therapeutic use: The discovery of the mode of action of 2-(2-nitro-4-trifluoromethylbenzoyl)-1,3-cyclohexanedione (NTBC),

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Non-target-site resistance: In non-target-site resistance, the genetic change giving resistance is not directly related to the target site, but causes the plant to be less susceptible by some other means. Some mechanisms include metabolic detoxification of the herbicide in the weed, reduced uptake

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Robbins, C.S.; Dowell, B.A.; Dawson, D.K.; Colon, J.A.; Estrada, R.; Sutton, A.; Sutton, R.; Weyer, D. (1992). "Comparison of neotropical migrant landbird populations wintering in tropical forest, isolated forest fragments, and agricultural habitats". In Hagan, John M.; Johnston, David W. (eds.).

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When resistance is first suspected or confirmed, the efficacy of alternatives is likely to be the first consideration. If there is resistance to a single group of herbicides, then the use of herbicides from other groups may provide a simple and effective solution, at least in the short term. For

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released crop seed varieties resistant to both dicamba and glyphosate, allowing for use of a greater variety of herbicides on fields without harming the crops. By 2020, five years after the release of dicamba-resistant seed, the first example of dicamba-resistant Palmer amaranth was found in one

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However, in 2015, an expansive study showed an increase in herbicide resistance as a result of rotation, and instead recommended mixing multiple herbicides for simultaneous application. As of 2023, the effectiveness of combining herbicides is also questioned, particularly in light of the rise of

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are acutely toxic, their use was found to be uncorrelated with any health issues like cancer in a massive US Department of Health study on 90,000 members of farmer families for over a period of 23 years. That is, the study shows lack of chronic toxicity, but cannot question the herbicide's acute

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Optimising herbicide input to the economic threshold level should avoid the unnecessary use of herbicides and reduce selection pressure. Herbicides should be used to their greatest potential by ensuring that the timing, dose, application method, soil and climatic conditions are optimal for good

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is one weed that has developed glyphosate resistance. Glyphosate-resistant weeds are present in the vast majority of soybean, cotton and corn farms in some U.S. states. Weeds that can resist multiple other herbicides are spreading. Few new herbicides are near commercialization, and none with a

438:. The herbicides kill weeds as they grow through the herbicide-treated zone. Volatile herbicides have to be incorporated into the soil before planting the pasture. Crops grown in soil treated with a preplant herbicide include tomatoes, corn, soybeans, and strawberries. Soil fumigants like 2201:; Vacco complained about misleading claims that its spray-on glyphosate-based herbicides, including Roundup, were safer than table salt and "practically non-toxic" to mammals, birds, and fish (though proof that this was ever said is hard to find). Roundup is toxic and has resulted in 941:

Weed-wiping may also be used, where a wick wetted with herbicide is suspended from a boom and dragged or rolled across the tops of the taller weed plants. This allows treatment of taller grassland weeds by direct contact without affecting related but desirable shorter plants in the

502:: These are applied to a portion of the plant above the ground and are absorbed by exposed tissues. These are generally postemergence herbicides and can either be translocated (systemic) throughout the plant or remain at a specific site (contact). External barriers of plants like 139:

relatively unharmed, while non-selective herbicides (sometimes called "total weed killers") kill plants indiscriminately. The combined effects of herbicides, nitrogen fertilizer, and improved cultivars has increased yields (per acre) of major crops by 3x to 6x from 1900 to 2000.

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to be of practical agricultural use; by 1941, his team succeeded in synthesizing a wide range of chemicals to achieve the same effect at lower cost and better efficacy, including 2,4-D. In the same year, R. Pokorny in the US achieved this as well. Independently, a team under

341:. Under alkaline soil conditions, atrazine may be carried into the soil profile as far as the water table by soil water following rainfall causing the aforementioned contamination. Atrazine is thus said to have "carryover", a generally undesirable property for herbicides. 143:

In the United States in 2012, about 91% of all herbicide usage, determined by weight applied, was in agriculture. In 2012, world pesticide expenditures totaled nearly $ 24.7 billion; herbicides were about 44% of those sales and constituted the biggest portion, followed by

452:: Preemergence herbicides are applied before the weed seedlings emerge through the soil surface. Herbicides do not prevent weeds from germinating but they kill weeds as they grow through the herbicide-treated zone by affecting the cell division in the emerging seedling. 2377:

Target-site resistance: In target-site resistance, the genetic change that causes the resistance directly alters the chemical mechanism the herbicide targets. The mutation may relate to an enzyme with a crucial function in a metabolic pathway, or to a component of an

2279:, neglecting non-herbicide weed control practices, and reliance on one herbicide for weed control. To minimize resistance, rotational programs of herbicide application, where herbicides with multiple modes of action are used, have been widely promoted. In particular, 3245:

Dill, Gerald M.; Sammons, R. Douglas; Feng, Paul C. C.; Kohn, Frank; Kretzmer, Keith; Mehrsheikh, Akbar; Bleeke, Marion; Honegger, Joy L.; Farmer, Donna; Wright, Dan; Haupfear, Eric A. (2010). "Glyphosate: Discovery, Development, Applications, and Properties".

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Alberto, Diana; Serra, Anne-Antonella; Sulmon, Cécile; Gouesbet, Gwenola; Couée, Ivan (2016). "Herbicide-related signaling in plants reveals novel insights for herbicide use strategies, environmental risk assessment and global change assessment challenges".

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Ryegrass populations were large, and had substantial genetic diversity, because farmers had planted many varieties. Ryegrass is cross-pollinated by wind, so genes shuffle frequently. To control its distribution farmers sprayed inexpensive Hoegrass, creating

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In general, many questions exist about the health and environmental effects of many herbicides because of the large number of herbicides and the myriad potential targets, mostly unintended. For example, a 1995 panel of 13 scientists reviewing studies on the

2684:. Once again, ryegrass in Australia evolved a kind of "cross-resistance" that allowed it to rapidly break down a variety of herbicides. Four classes of herbicides become ineffective within a few years. In 2013 only two herbicide classes, called 4093:

Andreotti, Gabriella; Koutros, Stella; Hofmann, Jonathan N; Sandler, Dale P; Lubin, Jay H; Lynch, Charles F; Lerro, Catherine C; De Roos, Anneclaire J; Parks, Christine G; Alavanja, Michael C; Silverman, Debra T; Beane Freeman, Laura E (2018).

903:(WSSA) developed a classification system. Groups in the WSSA and the HRAC systems are designated by numbers and letters, inform users awareness of herbicide mode of action and provide more accurate recommendations for resistance management. 2246:

Bird populations are one of many indicators of herbicide damage.Most observed effects are due not to toxicity, but to habitat changes and the decreases in abundance of species on which birds rely for food or shelter. Herbicide use in

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and U.S soldiers that handled the chemicals. More than 20% of South Vietnam's forests and 3.2% of its cultivated land were sprayed at least once between during the war. The government of Vietnam says that up to four million people in

2382:. For example, ALS-resistant weeds developed by genetic mutations leading to an altered enzyme. Such changes render the herbicide impotent. Target-site resistance may also be caused by an over-expression of the target enzyme (via 811:

Complementary to mechanism-based classifications, herbicides are often classified according to their chemical structures or motifs. Similar structural types work in similar ways. For example, aryloxphenoxypropionates herbicides

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and translocation, sequestration of the herbicide, or reduced penetration of the herbicide into the leaf surface. These mechanisms all cause less of the herbicide's active ingredient to reach the target site in the first place.

430:: Preplant herbicides are nonselective herbicides applied to the soil before planting. Some preplant herbicides may be mechanically incorporated into the soil. The objective for incorporation is to prevent dissipation through 255:

indicated that "growth substances applied appropriately would kill certain broad-leaved weeds in cereals without harming the crops," though these substances were too expensive and too short-lived in soil due to degradation by

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to contaminate groundwater or distant surface water sources. Generally, the conditions that promote herbicide transport include intense storm events (particularly shortly after application) and soils with limited capacity to

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Solomon, Keith R.; Carr, James A.; Du Preez, Louis H.; Giesy, John P.; Kendall, Ronald J.; Smith, Ernest E.; Van Der Kraak, Glen J. (2008). "Effects of Atrazine on Fish, Amphibians, and Aquatic Reptiles: A Critical Review".

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Resistance to herbicides is often attributed to overuse as well as the strong evolutionary pressure on the affected weeds. Three agricultural practices account for the evolutionary pressure upon weeds to evolve resistance:

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Using the Weed Science Society of America (WSSA) and herbicide Resistance and World Grains (HRAC) systems, herbicides are classified by mode of action. Eventually the Herbicide Resistance Action Committee (HRAC) and the

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use first began, it was continuously and heavily relied upon for weed control. This caused incredibly strong selective pressure upon weeds, encouraging mutations conferring glyphosate resistance to persist and spread.

313:(grasses). The low cost of 2,4-D has led to continued usage today, and it remains one of the most commonly used herbicides in the world. Like other acid herbicides, current formulations use either an amine salt (often 2229:

Herbicide use generally has negative impacts on many aspects of the environment. Insects, non-targeted plants, animals, and aquatic systems subject to serious damage from herbicides. Impacts are highly variable.

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Recently, incidences of non-target site resistance have increasingly emerged, such as examples where plants are capable of producing enzymes that neutralize herbicides before they can enter the plant's cells –

2357:. Some mutations conferring herbicide resistance may have fitness costs, reducing the plant's ability to survive in other ways, but over time, the least costly mutations tend to dominate in weed populations. 2680:. In addition, farmers sometimes diluted the herbicide in order to save money, which allowed some plants to survive application. When resistance appeared farmers turned to a group of herbicides that block 363:

Herbicides can be classified/grouped in various ways; for example, according to their activity, the timing of application, method of application, mechanism of their action, and their chemical structures.

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When 2,4-D was commercially released in 1946, it became the first successful selective herbicide, triggering a worldwide revolution in agricultural output. It allowed for greatly enhanced weed control in

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Forouzesh, Abed; Zand, Eskandar; Soufizadeh, Saeid; Samadi Foroushani, Sadegh (2015). "Classification of herbicides according to chemical family for weed resistance management strategies–an update".

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are two common processes that reduce the availability of herbicides. Many soil-applied herbicides are absorbed through plant shoots while they are still underground leading to their death or injury.

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samples were resistant to two different herbicides; 6% resisted three; and 0.5% resisted four. In Iowa 89% of waterhemp samples resist two or more herbicides, 25% resist three, and 10% resist five.

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were too few to accurately assess the risk of many types of cancer from these herbicides, even although evidence was stronger that exposure to these herbicides is associated with increased risk of

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estimates that up to one million people were disabled or have health problems as a result of exposure to Agent Orange. The United States government has described these figures as unreliable.

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molecular mode of action for which there is no resistance. Because most herbicides could not kill all weeds, farmers rotate crops and herbicides to stop the development of resistant weeds.

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after being ingested in quantities ranging from 85 to 200 ml, although it has also been ingested in quantities as large as 500 ml with only mild or moderate symptoms. The manufacturer of

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Talbot, AR; Shiaw, MH; Huang, JS; Yang, SF; Goo, TS; Wang, SH; Chen, CL; Sanford, TR (1991). "Acute poisoning with a glyphosate-surfactant herbicide ('Roundup'): A review of 93 cases".

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are preemergence herbicides. Weeds that have already emerged before application or activation are not affected by pre-herbicides as their primary growing point escapes the treatment.

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or spray drift may result in herbicide affecting neighboring fields or plants, particularly in windy conditions. Sometimes, the wrong field or plants may be sprayed due to error.

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Shaner, D. L.; Leonard, P. (2001). "Regulatory aspects of resistance management for herbicides and other crop protection products". In Powles, S. B.; Shaner, D. L. (eds.).

4841: 2365:. This form of resistance is particularly challenging, since plants can develop non-target-site resistance to herbicides their ancestors were never directly exposed to. 795:, which protect chlorophyll in plants from being destroyed by sunlight. If this happens, the plants turn white due to complete loss of chlorophyll, and the plants die. 5113:

Dimaano, Niña Gracel; Iwakami, Satoshi (2021). "Cytochrome <SCP>P450</SCP>-mediated herbicide metabolism in plants: Current understanding and prospects".

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MacKinnon, D. S.; Freedman, B. (1993). "Effects of Silvicultural Use of the Herbicide Glyphosate on Breeding Birds of Regenerating Clearcuts in Nova Scotia, Canada".

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The use of two or more herbicides which have differing modes of action can reduce the selection for resistant genotypes. Ideally, each component in a mixture should:

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arising from environmental and occupational exposure over long periods. Much public suspicion of herbicides revolves around a confusion between valid statements of

273:(ARC) to discover methods for improving crop yield. By analyzing soil as a dynamic system, rather than an inert substance, he was able to apply techniques such as 925:

Most herbicides are applied as water-based sprays using ground equipment. Ground equipment varies in design, but large areas can be sprayed using self-propelled

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or retain the herbicides. Herbicide properties that increase likelihood of transport include persistence (resistance to degradation) and high water solubility.

823:) appear to all act as ACCase inhibitors. The so-called cyclohexanedione herbicides, which are used against grasses, include the following commercial products 4878: 2440:

Integrated weed management (IWM) approach utilizes several tactics to combat weeds and forestall resistance. This approach relies less on herbicides and so

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Laboratory studies have at times overestimated negative impacts on birds due to toxicity, predicting serious problems that were not observed in the field.

629:(SCTs). The ALS biological pathway exists only in plants and microorganisms (but not animals), thus making the ALS-inhibitors among the safest herbicides. 2781: 7391: 5188: 528: 285:. While the full work of the unit remained secret, certain discoveries were developed for commercial use after the war, including the 2,4-D compound. 5656: 5400: 4897: 2665: 240: 3403: 204:

were used to control weeds, but these chemicals were either toxic, flammable or corrosive and were expensive and ineffective at controlling weeds.

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Kukorelli, Gábor; Reisinger, Péter; Pinke, Gyula (2013). "ACCase inhibitor herbicides – selectivity, weed resistance and fitness cost: A review".

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Hamner, Charles L.; Tukey, H. B. (1944). "The Herbicidal Action of 2,4 Dichlorophenoxyacetic and 2,4,5 Trichlorophenoxyacetic Acid on Bindweed".

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agricultural areas has been one of many factors implicated in limiting the usefulness of such agricultural land for wintering migratory birds.

2217:) has claimed Tordon 101 has no effects on animals and insects, in spite of evidence of strong carcinogenic activity of the active ingredient, 2026:, its main purpose is to disrupt agricultural food production or to destroy plants which provide cover or concealment to the enemy. During the 1894: 748: 5686: 5648: 5595: 5514: 3294:

Vats, S. (2015). "Herbicides: history, classification and genetic manipulation of plants for herbicide resistance". In Lichtfouse, E. (ed.).

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Multiple resistance: In this situation, two or more resistance mechanisms are present within individual plants, or within a plant population.

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Newton, Ian (2004). "The recent declines of farmland bird populations in Britain: An appraisal of causal factors and conservation actions".

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Retzinger, E. J. Jr.; Mallory-Smith, C. (1997). "Classification of herbicides by site of action for weed resistance management strategies".

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agriculture, after many Australian sheep farmers began to exclusively grow wheat in their pastures in the 1970s. Introduced varieties of

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example, many triazine-resistant weeds have been readily controlled by the use of alternative herbicides such as dicamba or glyphosate.

7835: 6130: 5719: 5509: 2941:"Herbicides as Weed Control Agents: State of the Art: I. Weed Control Research and Safener Technology: The Path to Modern Agriculture" 581:(ALS; also known as acetohydroxyacid synthase, or AHAS) is part of the first step in the synthesis of the branched-chain amino acids ( 6191: 6090: 3723:. Proceedings of an international conference, Brighton, UK, 17–20 November 1997, British Crop Protection Council. pp. 1133–1140. 2178:; research has suggested such contamination results in a small rise in cancer risk after occupational exposure to these herbicides. 7580: 6704: 4056: 4001:

Ibrahim MA, Bond GG, Burke TA, Cole P, Dost FN, Enterline PE, Gough M, Greenberg RS, Halperin WE, McConnell E, et al. (1991).

851:. Knowing about herbicide chemical family grouping serves as a short-term strategy for managing resistance to site of action. The 2630:. Few natural herbicides rival the effectiveness of synthetics. Some plants also produce their own herbicides, such as the genus 3875: 2238:

Atrazine has often been blamed for affecting reproductive behavior of aquatic life, but the data do not support this assertion.

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Herbicide manufacturers have at times made false or misleading claims about the safety of their products. Chemical manufacturer

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alter the physical properties of the spray solution and the overall phytotoxicity of the herbicide, increasing translocation.

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food consumption prior to the labelled preharvest interval. Under some conditions, certain herbicides can be transported via

1879: 333:, was introduced in the 1950s; they have the current distinction of being the herbicide family of greatest concern regarding 2066:

were exposed to the defoliant, and as many as three million people have suffered illness because of Agent Orange, while the

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collected from a golf course in the U.S. state of Tennessee was found in 2020 to be resistant to seven herbicides at once.

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Selectivity is determined by the circumstances and technique of application. Climatic factors affect absorption including

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Tranel, Patrick J.; Wright, Terry R. (2002). "Resistance of Weeds to ALS-inhibiting Herbicides: What Have We Learned?".

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Blus, Lawrence J.; Henny, Charles J. (1997). "Field Studies on Pesticides and Birds: Unexpected and Unique Relations".

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Keith G. Watson (2011). "Cyclohexane-1,3-dione Oxime Ether Grass-Specific Herbicides and the Discovery of Butroxydim".

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Van Almsick, A. (2009). "New HPPD-Inhibitors – A Proven Mode of Action as a New Hope to Solve Current Weed Problems".

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are produced and oxidation reactions in excess of those normally tolerated by the cell occur, leading to plant death.

697:, and prevent quinone from binding to this site. Therefore, this group of compounds causes electrons to accumulate on 7065: 6334: 5796: 5408: 5022: 3629: 3263: 3168: 3036: 2915: 2823: 2171: 2058: 1730: 1635: 192:

and flooding were also used to control weeds. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, inorganic chemicals such as

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been shown to occur in separate instances and dominate throughout resistant weed populations. This is an example of

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enhance the selectivity by boosting herbicide resistance by the crop but allowing the herbicide to damage the weed.

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The following terms are also used to describe cases where plants are resistant to multiple herbicides at once:

2175: 2039: 281:, inhibitors, and other chemicals on the activity of microorganisms in the soil and assess their direct impact on 6655: 2713: 1965: 1675: 1438: 1020: 900: 231:

as the result of research conducted independently in the United Kingdom and the United States into the potential

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Herbicides interfere with the biochemical machinery that supports plant growth. Herbicides often mimic natural

5761: 2099: 4860: 7771: 5202: 2789: 2778: 2669: 1910: 1360: 556: 548:(MOA) indicates the first enzyme, protein, or biochemical step affected in the plant following application: 7092: 6790: 6530: 6485: 5395: 3347:

Zhou Q, Liu W, Zhang Y, Liu KK (2007). "Action Mechanisms of Acetolactate Synthase-Inhibiting Herbicides".

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Gianessi, Leonard P.; Reigner, Nathan P. (April 2007). "The Value of Herbicides in U.S. Crop Production".

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toxicity at the recommended levels of usage. For instance, while glyphosate formulations with tallowamine

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etc. affect herbicide absorption and action. Glyphosate, 2,4-D, and dicamba are foliar-applied herbicides.

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the resistant seed contributed to the consolidation of the seed and chemistry industry in the late 1990s.

337:. Atrazine does not break down readily (within a few weeks) after being applied to soils of above-neutral 7815: 7611: 6673: 6500: 3434: 2718: 1559: 1310: 3945: 7102: 6775: 6755: 6668: 6595: 6515: 6032: 5806: 5638: 5325: 4995: 2723: 2434: 2420: 2067: 2050: 1958: 1315: 1165: 725:) are photosystem II inhibitors. Other members of this class are chlorbromuron, pyrazon, isoproturon, 520:

in the soil. For some compounds, the residual activity can leave the ground almost permanently barren.

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of the grass plant. The ACCases of grasses are sensitive to these herbicides, whereas the ACCases of

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One major complication to the use of herbicides for weed control is the ability of plants to evolve

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metabolic detoxification) that entails resistance across herbicides with different sites of action.

1985: 1685: 1305: 1240: 1177: 950:, a scheme offering free weed-wiper hire was launched in 2015 in an effort to reduce the levels of 252: 4973: 4172: 7669: 7445: 7347: 7342: 7060: 6937: 6505: 4236:"Triazine herbicide exposure and breast cancer incidence: An ecologic study of Kentucky counties" 2031: 1715: 1670: 1290: 744: 541: 185: 4919: 3734:

Mallory-Smith, C. (1999). "Impact of labeling herbicides by site of action: A University view".

2879:"Governments say glyphosate is safe, but some say 'poison' is being sprayed on northern forests" 7570: 7507: 7455: 7418: 7413: 6887: 6618: 6259: 5232: 2451: 2151: 1853: 1340: 435: 4144: 614: 7759: 7517: 7234: 6852: 6847: 6740: 6555: 6550: 6540: 6520: 6211: 4955: 4937: 2733: 2689: 2681: 2610:

has evolved in Scotland recently (2000), despite the regular use of a sequence incorporating

2280: 1823: 1665: 1531: 1443: 1140: 912: 602: 578: 156:. Herbicide is also used in forestry, where certain formulations have been found to suppress 5189:"PRN 2017-1: Guidance for Pesticide Registrants on Pesticide Resistance Management Labeling" 7621: 7562: 7055: 7006: 6867: 6842: 6822: 6640: 6585: 5260: 5079: 4644: 4394: 4307: 3803: 3108: 2426: 2362: 2354: 2214: 2115: 1365: 1098: 248: 5051: 3184:

Quastel, J. H. (1950). "2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid (2,4-D) as a Selective Herbicide".

2336:

the species at some point, not how many have been found simultaneously in a single plant.

705:

reactions in excess of those normally tolerated by the cell occur, killing the plant. The

8: 7825: 7810: 7805: 7540: 7403: 6959: 6827: 6812: 6760: 6750: 6678: 6570: 6353: 6269: 6234: 5628: 5422: 3769: 2644:; such actions of natural herbicides, and other related chemical interactions, is called 2111: 1700: 1645: 1610: 1536: 1463: 1413: 1408: 1393: 1050: 545: 266: 262: 212: 5346: 5264: 5083: 4648: 4398: 4311: 4049: 3807: 3719:

Schmidt, R. R. (1997). "HRAC classification of herbicides according to mode of action".

3112: 410:, are used to clear industrial sites, waste grounds, railways, and railway embankments. 7820: 7742: 7616: 7530: 7495: 7381: 7274: 7254: 6575: 6229: 5138: 4822: 4740: 4690: 4617: 4454: 4331: 4260: 4235: 4211: 4194: 4120: 4095: 4027: 4002: 3819: 3751: 3701: 3529: 3329: 3081: 3007: 2967: 2940: 2738: 2701: 2677: 2441: 2383: 2373:

Resistance to herbicides can be based on one of the following biochemical mechanisms:

2324: 2316:

with completely different biological action modes are on the rise. In Missouri, 43% of

2167: 2023: 2001: 1934: 1695: 1571: 1333: 1115: 1055: 1025: 974: 852: 610: 431: 232: 31: 3856: 7830: 7664: 7525: 7490: 7485: 7352: 7194: 6979: 6927: 6590: 6580: 5744: 5276: 5168: 5142: 5130: 5095: 5055: 5018: 4778: 4744: 4732: 4609: 4533: 4513: 4446: 4410: 4323: 4265: 4216: 4152: 4125: 4075: 4032: 3981: 3915: 3705: 3625: 3521: 3456: 3426: 3382: 3259: 3197: 3164: 3124: 3073: 3032: 2972: 2921: 2911: 2819: 2304: 2107: 2027: 1997: 1583: 1506: 1499: 1453: 1320: 1110: 1105: 1015: 859: 388: 177: 7018: 5091: 5038:

Powles, S.B.; Yu, Q. (2010). "Evolution in action: plants resistant to herbicides".

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The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War : a Political, Social, and Military History

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Kraehmer, Hansjoerg; Laber, Bernd; Rosinger, Chris; Schulz, Arno (5 November 2014).

7747: 7721: 7475: 7239: 6964: 6912: 6765: 6560: 5268: 5122: 5087: 5047: 4812: 4770: 4728: 4724: 4682: 4652: 4599: 4589: 4509: 4482: 4438: 4402: 4335: 4315: 4255: 4247: 4206: 4115: 4107: 4065: 4022: 4014: 3811: 3743: 3693: 3600: 3590: 3556: 3533: 3513: 3485: 3418: 3356: 3321: 3251: 3189: 3188:. Advances in Chemistry. Vol. 1. American Chemical Society. pp. 244–249. 3116: 3065: 2999: 2962: 2952: 2811: 2317: 2312: 2303:

relatively early, but more recently, glyphosate resistance has dramatically risen.

2210: 2194: 2130: 1843: 1740: 1680: 1566: 1519: 1468: 1428: 1403: 1388: 1370: 1345: 1285: 1170: 1120: 503: 228: 220: 106: 65: 59: 7162: 4774: 4050:

Howard I. Morrison; Kathryn Wilkins; Robert Semenciw; Yang Mao; Don Wigle (1992).

601:. They affect grasses and dicots alike. The ALS inhibitor family includes various 7726: 7711: 7706: 7398: 7304: 7284: 7184: 7172: 7157: 7137: 7132: 6996: 6947: 6922: 6902: 6545: 5946: 5272: 3360: 3325: 3158: 3120: 3026: 2785: 2627: 2606: 2498: 2391: 2095: 2043: 1628: 1588: 1458: 1423: 1355: 1295: 1223: 1160: 1060: 743:

to Fdx to NADP, leading to direct discharge of electrons on oxygen. As a result,

560: 507: 201: 100: 7189: 4526: 355:

are specifically formulated to degrade within a short period after application.

7701: 7691: 7535: 7480: 7470: 7289: 7264: 7244: 7112: 7107: 7097: 6989: 6984: 6969: 6897: 6797: 6624: 6168: 6135: 6082: 5623: 5322:

A Brief History of On-track Weed Control in the N.S.W. SRA during the Steam Era

4319: 3839:

The Global Politics of Pesticides: Forging Consensus from Conflicting Interests

3193: 2743: 2685: 2641: 2332: 2197:

agreed to change its advertising after pressure from New York attorney general

2155: 2126: 1946: 1750: 1650: 1605: 1598: 1593: 1350: 1045: 760: 690: 680: 314: 135:. Selective herbicides control specific weed species while leaving the desired 7425: 5753: 4713:"Herbicide resistance evolution, fitness cost, and the fear of the superweeds" 4442: 4406: 4070: 4051: 3747: 3697: 3517: 3422: 3255: 7799: 7696: 7674: 7450: 7359: 7309: 7294: 7229: 7224: 7209: 7179: 7142: 7122: 7082: 7077: 7047: 7013: 6952: 6932: 6917: 6877: 6785: 6689: 6611: 6224: 6219: 6041: 5980: 5889: 5863: 5815: 5666: 5529: 3919: 3077: 2925: 2815: 2387: 2300: 2183: 1929: 1765: 1255: 1250: 1245: 1003: 644: 636: 606: 598: 537: 457: 372:

Chemical structure of the herbicide is of primary affecting efficacy. 2,4-D,

278: 257: 193: 5163:

Moss, S. R. (2002). "Herbicide-Resistant Weeds". In Naylor, R. E. L. (ed.).

4817: 4800: 7641: 7460: 7440: 7408: 7337: 7324: 7299: 7279: 7249: 6974: 6942: 6720: 6535: 6440: 6413: 6408: 6329: 6324: 6314: 6176: 5959: 5661: 5570: 5562: 5504: 5499: 5457: 5445: 5414: 5280: 5134: 5099: 5059: 4782: 4736: 4613: 4450: 4129: 3455:(2nd, rev. and enl. ed.). Weinheim: Wiley-VCH-Verl. pp. 197–276. 3430: 3221: 3128: 2976: 2753: 2708: 2464:

Agronomic factors influencing the risk of herbicide resistance development

2252: 2248: 2198: 2182:

exposure has been implicated in a likely relationship to increased risk of

2015: 1798: 1760: 1745: 1576: 1541: 1486: 1205: 1065: 673: 439: 282: 165: 4604: 4532:. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington and London. pp. 207–220. 4414: 4327: 4269: 4251: 4220: 4111: 4079: 4036: 3525: 3054:"In the beginning: the multiple discovery of the first hormone herbicides" 2957: 2433:– a number of products combine herbicides with different means of action. 921:

Herbicides being sprayed from the spray arms of a tractor in North Dakota.

380:

control many broadleaf weeds but remain ineffective against turf grasses.

7552: 7547: 7332: 7219: 7214: 7204: 7199: 7127: 7117: 6892: 6857: 6837: 6802: 6770: 6455: 6435: 6398: 6201: 6196: 5954: 5936: 5916: 5906: 5898: 5823: 5771: 5724: 5559: 5549: 5519: 5484: 3220:. The Industry Task Force II on 2,4-D Research Data. 2015. Archived from 2793: 2645: 2430: 2276: 2256: 2054: 1720: 1418: 1398: 1035: 935: 816: 792: 772: 698: 493: 415: 145: 37: 4842:"Tank mixing herbicides may not be enough to avoid herbicide resistance" 4634: 4553: 4018: 3003: 2806:

Appleby, Arnold P.; Müller, Franz; Carpy, Serge (2001). "Weed Control".

2327:

with resistance to six different herbicide modes of action has emerged.

7269: 7152: 7087: 7072: 7030: 6907: 6807: 6495: 6445: 6319: 6299: 6279: 6239: 6145: 6105: 6007: 5871: 5853: 5838: 5729: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5600: 5580: 5575: 5539: 5469: 4761:

Service, R. F. (2013). "What Happens when Weed Killers Stop Killing?".

4554:"Current Status of the International Herbicide-Resistant Weed Database" 3823: 2284: 2206: 1770: 1526: 1030: 931: 883: 848: 840: 836: 804: 796: 740: 736: 694: 652: 640: 594: 590: 485: 384: 344: 6470: 4656: 4594: 4577: 4571: 4569: 4567: 4096:"Glyphosate Use and Cancer Incidence in the Agricultural Health Study" 3605: 946:

sward beneath. The method has the benefit of avoiding spray drift. In

807:, was discovered in the course of developing this class of herbicides. 7716: 7679: 7626: 7601: 7259: 6745: 6732: 6724: 6460: 6450: 6428: 6418: 6393: 6384: 6376: 6309: 6284: 6264: 6100: 6022: 6002: 5921: 5848: 5843: 5828: 5709: 5704: 5489: 3842: 2758: 2657: 2328: 2035: 1838: 1793: 1755: 1705: 1640: 1546: 1010: 982: 943: 887: 828: 820: 714: 702: 564: 453: 407: 352: 274: 153: 149: 5126: 4794: 4792: 3815: 3595: 3578: 3560: 3489: 2779:

Pesticides Industry. Sales and Usage 2006 and 2007: Market Estimates

2593:

Have similar persistence in the soil (if it is a residual herbicide)

655:(Roundup) is a systemic EPSPS inhibitor inactivated by soil contact. 219:, the first selective chemical herbicide, was discovered during the 7575: 7502: 7430: 7167: 7042: 6832: 6274: 6125: 6110: 6095: 6073: 6059: 6012: 5994: 5931: 5926: 5833: 5791: 5776: 5714: 5590: 5544: 5524: 5474: 4564: 2862:"Pesticides Industry Sales and Usage: 2008 – 2012 Market Estimates" 2661: 2611: 2340: 2296: 2218: 2179: 2122: 1210: 958: 875: 813: 788: 764: 756: 726: 718: 710: 706: 648: 411: 395: 373: 330: 310: 197: 161: 157: 4938:"Multiple resistant Amaranthus palmeri from United States, Kansas" 791:

breakdown. Tyrosine breakdown products are used by plants to make

7684: 7646: 7636: 7512: 7147: 7037: 6403: 6304: 6294: 6186: 5911: 5615: 5585: 5461: 4789: 2651: 2632: 2063: 2011: 990: 926: 879: 871: 669: 586: 563:. Thus, ACCase inhibitors affect cell membrane production in the 480: 443: 377: 189: 181: 45: 7376: 7369: 7364: 6780: 6054: 5766: 5479: 3577:

Beckie, H. J.; Harker, L. M.; Hall, S. I.; et al. (2006).

2637: 2187: 2160: 2103: 1991: 1848: 1828: 1735: 1725: 1433: 752: 722: 582: 306: 302: 4092: 4003:"Weight of the evidence on the human carcinogenicity of 2,4-D" 3024: 2129:

arising from ingestion of a significant quantity rapidly, and

7465: 6345: 6049: 5405: 4920:"Number of Resistant Species to Individual Active Herbicides" 4233: 2456: 2449:

activity. In the UK, partially resistant grass weeds such as

2202: 1858: 1803: 1195: 947: 867: 856: 665: 659: 568: 318: 294: 290: 236: 216: 184:, salinity, or fertility levels, were used to control weeds. 128: 5378: 4234:

Kettles, MK; Browning, SR; Prince, TS; Horstman, SW (1997).

3793: 2390:). A related mechanism is that an adaptable enzyme such as 115: 71: 30:"Weedkiller" redirects here. For the album by Ashnikko, see 7386: 7001: 6181: 6159: 5786: 5781: 4989: 4987: 4956:"Multiple resistant Poa Anna from United States, Tennessee" 4687:

10.1614/0043-1745(2002)050[0700:rrowta]2.0.co;2

4487:

10.1890/1051-0761(1997)007[1125:FSOPAB]2.0.CO;2

4192: 3070:

10.1614/0043-1745(2001)049[0290:ITBTMD]2.0.CO;2

2938: 2748: 2137:

toxicity as opposed to equally valid statements of lack of

1833: 1080: 1075: 1040: 951: 863: 686: 593:). These herbicides slowly starve affected plants of these 298: 136: 132: 83: 5072: 3946:"U.S. in first effort to clean up Agent Orange in Vietnam" 3789: 3787: 3645: 7314: 5251:

Stokstad, E. (2013). "The War Against Weeds Down Under".

5167:(9th ed.). Blackwell Science Ltd. pp. 225–252. 4801:"The "Wicked" Nature of the Herbicide Resistance Problem" 4530:

Ecology and Conservation of Neotropical Migrant Landbirds

3950: 2561: 2437:

may use herbicides alongside other pest control methods.

77: 6081: 4984: 4427: 4368:

Ontario Ministry of Agriculture Food & Rural Affairs

4173:"Facts About Herbicide - Department Of Veterans Affairs" 2668:), a family of herbicides that inhibit an enzyme called 277:. Quastel was able to quantify the influence of various 6040: 5372: 3784: 3502: 3311: 338: 4711:

Damalas, Christos A.; Koutroubas, Spyridon D. (2024).

4193:

Kogevinas, M; Becher, H; Benn, T; et al. (1997).

3876:"Agent Orange's Long Legacy, for Vietnam and Veterans" 3770:"Campaign launched to halt Welsh river pesticide rise" 3683: 3298:. Springer International Publishing. pp. 153–192. 5390: 4350:"Complaints halt herbicide spraying in Eastern Shore" 89: 80: 4974:"Resistant Species by # of Sites of Action (Top 15)" 4297: 4000: 3663: 3142:

Templeman, W. G. (1945). "Harnessing the hormones".

2102:

had divided opinions on the likelihood 2,4-D causes

639:(EPSPS) is used in the synthesis of the amino acids 86: 74: 3899: 3244: 2859: 2073: 759:) inhibit the FeS to Fdx step of that chain, while 269:made the same discovery. Quastel was tasked by the 112: 109: 68: 4385:Reuber, MD (1981). "Carcinogenicity of Picloram". 4283:"Monsanto Pulls Roundup Advertising in New York". 3572: 3570: 2805: 2656:Herbicide resistance became a critical problem in 2251:, used to favor certain types of growth following 2049:The use of herbicides as a chemical weapon by the 532:Herbicides classified by their mechanism of action 329:The triazine family of herbicides, which includes 4710: 4628: 3579:"A decade of herbicide-resistant crops in Canada" 2910:. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications. p. 862. 2394:is redesigned to neutralize the pesticide itself. 2038:in the Malaysian countryside in order to deprive 7797: 4879:"Herbicide-resistant weeds raise more questions" 3576: 3156: 3025:Andrew H. Cobb; John P. H. Reade (2011). "7.1". 2648:. The applicability of these agents is unclear. 637:Enolpyruvylshikimate 3-phosphate synthase enzyme 3976:Tucker, Spencer C., ed. (2011). "Defoliation". 3721:1997 Brighton crop protection conference: weeds 3624:. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. pp. 279–294. 3567: 3546: 3346: 2989: 2614:, a herbicide with a different mode of action. 2590:Be detoxified by different biochemical pathways 893: 418:, and glyphosate are non-selective herbicides. 351:Many modern herbicides used in agriculture and 6719: 5326:Australian Railway Historical Society Bulletin 5112: 4387:Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health 3646:"PROTECTING CROP YIELDS AND QUALITY WORLDWIDE" 3160:A History of Weed Science in the United States 2860:Atwood, Donald; Paisley-Jones, Claire (2017). 2808:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2792:Main page for EPA reports on pesticide use is 2652:Farming practices and resistance: a case study 597:, which eventually leads to the inhibition of 6705: 6361: 5430: 4100:JNCI Journal of the National Cancer Institute 3836: 3733: 3727: 3619: 2692:inhibitors, were effective against ryegrass. 2599:Synergise the activity of the other component 2368: 1966: 406:Non-selective herbicides, generally known as 27:Type of chemical used to kill unwanted plants 7581:List of organic gardening and farming topics 5444: 5375:, Information about pesticide-related topics 5012: 4672: 4668: 4666: 3937: 3896:, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 263 1992:Use politically, militarily, and in conflict 965: 227:The major breakthroughs occurred during the 5013:Powles, S. B.; Shaner, D. L., eds. (2001). 3504:its toxicology and development as a drug". 3475: 3098: 2771: 676:are examples of synthetic auxin herbicides. 401: 176:Prior to the widespread use of herbicides, 127:, are substances used to control undesired 6712: 6698: 6368: 6354: 5437: 5423: 5017:. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. p. 328. 4861:"The grim reality of herbicide resistance" 4706: 4704: 4384: 4145:"8: Fate of herbicides in the environment" 3969: 2841:"Nitrogen Cycle and World Food Production" 1973: 1959: 989: 739:, specifically the normal pathway through 383:Chemical additives influence selectivity. 5401:European Commission pesticide information 5233:"Natural Herbicides: Are they effective?" 4816: 4663: 4603: 4593: 4472: 4259: 4210: 4136: 4119: 4069: 4026: 3677: 3604: 3594: 3381:. W.H. Freeman and Company. p. 670. 3372: 3370: 3307: 3305: 3141: 2966: 2956: 2626:has come to mean herbicides intended for 2575: 2566: 2311:A 2008–2009 survey of 144 populations of 5379:National Agricultural Statistics Service 5250: 5246: 5244: 5242: 5230: 5037: 4756: 4754: 4057:Journal of the National Cancer Institute 3905: 3873: 3401: 3314:International Journal of Pest Management 3248:Glyphosate Resistance in Crops and Weeds 3240: 3238: 2414: 2347: 2005: 916: 651:. They affect grasses and dicots alike. 527: 470: 421: 211: 44: 41:A field after application of a herbicide 36: 5158: 5156: 5154: 5152: 4895: 4760: 4701: 3908:"Agent Orange Still Haunts Vietnam, US" 3718: 3712: 3289: 3287: 3285: 3283: 3281: 3279: 3277: 3275: 3183: 2908:Encyclopedia of environment and society 2905: 2893:"GLYPHOSATE AND THE POLITICS OF SAFETY" 2867:. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 14: 7798: 4575: 4499: 3975: 3613: 3506:Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease 3450: 3376: 3367: 3302: 3051: 2562:Approaches to treating resistant weeds 906: 803:are herbicides in this class; a drug, 559:(ACCase) is part of the first step of 523: 324: 6693: 6349: 5418: 5373:National Pesticide Information Center 5239: 5052:10.1146/annurev-arplant-042809-112119 5015:Herbicide Resistance and World Grains 4993: 4751: 4142: 3650:Herbicide Resistance Action Committee 3622:Herbicide Resistance and World Grains 3404:"4-Hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase" 3395: 3349:Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology 3235: 2283:evolved rapidly in part because when 2224: 7766: 5162: 5149: 4798: 4043: 3943: 3886: 3293: 3272: 2871: 2855: 2853: 2729:List of environmental health hazards 2617: 627:sulfonylamino carbonyl triazolinones 7778: 4994:Brown, H. Claire (18 August 2021). 4300:Human & Experimental Toxicology 4149:Handbook of Weed Management Systems 3830: 2895:. Halifax Examiner. 7 October 2016. 2584:Be active at different target sites 2241: 2080:Environmental effects of pesticides 1201:Radium and radon in the environment 785:4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase 685:reduce electron flow from water to 207: 24: 5315: 5295:"Hoegrass 500 Selective Herbicide" 4898:"Marestail Jumps Glyphosate Fence" 4858: 4212:10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009069 3296:Sustainable Agriculture Reviews 15 2106:in humans. As of 1992, studies on 2059:impacts upon the Vietnamese people 693:. They bind to the Qb site on the 446:are in use as preplant herbicides. 25: 7847: 7836:Chemical anti-agriculture weapons 5409:Pest Management Regulatory Agency 5332: 4839: 4240:Environmental Health Perspectives 3664:"Weed Science Society of America" 3583:Canadian Journal of Plant Science 2850: 2022:Although herbicidal warfare uses 309:(broadleaf plants), but not most 7777: 7765: 7754: 7753: 7741: 6469: 5396:UK Pesticides Safety Directorate 5339: 5076:Science of the Total Environment 4896:Marking, Syl (January 1, 2002). 4514:10.1111/j.1474-919X.2004.00375.x 4199:American Journal of Epidemiology 3453:Modern crop protection compounds 2838: 2121:Herbicides have widely variable 2074:Health and environmental effects 2040:Malayan National Liberation Army 1940: 1928: 105: 64: 5287: 5224: 5195: 5181: 5106: 5092:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.06.064 5066: 5031: 5006: 4966: 4948: 4930: 4912: 4889: 4871: 4852: 4833: 4546: 4520: 4493: 4465: 4421: 4378: 4356: 4342: 4291: 4276: 4227: 4186: 4165: 4151:. CRC Press. pp. 245–278. 4086: 3994: 3958:from the original on 2013-03-03 3926:from the original on 2017-03-30 3874:Haberman, Clyde (11 May 2014). 3867: 3849: 3762: 3656: 3638: 3540: 3496: 3469: 3444: 3340: 3210: 3177: 3150: 3135: 3092: 3052:Troyer, James R. (March 2001). 3045: 3028:Herbicides and Plant Physiology 3018: 2714:Environmental impact assessment 2596:Exert negative cross-resistance 2295:Plants developed resistance to 2233: 2166:Cases have been reported where 2088: 2034:forces deployed herbicides and 1021:Atmospheric dispersion modeling 901:Weed Science Society of America 775:) inhibit the Fdx to NADP step. 267:Rothamsted Experimental Station 49:Weeds controlled with herbicide 6375: 5040:Annual Review of Plant Biology 4729:10.1016/j.plantsci.2023.111934 4431:Critical Reviews in Toxicology 3451:Krämer, Wolfgang, ed. (2012). 3186:Agricultural Control Chemicals 2983: 2932: 2899: 2885: 2832: 2799: 2190:relationship remains unclear. 1890:Least polluted cities by PM2.5 957:There is little difference in 514: 367: 358: 305:grass crops, because it kills 168:, as well as pasture systems. 13: 1: 4775:10.1126/science.341.6152.1329 2765: 2670:acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase 2587:Have a high level of efficacy 2262: 2057:has left tangible, long-term 1361:Electrical resistance heating 862:(IAA). This family includes 701:molecules. As a consequence, 689:at the photochemical step in 557:Acetyl coenzyme A carboxylase 271:Agricultural Research Council 6531:Persistent organic pollutant 5273:10.1126/science.341.6147.734 4364:"Tordon 101: picloram/2,4-D" 3944:King, Jessica (2012-08-10). 3906:Stocking, Ben (2007-06-14). 3857:"The legacy of Agent Orange" 3361:10.1016/j.pestbp.2007.04.004 3326:10.1080/09670874.2013.821212 3121:10.1126/science.100.2590.154 2906:Robbins, Paul (2007-08-27). 2292:non-target site resistance. 2084:Health effects of pesticides 1071:Persistent organic pollutant 995:Air pollution from a factory 894:WSSA and HRAC classification 496:are soil-applied herbicides. 245:Imperial Chemical Industries 7: 7612:Index of pesticide articles 6674:Index of pesticide articles 6501:Agricultural spray adjuvant 3478:Outlooks on Pest Management 2788:. Summary in press release 2719:Index of pesticide articles 2695: 10: 7852: 6756:Climate-friendly gardening 6669:Integrated Pest Management 6516:Integrated pest management 4996:"Attack of the Superweeds" 4576:Baucom, Regina S. (2019). 4352:. CBC News. June 16, 2009. 4320:10.1177/096032719101000101 3980:(2nd ed.). ABC-CLIO. 3796:Journal of Applied Ecology 3194:10.1021/ba-1950-0001.ch045 2724:Integrated pest management 2699: 2435:Integrated pest management 2421:Integrated pest management 2418: 2369:Biochemistry of resistance 2077: 2068:Viet Nam Red Cross Society 2014:, most of them victims of 1995: 910: 171: 123:), also commonly known as 29: 7735: 7657: 7632:Plant disease forecasting 7594: 7586:Vegan organic agriculture 7561: 7436:Genetically modified tree 7323: 6866: 6731: 6664: 6633: 6566:Paradox of the pesticides 6478: 6467: 6383: 6252: 6210: 6169:Photosystem II inhibitors 6167: 6158: 6083:Photosystem II inhibitors 6072: 6031: 5993: 5968: 5945: 5897: 5888: 5862: 5814: 5805: 5752: 5743: 5695: 5647: 5614: 5558: 5456: 5203:"Pesticide Product Label" 4443:10.1080/10408440802116496 4407:10.1080/15287398109529973 3748:10.1017/S0890037X00046376 3698:10.1017/S0890037X00043116 3423:10.1016/j.abb.2004.08.015 3379:Biochemistry, 4th Edition 3256:10.1002/9780470634394.ch1 3157:Robert L Zimdahl (2007). 3031:. John Wiley & Sons. 2527:Control in previous years 2380:electron-transport system 1616:War and environmental law 1236:Health effects from noise 1086:Volatile organic compound 966:Misuse and misapplication 540:, enzyme substrates, and 335:groundwater contamination 247:. In 1940, his work with 239:was first synthesized by 196:, arsenic, copper salts, 6606:Pesticide Action Network 6526:Non-pesticide management 6042:Photosystem I inhibitors 5165:Weed management handbook 2881:. CBC News. 2 July 2019. 2816:10.1002/14356007.a28_165 2010:Handicapped children in 1986:Herbicide volatilisation 1241:Marine mammals and sonar 962:cycles of lumber crops. 787:, which are involved in 733:Photosystem I inhibitors 721:) and urea derivatives ( 623:pyrimidinyl oxybenzoates 402:Non-selective herbicides 321:of the parent compound. 233:use of herbicides in war 6506:Biological pest control 5115:Pest Management Science 4902:Corn and Soybean Digest 4818:10.1614/WS-D-15-00035.1 4799:Shaw, David R. (2016). 4475:Ecological Applications 4071:10.1093/jnci/84.24.1866 4052:"Herbicides and Cancer" 4007:Environ Health Perspect 3518:10.1023/A:1005458703363 3377:Stryer, Lubert (1995). 2522:Single modes of action 1716:Freshwater salinization 1636:Agricultural wastewater 745:reactive oxygen species 7571:Biodynamic agriculture 7508:Postharvest physiology 7456:Landscape architecture 7153:Indonesian home garden 6619:The Pesticide Question 5328:, April, 1996 pp99–116 5078:. 569–570: 1618–1628. 4143:Smith (18 July 1995). 3892:Lewy, Guenter (1978), 3837:Bruce Cumings (1998). 2576:Mixtures and sequences 2567:Alternative herbicides 2549:Resistance in vicinity 2452:Alopecurus myosuroides 2221:, in studies on rats. 2170:are contaminated with 2019: 1935:Environment portal 922: 709:herbicides (including 533: 253:naphthaleneacetic acid 224: 160:varieties in favor of 50: 42: 6818:Historic conservation 6521:Maximum residue limit 6491:Environmental effects 4252:10.1289/ehp.971051222 3402:Moran GR (Jan 2005). 2958:10.1104/pp.114.241901 2734:Preemergent herbicide 2700:Further information: 2690:long-chain fatty acid 2682:acetolactate synthase 2429:– a major concern in 2415:Resistance management 2348:Evolutionary insights 2281:glyphosate resistance 2009: 1676:Industrial wastewater 1444:Municipal solid waste 1366:Soil guideline values 920: 913:Pesticide application 911:Further information: 735:steal electrons from 579:Acetolactate synthase 531: 471:Method of application 422:Timing of application 215: 48: 40: 7748:Gardening portal 7647:Aquamog weed remover 7622:List of insecticides 6679:Pesticide categories 5191:. 21 September 2017. 3772:. BBC. 16 April 2015 3411:Arch Biochem Biophys 2519:Many modes of action 2427:herbicide resistance 2363:metabolic resistance 2355:convergent evolution 2269:herbicide resistance 2215:Dow Chemical Company 2116:non-Hodgkin lymphoma 2032:British Commonwealth 1885:Most polluted cities 1537:Overhead power lines 763:herbicides (such as 751:herbicides (such as 6270:aminocyclopyrachlor 6235:sulfometuron methyl 5367:General Information 5300:. Bayer CropScience 5265:2013Sci...341..734S 5084:2016ScTEn.569.1618A 4846:farmers advance.com 4649:2015WeedR..55..334F 4582:The New Phytologist 4399:1981JTEH....7..207R 4312:1991HETox..10....1T 4112:10.1093/jnci/djx233 4019:10.1289/ehp.9196213 3912:The Washington Post 3808:1993JApEc..30..395M 3113:1944Sci...100..154H 3004:10.1614/WT-06-130.1 2777:EPA. February 2011 2465: 2112:soft tissue sarcoma 2024:chemical substances 1701:Ocean acidification 1611:Unexploded ordnance 1532:Advertising clutter 1464:Post-consumer waste 1409:Foam food container 1394:Biodegradable waste 1051:Global distillation 907:Use and application 619:triazolopyrimidines 546:mechanism of action 524:Mechanism of action 325:Further discoveries 263:Juda Hirsch Quastel 180:, such as altering 7816:Soil contamination 7617:List of fungicides 7382:Companion planting 6230:metsulfuron-methyl 5899:Nitrophenyl ethers 5000:The New York Times 3894:America in Vietnam 3880:The New York Times 2784:2015-03-18 at the 2739:Soil contamination 2702:List of herbicides 2678:selection pressure 2491:Cultivation system 2463: 2442:selection pressure 2384:gene amplification 2225:Ecological effects 2168:Phenoxy herbicides 2108:phenoxy herbicides 2020: 2002:Herbicidal warfare 1947:Ecology portal 1572:Herbicidal warfare 1116:Introduced species 1056:Indoor air quality 1026:Chlorofluorocarbon 954:in water courses. 934:systems (known as 923: 855:mimic the natural 853:phenoxyacetic acid 611:metsulfuron-methyl 534: 432:photodecomposition 389:Herbicide safeners 225: 186:Mechanical control 51: 43: 32:Weedkiller (album) 7793: 7792: 7665:Community orchard 7491:drought tolerance 6687: 6686: 6343: 6342: 6248: 6247: 6154: 6153: 6068: 6067: 5989: 5988: 5890:Protox inhibitors 5884: 5883: 5880: 5879: 5807:ACCase inhibitors 5385:Regulatory policy 5259:(6147): 734–736. 5174:978-0-632-05732-0 4657:10.1111/wre.12153 4595:10.1111/nph.15723 4158:978-0-8247-9547-4 4064:(24): 1866–1874. 3987:978-1-85109-961-0 3462:978-3-527-32965-6 3388:978-0-7167-2009-6 3250:. pp. 1–33. 3203:978-0-8412-2442-1 3107:(2590): 154–155. 2624:organic herbicide 2618:Natural herbicide 2559: 2558: 2486:Crop monoculture 2455:(blackgrass) and 2028:Malayan Emergency 1998:Rainbow herbicide 1983: 1982: 1918: 1917: 1584:Nuclear holocaust 1507:Urban heat island 1321:Radioactive waste 1106:Biological hazard 1016:Air quality index 860:indoleacetic acid 553:ACCase inhibitors 317:) or one of many 265:, working at the 249:indoleacetic acid 178:cultural controls 16:(Redirected from 7843: 7781: 7780: 7769: 7768: 7757: 7756: 7746: 7745: 7722:Plant collecting 7658:Related articles 7595:Plant protection 6776:French intensive 6714: 6707: 6700: 6691: 6690: 6473: 6370: 6363: 6356: 6347: 6346: 6165: 6164: 6079: 6078: 6038: 6037: 5947:Pyrimidinediones 5895: 5894: 5812: 5811: 5750: 5749: 5697:Organophosphorus 5439: 5432: 5425: 5416: 5415: 5343: 5342: 5310: 5309: 5307: 5305: 5299: 5291: 5285: 5284: 5248: 5237: 5236: 5228: 5222: 5221: 5219: 5217: 5207: 5199: 5193: 5192: 5185: 5179: 5178: 5160: 5147: 5146: 5110: 5104: 5103: 5070: 5064: 5063: 5035: 5029: 5028: 5010: 5004: 5003: 4991: 4982: 4981: 4970: 4964: 4963: 4952: 4946: 4945: 4934: 4928: 4927: 4916: 4910: 4909: 4904:. Archived from 4893: 4887: 4886: 4875: 4869: 4868: 4865:farmprogress.com 4856: 4850: 4849: 4837: 4831: 4830: 4820: 4811:(SP1): 552–558. 4796: 4787: 4786: 4758: 4749: 4748: 4708: 4699: 4698: 4670: 4661: 4660: 4632: 4626: 4625: 4607: 4597: 4573: 4562: 4561: 4550: 4544: 4543: 4524: 4518: 4517: 4497: 4491: 4490: 4481:(4): 1125–1132. 4469: 4463: 4462: 4425: 4419: 4418: 4382: 4376: 4375: 4370:. 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Archived from 3408: 3399: 3393: 3392: 3374: 3365: 3364: 3344: 3338: 3337: 3309: 3300: 3299: 3291: 3270: 3269: 3242: 3233: 3232: 3230: 3229: 3218:"2,4-D Benefits" 3214: 3208: 3207: 3181: 3175: 3174: 3154: 3148: 3147: 3139: 3133: 3132: 3096: 3090: 3089: 3049: 3043: 3042: 3022: 3016: 3015: 2987: 2981: 2980: 2970: 2960: 2951:(3): 1119–1131. 2945:Plant Physiology 2936: 2930: 2929: 2903: 2897: 2896: 2889: 2883: 2882: 2875: 2869: 2868: 2866: 2857: 2848: 2847: 2845: 2836: 2830: 2829: 2803: 2797: 2775: 2538:Weed infestation 2494:Annual ploughing 2466: 2462: 2386:or changes in a 2329:Annual bluegrass 2242:Bird populations 2211:Dow AgroSciences 2195:Monsanto Company 2131:chronic toxicity 1975: 1968: 1961: 1945: 1944: 1943: 1933: 1932: 1864: 1863: 1567:Chemical warfare 1469:Waste management 1429:Industrial waste 1404:Electronic waste 1389:Advertising mail 1371:Phytoremediation 1346:Land degradation 1286:Depleted uranium 1171:Overillumination 1121:Invasive species 993: 970: 969: 662:-like herbicides 633:EPSPS inhibitors 229:Second World War 221:Second World War 208:First herbicides 131:, also known as 122: 121: 118: 117: 114: 111: 104: 96: 95: 92: 91: 88: 85: 82: 79: 76: 73: 70: 63: 21: 7851: 7850: 7846: 7845: 7844: 7842: 7841: 7840: 7796: 7795: 7794: 7789: 7740: 7731: 7727:Turf management 7712:Lists of plants 7707:List of gardens 7653: 7590: 7557: 7319: 6869: 6862: 6727: 6718: 6688: 6683: 6660: 6629: 6474: 6465: 6379: 6374: 6344: 6339: 6244: 6206: 6150: 6064: 6027: 5985: 5964: 5941: 5876: 5858: 5801: 5739: 5691: 5657:flurochloridone 5643: 5629:copper arsenate 5610: 5554: 5452: 5443: 5364: 5363: 5362: 5344: 5340: 5335: 5324:Longworth, Jim 5318: 5316:Further reading 5313: 5303: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5292: 5288: 5249: 5240: 5229: 5225: 5215: 5213: 5205: 5201: 5200: 5196: 5187: 5186: 5182: 5175: 5161: 5150: 5127:10.1002/ps.6040 5111: 5107: 5071: 5067: 5036: 5032: 5025: 5011: 5007: 4992: 4985: 4978:weedscience.org 4972: 4971: 4967: 4960:weedscience.org 4954: 4953: 4949: 4942:weedscience.org 4936: 4935: 4931: 4924:weedscience.org 4918: 4917: 4913: 4894: 4890: 4877: 4876: 4872: 4859:Haynes, Betty. 4857: 4853: 4840:Quinn, Lauren. 4838: 4834: 4797: 4790: 4759: 4752: 4709: 4702: 4671: 4664: 4633: 4629: 4574: 4565: 4558:weedscience.org 4552: 4551: 4547: 4540: 4525: 4521: 4498: 4494: 4470: 4466: 4426: 4422: 4383: 4379: 4362: 4361: 4357: 4348: 4347: 4343: 4296: 4292: 4287:. Nov 27, 1996. 4282: 4281: 4277: 4232: 4228: 4205:(12): 1061–75. 4191: 4187: 4177: 4175: 4171: 4170: 4166: 4159: 4141: 4137: 4091: 4087: 4048: 4044: 3999: 3995: 3988: 3974: 3970: 3961: 3959: 3942: 3938: 3929: 3927: 3904: 3900: 3891: 3887: 3872: 3868: 3855: 3854: 3850: 3835: 3831: 3816:10.2307/2404181 3792: 3785: 3775: 3773: 3768: 3767: 3763: 3736:Weed Technology 3732: 3728: 3717: 3713: 3686:Weed Technology 3682: 3678: 3668: 3666: 3662: 3661: 3657: 3644: 3643: 3639: 3632: 3618: 3614: 3596:10.4141/P05-193 3575: 3568: 3561:10.1071/CH10366 3545: 3541: 3501: 3497: 3490:10.1564/20feb09 3474: 3470: 3463: 3449: 3445: 3437: 3406: 3400: 3396: 3389: 3375: 3368: 3345: 3341: 3310: 3303: 3292: 3273: 3266: 3243: 3236: 3227: 3225: 3216: 3215: 3211: 3204: 3182: 3178: 3171: 3155: 3151: 3140: 3136: 3097: 3093: 3050: 3046: 3039: 3023: 3019: 2992:Weed Technology 2988: 2984: 2937: 2933: 2918: 2904: 2900: 2891: 2890: 2886: 2877: 2876: 2872: 2864: 2858: 2851: 2843: 2837: 2833: 2826: 2804: 2800: 2786:Wayback Machine 2776: 2772: 2768: 2763: 2704: 2698: 2666:diclofop-methyl 2654: 2628:organic farming 2620: 2607:Stellaria media 2578: 2569: 2564: 2511:Herbicide only 2499:minimum tillage 2480:Cropping system 2423: 2417: 2392:cytochrome P450 2371: 2350: 2325:Palmer amaranth 2265: 2244: 2236: 2227: 2213:, owned by the 2125:in addition to 2096:carcinogenicity 2091: 2086: 2076: 2044:Royal Air Force 2004: 1996:Main articles: 1994: 1979: 1941: 1939: 1927: 1920: 1919: 1819: 1811: 1810: 1784: 1776: 1775: 1711:Pharmaceuticals 1691:Nonpoint source 1631: 1621: 1620: 1589:Nuclear fallout 1562: 1552: 1551: 1522: 1512: 1511: 1502: 1492: 1491: 1482: 1474: 1473: 1459:Packaging waste 1424:Hazardous waste 1384: 1376: 1375: 1336: 1326: 1325: 1296:Nuclear fallout 1291:Nuclear fission 1271: 1261: 1260: 1226: 1216: 1215: 1191: 1183: 1182: 1156: 1154:Electromagnetic 1146: 1145: 1136: 1128: 1127: 1101: 1091: 1090: 1061:Ozone depletion 1006: 996: 968: 915: 909: 896: 780:HPPD inhibitors 729:, and terbacil. 605:(SUs) (such as 571:plants are not. 561:lipid synthesis 526: 517: 484:Volatility and 473: 424: 404: 370: 361: 327: 241:W. G. Templeman 235:. The compound 210: 202:sodium chlorate 174: 108: 99: 98: 67: 58: 57: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7849: 7839: 7838: 7833: 7828: 7823: 7818: 7813: 7808: 7791: 7790: 7788: 7787: 7775: 7763: 7751: 7736: 7733: 7732: 7730: 7729: 7724: 7719: 7714: 7709: 7704: 7702:Garden tourism 7699: 7694: 7692:Groundskeeping 7689: 7688: 7687: 7682: 7672: 7667: 7661: 7659: 7655: 7654: 7652: 7651: 7650: 7649: 7639: 7634: 7629: 7624: 7619: 7614: 7609: 7604: 7598: 7596: 7592: 7591: 7589: 7588: 7583: 7578: 7573: 7567: 7565: 7559: 7558: 7556: 7555: 7550: 7545: 7544: 7543: 7538: 7533: 7528: 7520: 7515: 7510: 7505: 7500: 7499: 7498: 7493: 7488: 7483: 7481:free-flowering 7478: 7473: 7463: 7458: 7453: 7448: 7443: 7438: 7433: 7428: 7423: 7422: 7421: 7416: 7406: 7401: 7396: 7395: 7394: 7384: 7379: 7374: 7373: 7372: 7362: 7357: 7356: 7355: 7350: 7345: 7340: 7329: 7327: 7321: 7320: 7318: 7317: 7312: 7307: 7302: 7297: 7292: 7287: 7282: 7277: 7272: 7267: 7262: 7257: 7252: 7247: 7242: 7237: 7232: 7227: 7222: 7217: 7212: 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6518: 6513: 6511:Gene silencing 6508: 6503: 6498: 6493: 6488: 6486:Health effects 6482: 6480: 6479:Related topics 6476: 6475: 6468: 6466: 6464: 6463: 6458: 6453: 6448: 6443: 6438: 6433: 6432: 6431: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6406: 6401: 6396: 6390: 6388: 6381: 6380: 6373: 6372: 6365: 6358: 6350: 6341: 6340: 6338: 6337: 6332: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6256: 6254: 6250: 6249: 6246: 6245: 6243: 6242: 6237: 6232: 6227: 6222: 6216: 6214: 6212:ALS inhibitors 6208: 6207: 6205: 6204: 6199: 6194: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6173: 6171: 6162: 6156: 6155: 6152: 6151: 6149: 6148: 6143: 6138: 6136:terbuthylazine 6133: 6128: 6123: 6118: 6113: 6108: 6103: 6098: 6093: 6087: 6085: 6076: 6070: 6069: 6066: 6065: 6063: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6046: 6044: 6035: 6029: 6028: 6026: 6025: 6020: 6015: 6010: 6005: 5999: 5997: 5991: 5990: 5987: 5986: 5984: 5983: 5978: 5972: 5970: 5966: 5965: 5963: 5962: 5957: 5951: 5949: 5943: 5942: 5940: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5924: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5903: 5901: 5892: 5886: 5885: 5882: 5881: 5878: 5877: 5875: 5874: 5868: 5866: 5864:DIM herbicides 5860: 5859: 5857: 5856: 5851: 5846: 5841: 5836: 5831: 5826: 5820: 5818: 5816:FOP herbicides 5809: 5803: 5802: 5800: 5799: 5794: 5789: 5784: 5779: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5758: 5756: 5747: 5741: 5740: 5738: 5737: 5732: 5727: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5707: 5701: 5699: 5693: 5692: 5690: 5689: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5653: 5651: 5649:HPPD inhbitors 5645: 5644: 5642: 5641: 5636: 5631: 5626: 5624:cacodylic acid 5620: 5618: 5612: 5611: 5609: 5608: 5603: 5598: 5593: 5588: 5583: 5578: 5573: 5567: 5565: 5556: 5555: 5553: 5552: 5547: 5542: 5537: 5532: 5527: 5522: 5517: 5512: 5507: 5502: 5497: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5477: 5472: 5466: 5464: 5454: 5453: 5442: 5441: 5434: 5427: 5419: 5413: 5412: 5403: 5398: 5393: 5387: 5386: 5382: 5381: 5376: 5369: 5368: 5345: 5338: 5337: 5336: 5334: 5333:External links 5331: 5330: 5329: 5317: 5314: 5312: 5311: 5286: 5238: 5231:Cheryl Wilen. 5223: 5194: 5180: 5173: 5148: 5105: 5065: 5046:(1): 317–347. 5030: 5023: 5005: 4983: 4965: 4947: 4929: 4911: 4908:on 2009-07-10. 4888: 4885:. 23 May 2023. 4870: 4851: 4832: 4788: 4769:(6152): 1329. 4750: 4700: 4681:(6): 700–712. 4662: 4643:(4): 334–358. 4627: 4605:2027.42/149516 4563: 4545: 4539:978-1560981138 4538: 4519: 4508:(4): 579–600. 4492: 4464: 4437:(9): 721–772. 4420: 4393:(2): 207–222. 4377: 4374:on 2010-03-12. 4355: 4341: 4290: 4275: 4246:(11): 1222–7. 4226: 4185: 4164: 4157: 4135: 4106:(5): 509–516. 4085: 4042: 3993: 3986: 3968: 3936: 3898: 3885: 3866: 3848: 3829: 3802:(3): 395–406. 3783: 3761: 3726: 3711: 3692:(2): 384–393. 3676: 3655: 3637: 3630: 3612: 3566: 3555:(4): 367–372. 3539: 3512:(5): 498–506. 3495: 3468: 3461: 3443: 3440:on 2014-03-03. 3394: 3387: 3366: 3339: 3320:(3): 165–173. 3301: 3271: 3264: 3234: 3209: 3202: 3176: 3169: 3149: 3134: 3091: 3064:(2): 290–297. 3044: 3037: 3017: 2998:(2): 559–566. 2982: 2931: 2916: 2898: 2884: 2870: 2849: 2839:Smil, Vaclav. 2831: 2824: 2798: 2769: 2767: 2764: 2762: 2761: 2756: 2751: 2746: 2744:Surface runoff 2741: 2736: 2731: 2726: 2721: 2716: 2711: 2705: 2697: 2694: 2686:Photosystem II 2653: 2650: 2642:tree of heaven 2619: 2616: 2601: 2600: 2597: 2594: 2591: 2588: 2585: 2577: 2574: 2568: 2565: 2563: 2560: 2557: 2556: 2553: 2550: 2546: 2545: 2542: 2539: 2535: 2534: 2531: 2528: 2524: 2523: 2520: 2517: 2513: 2512: 2509: 2506: 2502: 2501: 2495: 2492: 2488: 2487: 2484: 2481: 2477: 2476: 2473: 2470: 2416: 2413: 2412: 2411: 2408: 2400: 2399: 2395: 2370: 2367: 2349: 2346: 2333:Rigid ryegrass 2301:ALS-inhibitors 2264: 2261: 2243: 2240: 2235: 2232: 2226: 2223: 2156:surface runoff 2127:acute toxicity 2090: 2087: 2075: 2072: 1993: 1990: 1981: 1980: 1978: 1977: 1970: 1963: 1955: 1952: 1951: 1950: 1949: 1937: 1922: 1921: 1916: 1915: 1914: 1913: 1905: 1904: 1900: 1899: 1898: 1897: 1892: 1887: 1882: 1880:Law by country 1877: 1869: 1868: 1862: 1861: 1856: 1851: 1846: 1841: 1836: 1831: 1826: 1820: 1817: 1816: 1813: 1812: 1809: 1808: 1807: 1806: 1801: 1791: 1785: 1782: 1781: 1778: 1777: 1774: 1773: 1768: 1763: 1758: 1753: 1751:Surface runoff 1748: 1743: 1738: 1733: 1728: 1723: 1718: 1713: 1708: 1703: 1698: 1693: 1688: 1683: 1678: 1673: 1668: 1663: 1658: 1653: 1651:Eutrophication 1648: 1643: 1638: 1632: 1627: 1626: 1623: 1622: 1619: 1618: 1613: 1608: 1606:Scorched earth 1603: 1602: 1601: 1599:Nuclear winter 1596: 1594:Nuclear famine 1591: 1581: 1580: 1579: 1569: 1563: 1558: 1557: 1554: 1553: 1550: 1549: 1544: 1539: 1534: 1529: 1523: 1518: 1517: 1514: 1513: 1510: 1509: 1503: 1498: 1497: 1494: 1493: 1490: 1489: 1483: 1480: 1479: 1476: 1475: 1472: 1471: 1466: 1461: 1456: 1451: 1446: 1441: 1436: 1431: 1426: 1421: 1416: 1411: 1406: 1401: 1396: 1391: 1385: 1382: 1381: 1378: 1377: 1374: 1373: 1368: 1363: 1358: 1353: 1351:Bioremediation 1348: 1343: 1337: 1332: 1331: 1328: 1327: 1324: 1323: 1318: 1313: 1308: 1303: 1298: 1293: 1288: 1283: 1281:Bioremediation 1278: 1272: 1267: 1266: 1263: 1262: 1259: 1258: 1253: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1231:Transportation 1227: 1222: 1221: 1218: 1217: 1214: 1213: 1208: 1203: 1198: 1192: 1189: 1188: 1185: 1184: 1181: 1180: 1178:Radio spectrum 1175: 1174: 1173: 1168: 1157: 1152: 1151: 1148: 1147: 1144: 1143: 1137: 1134: 1133: 1130: 1129: 1126: 1125: 1124: 1123: 1113: 1108: 1102: 1097: 1096: 1093: 1092: 1089: 1088: 1083: 1078: 1073: 1068: 1063: 1058: 1053: 1048: 1046:Global dimming 1043: 1038: 1033: 1028: 1023: 1018: 1013: 1007: 1002: 1001: 998: 997: 994: 986: 985: 979: 978: 967: 964: 908: 905: 895: 892: 809: 808: 776: 761:diphenyl ether 730: 691:photosynthesis 681:Photosystem II 677: 656: 630: 615:imidazolinones 575:ALS inhibitors 572: 538:plant hormones 525: 522: 516: 513: 512: 511: 500:Foliar applied 497: 472: 469: 468: 467: 461: 447: 423: 420: 403: 400: 369: 366: 360: 357: 326: 323: 315:trimethylamine 301:, and similar 279:plant hormones 258:microorganisms 209: 206: 173: 170: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7848: 7837: 7834: 7832: 7829: 7827: 7824: 7822: 7819: 7817: 7814: 7812: 7809: 7807: 7804: 7803: 7801: 7786: 7785: 7776: 7774: 7773: 7764: 7762: 7761: 7752: 7750: 7749: 7744: 7738: 7737: 7734: 7728: 7725: 7723: 7720: 7718: 7715: 7713: 7710: 7708: 7705: 7703: 7700: 7698: 7697:Garden centre 7695: 7693: 7690: 7686: 7683: 7681: 7678: 7677: 7676: 7675:Floral design 7673: 7671: 7668: 7666: 7663: 7662: 7660: 7656: 7648: 7645: 7644: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7635: 7633: 7630: 7628: 7625: 7623: 7620: 7618: 7615: 7613: 7610: 7608: 7605: 7603: 7600: 7599: 7597: 7593: 7587: 7584: 7582: 7579: 7577: 7574: 7572: 7569: 7568: 7566: 7564: 7560: 7554: 7551: 7549: 7546: 7542: 7541:reforestation 7539: 7537: 7534: 7532: 7529: 7527: 7524: 7523: 7521: 7519: 7516: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7506: 7504: 7501: 7497: 7494: 7492: 7489: 7487: 7484: 7482: 7479: 7477: 7474: 7472: 7469: 7468: 7467: 7464: 7462: 7459: 7457: 7454: 7452: 7451:Intercropping 7449: 7447: 7444: 7442: 7439: 7437: 7434: 7432: 7429: 7427: 7424: 7420: 7417: 7415: 7412: 7411: 7410: 7407: 7405: 7402: 7400: 7397: 7393: 7392:most valuable 7390: 7389: 7388: 7385: 7383: 7380: 7378: 7375: 7371: 7368: 7367: 7366: 7363: 7361: 7360:Arboriculture 7358: 7354: 7351: 7349: 7346: 7344: 7341: 7339: 7336: 7335: 7334: 7331: 7330: 7328: 7326: 7322: 7316: 7313: 7311: 7308: 7306: 7303: 7301: 7298: 7296: 7293: 7291: 7288: 7286: 7283: 7281: 7278: 7276: 7273: 7271: 7268: 7266: 7263: 7261: 7258: 7256: 7253: 7251: 7248: 7246: 7243: 7241: 7238: 7236: 7233: 7231: 7228: 7226: 7223: 7221: 7218: 7216: 7213: 7211: 7208: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7196: 7193: 7191: 7188: 7186: 7183: 7181: 7178: 7174: 7171: 7169: 7166: 7164: 7161: 7160: 7159: 7156: 7154: 7151: 7149: 7146: 7144: 7141: 7139: 7136: 7134: 7131: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7114: 7111: 7109: 7106: 7104: 7101: 7099: 7096: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7074: 7071: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7053: 7051: 7049: 7046: 7044: 7041: 7039: 7036: 7032: 7029: 7028: 7027: 7024: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7012: 7008: 7005: 7003: 7000: 6999: 6998: 6995: 6991: 6988: 6987: 6986: 6983: 6982: 6981: 6978: 6976: 6973: 6971: 6968: 6966: 6963: 6961: 6958: 6954: 6953:Garden square 6951: 6950: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6906: 6904: 6901: 6899: 6896: 6894: 6891: 6889: 6886: 6884: 6883:Ancient Egypt 6881: 6879: 6876: 6875: 6873: 6871: 6865: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6821: 6819: 6816: 6814: 6811: 6809: 6806: 6804: 6801: 6799: 6796: 6792: 6789: 6788: 6787: 6786:Garden design 6784: 6782: 6779: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6769: 6767: 6764: 6762: 6759: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6747: 6744: 6742: 6739: 6738: 6736: 6734: 6730: 6726: 6722: 6715: 6710: 6708: 6703: 6701: 6696: 6695: 6692: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6672: 6670: 6667: 6666: 6663: 6657: 6656:United States 6654: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6638: 6636: 6632: 6626: 6623: 6621: 6620: 6616: 6614: 6613: 6612:Silent Spring 6609: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6592: 6589: 6587: 6584: 6582: 6579: 6577: 6574: 6572: 6569: 6567: 6564: 6562: 6559: 6557: 6554: 6552: 6549: 6547: 6544: 6542: 6539: 6537: 6534: 6532: 6529: 6527: 6524: 6522: 6519: 6517: 6514: 6512: 6509: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6483: 6481: 6477: 6472: 6462: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6442: 6439: 6437: 6434: 6430: 6427: 6426: 6425: 6422: 6420: 6417: 6415: 6412: 6410: 6407: 6405: 6402: 6400: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6382: 6378: 6371: 6366: 6364: 6359: 6357: 6352: 6351: 6348: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6257: 6255: 6251: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6231: 6228: 6226: 6225:flazasulfuron 6223: 6221: 6220:chlorsulfuron 6218: 6217: 6215: 6213: 6209: 6203: 6200: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6174: 6172: 6170: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6157: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6137: 6134: 6132: 6129: 6127: 6124: 6122: 6119: 6117: 6114: 6112: 6109: 6107: 6104: 6102: 6099: 6097: 6094: 6092: 6089: 6088: 6086: 6084: 6080: 6077: 6075: 6071: 6061: 6058: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6048: 6047: 6045: 6043: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6030: 6024: 6021: 6019: 6016: 6014: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6004: 6001: 6000: 5998: 5996: 5992: 5982: 5981:sulfentrazone 5979: 5977: 5976:carfentrazone 5974: 5973: 5971: 5969:Triazolinones 5967: 5961: 5958: 5956: 5953: 5952: 5950: 5948: 5944: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5928: 5925: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5904: 5902: 5900: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5887: 5873: 5870: 5869: 5867: 5865: 5861: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5821: 5819: 5817: 5813: 5810: 5808: 5804: 5798: 5795: 5793: 5790: 5788: 5785: 5783: 5780: 5778: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5759: 5757: 5755: 5751: 5748: 5746: 5742: 5736: 5733: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5703: 5702: 5700: 5698: 5694: 5688: 5685: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5667:leptospermone 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5654: 5652: 5650: 5646: 5640: 5637: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5627: 5625: 5622: 5621: 5619: 5617: 5613: 5607: 5604: 5602: 5599: 5597: 5594: 5592: 5589: 5587: 5584: 5582: 5579: 5577: 5574: 5572: 5569: 5568: 5566: 5564: 5561: 5557: 5551: 5548: 5546: 5543: 5541: 5538: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5530:pendimethalin 5528: 5526: 5523: 5521: 5518: 5516: 5513: 5511: 5508: 5506: 5503: 5501: 5498: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5476: 5473: 5471: 5468: 5467: 5465: 5463: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5447: 5440: 5435: 5433: 5428: 5426: 5421: 5420: 5417: 5410: 5407: 5404: 5402: 5399: 5397: 5394: 5392: 5389: 5388: 5384: 5383: 5380: 5377: 5374: 5371: 5370: 5366: 5365: 5360: 5359: 5358: 5352: 5348: 5327: 5323: 5320: 5319: 5296: 5290: 5282: 5278: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5258: 5254: 5247: 5245: 5243: 5234: 5227: 5212:. 19 May 2022 5211: 5204: 5198: 5190: 5184: 5176: 5170: 5166: 5159: 5157: 5155: 5153: 5144: 5140: 5136: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5116: 5109: 5101: 5097: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5069: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5034: 5026: 5024:9781420039085 5020: 5016: 5009: 5001: 4997: 4990: 4988: 4979: 4975: 4969: 4961: 4957: 4951: 4943: 4939: 4933: 4925: 4921: 4915: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4892: 4884: 4880: 4874: 4866: 4862: 4855: 4847: 4843: 4836: 4828: 4824: 4819: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4795: 4793: 4784: 4780: 4776: 4772: 4768: 4764: 4757: 4755: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4717:Plant Science 4714: 4707: 4705: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4669: 4667: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4637:Weed Research 4631: 4623: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4606: 4601: 4596: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4572: 4570: 4568: 4559: 4555: 4549: 4541: 4535: 4531: 4523: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4496: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4468: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4424: 4416: 4412: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4381: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4359: 4351: 4345: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4305: 4301: 4294: 4286: 4285:Wichita Eagle 4279: 4271: 4267: 4262: 4257: 4253: 4249: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4230: 4222: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4189: 4174: 4168: 4160: 4154: 4150: 4146: 4139: 4131: 4127: 4122: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4089: 4081: 4077: 4072: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4058: 4053: 4046: 4038: 4034: 4029: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 3997: 3989: 3983: 3979: 3972: 3957: 3953: 3952: 3947: 3940: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3902: 3895: 3889: 3881: 3877: 3870: 3862: 3858: 3852: 3845:. p. 61. 3844: 3840: 3833: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3797: 3790: 3788: 3771: 3765: 3757: 3753: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3730: 3722: 3715: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3687: 3680: 3665: 3659: 3651: 3647: 3641: 3633: 3631:9781420039085 3627: 3623: 3616: 3607: 3602: 3597: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3573: 3571: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3549:Aust. J. Chem 3543: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3499: 3491: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3472: 3464: 3458: 3454: 3447: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3417:(1): 117–28. 3416: 3412: 3405: 3398: 3390: 3384: 3380: 3373: 3371: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3343: 3335: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3308: 3306: 3297: 3290: 3288: 3286: 3284: 3282: 3280: 3278: 3276: 3267: 3265:9780470410318 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3241: 3239: 3224:on 2015-11-02 3223: 3219: 3213: 3205: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3180: 3172: 3170:9780123815026 3166: 3162: 3161: 3153: 3145: 3138: 3130: 3126: 3122: 3118: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3095: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3048: 3040: 3038:9781444322491 3034: 3030: 3029: 3021: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2986: 2978: 2974: 2969: 2964: 2959: 2954: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2935: 2927: 2923: 2919: 2917:9781452265582 2913: 2909: 2902: 2894: 2888: 2880: 2874: 2863: 2856: 2854: 2842: 2835: 2827: 2825:3-527-30673-0 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2802: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2780: 2774: 2770: 2760: 2757: 2755: 2752: 2750: 2747: 2745: 2742: 2740: 2737: 2735: 2732: 2730: 2727: 2725: 2722: 2720: 2717: 2715: 2712: 2710: 2707: 2706: 2703: 2693: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2679: 2673: 2671: 2667: 2663: 2659: 2649: 2647: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2634: 2629: 2625: 2615: 2613: 2609: 2608: 2598: 2595: 2592: 2589: 2586: 2583: 2582: 2581: 2573: 2554: 2551: 2548: 2547: 2543: 2540: 2537: 2536: 2532: 2529: 2526: 2525: 2521: 2518: 2516:Herbicide use 2515: 2514: 2510: 2508:Cultural only 2507: 2504: 2503: 2500: 2496: 2493: 2490: 2489: 2485: 2483:Good rotation 2482: 2479: 2478: 2474: 2471: 2468: 2467: 2461: 2458: 2454: 2453: 2446: 2443: 2438: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2422: 2409: 2405: 2404: 2403: 2396: 2393: 2389: 2388:gene promoter 2385: 2381: 2376: 2375: 2374: 2366: 2364: 2358: 2356: 2345: 2342: 2337: 2334: 2330: 2326: 2321: 2319: 2314: 2309: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2293: 2289: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2272: 2270: 2260: 2258: 2254: 2250: 2239: 2231: 2222: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2191: 2189: 2186:, although a 2185: 2184:breast cancer 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2164: 2162: 2157: 2153: 2147: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2119: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2105: 2101: 2097: 2085: 2081: 2071: 2069: 2065: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2051:U.S. military 2047: 2045: 2041: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2017: 2013: 2008: 2003: 1999: 1989: 1987: 1976: 1971: 1969: 1964: 1962: 1957: 1956: 1954: 1953: 1948: 1938: 1936: 1931: 1926: 1925: 1924: 1923: 1912: 1909: 1908: 1907: 1906: 1902: 1901: 1896: 1893: 1891: 1888: 1886: 1883: 1881: 1878: 1876: 1873: 1872: 1871: 1870: 1866: 1865: 1860: 1857: 1855: 1852: 1850: 1847: 1845: 1842: 1840: 1837: 1835: 1832: 1830: 1827: 1825: 1822: 1821: 1815: 1814: 1805: 1802: 1800: 1797: 1796: 1795: 1792: 1790: 1787: 1786: 1780: 1779: 1772: 1769: 1767: 1766:Water quality 1764: 1762: 1759: 1757: 1754: 1752: 1749: 1747: 1744: 1742: 1739: 1737: 1734: 1732: 1729: 1727: 1724: 1722: 1719: 1717: 1714: 1712: 1709: 1707: 1704: 1702: 1699: 1697: 1694: 1692: 1689: 1687: 1684: 1682: 1679: 1677: 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1251:Noise control 1249: 1247: 1246:Noise barrier 1244: 1242: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1228: 1225: 1220: 1219: 1212: 1209: 1207: 1204: 1202: 1199: 1197: 1194: 1193: 1187: 1186: 1179: 1176: 1172: 1169: 1167: 1164: 1163: 1162: 1159: 1158: 1155: 1150: 1149: 1142: 1139: 1138: 1132: 1131: 1122: 1119: 1118: 1117: 1114: 1112: 1109: 1107: 1104: 1103: 1100: 1095: 1094: 1087: 1084: 1082: 1079: 1077: 1074: 1072: 1069: 1067: 1064: 1062: 1059: 1057: 1054: 1052: 1049: 1047: 1044: 1042: 1039: 1037: 1034: 1032: 1029: 1027: 1024: 1022: 1019: 1017: 1014: 1012: 1009: 1008: 1005: 1000: 999: 992: 988: 987: 984: 981: 980: 976: 972: 971: 963: 960: 955: 953: 949: 945: 939: 937: 933: 928: 919: 914: 904: 902: 891: 889: 885: 881: 877: 873: 869: 865: 861: 858: 854: 850: 846: 842: 838: 834: 830: 826: 822: 818: 815: 806: 802: 798: 794: 790: 786: 782: 781: 777: 774: 770: 769:nitrofluorfen 766: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 731: 728: 724: 720: 716: 712: 708: 704: 700: 696: 692: 688: 684: 682: 678: 675: 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