554:
469:) – to a flask and stimulated them with electricity that resembled lightning present on early Earth. The experiment resulted in the discovery that early Earth conditions were supportive of the production of amino acids, with recent re-analyses of the data recognizing that over 40 different amino acids were produced, including several not currently used by life. This experiment heralded the beginning of the field of synthetic prebiotic chemistry, and is now known as the
20:
714:, the process of converting organic compounds to inorganic forms. When the organic nutrient source taken in by the heterotroph contains essential elements such as N, S, P in addition to C, H, and O, they are often removed first to proceed with the oxidation of organic nutrient and production of ATP via respiration. S and N in organic carbon source are transformed into H
434:. While these authors agreed on the gasses present and the progression of events to a point, Oparin championed a progressive complexity of organic matter prior to the formation of cells, while Haldane had more considerations about the concept of genes as units of heredity and the possibility of light playing a role in chemical synthesis (
965:"The purpose of saprotrophs and their internal nutrition, as well as the main two types of fungi that are most often referred to, as well as describes, visually, the process of saprotrophic nutrition through a diagram of hyphae, referring to the Rhizobium on damp, stale whole-meal bread or rotting fruit."
476:
On early Earth, oceans and shallow waters were rich with organic molecules that could have been used by primitive heterotrophs. This method of obtaining energy was energetically favorable until organic carbon became more scarce than inorganic carbon, providing a potential evolutionary pressure to
505:
was the main carbon source at the early Earth, suggesting that early cellular life were autotrophs that relied upon inorganic substrates as an energy source and lived at alkaline hydrothermal vents or acidic geothermal ponds. Simple biomolecules transported from space was considered to have been
398:
Heterotrophs, by consuming reduced carbon compounds, are able to use all the energy that they obtain from food for growth and reproduction, unlike autotrophs, which must use some of their energy for carbon fixation. Both heterotrophs and autotrophs alike are usually dependent on the metabolic
391:(or facultative chemolithotroph) can use either carbon dioxide or organic carbon as the carbon source, meaning that mixotrophs have the ability to use both heterotrophic and autotrophic methods. Although mixotrophs have the ability to grow under both heterotrophic and autotrophic conditions,
477:
become autotrophic. Following the evolution of autotrophs, heterotrophs were able to utilize them as a food source instead of relying on the limited nutrients found in their environment. Eventually, autotrophic and heterotrophic cells were engulfed by these early heterotrophs and formed a
497:
relationships that provide needed resources to both organisms. One example of this is the mutualism between corals and algae, where the former provides protection and necessary compounds for photosynthesis while the latter provides oxygen.
399:
activities of other organisms for nutrients other than carbon, including nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur, and can die from lack of food that supplies these nutrients. This applies not only to animals and fungi but also to bacteria.
362:
and purple non-sulfur bacteria synthesize organic compounds using sunlight coupled with oxidation of organic substances. They use organic compounds to build structures. They do not fix carbon dioxide and apparently do not have the
493:, allowing the differentiation of tissues and development into multicellularity. This advancement allowed the further diversification of heterotrophs. Today, many heterotrophs and autotrophs also utilize
1659:
Preiner, Martina; Asche, Silke; Becker, Sidney; Betts, Holly C.; Boniface, Adrien; Camprubi, Eloi; Chandru, Kuhan; Erastova, Valentina; Garg, Sriram G.; Khawaja, Nozair; Kostyrka, Gladys (2020-02-26).
265:
to organic carbon compounds and energy to sustain their life. Comparing the two in basic terms, heterotrophs (such as animals) eat either autotrophs (such as plants) or other heterotrophs, or both.
175:, mainly plant or animal matter. In the food chain, heterotrophs are primary, secondary and tertiary consumers, but not producers. Living organisms that are heterotrophic include all
644:). They release the chemical energy of nutrient molecules by oxidizing carbon and hydrogen atoms from carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins to carbon dioxide and water, respectively.
750:
formed from deamination is further oxidized by lithotrophs to the forms available to plants. Heterotrophs' ability to mineralize essential elements is critical to plant survival.
355:. Phototrophs utilize light to obtain energy and carry out metabolic processes, whereas chemotrophs use the energy obtained by the oxidation of chemicals from their environment.
612:
that use organic carbon (e.g. glucose) as their carbon source, and organic chemicals (e.g. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins) as their electron sources. Heterotrophs function as
525:. Domain Bacteria includes a variety of metabolic activity including photoheterotrophs, chemoheterotrophs, organotrophs, and heterolithotrophs. Within Domain Eukarya, kingdoms
423:, which further reacted to form more complex compounds and eventually resulted in life. Alternative theories of an autotrophic origin of life contradict this theory.
1066:"Oceanithermus profundus gen. nov., sp. nov., a thermophilic, microaerophilic, facultatively chemolithoheterotrophic bacterium from a deep-sea hydrothermal vent"
889:
628:. They break down complex organic compounds (e.g., carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) produced by autotrophs into simpler compounds (e.g., carbohydrates into
933:. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology. Vol. XI (5th ed.). Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: The Biological Laboratory. pp. 302–303.
2268:
1159:
Liang, Yanna (July 2009). "Biomass and lipid productivities of
Chlorella vulgaris under autotrophic, heterotrophic and mixotrophic growth conditions".
979:
664:
1133:
981:
The
Environmental Geochemistry of Mineral Deposits: Part A: Processes, Techniques, and Health Issues Part B: Case Studies and Research Topics
506:
either too reduced to have been fermented or too heterogeneous to support microbial growth. Heterotrophic microbes likely originated at low H
934:
1106:
2307:
707:
into the atmosphere, making it available for autotrophs as a source of nutrient and plants as a cellulose synthesis substrate.
2191:
2145:
1747:
1365:
1143:
1116:
1064:
Miroshnichenko, M.L.; L'Haridon, S.; Jeanthon, C.; Antipov, A.N.; Kostrikina, N.A.; Tindall, B.J.; et al. (1 May 2003).
1045:
992:
870:
703:
O into the atmosphere. Heterotrophic microbes' respiration and fermentation account for a large portion of the release of CO
1427:"The amino-acid sequence in the glycyl chain of insulin. 1. The identification of lower peptides from partial hydrolysates"
430:, and eventually published “The Origin of Life.” It was independently proposed for the first time in English in 1929 by
533:
are entirely heterotrophic, though most fungi absorb nutrients through their environment. Most organisms within
Kingdom
2358:
1215:
137:
419:
and energy sources such as electrical energy in the form of lightning, which resulted in reactions that formed simple
364:
2426:
1832:"Major evolutionary transitions of life, metabolic scaling and the number and size of mitochondria and chloroplasts"
900:
545:
plants. Lastly, Domain
Archaea varies immensely in metabolic functions and contains many methods of heterotrophy.
218:
Heterotrophs may be subdivided according to their energy source. If the heterotroph uses chemical energy, it is a
1942:
Muchowska, K. B.; Varma, S. J.; Chevallot-Beroux, E.; Lethuillier-Karl, L.; Li, G.; Moran, J. (October 2, 2017).
656:
655:
that carry out fermentation in low oxygen environments, in which the production of ATP is commonly coupled with
395:
have higher biomass and lipid productivity when growing under heterotrophic compared to autotrophic conditions.
154:
2447:
2275:
2007:
Weiss, Madeline C.; Preiner, Martina; Xavier, Joana C.; Zimorski, Verena; Martin, William F. (2018-08-16).
998:
510:
partial pressures. Bases, amino acids, and ribose are considered to be the first fermentation substrates.
780:
Animals are classified as heterotrophs by ingestion, fungi are classified as heterotrophs by absorption.
426:
The theory of a chemical origin of life beginning with heterotrophic life was first proposed in 1924 by
2178:, Ecological Studies, vol. 157, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 375–413,
470:
446:
204:
2075:
1037:
684:
227:
2452:
711:
1387:
679:
for removing organic fermentation products from anaerobic environments. Heterotrophs can undergo
347:, to obtain electrons. Another way of classifying different heterotrophs is by assigning them as
292:
761:
are heterotrophic; in particular, all animals and fungi are heterotrophs. Some animals, such as
617:
335:
from plants and animals. On the other hand, lithoheterotrophs use inorganic compounds, such as
130:
52:
2009:"The last universal common ancestor between ancient Earth chemistry and the onset of genetics"
1063:
925:
896:
613:
603:
1030:
2225:
1955:
1672:
1614:
1559:
1547:
1345:
1340:, in Gargaud, Muriel; Irvine, William M.; Amils, Ricardo; Cleaves, Henderson James (eds.),
1247:
680:
48:
1337:
734:. The conversion of N and S from organic form to inorganic form is a critical part of the
8:
1236:"New insights into prebiotic chemistry from Stanley Miller's spark discharge experiments"
816:
746:
S formed from desulfurylation is further oxidized by lithotrophs and phototrophs while NH
621:
494:
416:
2300:
2229:
1959:
1676:
1618:
1563:
1349:
1251:
295:
in processing decayed organic matter. The process is most often facilitated through the
2364:
2339:
2151:
2056:
2043:
2008:
1984:
1943:
1924:
1864:
1807:
1703:
1660:
1638:
1528:
1459:
1184:
769:
relationships with autotrophs and obtain organic carbon in this way. Furthermore, some
652:
625:
663:, sulfide). These products can then serve as the substrates for other bacteria in the
415:
with heterotrophs. The summary of this theory is as follows: early Earth had a highly
2422:
2354:
2249:
2241:
2187:
2155:
2141:
2103:
2095:
2048:
2030:
1989:
1971:
1916:
1908:
1869:
1851:
1812:
1794:
1743:
1708:
1690:
1630:
1583:
1575:
1520:
1512:
1492:
1464:
1446:
1407:
1361:
1318:
1310:
1271:
1263:
1211:
1176:
1139:
1112:
1087:
1041:
988:
866:
774:
727:
542:
359:
2368:
2060:
1928:
1642:
1532:
2346:
2233:
2179:
2133:
2087:
2038:
2020:
1979:
1963:
1900:
1859:
1843:
1802:
1786:
1735:
1698:
1680:
1622:
1603:"The 1953 Stanley L. Miller experiment: Fifty years of prebiotic organic chemistry"
1602:
1567:
1504:
1454:
1438:
1399:
1357:
1353:
1302:
1255:
1188:
1168:
1077:
589:
584:
431:
427:
420:
372:
296:
288:
223:
70:
2173:
1727:
171:
that cannot produce its own food, instead taking nutrition from other sources of
2183:
2025:
1775:"Endosymbiosis before eukaryotes: mitochondrial establishment in protoeukaryotes"
1739:
1571:
862:
821:
770:
412:
192:
2213:
1774:
796:
2237:
1790:
801:
735:
572:
567:
442:
408:
262:
258:
254:
200:
172:
44:
28:
2350:
2091:
1967:
1941:
1626:
1508:
1403:
1172:
777:
consume animals to augment their nitrogen supply while remaining autotrophic.
2441:
2245:
2099:
2034:
1975:
1912:
1855:
1798:
1694:
1579:
1516:
1450:
1314:
1267:
1204:
731:
647:
They can catabolize organic compounds by respiration, fermentation, or both.
553:
490:
324:
234:
1831:
1290:
836:
2253:
2127:
2107:
2052:
1993:
1920:
1873:
1847:
1816:
1712:
1634:
1587:
1524:
1481:
Haldane, J.B.S. (1929) The Origin of Life. The
Rationalist Annual, 3, 3-10.
1468:
1411:
1322:
1275:
1180:
1091:
739:
676:
648:
557:
Flowchart to determine if a species is autotroph, heterotroph, or a subtype
482:
196:
2137:
1082:
1065:
323:. Organotrophs exploit reduced carbon compounds as electron sources, like
1889:"Multispecies Microbial Mutualisms on Coral Reefs: The Host as a Habitat"
1685:
923:
754:
723:
641:
633:
609:
486:
450:
380:
316:
300:
268:
1830:
Okie, Jordan G.; Smith, Val H.; Martin-Cereceda, Mercedes (2016-05-25).
222:(e.g., humans and mushrooms). If it uses light for energy, then it is a
19:
1661:"The Future of Origin of Life Research: Bridging Decades-Old Divisions"
1548:"A Production of Amino Acids Under Possible Primitive Earth Conditions"
1426:
1306:
1259:
1235:
758:
352:
348:
320:
284:
219:
212:
1442:
1344:, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 2010–2014,
2074:
Schönheit, Peter; Buckel, Wolfgang; Martin, William F. (2016-01-01).
766:
562:
478:
435:
388:
238:
160:
143:
24:
1888:
1904:
637:
514:
489:
while the endosymbiosis of smaller heterotrophs developed into the
384:
371:
obtain energy from the oxidation of inorganic compounds, including
336:
332:
276:
272:
250:
184:
168:
2175:
Mycorrhizal
Specificity and Function in Myco-heterotrophic Plants
1070:
International
Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology
629:
534:
522:
518:
340:
208:
188:
687:. This leads to the release of oxidized carbon wastes such as CO
2172:
Taylor, D. L.; Bruns, T. D.; Leake, J. R.; Read, D. J. (2002),
1386:
Schönheit, Peter; Buckel, Wolfgang; Martin, William F. (2016).
530:
526:
376:
344:
233:
Heterotrophs represent one of the two mechanisms of nutrition (
176:
40:
85:
47:(green arrow). Both types of organisms use such compounds via
1734:, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 157–199,
762:
538:
304:
280:
180:
43:
and complex organic compounds, mainly through the process of
36:
959:
449:
in which he added gasses that were thought to be present on
2214:"Animals and the invention of the Phanerozoic Earth system"
485:
of autotrophic cells is suggested to have evolved into the
100:
88:
79:
2345:. Springer Series in Microbiology (2 ed.). Springer.
2301:"Heterotrophic nutrition and control of bacterial density"
2006:
118:
1036:(4th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p.
773:
have also turned fully or partially heterotrophic, while
513:
Heterotrophs are currently found in each domain of life:
328:
1829:
924:
Lwoff, A.; C.B. van Niel; P.J. Ryan; E.L. Tatum (1946).
1836:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences
1658:
2126:
Kim, Byung Hong; Gadd, Geoffrey
Michael (2019-05-04).
2073:
1944:"Metals promote sequences of the reverse Krebs cycle"
1385:
850:
121:
109:
103:
91:
2269:"The role of bacteria in environmental geochemistry"
2171:
987:. Society of Economic Geologists. pp. 125–132.
710:
Respiration in heterotrophs is often accompanied by
659:
and the production of end products (e.g. alcohol, CO
115:
112:
97:
94:
82:
2421:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 79–98.
927:
Nomenclature of nutritional types of microorganisms
441:Evidence grew to support this theory in 1953, when
76:
73:
2338:
1203:
1201:
1029:
16:Organism that ingests organic carbon for nutrition
2395:MICB 201: Introductory Environmental Microbiology
1210:(7th ed.). Benjamin-Cummings Publishing Co.
303:within the internal mycelium and its constituent
2439:
651:heterotrophs are either facultative or obligate
1135:The prokaryotes: ecophysiology and biochemistry
1098:
279:(decomposing plant and animal parts as well as
207:. The term is now used in many fields, such as
1886:
1607:Origins of Life and Evolution of the Biosphere
1424:
501:However this hypothesis is controversial as CO
411:hypothesis suggests that life originated in a
1425:Sanger, F.; Thompson, E. O. P. (1953-02-01).
1111:(2nd ed.). Academic Press. p. 192.
402:
1773:Zachar, István; Boza, Gergely (2020-02-01).
955:(3rd ed.). Academic Press. p. 700.
950:
726:, respectively. Heterotrophs also allow for
2211:
1601:Lazcano, Antonio; Bada, Jeffrey L. (2003).
1600:
1125:
541:is almost entirely autotrophic, except for
2336:
1772:
1732:Evolution from a Thermodynamic Perspective
683:, in which ATP production is coupled with
2042:
2024:
1983:
1863:
1806:
1702:
1684:
1493:"J. B. S. Haldane and the origin of life"
1458:
1081:
1023:
1021:
1019:
249:= nutrition). Autotrophs use energy from
2416:
1887:Knowlton, Nancy; Rohwer, Forest (2003).
1032:Botany: An introduction to plant biology
967:Advanced Biology Principles, p 296.
552:
27:and heterotrophs. Autotrophs use light,
18:
2125:
1335:
1288:
1138:(3rd ed.). Springer. p. 988.
1131:
1027:
257:) or oxidation of inorganic compounds (
199:in 1946 as part of a classification of
2440:
1768:
1766:
1764:
1725:
1654:
1652:
1545:
1490:
1229:
1227:
1108:Introduction to Marine Biogeochemistry
1016:
884:
882:
2412:
2410:
2408:
2406:
2404:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2382:
2380:
2378:
2332:
2330:
2328:
2167:
2165:
2129:Prokaryotic Metabolism and Physiology
2121:
2119:
2117:
1158:
1104:
977:
675:, which is an important step for the
2392:
1779:Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences
1233:
953:Limnology: Lake and river ecosystems
856:
839:. Biology Dictionary. April 28, 2017
1761:
1728:"A Thermodynamic View of Evolution"
1649:
1291:"Primordial soup that cooks itself"
1224:
879:
616:: they obtain these nutrients from
13:
2401:
2375:
2325:
2162:
2114:
14:
2464:
2266:
2218:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
2212:Butterfield, Nicholas J. (2011).
1546:Miller, Stanley L. (1953-05-15).
358:Photoorganoheterotrophs, such as
940:from the original on 2017-11-07.
537:are heterotrophic while Kingdom
195:. The term heterotroph arose in
69:
2313:from the original on 2011-05-24
2293:
2260:
2205:
2076:"On the Origin of Heterotrophy"
2067:
2000:
1935:
1880:
1823:
1719:
1594:
1539:
1484:
1475:
1418:
1388:"On the Origin of Heterotrophy"
1379:
1329:
1282:
1195:
1152:
1057:
657:substrate-level phosphorylation
2419:Processes in Microbial Ecology
2132:. Cambridge University Press.
1948:Nature Ecology & Evolution
1358:10.1007/978-3-662-44185-5_1275
971:
944:
917:
829:
822:Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary
809:
789:
367:. Chemolithoheterotrophs like
271:are heterotrophs which obtain
1:
783:
432:John Burdon Sanderson Haldane
287:(also called lysotrophs) are
2337:Gottschalk, Gerhard (2012).
2184:10.1007/978-3-540-38364-2_15
2026:10.1371/journal.pgen.1007518
1740:10.1007/978-3-030-85186-6_12
1572:10.1126/science.117.3046.528
1342:Encyclopedia of Astrobiology
897:McGraw-Hill Higher Education
722:through desulfurylation and
548:
7:
2417:Kirchman, David L. (2014).
1202:Campbell and Reece (2002).
59:and water (two red arrows).
10:
2469:
2238:10.1016/j.tree.2010.11.012
1791:10.1007/s00018-020-03462-6
1028:Mauseth, James D. (2008).
890:"How Cells Harvest Energy"
667:, and be converted into CO
601:
597:
428:Alexander Ivanovich Oparin
403:Origin and diversification
299:of such materials through
153:
150: 'other' and
136:
2351:10.1007/978-1-4612-1072-6
2092:10.1016/j.tim.2015.10.003
1968:10.1038/s41559-017-0311-7
1509:10.1007/s12041-017-0831-6
1491:Tirard, Stéphane (2017).
1404:10.1016/j.tim.2015.10.003
1336:Lazcano, Antonio (2015),
1289:Bracher, Paul J. (2015).
1234:Bada, Jeffrey L. (2013).
1173:10.1007/s10529-009-9975-7
802:Dictionary.com Unabridged
691:and reduced wastes like H
685:oxidative phosphorylation
228:green non-sulfur bacteria
167: 'nutrition') is an
1240:Chemical Society Reviews
1132:Dworkin, Martin (2006).
1105:Libes, Susan M. (2009).
837:"Heterotroph Definition"
310:
1893:The American Naturalist
1726:Jordan, Carl F (2022),
1627:10.1023/A:1024807125069
1052:heterotroph fix carbon.
614:consumers in food chain
610:chemoorganoheterotrophs
369:Oceanithermus profundus
293:extracellular digestion
261:) to convert inorganic
203:based on their type of
2080:Trends in Microbiology
1848:10.1098/rspb.2016.0611
1392:Trends in Microbiology
859:Essential Microbiology
608:Many heterotrophs are
558:
471:Miller–Urey experiment
60:
2393:Wade, Bingle (2016).
2138:10.1017/9781316761625
1161:Biotechnology Letters
1083:10.1099/ijs.0.02367-0
951:Wetzel, R.G. (2001).
857:Hogg, Stuart (2013).
604:Consumer (food chain)
556:
22:
2341:Bacterial Metabolism
1686:10.3390/life10030020
978:Mills, A.L. (1997).
640:, and proteins into
315:Heterotrophs can be
211:, in describing the
49:cellular respiration
2448:Biology terminology
2397:. pp. 236–250.
2230:2011TEcoE..26...81B
1960:2017NatEE...1.1716M
1677:2020Life...10...20P
1619:2003OLEB...33..235L
1564:1953Sci...117..528M
1497:Journal of Genetics
1431:Biochemical Journal
1350:2015enas.book.2010L
1252:2013CSRev..42.2186B
417:reducing atmosphere
237:), the other being
1842:(1831): 20160611.
1307:10.1038/nchem.2219
1260:10.1039/c3cs35433d
825:. Merriam-Webster.
775:carnivorous plants
626:holozoic nutrients
559:
543:myco-heterotrophic
481:relationship. The
465:), and hydrogen (H
61:
2193:978-3-540-00204-8
2147:978-1-316-76162-5
1954:(11): 1716–1721.
1785:(18): 3503–3523.
1749:978-3-030-85185-9
1558:(3046): 528–529.
1443:10.1042/bj0530353
1367:978-3-662-44184-8
1338:"Primordial Soup"
1145:978-0-387-25492-0
1118:978-0-12-088530-5
1047:978-0-7637-5345-0
994:978-1-62949-013-7
872:978-1-119-97890-9
728:dephosphorylation
421:organic compounds
360:Rhodospirillaceae
289:chemoheterotrophs
55:and again form CO
51:to both generate
2460:
2433:
2432:
2414:
2399:
2398:
2390:
2373:
2372:
2344:
2334:
2323:
2322:
2320:
2318:
2312:
2305:
2297:
2291:
2290:
2288:
2286:
2280:
2274:. Archived from
2273:
2264:
2258:
2257:
2209:
2203:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2169:
2160:
2159:
2123:
2112:
2111:
2071:
2065:
2064:
2046:
2028:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1987:
1939:
1933:
1932:
1884:
1878:
1877:
1867:
1827:
1821:
1820:
1810:
1770:
1759:
1758:
1757:
1756:
1723:
1717:
1716:
1706:
1688:
1656:
1647:
1646:
1598:
1592:
1591:
1543:
1537:
1536:
1488:
1482:
1479:
1473:
1472:
1462:
1422:
1416:
1415:
1383:
1377:
1376:
1375:
1374:
1333:
1327:
1326:
1295:Nature Chemistry
1286:
1280:
1279:
1246:(5): 2186–2196.
1231:
1222:
1221:
1209:
1199:
1193:
1192:
1167:(7): 1043–1049.
1156:
1150:
1149:
1129:
1123:
1122:
1102:
1096:
1095:
1085:
1061:
1055:
1054:
1035:
1025:
1014:
1013:
1011:
1009:
1003:
997:. Archived from
986:
975:
969:
963:
957:
956:
948:
942:
941:
939:
932:
921:
915:
914:
912:
911:
905:
899:. Archived from
894:
886:
877:
876:
861:(2nd ed.).
854:
848:
847:
845:
844:
833:
827:
826:
813:
807:
806:
793:
771:parasitic plants
665:anaerobic digest
590:Photoheterotroph
585:Chemoheterotroph
383:, and molecular
373:hydrogen sulfide
297:active transport
224:photoheterotroph
220:chemoheterotroph
193:parasitic plants
164:
157:
147:
140:
128:
127:
124:
123:
120:
117:
114:
111:
106:
105:
102:
99:
96:
93:
90:
87:
84:
81:
78:
75:
2468:
2467:
2463:
2462:
2461:
2459:
2458:
2457:
2453:Trophic ecology
2438:
2437:
2436:
2429:
2415:
2402:
2391:
2376:
2361:
2335:
2326:
2316:
2314:
2310:
2303:
2299:
2298:
2294:
2284:
2282:
2281:on 6 April 2019
2278:
2271:
2265:
2261:
2210:
2206:
2198:
2196:
2194:
2170:
2163:
2148:
2124:
2115:
2072:
2068:
2019:(8): e1007518.
2005:
2001:
1940:
1936:
1899:(S4): S51–S62.
1885:
1881:
1828:
1824:
1771:
1762:
1754:
1752:
1750:
1724:
1720:
1657:
1650:
1599:
1595:
1544:
1540:
1489:
1485:
1480:
1476:
1423:
1419:
1384:
1380:
1372:
1370:
1368:
1334:
1330:
1287:
1283:
1232:
1225:
1218:
1200:
1196:
1157:
1153:
1146:
1130:
1126:
1119:
1103:
1099:
1062:
1058:
1048:
1026:
1017:
1007:
1005:
1004:on 6 April 2019
1001:
995:
984:
976:
972:
964:
960:
949:
945:
937:
930:
922:
918:
909:
907:
903:
892:
888:
887:
880:
873:
863:Wiley-Blackwell
855:
851:
842:
840:
835:
834:
830:
815:
814:
810:
795:
794:
790:
786:
749:
745:
721:
717:
706:
702:
698:
694:
690:
674:
670:
662:
606:
600:
551:
509:
504:
468:
464:
460:
457:O), methane (CH
456:
405:
313:
259:lithoautotrophs
255:photoautotrophs
108:
72:
68:
58:
34:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2466:
2456:
2455:
2450:
2435:
2434:
2427:
2400:
2374:
2360:978-0387961538
2359:
2324:
2292:
2259:
2204:
2192:
2161:
2146:
2113:
2066:
1999:
1934:
1905:10.1086/378684
1879:
1822:
1760:
1748:
1718:
1648:
1613:(3): 235–242.
1593:
1538:
1503:(5): 735–739.
1483:
1474:
1437:(3): 353–366.
1417:
1378:
1366:
1328:
1301:(4): 273–274.
1281:
1223:
1217:978-0805371710
1216:
1194:
1151:
1144:
1124:
1117:
1097:
1076:(3): 747–752.
1056:
1046:
1015:
993:
970:
958:
943:
916:
878:
871:
865:. p. 86.
849:
828:
808:
805:(Online). n.d.
787:
785:
782:
747:
743:
719:
715:
712:mineralization
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
672:
668:
660:
602:Main article:
599:
596:
595:
594:
593:
592:
587:
577:
576:
575:
573:Photoautotroph
570:
568:Chemoautotroph
550:
547:
507:
502:
466:
462:
461:), ammonia (NH
458:
454:
443:Stanley Miller
413:prebiotic soup
409:origin of life
404:
401:
312:
309:
263:carbon dioxide
235:trophic levels
201:microorganisms
173:organic carbon
56:
45:photosynthesis
32:
29:carbon dioxide
23:Cycle between
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2465:
2454:
2451:
2449:
2446:
2445:
2443:
2430:
2428:9780199586936
2424:
2420:
2413:
2411:
2409:
2407:
2405:
2396:
2389:
2387:
2385:
2383:
2381:
2379:
2370:
2366:
2362:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2343:
2342:
2333:
2331:
2329:
2309:
2302:
2296:
2277:
2270:
2263:
2255:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2208:
2195:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2176:
2168:
2166:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2131:
2130:
2122:
2120:
2118:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2070:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2013:PLOS Genetics
2010:
2003:
1995:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1938:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1906:
1902:
1898:
1894:
1890:
1883:
1875:
1871:
1866:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1826:
1818:
1814:
1809:
1804:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1769:
1767:
1765:
1751:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1722:
1714:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1687:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1655:
1653:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1597:
1589:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1542:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1487:
1478:
1470:
1466:
1461:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1421:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1382:
1369:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1332:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1285:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1230:
1228:
1219:
1213:
1208:
1207:
1198:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1155:
1147:
1141:
1137:
1136:
1128:
1120:
1114:
1110:
1109:
1101:
1093:
1089:
1084:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1060:
1053:
1049:
1043:
1039:
1034:
1033:
1024:
1022:
1020:
1000:
996:
990:
983:
982:
974:
968:
962:
954:
947:
936:
929:
928:
920:
906:on 2012-07-31
902:
898:
891:
885:
883:
874:
868:
864:
860:
853:
838:
832:
824:
823:
818:
817:"heterotroph"
812:
804:
803:
798:
797:"heterotroph"
792:
788:
781:
778:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
751:
741:
737:
733:
732:decomposition
729:
725:
713:
708:
686:
682:
678:
666:
658:
654:
650:
645:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
605:
591:
588:
586:
583:
582:
581:
578:
574:
571:
569:
566:
565:
564:
561:
560:
555:
546:
544:
540:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
511:
499:
496:
492:
488:
484:
483:endosymbiosis
480:
474:
472:
452:
448:
445:conducted an
444:
439:
437:
433:
429:
424:
422:
418:
414:
410:
407:The chemical
400:
396:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
361:
356:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
325:carbohydrates
322:
318:
308:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
275:by consuming
274:
270:
266:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
231:
229:
225:
221:
216:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
163:
156:
152:
149:
146:
139:
135:
132:
131:Ancient Greek
126:
66:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
30:
26:
21:
2418:
2394:
2340:
2315:. Retrieved
2295:
2283:. Retrieved
2276:the original
2267:Mills, A.L.
2262:
2224:(2): 81–87.
2221:
2217:
2207:
2197:, retrieved
2174:
2128:
2086:(1): 12–25.
2083:
2079:
2069:
2016:
2012:
2002:
1951:
1947:
1937:
1896:
1892:
1882:
1839:
1835:
1825:
1782:
1778:
1753:, retrieved
1731:
1721:
1668:
1664:
1610:
1606:
1596:
1555:
1551:
1541:
1500:
1496:
1486:
1477:
1434:
1430:
1420:
1398:(1): 12–25.
1395:
1391:
1381:
1371:, retrieved
1341:
1331:
1298:
1294:
1284:
1243:
1239:
1205:
1197:
1164:
1160:
1154:
1134:
1127:
1107:
1100:
1073:
1069:
1059:
1051:
1031:
1006:. Retrieved
999:the original
980:
973:
966:
961:
952:
946:
926:
919:
908:. Retrieved
901:the original
858:
852:
841:. Retrieved
831:
820:
811:
800:
791:
779:
755:opisthokonts
752:
740:sulfur cycle
709:
677:carbon cycle
646:
632:, fats into
618:saprotrophic
607:
579:
512:
500:
491:mitochondria
487:chloroplasts
475:
440:
425:
406:
397:
392:
375:, elemental
368:
365:Calvin cycle
357:
317:organotrophs
314:
269:Detritivores
267:
246:
242:
232:
217:
197:microbiology
161:
158:
151:
144:
141:
134:
64:
62:
2317:19 November
2285:19 November
759:prokaryotes
730:as part of
724:deamination
681:respiration
642:amino acids
634:fatty acids
580:Heterotroph
495:mutualistic
451:early Earth
393:C. vulgaris
381:thiosulfate
353:phototrophs
349:chemotrophs
321:lithotrophs
301:endocytosis
285:Saprotrophs
191:, and many
129:; from
65:heterotroph
2442:Categories
2199:2022-04-23
1755:2022-04-23
1373:2022-04-23
910:2010-10-10
843:2023-12-02
784:References
649:Fermenting
453:– water (H
447:experiment
438:).
436:autotrophy
389:Mixotrophs
239:autotrophs
213:food chain
25:autotrophs
2246:0169-5347
2156:165100369
2100:0966-842X
2035:1553-7404
1976:2397-334X
1913:0003-0147
1856:0962-8452
1799:1420-682X
1695:2075-1729
1671:(3): 20.
1580:0036-8075
1517:0022-1333
1451:0306-3283
1315:1755-4330
1268:0306-0012
1008:9 October
767:symbiotic
653:anaerobes
622:parasitic
563:Autotroph
549:Flowchart
479:symbiotic
291:that use
273:nutrients
205:nutrition
2369:32635137
2308:Archived
2254:21190752
2108:26578093
2061:52019935
2053:30114187
1994:28970480
1929:24127308
1921:14583857
1874:27194700
1817:32008087
1713:32110893
1643:19515024
1635:14515862
1588:13056598
1533:28775520
1525:29237880
1469:13032078
1412:26578093
1323:25803461
1276:23340907
1181:19322523
1092:12807196
935:Archived
736:nitrogen
718:S and NH
638:glycerol
535:Protista
531:Animalia
515:Bacteria
385:hydrogen
337:ammonium
333:proteins
277:detritus
251:sunlight
245:= self,
189:protists
185:bacteria
169:organism
39:to form
2226:Bibcode
2044:6095482
1985:5659384
1956:Bibcode
1865:4892803
1808:7452879
1704:7151616
1673:Bibcode
1615:Bibcode
1560:Bibcode
1552:Science
1460:1198157
1346:Bibcode
1248:Bibcode
1206:Biology
1189:1989922
765:, form
699:S, or N
630:glucose
598:Ecology
539:Plantae
523:Eukarya
519:Archaea
341:nitrite
226:(e.g.,
209:ecology
183:, some
177:animals
145:héteros
35:), and
2425:
2367:
2357:
2252:
2244:
2190:
2154:
2144:
2106:
2098:
2059:
2051:
2041:
2033:
1992:
1982:
1974:
1927:
1919:
1911:
1872:
1862:
1854:
1815:
1805:
1797:
1746:
1711:
1701:
1693:
1641:
1633:
1586:
1578:
1531:
1523:
1515:
1467:
1457:
1449:
1410:
1364:
1321:
1313:
1274:
1266:
1214:
1187:
1179:
1142:
1115:
1090:
1044:
991:
869:
763:corals
671:and CH
521:, and
377:sulfur
345:sulfur
331:, and
305:hyphae
162:trophḗ
138:ἕτερος
41:oxygen
2365:S2CID
2311:(PDF)
2304:(PDF)
2279:(PDF)
2272:(PDF)
2152:S2CID
2057:S2CID
1925:S2CID
1639:S2CID
1529:S2CID
1185:S2CID
1002:(PDF)
985:(PDF)
938:(PDF)
931:(PDF)
904:(PDF)
893:(PDF)
753:Most
624:, or
527:Fungi
343:, or
311:Types
281:feces
247:troph
181:fungi
155:τροφή
133:
37:water
2423:ISBN
2355:ISBN
2319:2017
2287:2017
2250:PMID
2242:ISSN
2188:ISBN
2142:ISBN
2104:PMID
2096:ISSN
2049:PMID
2031:ISSN
1990:PMID
1972:ISSN
1917:PMID
1909:ISSN
1870:PMID
1852:ISSN
1813:PMID
1795:ISSN
1744:ISBN
1709:PMID
1691:ISSN
1665:Life
1631:PMID
1584:PMID
1576:ISSN
1521:PMID
1513:ISSN
1465:PMID
1447:ISSN
1408:PMID
1362:ISBN
1319:PMID
1311:ISSN
1272:PMID
1264:ISSN
1212:ISBN
1177:PMID
1140:ISBN
1113:ISBN
1088:PMID
1042:ISBN
1010:2017
989:ISBN
867:ISBN
757:and
738:and
695:O, H
636:and
529:and
329:fats
243:auto
187:and
179:and
2347:doi
2234:doi
2180:doi
2134:doi
2088:doi
2039:PMC
2021:doi
1980:PMC
1964:doi
1901:doi
1897:162
1860:PMC
1844:doi
1840:283
1803:PMC
1787:doi
1736:doi
1699:PMC
1681:doi
1623:doi
1568:doi
1556:117
1505:doi
1455:PMC
1439:doi
1400:doi
1354:doi
1303:doi
1256:doi
1169:doi
1078:doi
1038:252
742:. H
351:or
319:or
283:).
230:).
53:ATP
31:(CO
2444::
2403:^
2377:^
2363:.
2353:.
2327:^
2306:.
2248:.
2240:.
2232:.
2222:26
2220:.
2216:.
2186:,
2164:^
2150:.
2140:.
2116:^
2102:.
2094:.
2084:24
2082:.
2078:.
2055:.
2047:.
2037:.
2029:.
2017:14
2015:.
2011:.
1988:.
1978:.
1970:.
1962:.
1950:.
1946:.
1923:.
1915:.
1907:.
1895:.
1891:.
1868:.
1858:.
1850:.
1838:.
1834:.
1811:.
1801:.
1793:.
1783:77
1781:.
1777:.
1763:^
1742:,
1730:,
1707:.
1697:.
1689:.
1679:.
1669:10
1667:.
1663:.
1651:^
1637:.
1629:.
1621:.
1611:33
1609:.
1605:.
1582:.
1574:.
1566:.
1554:.
1550:.
1527:.
1519:.
1511:.
1501:96
1499:.
1495:.
1463:.
1453:.
1445:.
1435:53
1433:.
1429:.
1406:.
1396:24
1394:.
1390:.
1360:,
1352:,
1317:.
1309:.
1297:.
1293:.
1270:.
1262:.
1254:.
1244:42
1242:.
1238:.
1226:^
1183:.
1175:.
1165:31
1163:.
1086:.
1074:53
1072:.
1068:.
1050:.
1040:.
1018:^
895:.
881:^
819:.
799:.
620:,
517:,
473:.
387:.
379:,
339:,
327:,
307:.
215:.
107:,-
101:oʊ
86:ər
63:A
2431:.
2371:.
2349::
2321:.
2289:.
2256:.
2236::
2228::
2182::
2158:.
2136::
2110:.
2090::
2063:.
2023::
1996:.
1966::
1958::
1952:1
1931:.
1903::
1876:.
1846::
1819:.
1789::
1738::
1715:.
1683::
1675::
1645:.
1625::
1617::
1590:.
1570::
1562::
1535:.
1507::
1471:.
1441::
1414:.
1402::
1356::
1348::
1325:.
1305::
1299:7
1278:.
1258::
1250::
1220:.
1191:.
1171::
1148:.
1121:.
1094:.
1080::
1012:.
913:.
875:.
846:.
748:4
744:2
720:4
716:2
705:2
701:2
697:2
693:2
689:2
673:4
669:2
661:2
508:2
503:2
467:2
463:3
459:4
455:2
253:(
241:(
165:)
159:(
148:)
142:(
125:/
122:f
119:ɒ
116:r
113:t
110:ˌ
104:f
98:r
95:t
92:ˌ
89:ə
83:t
80:ɛ
77:h
74:ˈ
71:/
67:(
57:2
33:2
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
