844:(ATSDR), to evaluate the association between environmental exposures from the Cambridge Plating Company and health effects on the surrounding community. The report indicated that residents of Belmont were exposed to chromium via air emissions, as well as groundwater and soil. However, six types of cancer were evaluated, and the incidence was actually found to be average, in most cases, across all types, if not a little bit lower than average. For example, in kidney cancer the number of observed cases was 7 versus an expected 16. While that was the case for most diseases, it was not for all. The incidence of leukemia among females was elevated in Belmont, MA during 1982–1999 (32 diagnoses observed vs. 23.2 expected). Elevations in females were due to four excess cases in each time period (11 diagnoses observed vs. 6.9 expected during 1988–1993; 13 diagnoses observed vs. 8.7 expected during 1994–1999) while elevations among males were based on one to three excess cases. ATSDR deemed Cambridge Plating as an Indeterminate Public Health Hazard in the past, but No Apparent Public Health Hazard in the present or future.
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860:. A cluster of brain tumors had developed in the town that was above average for the population size of the town. The lawsuit alleges that the tumors were caused by waste hexavalent chromium that had been distributed to local farmers as free fertilizer. In 2010 a government study found hexavalent chromium within the soil but not at levels that were hazardous to human health. In 2012, the case ruled that $ 10 million would be distributed to over a dozen farmers affected in the northwest Missouri area. The Tanning Corporation still denies that their fertilizer caused any harm. Some residents claim that the tumors were a direct cause from the chromium exposure, but it is difficult to determine what other future impacts might arise from exposure in the specific Missouri counties.
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824:'s first ever testing for the toxic metal contaminant, results show that the city's local drinking water contains levels of hexavalent chromium more than 11 times higher than the health standard set in California in July 2011. The results of the test showed that the water which is sent to over 7 million residents had average levels of 0.23 ppb of the toxic metal. California's Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment designated the nation's new "public health goal" limit as 0.02 ppb. Echoing their counterparts in other cities where the metal has been detected, Chicago officials stress that local tap water is safe and suggest that if a national limit is adopted, it likely would be less stringent than California's goal. The
450:, emit around 21,600 cubic metres (760,000 cu ft) of toxic waste each day, and generate as much as 100 tonnes (110 tons) per day of scraps, trimmed raw hide, flesh and fat, which are processed into feed by neighborhood recycling plants and used in chicken and fish farms across the country. Chromium levels ranging from 350–4,520 micrograms (0.35–4.52 mg) per kilogram were found in different organs of chickens which had been fed the tannery-scraps feed for two months, according to Abul Hossain, a chemistry professor at the
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as dust scavenging systems and other dust mitigation procedures. Cemex also made a change in the materials they used, trying to replace current materials with materials lower in chromium. The HSA also monitored the surrounding schools to determine if there were any health risks. Most schools came back with low levels, but in the case of higher levels a contractor was hired to clean up the chromium deposits. This case highlights the previously unrecognized possibility that hexavalent chromium can be released from cement-making.
903:(U.S.), in response to a resident complaint of yellow water. The well was found to be contaminated with chromium(VI). The Midland groundwater reached higher levels of contamination than the EPA mandated maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 100 parts per billion. The current groundwater plume of chromium lies under approximately 260 acres of land at the West County Road 112 Groundwater Site. In response, the TCEQ installed filtration systems on water-well sites that showed contamination of chromium.
930:, Wisconsin had tested its water and hexavalent chromium was found to be present. Officials stated that it was in such small quantities that it was nothing to worry about, although this contaminant is a carcinogen. In Wisconsin, Milwaukee's average chromium(VI) level is 0.194 parts per billion (the EPA recommended maximum contaminant level (MCL) is 100 ppb). All 13 water systems tested positive for chromium(VI). Four out of seven systems detected the chemical in
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time lower temperatures in parts of the plant caused some of the steam to condense lower which caused chromium(VI) from the catalyst bed to dissolve into the liquid present. The amount of condensate overwhelmed the drainage arrangements resulting in the emission of condensate through the SP8 vent stack. The leak went undetected for 30-minutes releasing 200 kg of chromium(VI) into the atmosphere exposing up to 20 workers at the plant and 70 nearby homes in
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812:(OEHHA) of the California EPA proposed in 2009 a health goal of 0.06 ppb of chromium(VI) in drinking water. In 2010, Brockovich returned to Hinkley in the midst of claims that the plume was spreading despite PG&E's cleanup activities. PG&E continues to provide bottled water for Hinkley residents, as well as offering to buy their homes. All other ongoing cleanup documentation is maintained at California EPA's page.
786:) natural gas pipeline compressor station about 2 miles southeast of Hinkley. Between 1952 and 1966, chromium(VI) was used to prevent corrosion in the cooling stacks. The wastewater was dumped into the unlined evaporating ponds, and the chromium(VI) leaked into the groundwater. The 580 ppb chromium(VI) in the groundwater in Hinkley exceeded the 100-ppb total chromium maximum contaminant level (MCL) set by the
828:(Illinois EPA) has developed a chromium(VI) strategic plan which outlines tasks in order to reduce the levels of chromium(VI) in Illinois' drinking water. One of which is to work with the U.S. EPA to provide significant technical assistance to the City of Chicago to ensure they quickly develop an effective chromium(VI) specific monitoring program that makes use of the U.S. EPA-approved methods.
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immediately downwind of the emission which failed to realize the potential for contamination of the surrounding area as well. The information presented at the original notification downplayed potential health risks and subsequently provided incomplete information and has led to a lack of trust between
Stockton residents and Orica officials.
914:(NPL) also known as the Superfund List by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). From 2011 to 2013, TCEQ installed groundwater monitors and conducted groundwater sampling. In 2013, TCEQ began sampling residential soil and confirmed that it was contaminated from use of the contaminated groundwater for garden and lawn care.
159:. Workers in many occupations are exposed to hexavalent chromium. Problematic exposure is known to occur among workers who handle chromate-containing products and those who grind and/ or weld stainless steel. Workers who are exposed to hexavalent chromium are at increased risk of developing lung cancer, asthma, or damage to the
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study the EPA mentioned that is under review is a 2008 study conducted by the
Department of Health and Human Services National Toxicology Program. This study looks at chronic oral exposure of hexavalent chromium in rats, and its association with cancer. The other study mentioned is a human health assessment of chromium, titled
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plant on August 8, 2011. The incident occurred when the plant entered the 'start up' phase after the completion of a five-yearly maintenance overhaul. The "High
Temperature Shift catalyst began the process of 'reduction'" where steam passes through the catalyst bed and out the SP8 vent stack. At this
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sought help of the Health
Services Agency (HSA) to investigate the findings of the Air District's report. Cemex voluntarily ceased operations due to the growing concern within the community, while additional air samples were analyzed. The HSA worked with Cemex to implement engineering controls, such
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In 1991, as part of the SDWA, the EPA placed chromium under its list of maximum contaminant level goals (MCLG), to have a maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 100 ppb. In 1996, the SDWA was amended to include a provision known as the
Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule (UCMR). Under this rule, the
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A later study found that from 1996 to 2008, 196 cancers were identified among residents of the census tract that included
Hinkley—a slightly lower number than the 224 cancers that would have been expected given its demographic characteristics. This finding conflicted with the conclusions reached by
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In 2016, air quality officials began investigating elevated levels of hexavalent chromium in
Paramount, California. The city of Paramount created an action project that included more code enforcement to aid AQMD inspectors and the launch of ParamountEnvironment.org to keep the public informed. Over
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In 1991, the MCL for chromium exposure was set based on potential of "adverse dermatological effects" related to long-term chromium exposure. Chromium's MCL of 100 ppb has not changed since its 1991 recommendation. In 1998, the EPA released a toxicological review of hexavalent chromium. This report
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The town was not notified of the exposure until three days later on the
Wednesday morning, and sparked a major public controversy, with Orica criticized for playing down the extent and possible risks of the leak. The office of Environment and Heritage in Stockton collected 71 samples. Low levels of
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Monterey Bay
Unified Air Pollution Control District monitored airborne levels of hexavalent chromium at an elementary school and fire department, as well as the point-source. They concluded that there were high levels of hexavalent chromium in the air, originating from a local cement plant, called
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Before the EPA can adjust the policy on chromium levels in drinking water, they have to release a final human health assessment. The EPA mentions two specific documents that are currently under review to determine whether or not to adjust the current drinking water standard for chromium. The first
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The current EPA standard in measuring chromium is in reference to total chromium, both trivalent and hexavalent. Often, trivalent and hexavalent chromium are mentioned together, when in fact, each possess vastly different properties. At the risk of impacting public health, distinctions between the
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When a PG&E background study of chromium(VI) was conducted, average chromium(VI) levels in
Hinkley were recorded as 1.19 ppb with a peak of 3.09 ppb. PG&E's Topock compressor station averaged 7.8 ppb and peaked at 31.8 ppb. The California MCL standard was still 50 ppb at the completion of
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Orica did not disclose potential impacts on workers as well as that the substance emitted was chromium(VI). Orica's Emergency Response plan was not well understood by employees particularly about notification procedures. The original notification of residents in Stockton was only to households
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As of 2016, TCEQ had sampled water from 235 wells and has installed over 45 anion-exchange filtration systems from this site determined to be centered at 2601 West County Road 112, Midland, Texas. The TCEQ continues to sample wells surrounding the area to monitor the movement of the plume. In
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or melting chromium metal. In these situations the chromium is not originally hexavalent, but the high temperatures involved in the process result in oxidation that converts the chromium to a hexavalent state. Hexavalent chromium can also be found in drinking water and public water systems.
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According to the EPA, ongoing investigations have not concluded the source of the contamination and cleanup solutions are still being developed. Until such investigations are complete and remediation established, residents will continue to be at risk for health effects from exposure to the
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indicates that the airborne hexavalent chromium in acidic mists of an electroplating tank collected on PVC filters was reduced over time after mist generation. A number of other emerging technologies for removing chromium from water are also currently under research, including the use of
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conducted research on a wash primer replacement, as a part of the DoD's effort to eliminate the use of toxic wash primers in the military. Studies indicated that the wash primers contained hazardous air pollutants, and high levels of volatile organic compounds.
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Commission Regulation (EU) No 301/2014 of 25 March 2014 amending Annex XVII to Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council on the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) as regards chromium VI
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valley) revealed high concentrations of hexavalent chromium in groundwater systems sometimes exceeding the Greek and the EU drinking water maximum acceptable level for total chromium. Hexavalent chromium pollution in Greece is associated with industrial waste.
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EPA issues a list of 30 or less contaminants that are not normally regulated under the SDWA. Chromium was monitored under the third UCMR, from January 2013 through December 2015. The EPA uses data from these reports to assist in making regulatory decisions.
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The Select Committee on the Kooragnang Island Orica Chemical Leak released their report on the incident in February 2012. They found Orica's approach to addressing the leak's impact was grossly inadequate. Orica failed to realize the potential impact that
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in humans for the carcinogenicity of chromium (VI) compounds. Chromium (VI) compounds cause cancer of the lung. Also positive associations have been observed between exposure to Chromium (VI) compounds and cancer of the nose and nasal sinuses. There is
790:(EPA). It also exceeded the California MCL of 50 ppb (as of November 2008) for all types of chromium. California first established an MCL specifically for hexavalent chromium in 2014, set at 10 ppb; prior to that only total chromium standards applied.
627:(CWA). The subsequent amendments provided a basis for the federal government to begin regulating pollutants, implementing wastewater standards, and increasing funding for water treatment facilities among other things. Two years later in 1974, the
512:, an area that supports many industrial activities, concentrations of chromium (up to 80 μg/L (0.0056 gr/imp gal) Cr(VI)) and Inofyta (up to 53 μg/L (0.0037 gr/imp gal) Cr(VI) were found in the urban water supply of
608:(EPA) was formed. With the formation of the EPA, the federal government had the funds and the oversight to influence major environmental changes. Following the formation of the EPA, the United States saw groundbreaking legislations, such as the
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proposed a goal of 0.2 parts per billion in its technical support draft in 2009, despite a 2001 state law requiring a standard be set by 2005. A final Public Health Goal of 0.02 ppb was published in the technical support document in July 2011.
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Hexavalent chromium indeed is one of the most widely used heavy metals in various sectors and industries (metallurgy, chemicals, textiles, etc.) with particular involvement in the metal coating sector, especially when subjected to plating or
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In 2014, Orica pleaded guilty to nine charges before the Land and Environment court and was fined $ 768,000. NSW Health findings ruled that it is very unlikely that anyone in Stockton would later develop cancer as a result of the incident.
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for other toxic elements, their concentrations were investigated in several groundwater samples. The contamination of water by hexavalent chromium in central Euboea is mainly linked to natural processes, but there are anthropogenic cases.
263:. It can also cause irritation or ulcers in the stomach and intestines, and toxicity in the liver. Liver toxicity shows the body's apparent inability to detoxify chromium(VI) in the GI tract where it can then enter the circulatory system.
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examined current literature, at the time, and came to the conclusion that chromium was associated with various health issues. As of 2012, "no federal or state laws restrict the carcinogen's presence in drinking water," according to the
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The project resulted in the ARL qualifying three wash primer alternatives in 2015 for use on Army depots, installations, and repair facilities. The research led to the removal of chromate products from Army facilities in 2017.
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channels. Inside the cell, hexavalent chromium(VI) is reduced first to pentavalent chromium(V) then to trivalent chromium(III) without the aid of any enzymes. The reduction occurs via direct electron transfer primarily from
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One of the National Guard soldiers, David Moore, died in February 2008. The cause was lung disease at age 42. His death was ruled service-related. His brother believes it was hexavalent chromium. On November 2, 2012, a
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some 64% came from China, and 23% were clothing articles, including leather goods (and shoes) contaminated with hexavalent chromium. Chromate-dyed textiles or chromate-tanned leather shoes can cause skin sensitivity.
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Economou-Eliopoulos, Maria; Megremi, Ifigenia; Vasilatos, Charalampos (2011). "Factors controlling the heterogeneous distribution of Cr(VI) in soil, plants and groundwater: Evidence from the Assopos basin, Greece".
671:. The final human health assessment is currently in the stage of draft development. This stage is the first of seven. The EPA gives no forecast to when the review will be finalized, and if a decision will be made.
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jury found KBR negligent in knowingly exposing twelve National Guard soldiers to hexavalent chromium while working at the Qarmat Ali water treatment facility and awarded damages of $ 85 million to the plaintiffs.
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Shi, X.; Mao, Y.; Knapton, A.D.; et al. (1994). "Reaction of Cr(VI) with ascorbate and hydrogen peroxide generates hydroxyl radicals and causes dnA damage: role of a Cr(IV)-mediated Fenton-like reaction".
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chromium were detected in 11 of them. These 11 samples were taken within six residential blocks close to the Orica plant, two of which were from water samples collected immediately south of the six block area.
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Industrial uses of hexavalent chromium compounds include chromate pigments in dyes, paints, inks, and plastics; chromates added as anticorrosive agents to paints, primers, and other surface coatings; and
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relied on hexavalent chromium compounds to protect its vehicles, equipment, aviation and missile systems from corrosion. The wash primer was sprayed as a pretreatment and protective layer on bare metal.
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two chromiums must be clearly made in any publication containing information about chromium. These delineations are critical, as hexavalent chromium is carcinogenic, whereas trivalent chromium is not.
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living in hot water as well as inhabiting domestic water heaters (per study), are capable of reducing Cr(VI). Experiments with activated sludge have also shown its ability to reduce Cr(VI) to Cr(III).
535:, total chromium values were up to 13 μg/L (0.00091 gr/imp gal), hexavalent chromium was less than 5 μg/L (0.00035 gr/imp gal), with other toxic elements relatively low.
61:). It has been identified as carcinogenic, which is of concern since approximately 136,000 tonnes (150,000 tons) of hexavalent chromium were produced in 1985. Hexavalent chromium compounds can be
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In 2014, the state of California used NTP findings to establish the first in the nation drinking water standard of 10 parts per billion, specifically for hexavalent chromium, not total chromium.
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addition, they continue to monitor the effectiveness of the anion-exchange filtration systems by sampling on a year-quarterly and the filters are maintained at no cost to the residents.
601:. A specific example was in 1969, when the Chicago Metropolitan Sanitary District imposed regulations on factories that were identified as having large amounts of heavy metal discharge.
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but, in 2017, another court ruled that the standard must be eliminated because the California Department of Public Health had not proven that the standard was economically feasible.
2011:
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until August 9, 2011. In Orica's initial report to the Office of Environment and Heritage they failed to disclose that the emissions had escaped off-site. In the initial report to
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had the highest levels averaging more than 0.2 parts per billion. Further testing was being conducted as of 2011. There was no further information available as of October 2016.
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Anger, Gerd; Halstenberg, Jost; Hochgeschwender, Klaus; Scherhag, Christoph; Korallus, Ulrich; Knopf, Herbert; Schmidt, Peter; Ohlinger, Manfred (2000). "Chromium Compounds".
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742:. The levels of hexavalent chromium were 8 to 10 times higher than the air district's acceptable level at Pacific Elementary School and the Davenport Fire Department. The
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85:(PbCrO4). It is however produced on a large scale industrially. Virtually all chromium ore is processed via the formation of hexavalent chromium, specifically the
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is 5 g/kg (oral, rats). This low toxicity is attributed to its extremely low solubility. Consequently lead chromate remains a common, even preferred, pigment.
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concentrations up to 34 μg/L (0.0024 gr/imp gal) along with chromium(VI) levels up to 40 μg/L (0.0028 gr/imp gal) were detected in
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659:, and the state was required to issue a standard on the maximum contaminant level (MCL) for chromium by "no later than June 15, 2014." The MCL was added to the
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in humans for the carcinogenicity of chromium compounds as encountered in the chromate production, chromate pigment production and chromium plating industries.
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Leila Aboutorabi; et al. (2016). "Metal-Organic Framework Based on Isonicotinate N-Oxide for Fast and Highly Efficient Aqueous Phase Cr(VI) Adsorption".
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Hena, Sufia (2010-09-15). "Removal of chromium hexavalent ion from aqueous solutions using biopolymer chitosan coated with poly 3-methyl thiophene polymer".
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The EPA currently limits total chromium in drinking water to 100 parts per billion, but there is no established limit specifically for chromium(VI). The
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In July 2022, an employee at the automotive supply company Tribar Technologies overrode alarms, leading to the release of hexavalent chromium into the
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2149:"Release of Chromium VI from the Orica chemical plant, Kooragang Island, Stockton, 8th August 2011. Final Risk Assessment Report, 2nd September 2011"
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516:). Chromium(VI) concentrations ranging from 5–33 μg/L (0.00035–0.00232 gr/imp gal) Cr(VI) were found in groundwater that is used for
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218:. This causes strand breaks and Cr–DNA adducts which are responsible for mutagenic damage. According to Shi et al., the DNA can also be damaged by
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Prior to 1970, the federal government had limited reach in monitoring and enforcing environmental regulations. Local governments were tasked with
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631:(SDWA) was passed by congress. The SDWA aimed to monitor and protect the United States' drinking water, and the water sources it is drawn from.
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water near the spill, but this order was lifted after revised estimates concluded that less than 20 pounds of chromium had reached the river.
3255:"Evaluation of Environmental Concerns and Cancer Incidence in Belmont and Surrounding Communities, Middlesex County, Massachusetts 1982–2003"
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and regulations, such as the monitoring of heavy metals in wastewater. Examples of this can be seen in larger municipalities, such as:
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By using the GFAAS for total chromium, diphenylcarbazide-Cr(VI) complex colorimetric method for hexavalent chromium, and flame-AAS and
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in chromate workers is squamous cell carcinoma. Ingestion of chromium(VI) through drinking water has been found to cause cancer in the
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Erkens, LJH; Hamers, H.; Hermans, RJM; Claeys, E.; Bijnens, M. (2001). "Lead chromates: A Review of the State of the Art in 2000".
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3642:"Evaluation of the CR(VI) and other toxic element contamination and their potential sources: The case of the Thiva basin (Greece)"
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Attempts have been made to test the removal or reduction of hexavalent chromium from aqueous solutions. Another study done by the
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Both insoluble salts of lead and barium chromates as well as soluble chromates were negative in the implantation model of lung
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combine with chromate to give chromium(III) products inside the cell. The resultant chromium(III) forms stable complexes with
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Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Public Health Assessment for Cambridge Plating Company. (2007, Dec. 17).
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the EPA and California's Department of Public Health that chromium(VI) does in fact cause cancer, as explained in a 2013
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2012:"Hexavalent Chromium leaks from Orica site in Newcastle | | Environmental Justice Society Environmental Justice Society"
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563:'s 162nd Infantry Battalion were informed of possible exposure to hexavalent chromium while escorting KBR contractors.
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Chronic inhalation from occupational exposures increases the risk of respiratory cancers. The most common form of lung
876:, was identified as hexavalent chromium that had leaked from a basement of a local company, Electro-Plating Services.
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2215:"Geochemical Characteristics of Natural Waters Contaminated by Hexavalent Chromium, in Eastern Sterea Hellas, Greece"
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2251:"Hexavalent chromium and other toxic elements in natural waters in the Thiva – Tanagra – Malakasa Basin, Greece"
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Stasinakis; et al. (2004). "Investigation of Cr(VI) reduction in continuous-flow activated sludge plants".
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1327:"Genetic and Epigenetic Mechanisms in Metal Carcinogenesis and Cocarcinogenesis: Nickel, Arsenic, and Chromium"
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time, efforts by SCAQMD and the city of Paramount have been effective lowering emissions to acceptable levels.
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would have on an emission 60 meters high. Orica failed to inspect the area immediately downwind and notify the
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2364:. "Defense contractor ordered to pay millions to National Guard soldiers". CNN. Retrieved on November 3, 2012.
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2939:"California Department of Public Health, Maximum Contaminant Levels and Regulatory Dates for Drinking Water"
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Talhout, Reinskje; Schulz, Thomas; Florek, Ewa; Van Benthem, Jan; Wester, Piet; Opperhuizen, Antoon (2011).
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2839:"Air quality agency aims to stop metal plants accused of polluting Paramount with cancer-causing emissions"
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Shin, Yong Chul; Paik, Nam Won (2000-07-01). "Reduction of Hexavalent Chromium Collected on PVC Filters".
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in experimental animals for the carcinogenicity of chromium (VI) compounds. Chromium (VI) compounds are
454:. The study estimated up to 25% of the chickens in Bangladesh contained harmful levels of chromium(VI).
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304:(ppb)—micrograms per liter (MCL) of 10 ppb—"specifically for hexavalent chromium, not total chromium."
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2628:"Court Requires California to Set Final Drinking Water Standard for Hexavalent Chromium by June 2014"
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1097:"Evaluating the Impact of the U.S. National Toxicology Program: A Case Study on Hexavalent Chromium"
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3361:"A cancer-causing green slime was found oozing onto a highway in a Detroit suburb, officials say"
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Evaluation of Environmental Concerns and Cancer Incidence in Belmont and Surrounding Communities.
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147:. Positive associations have also been observed between exposure to chromium (VI) compounds and
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707:'s "Award for Environmental Excellence in Weapon System Acquisition" for the 2016 fiscal year.
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1490:"Keeping consumers safe: nearly 2500 dangerous products withdrawn from the EU market in 2014"
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3024:"Comprehensive Cancer Assessment in Hinkley, California: Did Erin Brockovich Get It Right?"
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3574:"Selected science: An industry campaign to undermine an OSHA hexavalent chromium standard"
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3M US: OSHA Hexavalent Chromium Standard – An overview of the Chromium Six (CrVI) standard
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Cambridge Plating Company, now known as Purecoat North, was an electroplating business in
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1863:"A Novel Chromate Reductase from Thermus scotoductus SA-01 Related to Old Yellow Enzyme"
189:, chromate (a typical form of chromium(VI) at neutral pH) is transported into cells via
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2316:. "Oregon: Possible Chemical Exposure". New York Times. Retrieved on February 12, 2009.
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2741:"ARL effort improves health, environment, bottom line | U.S. Army Research Laboratory"
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899:(TCEQ) collected ground water samples from a domestic well on West County Road 112 in
167:, the use of hexavalent chromium in electronic equipment is largely prohibited by the
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through chicken meat, the most common source of protein in the country. Tanneries in
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2327:"Dozens Of National Guard Soldiers Sick After Iraq 2003 Deploy, Toxic Chemical Eyed"
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2098:
1976:
1958:
1919:
1882:
1874:
1805:
1762:
1727:
1663:
1599:"Criteria for a Recommended Standard: Occupational Exposure to Hexavalent Chromium"
1560:
1422:
1387:
1346:
1338:
1116:
1108:
1033:
1005:
770:
Hexavalent chromium was found in drinking water in the southern California town of
568:
443:
403:
386:
300:(NIEHS)—in 2014, California established a state-wide drinking water standard of 10
219:
86:
1809:
1731:
3559:
3498:
2361:
2313:
2288:
775:
624:
609:
260:
123:
54:
24:
1391:
122:
Hexavalent chromium can be formed when performing "hot work" such as welding on
92:. Sodium chromate is converted into other hexavalent chromium compounds such as
4504:
2293:
900:
517:
497:
230:
207:
164:
3666:
3641:
3475:"Dangerous Levels of 'Erin Brockovich' Chemical Found in Local Drinking Water"
2653:"Chromium-6 Drinking Water MCL | California State Water Quality Control Board"
1766:
910:
As of March 2011, the West County Road 112 Ground Water site was added to the
703:
For their efforts on the wash primer replacement, the ARL researchers won the
580:
4527:
3634:
1972:
1817:
1774:
1095:
Xie, Yun; Holmgren, Stephanie; Andrews, Danica M. K.; Wolfe, Mary S. (2017).
1009:
544:
365:
245:
156:
1564:
804:, critically evaluating that and other studies by researcher John Morgan.
782:. The source of contamination was from the evaporating ponds of a PG&E (
4386:
3635:
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health – Hexavalent Chromium
3617:
3522:
2627:
1990:
1931:
1896:
1825:
1782:
1739:
1572:
1519:"OSHA: Small Entity Compliance Guide for the Hexavalent Chromium Standards"
1360:
1130:
779:
680:
353:
211:
179:
140:
108:
105:
66:
3598:
1963:
1399:
623:(FWPCA) of 1948 was amended in 1972 to what is more commonly known as the
3640:
M. Economou-Eliopoulos; D. Antivachi; Ch. Vasilatos; Megremi, I. (2012).
884:
256:
144:
136:
70:
62:
1878:
1145:"What is chromium-6 and how did it infiltrate America's drinking water?"
883:
wastewater system. The state of Michigan issued a no-contact order with
3989:
2921:"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Consumer Factsheet on: Chromium"
2188:
1426:
997:
552:
525:
439:
336:
281:
for airborne exposures to hexavalent chromium is 5 μg/m. The U.S.
234:
226:
molecules present in the cell, which can cause double-strand breakage.
182:
1342:
3674:
927:
340:
203:
195:
81:
Hexavalent chromium occurs only rarely in nature, an exception being
19:
3342:"Michigan interstate's mysterious green ooze identified, police say"
3286:"Lawsuit Alleges Cameron Missouri Brain Tumors Linked to Fertilizer"
2868:"9 companies, individuals honored for clean air practices by SCAQMD"
2855:
173:
Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals
3536:
2998:
2678:"Replacement Alternatives to the Chromate Wash Primer DOD-P-15328D"
505:
82:
50:
1112:
852:
In 2009, a lawsuit was filed against Prime Tanning Corporation of
2612:
Scheinbaum, Chase (Winter 2012–2013). "Suing for Cleaner Water".
1951:
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health
821:
521:
501:
428:
347:
215:
190:
186:
116:
111:
onto metal parts to provide a decorative or protective coating.
3380:"Huron River chromium spill much smaller than feared, EGLE says"
289:
of 0.2 μg/m for airborne exposures to hexavalent chromium.
3523:
ATSDR Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Chromium Toxicity
532:
513:
476:
472:
329:
252:
237:
so it would be prudent to consider all chromates carcinogenic.
148:
3625:
Australian National Pollutant Inventory Chromium VI fact sheet
3311:"Burns & McDonnell settles case alleging hazardous sludge"
2709:"ARL Effort Improves Health, Environment, Bottom Line | DSIAC"
2402:
1944:
1549:
David Blowes (2002). "Tracking Hexavalent Cr in Groundwater".
318:
2067:"Select Committee on the Koorgang Island Orica Chemical Leak"
880:
869:
739:
447:
382:
199:
1415:
Surface Coatings International Part B: Coatings Transactions
551:, as well as its own workers, to hexavalent chromium at the
3982:
2568:
Division, US EPA, ORD, Integrated Risk Information System.
2460:
774:
and was brought to popular attention by the involvement of
710:
581:
History of the EPA's chromium policies in the United States
556:
438:
leather) has been shown to have entered the food supply in
241:
152:
143:), especially if airborne and inhaled where they can cause
69:), especially if airborne and inhaled where they can cause
3798:
3733:
3572:
Michaels, David; Monforton, Celeste; Lurie, Peter (2006).
2064:
1848:"Extremophile microbes found in residential water heaters"
1654:
1652:
3147:
1860:
1412:
491:
1861:
Opperman, D. J.; Piater, L. A.; Van Heerden, E. (2008).
638:
268:
EU Commission for Justice, Consumers and Gender Equality
1649:
1094:
434:
waste products (as opposed to the non-toxic process of
222:
produced during reoxidation of pentavalent chromium by
3630:
US OSHA Health and Safety Topics: Hexavalent Chromium"
3571:
2120:"Orica fined over chemical spills and breaches in NSW"
1595:
National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety
1245:. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer.
1182:. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer.
1137:
868:
On December 20, 2019, a green substance leaking onto
655:
In December 2013, the NRDC won a lawsuit against the
283:
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
2570:"Chromium(VI) CASRN 18540-29-9 | IRIS | US EPA, ORD"
1682:
1680:
856:, over alleged hexavalent chromium contamination in
381:
Hexavalent chromium was released from the Newcastle
376:
1634:
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
298:
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences
3144:"Erin Brockovich II? Activist Returns To Aid Town"
2970:"Survey shows unremarkable cancer rate in CA town"
1324:
427:Toxic poultry feed contaminated by chromium-based
3118:"OEHHA Water – Draft PHG for Hexavalent Chromium"
2770:"ARL wins award improving health and environment"
2095:"Stockton residents fume over fallout from Orica"
1938:
1677:
1032:
4525:
3193:"Toxic chromium found in Chicago drinking water"
2184:"Toxic poultry feed threatens Bangladesh's poor"
1795:
842:Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
810:Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment
717:Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment
2896:"Lahontan Regional Water Quality Control Board"
2611:
2537:"Third Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule"
1494:European American Chamber of Commerce New York
1176:Volume 100C: Arsenic, Metals, Fibres, and Dusts
266:Of 2,345 unsafe products in 2015 listed by the
3056:"Erin Brockovich's Biggest Debunker, Debunked"
1789:
1001:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
547:was alleged to have exposed 16 members of the
3690:
3532:Hexavalent Chromium National Emphasis Program
3167:"Toxic Metal Found in Chicago Drinking Water"
2808:"Air Quality Issues in the Town of Davenport"
1688:"State Adoption of a Hexavalent Chromium MCL"
1457:United States Environmental Protection Agency
1376:
788:United States Environmental Protection Agency
359:
309:United States Environmental Protection Agency
169:Restriction of Hazardous Substances Directive
2597:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2249:Charalampos, Vasilatos; et al. (2008).
1548:
1320:
1318:
1316:
467:The chemistry of the groundwater in eastern
319:Remediation of hexavalent chromium in water
3141:
2803:Air Quality Issues in the Town of Davenport
2248:
1314:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1306:
1304:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1296:
669:Toxicological Review of Hexavalent Chromium
3697:
3683:
1909:
1693:. California Department of Public Health.
1622:
721:California Environmental Protection Agency
135:Many hexavalent chromium compounds can be
3665:
3607:
3597:
3358:
3164:
2801:Health Services Agency. (2008, Nov. 18).
2763:
2761:
1980:
1962:
1886:
1350:
1120:
993:
991:
926:On January 7, 2011 it was announced that
897:Texas Commission on Environmental Quality
462:
233:. Yet, soluble chromates are a confirmed
119:processes involving hexavalent chromium.
3317:. The Kansas City Star. March 12, 2012.
1752:
1293:
1239:Volume 49: Chromium, Nickel, and Welding
1231:
1229:
826:Illinois Environmental Protection Agency
711:Pending regulations in the United States
674:
364:Hexavalent chromium is a constituent of
18:
3527:Department of Health and Human Services
3377:
2282:Indiana Guardsmen Sue KBR Over Chemical
1163:
1088:
325:American Industrial Hygiene Association
23:The most common chromium(VI) compound:
4526:
3704:
3469:
3467:
3436:
3434:
3404:
3402:
3400:
3244:
3242:
3240:
3238:
3236:
3234:
2890:
2888:
2797:
2795:
2793:
2791:
2789:
2767:
2758:
2735:
2733:
2703:
2701:
2699:
2697:
2690:from the original on October 20, 2020.
2060:
2058:
2056:
1947:"Hazardous Compounds in Tobacco Smoke"
1406:
1372:
1370:
988:
657:California Department of Public Health
492:Thebes–Tanagra–Malakasa (Asopos) basin
185:. Due to its structural similarity to
76:
3678:
3321:from the original on October 27, 2016
3215:"Water compliance: Chromium strategy"
3190:
3053:
2563:
2561:
2531:
2529:
2499:
2497:
2495:
2493:
2491:
2489:
2487:
2485:
2372:
2370:
2244:
2242:
2092:
2088:
2086:
2054:
2052:
2050:
2048:
2046:
2044:
2042:
2040:
2038:
2036:
2006:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1484:
1482:
1325:Salnikow, K.; Zhitkovich, A. (2008).
1226:
639:Current policies in the United States
178:Hexavalent chromium compounds can be
171:and the European Union regulation on
3502:Milwaukee Wisconsin Journal Sentinel
3339:
2567:
2307:Associated Press (February 12, 2009)
2178:
1717:
1235:
1169:
1077:
1075:
296:(NTP)—which is headquartered in the
3464:
3443:"Search Superfund Site Information"
3431:
3410:"West County Road 112, Midland, TX"
3397:
3231:
2885:
2786:
2730:
2694:
2378:"Document Display | NEPIS | US EPA"
2065:New South Wales Parliament (2012).
1367:
621:Federal Water Pollution Control Act
559:in 2003. Later, 433 members of the
13:
3378:Ellison, Garret (12 August 2022).
2558:
2526:
2482:
2367:
2239:
2083:
2033:
1997:
1479:
408:Office of Environment and Heritage
16:Chromium in the +6 oxidation state
14:
4565:
3510:
3440:
3340:Aaro, David (December 22, 2019).
3288:. AboutLawsuits.com. 2009-04-28.
3068:from the original on July 9, 2016
2768:RDECOM, U. S. Army (2017-03-16).
2675:
2093:Jones, Jackqui (11 August 2011).
1924:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2004.08.020
1101:Environmental Health Perspectives
1072:
766:Hinkley groundwater contamination
650:Natural Resources Defense Council
377:Kooragang Island, New South Wales
3481:from the original on 2016-10-27.
3227:from the original on 2016-10-27.
3165:Rodriguez, Robert (2011-08-06).
3154:from the original on 2018-01-12.
2461:"Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)"
2432:"History of the Clean Water Act"
2271:from the original on 2013-06-14.
2235:from the original on 2017-01-15.
2079:from the original on 2017-01-15.
1460:. April 13, 2013. Archived from
1219:carcinogenic to humans (Group 1)
952:California Proposition 65 (1986)
840:. A report was conducted by the
831:
575:
446:, an industrial neighborhood of
3517:Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Slag
3485:
3420:from the original on 2016-10-28
3371:
3352:
3333:
3303:
3292:from the original on 2013-06-21
3278:
3267:from the original on 2012-09-17
3207:
3184:
3173:from the original on 2013-02-16
3158:
3135:
3124:from the original on 2014-01-06
3110:
3099:from the original on 2012-07-23
3079:
3047:
3036:from the original on 2015-10-05
3016:
3005:from the original on 2013-12-19
2991:
2980:from the original on 2016-10-12
2962:
2931:
2913:
2902:from the original on 2014-01-06
2860:
2849:
2831:
2669:
2645:
2620:
2605:
2580:from the original on 2016-10-28
2547:from the original on 2016-10-27
2515:from the original on 2016-10-28
2471:from the original on 2016-10-27
2453:
2442:from the original on 2016-11-08
2424:
2413:from the original on 2016-10-28
2395:
2384:from the original on 2016-10-28
2348:
2337:from the original on 2016-10-27
2319:
2300:
2275:
2258:Hellenic Journal of Geosciences
2207:
2196:from the original on 2014-09-07
2172:
2141:
2130:from the original on 2016-10-16
2112:
2016:www.environmentaljustice.com.au
1903:
1854:
1840:
1746:
1711:
1700:from the original on 2014-10-13
1611:from the original on 2013-05-16
1587:
1542:
1531:from the original on 2012-10-18
1511:
1500:from the original on 2016-10-27
1441:
1290:, Retrieved September 21, 2022.
1280:
606:Environmental Protection Agency
315:(MCL) for hexavalent chromium.
3540:Chemie der Erde – Geochemistry
3359:Amir Vera (22 December 2019).
1720:Journal of Hazardous Materials
1066:""Hexavalent chromium (CrVI)""
1058:
1026:
963:
661:California Code of Regulations
1:
4554:Chemical compounds by element
3054:Heath, David (June 3, 2013).
1810:10.1021/acs.inorgchem.6b00522
1732:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.05.037
957:
727:
422:
292:Based on the findings of the
3983:Organochromium(II) compounds
3560:10.1016/j.chemer.2011.01.001
2999:"California Cancer Registry"
2505:"Chromium in Drinking Water"
2154:. NSW Health. Archived from
921:
750:
732:
555:water treatment facility in
543:In 2008, defense contractor
371:
7:
3799:Organochromium(I) compounds
3734:Organochromium(0) compounds
3087:"PG&E Background Study"
3001:. Cdph.ca.gov. 2013-02-05.
1662:. Oehha.org. Archived from
945:
918:groundwater contamination.
863:
847:
815:
808:this background study. The
796:Center for Public Integrity
294:National Toxicology Program
130:
10:
4570:
3142:Carrie Kahn (2010-12-13).
1085:OSHA General Industry 1910
763:
759:
360:Exposure and safety issues
49:that contains the element
4503:
4353:
4314:
4248:
4040:
4015:
3839:
3782:
3712:
3667:10.1016/j.gsf.2011.11.010
3492:City defends water safety
2360:November 3, 2012, at the
1767:10.1080/15298660008984569
1660:"Hexavalent Chromium PHG"
1392:10.1093/carcin/15.11.2475
1038:Chemistry of the Elements
1036:; Earnshaw, Alan (1997).
971:"CHROMIUM (VI) COMPOUNDS"
604:On December 2, 1970, the
457:
313:Maximum Contaminant Level
4544:IARC Group 1 carcinogens
2856:ParamountEnvironment.org
1010:10.1002/14356007.a07_067
912:National Priorities List
890:
784:Pacific Gas and Electric
693:Army Research Laboratory
587:environmental monitoring
333:metal-organic frameworks
307:For drinking water, the
4513:Chromate and dichromate
2312:March 13, 2017, at the
1867:Journal of Bacteriology
1565:10.1126/science.1070031
1004:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH.
629:Safe Drinking Water Act
614:Safe Drinking Water Act
538:
98:chromate and dichromate
4534:Chromium(VI) compounds
2657:www.waterboards.ca.gov
2355:CNN (November 3, 2012)
1449:"Facts About Chromium"
895:On April 8, 2009, the
838:Belmont, Massachusetts
549:Indiana National Guard
463:Eastern Central Greece
311:(EPA) does not have a
27:
3599:10.1186/1476-069X-5-5
1964:10.3390/ijerph8020613
1630:"Hexavalent Chromium"
1042:Butterworth-Heinemann
1034:Greenwood, Norman N.
798:article published in
705:Secretary of the Army
675:Military applications
561:Oregon National Guard
163:and skin. Within the
96:and various salts of
22:
3646:Geoscience Frontiers
3578:Environmental Health
3191:Hawthorne, Michael.
2927:on October 10, 2008.
2845:. November 29, 2016.
1236:IARC (1999-11-05) .
1151:. September 21, 2016
854:St. Joseph, Missouri
744:County of Santa Cruz
198:and some nonprotein
3658:2012GeoFr...3..523E
3590:2006EnvHe...5....5M
3552:2011ChEG...71...39E
1879:10.1128/JB.01766-07
1798:Inorganic Chemistry
1559:(5562): 2024–2025.
1273:sufficient evidence
1215:sufficient evidence
1210:sufficient evidence
691:From 2012 to 2015,
452:University of Dhaka
77:Occurrence and uses
31:Hexavalent chromium
4539:Element toxicology
3706:Chromium compounds
3497:2011-01-10 at the
3414:www.tceq.texas.gov
3315:www.kansascity.com
3203:on August 7, 2011.
2805:. Retrieved from:
2634:. 23 December 2013
2543:. September 2015.
2297:, December 4, 2008
2287:2008-12-05 at the
1597:(September 2013).
1427:10.1007/BF02700395
1331:Chem. Res. Toxicol
685:United States Army
28:
4521:
4520:
4016:Chromium(II, III)
4011:
4010:
3835:
3834:
3778:
3777:
3504:, January 7, 2011
2843:Los Angeles Times
2676:Smith, Paulette.
2222:Scientific Annals
1804:(11): 5507–5513.
1467:on April 13, 2013
1386:(11): 2475–2478.
1343:10.1021/tx700198a
1252:978-92-832-1249-2
1189:978-92-832-0135-9
1051:978-0-08-037941-8
976:. IARC. June 2018
858:Cameron, Missouri
528:'s water supply.
520:'s water supply.
508:basin of Eastern
302:parts per billion
274:In the U.S., the
224:hydrogen peroxide
220:hydroxyl radicals
94:chromium trioxide
90:sodium dichromate
47:chemical compound
4561:
4549:Chemical hazards
4493:
4482:
4463:
4449:
4435:
4425:
4411:
4396:
4382:
4368:
4345:
4335:
4306:
4296:
4286:
4276:
4266:
4240:
4230:
4220:
4206:
4196:
4186:
4172:
4154:
4140:
4130:
4116:
4106:
4087:
4032:
4003:
3980:
3979:
3974:
3964:
3954:
3944:
3929:
3909:
3899:
3881:
3866:
3852:
3827:
3796:
3795:
3771:
3753:
3731:
3730:
3725:
3699:
3692:
3685:
3676:
3675:
3671:
3669:
3621:
3611:
3601:
3563:
3505:
3489:
3483:
3482:
3471:
3462:
3461:
3459:
3458:
3449:. Archived from
3438:
3429:
3428:
3426:
3425:
3406:
3395:
3394:
3392:
3390:
3375:
3369:
3368:
3356:
3350:
3349:
3337:
3331:
3330:
3328:
3326:
3307:
3301:
3300:
3298:
3297:
3282:
3276:
3275:
3273:
3272:
3266:
3259:
3246:
3229:
3228:
3226:
3219:
3211:
3205:
3204:
3199:. Archived from
3188:
3182:
3181:
3179:
3178:
3162:
3156:
3155:
3139:
3133:
3132:
3130:
3129:
3120:. Oehha.ca.gov.
3114:
3108:
3107:
3105:
3104:
3098:
3091:
3083:
3077:
3076:
3074:
3073:
3051:
3045:
3044:
3042:
3041:
3035:
3028:
3020:
3014:
3013:
3011:
3010:
2995:
2989:
2988:
2986:
2985:
2966:
2960:
2959:
2957:
2956:
2950:
2944:. Archived from
2943:
2935:
2929:
2928:
2923:. Archived from
2917:
2911:
2910:
2908:
2907:
2898:. Swrcb.ca.gov.
2892:
2883:
2882:
2880:
2879:
2872:Press Enterprise
2864:
2858:
2853:
2847:
2846:
2835:
2829:
2828:
2826:
2825:
2819:
2813:. Archived from
2812:
2799:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2780:
2774:U.S. Army RDECOM
2765:
2756:
2755:
2753:
2752:
2745:www.arl.army.mil
2737:
2728:
2727:
2725:
2724:
2715:. Archived from
2705:
2692:
2691:
2689:
2682:
2673:
2667:
2666:
2664:
2663:
2649:
2643:
2642:
2640:
2639:
2624:
2618:
2617:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2596:
2588:
2586:
2585:
2565:
2556:
2555:
2553:
2552:
2533:
2524:
2523:
2521:
2520:
2501:
2480:
2479:
2477:
2476:
2457:
2451:
2450:
2448:
2447:
2428:
2422:
2421:
2419:
2418:
2399:
2393:
2392:
2390:
2389:
2374:
2365:
2352:
2346:
2345:
2343:
2342:
2323:
2317:
2304:
2298:
2279:
2273:
2272:
2270:
2255:
2246:
2237:
2236:
2234:
2219:
2211:
2205:
2204:
2202:
2201:
2176:
2170:
2169:
2167:
2166:
2160:
2153:
2145:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2135:
2116:
2110:
2109:
2107:
2105:
2099:Newcastle Herald
2090:
2081:
2080:
2078:
2071:
2062:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2027:
2018:. Archived from
2008:
1995:
1994:
1984:
1966:
1942:
1936:
1935:
1918:(9): 1069–1077.
1907:
1901:
1900:
1890:
1873:(8): 3076–3082.
1858:
1852:
1851:
1844:
1838:
1837:
1793:
1787:
1786:
1750:
1744:
1743:
1726:(1–3): 474–479.
1715:
1709:
1708:
1706:
1705:
1699:
1692:
1684:
1675:
1674:
1672:
1671:
1656:
1647:
1646:
1641:
1640:
1626:
1620:
1619:
1617:
1616:
1610:
1603:
1591:
1585:
1584:
1546:
1540:
1539:
1537:
1536:
1530:
1523:
1515:
1509:
1508:
1506:
1505:
1486:
1477:
1476:
1474:
1472:
1466:
1453:
1445:
1439:
1438:
1410:
1404:
1403:
1374:
1365:
1364:
1354:
1322:
1291:
1284:
1278:
1277:
1268:
1267:
1261:
1255:. Archived from
1244:
1233:
1224:
1223:
1205:
1204:
1198:
1192:. Archived from
1181:
1167:
1161:
1160:
1158:
1156:
1141:
1135:
1134:
1124:
1092:
1086:
1079:
1070:
1069:
1062:
1056:
1055:
1044:. p. 1002.
1040:(2nd ed.).
1030:
1024:
1023:
995:
986:
985:
983:
981:
975:
967:
940:Kenosha Counties
569:Portland, Oregon
444:Hazaribagh Thana
436:vegetable tanned
404:prevailing winds
387:ammonium nitrate
385:Koorgang Island
4569:
4568:
4564:
4563:
4562:
4560:
4559:
4558:
4524:
4523:
4522:
4517:
4499:
4492:
4488:
4480:
4476:
4472:
4468:
4462:
4458:
4454:
4448:
4444:
4440:
4434:
4430:
4424:
4420:
4416:
4410:
4406:
4402:
4398:
4395:
4391:
4387:
4381:
4377:
4373:
4367:
4363:
4349:
4344:
4340:
4334:
4330:
4326:
4322:
4310:
4305:
4301:
4295:
4291:
4285:
4281:
4275:
4271:
4265:
4261:
4244:
4239:
4235:
4229:
4225:
4219:
4215:
4211:
4205:
4201:
4195:
4191:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4171:
4167:
4163:
4159:
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4145:
4139:
4135:
4129:
4125:
4121:
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4111:
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4097:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4069:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4036:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4007:
4002:
3998:
3994:
3990:
3978:
3973:
3969:
3963:
3959:
3953:
3949:
3943:
3939:
3928:
3924:
3908:
3904:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3865:
3861:
3857:
3851:
3847:
3831:
3826:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3794:
3774:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3729:
3724:
3720:
3708:
3703:
3513:
3508:
3499:Wayback Machine
3490:
3486:
3473:
3472:
3465:
3456:
3454:
3447:cumulis.epa.gov
3441:OSRTI, US EPA.
3439:
3432:
3423:
3421:
3408:
3407:
3398:
3388:
3386:
3376:
3372:
3357:
3353:
3338:
3334:
3324:
3322:
3309:
3308:
3304:
3295:
3293:
3284:
3283:
3279:
3270:
3268:
3264:
3257:
3253:
3252:Retrieved from
3247:
3232:
3224:
3217:
3213:
3212:
3208:
3197:Chicago Tribune
3189:
3185:
3176:
3174:
3169:. NBC Chicago.
3163:
3159:
3140:
3136:
3127:
3125:
3116:
3115:
3111:
3102:
3100:
3096:
3089:
3085:
3084:
3080:
3071:
3069:
3052:
3048:
3039:
3037:
3033:
3026:
3022:
3021:
3017:
3008:
3006:
2997:
2996:
2992:
2983:
2981:
2968:
2967:
2963:
2954:
2952:
2948:
2941:
2937:
2936:
2932:
2919:
2918:
2914:
2905:
2903:
2894:
2893:
2886:
2877:
2875:
2866:
2865:
2861:
2854:
2850:
2837:
2836:
2832:
2823:
2821:
2817:
2810:
2806:
2800:
2787:
2778:
2776:
2766:
2759:
2750:
2748:
2747:. 14 March 2017
2739:
2738:
2731:
2722:
2720:
2707:
2706:
2695:
2687:
2680:
2674:
2670:
2661:
2659:
2651:
2650:
2646:
2637:
2635:
2626:
2625:
2621:
2610:
2606:
2590:
2589:
2583:
2581:
2566:
2559:
2550:
2548:
2535:
2534:
2527:
2518:
2516:
2503:
2502:
2483:
2474:
2472:
2459:
2458:
2454:
2445:
2443:
2430:
2429:
2425:
2416:
2414:
2401:
2400:
2396:
2387:
2385:
2376:
2375:
2368:
2362:Wayback Machine
2353:
2349:
2340:
2338:
2325:
2324:
2320:
2314:Wayback Machine
2305:
2301:
2289:Wayback Machine
2280:
2276:
2268:
2253:
2247:
2240:
2232:
2217:
2213:
2212:
2208:
2199:
2197:
2177:
2173:
2164:
2162:
2158:
2151:
2147:
2146:
2142:
2133:
2131:
2118:
2117:
2113:
2103:
2101:
2091:
2084:
2076:
2069:
2063:
2034:
2025:
2023:
2010:
2009:
1998:
1957:(12): 613–628.
1943:
1939:
1908:
1904:
1859:
1855:
1846:
1845:
1841:
1794:
1790:
1751:
1747:
1716:
1712:
1703:
1701:
1697:
1690:
1686:
1685:
1678:
1669:
1667:
1658:
1657:
1650:
1638:
1636:
1628:
1627:
1623:
1614:
1612:
1608:
1601:
1592:
1588:
1547:
1543:
1534:
1532:
1528:
1521:
1517:
1516:
1512:
1503:
1501:
1488:
1487:
1480:
1470:
1468:
1464:
1451:
1447:
1446:
1442:
1411:
1407:
1375:
1368:
1323:
1294:
1285:
1281:
1265:
1263:
1259:
1253:
1242:
1234:
1227:
1202:
1200:
1196:
1190:
1179:
1168:
1164:
1154:
1152:
1143:
1142:
1138:
1093:
1089:
1080:
1073:
1064:
1063:
1059:
1052:
1031:
1027:
1020:
996:
989:
979:
977:
973:
969:
968:
964:
960:
948:
932:Waukesha County
924:
893:
874:Madison Heights
866:
850:
834:
818:
776:Erin Brockovich
768:
762:
753:
735:
730:
713:
677:
641:
625:Clean Water Act
612:(1972) and the
610:Clean Water Act
583:
578:
541:
494:
465:
460:
425:
379:
374:
362:
335:to selectively
321:
261:small intestine
208:reducing agents
161:nasal epithelia
133:
124:stainless steel
79:
55:oxidation state
25:sodium chromate
17:
12:
11:
5:
4567:
4557:
4556:
4551:
4546:
4541:
4536:
4519:
4518:
4516:
4515:
4509:
4507:
4505:Polyatomic ion
4501:
4500:
4498:
4497:
4495:(hypothetical)
4490:
4484:
4478:
4474:
4470:
4465:
4460:
4456:
4451:
4446:
4442:
4437:
4432:
4427:
4422:
4418:
4413:
4408:
4404:
4400:
4393:
4389:
4384:
4379:
4375:
4370:
4365:
4359:
4357:
4351:
4350:
4348:
4347:
4342:
4337:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4318:
4316:
4312:
4311:
4309:
4308:
4303:
4298:
4293:
4288:
4283:
4278:
4273:
4268:
4263:
4258:
4252:
4250:
4246:
4245:
4243:
4242:
4237:
4232:
4227:
4222:
4217:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4193:
4188:
4183:
4179:
4174:
4169:
4165:
4161:
4156:
4151:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4123:
4118:
4113:
4108:
4103:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4083:
4079:
4075:
4071:
4067:
4063:
4059:
4055:
4050:
4044:
4042:
4038:
4037:
4035:
4034:
4029:
4025:
4019:
4017:
4013:
4012:
4009:
4008:
4006:
4005:
4000:
3996:
3992:
3986:
3984:
3977:
3976:
3971:
3966:
3961:
3956:
3951:
3946:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3926:
3921:
3916:
3911:
3906:
3901:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3883:
3877:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3859:
3854:
3849:
3843:
3841:
3837:
3836:
3833:
3832:
3830:
3829:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3808:
3802:
3800:
3793:
3792:
3786:
3784:
3780:
3779:
3776:
3775:
3773:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3746:
3742:
3737:
3735:
3728:
3727:
3722:
3716:
3714:
3710:
3709:
3702:
3701:
3694:
3687:
3679:
3673:
3672:
3652:(4): 523–539.
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3569:
3564:
3534:
3529:
3520:
3512:
3511:External links
3509:
3507:
3506:
3484:
3463:
3430:
3396:
3370:
3351:
3332:
3302:
3277:
3230:
3206:
3183:
3157:
3134:
3109:
3078:
3046:
3015:
2990:
2961:
2930:
2912:
2884:
2859:
2848:
2830:
2785:
2757:
2729:
2693:
2668:
2644:
2619:
2614:NRDC's OnEarth
2604:
2557:
2525:
2511:. 2015-09-22.
2481:
2467:. 2015-03-25.
2452:
2438:. 2013-02-22.
2423:
2409:. 2016-10-13.
2394:
2366:
2347:
2333:. 2009-06-27.
2318:
2299:
2294:Democracy Now!
2274:
2238:
2206:
2182:(2014-06-30).
2171:
2140:
2126:. 2014-07-28.
2111:
2082:
2032:
1996:
1937:
1902:
1853:
1839:
1788:
1761:(4): 563–667.
1745:
1710:
1676:
1648:
1621:
1586:
1541:
1510:
1478:
1440:
1421:(3): 169–176.
1405:
1380:Carcinogenesis
1366:
1292:
1279:
1251:
1225:
1188:
1162:
1136:
1107:(2): 181–188.
1087:
1071:
1057:
1050:
1025:
1018:
987:
961:
959:
956:
955:
954:
947:
944:
923:
920:
901:Midland, Texas
892:
889:
865:
862:
849:
846:
833:
830:
817:
814:
764:Main article:
761:
758:
752:
749:
734:
731:
729:
726:
712:
709:
676:
673:
640:
637:
582:
579:
577:
574:
540:
537:
510:Central Greece
493:
490:
469:Central Greece
464:
461:
459:
456:
424:
421:
378:
375:
373:
370:
361:
358:
320:
317:
231:carcinogenesis
165:European Union
132:
129:
78:
75:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
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4109:
4107:
4095:
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4051:
4049:
4046:
4045:
4043:
4041:Chromium(III)
4039:
4033:
4021:
4020:
4018:
4014:
4004:
3988:
3987:
3985:
3981:
3975:
3967:
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3955:
3947:
3945:
3937:
3935:
3932:
3930:
3922:
3920:
3917:
3915:
3912:
3910:
3902:
3900:
3884:
3882:
3869:
3867:
3855:
3853:
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3844:
3842:
3838:
3828:
3804:
3803:
3801:
3797:
3791:
3788:
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3781:
3772:
3756:
3754:
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3668:
3663:
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3647:
3643:
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3628:
3626:
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3619:
3615:
3610:
3605:
3600:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3575:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3549:
3545:
3541:
3535:
3533:
3530:
3528:
3524:
3521:
3518:
3515:
3514:
3503:
3500:
3496:
3493:
3488:
3480:
3476:
3470:
3468:
3453:on 2017-01-31
3452:
3448:
3444:
3437:
3435:
3419:
3415:
3411:
3405:
3403:
3401:
3385:
3381:
3374:
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3362:
3355:
3347:
3343:
3336:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3306:
3291:
3287:
3281:
3263:
3256:
3251:
3245:
3243:
3241:
3239:
3237:
3235:
3223:
3216:
3210:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3187:
3172:
3168:
3161:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3138:
3123:
3119:
3113:
3095:
3088:
3082:
3067:
3063:
3062:
3057:
3050:
3032:
3025:
3019:
3004:
3000:
2994:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2965:
2951:on 2013-07-18
2947:
2940:
2934:
2926:
2922:
2916:
2901:
2897:
2891:
2889:
2873:
2869:
2863:
2857:
2852:
2844:
2840:
2834:
2820:on 2016-10-28
2816:
2809:
2804:
2798:
2796:
2794:
2792:
2790:
2775:
2771:
2764:
2762:
2746:
2742:
2736:
2734:
2719:on 2018-07-30
2718:
2714:
2713:www.dsiac.org
2710:
2704:
2702:
2700:
2698:
2686:
2679:
2672:
2658:
2654:
2648:
2633:
2629:
2623:
2616:. p. 61.
2615:
2608:
2600:
2594:
2579:
2575:
2574:cfpub.epa.gov
2571:
2564:
2562:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2532:
2530:
2514:
2510:
2506:
2500:
2498:
2496:
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2490:
2488:
2486:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2456:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2427:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2403:"EPA History"
2398:
2383:
2379:
2373:
2371:
2363:
2359:
2356:
2351:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2322:
2315:
2311:
2308:
2303:
2296:
2295:
2290:
2286:
2283:
2278:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2252:
2245:
2243:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2216:
2210:
2195:
2191:
2190:
2185:
2181:
2175:
2161:on 2016-10-16
2157:
2150:
2144:
2129:
2125:
2121:
2115:
2100:
2096:
2089:
2087:
2075:
2068:
2061:
2059:
2057:
2055:
2053:
2051:
2049:
2047:
2045:
2043:
2041:
2039:
2037:
2022:on 2016-10-27
2021:
2017:
2013:
2007:
2005:
2003:
2001:
1992:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1941:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1906:
1898:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1857:
1849:
1843:
1835:
1831:
1827:
1823:
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980:27 December
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183:carcinogens
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3424:2016-10-27
3296:2013-08-18
3271:2014-03-20
3177:2013-08-18
3128:2014-01-06
3103:2013-12-05
3072:2016-07-15
3040:2013-01-08
3009:2013-12-05
2984:2016-10-28
2974:Boston.com
2955:2013-12-05
2906:2014-01-06
2878:2019-03-06
2824:2016-10-27
2779:2018-07-30
2751:2018-07-30
2723:2018-07-30
2662:2019-11-28
2638:2019-11-28
2584:2016-10-27
2551:2016-10-27
2519:2016-10-27
2475:2016-10-27
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2165:2016-08-20
2134:2016-08-20
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1704:2014-10-08
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423:Bangladesh
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500:–
139:(
65:(
33:(
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