Hindu philosophy - Knowledge

4213:(c. 1037–1137) was the foremost proponent of the philosophy of Viśiṣṭādvaita or qualified non-dualism. Viśiṣṭādvaita advocated the concept of a Supreme Being with essential qualities or attributes. Viśiṣṭādvaitins argued against the Advaitin conception of Brahman as an impersonal empty oneness. They saw Brahman as an eternal oneness, but also as the source of all creation, which was omnipresent and actively involved in existence. To them the sense of subject-object perception was illusory and a sign of ignorance. However, the individual's sense of self was not a complete illusion since it was derived from the universal beingness that is Brahman. Ramanuja saw 3791:, the Nyāya school is closer to the Vaiśeṣika school than the others. It holds that human suffering results from mistakes/defects produced by activity under wrong knowledge (notions and ignorance). Moksha (liberation), it states, is gained through right knowledge. This premise led Nyāya to concern itself with epistemology, that is, the reliable means to gain correct knowledge and to remove wrong notions. False knowledge is not merely ignorance to Naiyayikas; it includes delusion. Correct knowledge is discovering and overcoming one's delusions, and understanding the true nature of the soul, self and reality. The Nyāya Sūtras begin: 9046: 4662:, or the ruler. Pashupatas disapproved of Vaishnava theology, known for its doctrine servitude of Selfs to the Supreme Being, on the grounds that dependence upon anything could not be the means of cessation of pain and other desired ends. They recognised that those depending upon another and longing for independence will not be emancipated because they still depend upon something other than themselves. According to Pāśupatas, Self possesses the attributes of the Supreme Deity when it becomes liberated from the 'germ of every pain'. 4341:. According to this philosophy there are three categories of existence: Brahman, Self, and matter. Self and matter are different from Brahman in that they have attributes and capacities different from Brahman. Brahman exists independently, while Self and matter are dependent. Thus Self and matter have an existence that is separate yet dependent. Further, Brahman is a controller, the Self is the enjoyer, and matter the thing enjoyed. Also, the highest object of worship is 18720: 13707: 10352: 18730: 10362: 1100: 10341: 8792: 10372: 4768: 8738: 4107:, and an emphasis on meditation, self-discipline, self-knowledge and abstract spirituality, rather than ritualism. The Upanishads were variously interpreted by ancient- and medieval-era Vedanta scholars. Consequently, the Vedanta separated into many sub-schools, ranging from theistic dualism to non-theistic monism, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries. 8784: 50: 13694: 4782: 1114: 4316:. However, unlike Vishishtadvaita which envisions ultimate qualified nondualism, the dualism of Dvaita was permanent. Dvaita sub-school disagrees with the Vishishtadvaita claim that Brahman is linked with the individual self and the world in the way that a soul is with its body. Madhvacharya argues that Brahman cannot be the material cause of the world. 4872:

philosophical schools. Even within a single school, philosophers disagree on the import of Vedic statements. (...) Hindu intellectual traditions must be understood as standing for the collection of philosophical views that share a textual connection. There is no single, comprehensive philosophical doctrine shared by all intellectual traditions in

3575:(knowledge) is a sufficient means to moksha. It suggests that systematic techniques/practice (personal experimentation) combined with Samkhya's approach to knowledge is the path to moksha. Yoga shares several central ideas with Advaita Vedanta, with the difference that Yoga is a form of experimental mysticism while Advaita Vedanta is a form of 3687:). A composite, in this philosophy, is defined to be anything which is divisible into atoms. Whatever human beings perceive is composite, while atoms are invisible. The Vaiśeṣikas stated that size, form, truths and everything that human beings experience as a whole is a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements, their 3620:), and that one's experiences are derived from the interplay of substance (a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements), quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence. Knowledge and liberation are achievable by complete understanding of the world of experience, according to Vaiśeṣika school. The Vaiśeṣika 3666:, accepted only two means to knowledge as reliable – perception and inference. The Vaiśeṣika school and Buddhism both consider their respective scriptures as indisputable and valid means to knowledge, the difference being that the scriptures held to be a valid and reliable source by Vaiśeṣikas were the Vedas. 4683:

Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta provides the normative rites, cosmology and theological categories of Tantric Shaivism. Being a dualistic philosophy, the goal of Shaiva Siddhanta is to become an ontologically distinct Shiva (through Shiva's grace). This tradition later merged with the Tamil Saiva movement

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Since the assemblage of perceivable objects is for use (by man); Since the converse of that which has the three qualities with other properties must exist (in man); Since there must be superintendence (within man); Since there must be some entity that enjoys (within man); Since there is a tendency to

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and their qualities, colour etc. The causes were of thirteen kinds, the five organs of cognition, the five organs of action, the three internal organs, intellect, the ego principle and the cognising principle. These insentient causes were held responsible for the illusive identification of Self with

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is known as "Unmodified transformation" or "Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda". Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual Selfs and the world. The Jagat or Maya is not false or illusionary, the physical material world is. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the

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V.V. Raman (2012), Hinduism and Science: Some Reflections, Zygon – Journal of Religion and Science, 47(3): 549–574, Quote (page 557): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the Samkhya, there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system

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The above sub-schools introduced their own ideas while adopting concepts from orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy such as realism of the Nyāya, naturalism of Vaiśeṣika, monism and knowledge of Self (Atman) as essential to liberation of Advaita, self-discipline of Yoga, asceticism and elements of

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Some believe that Shankara is a "closet Buddhist," suggesting as evidence his positions that selfhood is illusory and an experience of it disappears after one attains enlightenment. However, Shankara does believe that there is an enduring reality that is ultimately real. He specifically rejects

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M Chadha (2015), in The Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy of Religion, states that Vedas were knowledge source but interpreted differently by different schools of Hindu philosophy: "The sacred texts of the Hindus, the Vedas, are variously interpreted by the six traditional Hindu

3384:, one of the key texts of this school of Hindu philosophy, opens by stating its goal to be "three kinds of human suffering" and means to prevent them. The text then presents a distillation of its theories on epistemology, metaphysics, axiology and soteriology. For example, it states, 6606:, pages 135–136, Quote: "As a dualistic philosophy largely congruent with Samkhya's metaphysics, Yoga seeks liberation through the realization that Atman equals Brahman; it involves a cosmogonic dualism: purusha an absolute consciousness, and prakriti original and primeval matter." 1879:. Some scholars have questioned whether the orthodox and heterodox schools classification is sufficient or accurate, given the diversity and evolution of views within each major school of Indian philosophy, with some sub-schools combining heterodox and orthodox views. 4174:. Advaita Vedantins assert that ātman is same as Brahman, and this Brahman is reflected within each human being and all life, all living beings are spiritually interconnected, and there is oneness in all of existence. They hold that dualities and misunderstanding of 5672:"Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence."; 4665:

Pāśupatas divided the created world into the insentient and the sentient. The insentient was the unconscious and thus dependent on the sentient or conscious. The insentient was further divided into effects and causes. The effects were of ten kinds, the earth,

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doctrines, and the school showed little interest in systematic examination of the existence of God. Rather, it held that the Self (Atma) is an eternal, omnipresent, inherently active spiritual essence, then focussed on the epistemology and metaphysics of

3324:(individualised ego consciousness, "I-maker"). The universe is described by this school as one created by Purusa-Prakriti entities infused with various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind. 4053:

from the first millennium BCE and is the most developed and best-known of the Hindu schools. The epistemology of the Vedantins included, depending on the sub-school, five or six methods as proper and reliable means of gaining any form of knowledge:

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is absence of knowledge. Ramanuja also argues that the Advaita position cannot coherently maintain that Brahman is non-intentional consciousness (consciousness that does not have an object), because all cognitions are necessarily about something.

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individual as a "part" (but devoid of bliss) like sparks and fire. This sub-school thus denies the Advaita conception of Maya because the world is considered to be real insofar as it is non-different from Brahman, who is believed to be Krishna.

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personalism. Like Advaita Vedanta, the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy holds that liberation/freedom in this life is achievable, and that this occurs when an individual fully understands and realises the equivalence of Atman (Self) and Brahman.

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connotes "that which exists, but is constantly changing and thus is spiritually unreal". The empirical reality is considered as always changing and therefore "transitory, incomplete, misleading and not what it appears to be". The concept of

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must either be non-different from Brahman or different from Brahman. If it is different from Brahman, the non-dualist position of Shankara is given up, but if it is non-different, it must exist ultimately as Brahman. Ramanuja claims that

3398:(qualities) respectively consist in pleasure, pain and dullness, are adapted to manifestation, activity and restraint; mutually domineer, rest on each other, produce each other, consort together, and are reciprocally present. – Verse 12 5275:

For a general discussion of Cārvāka and other atheistic traditions within Hindu philosophy, see Jessica Frazier (2014), Hinduism in The Oxford Handbook of Atheism (Editors: Stephen Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford University Press,

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Each of these are further categorised in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error, by the different schools. The schools vary on how many of these six are valid paths of knowledge. For example, the

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There is a general cause, which is diffuse. It operates by means of the three qualities, by mixture, by modification; for different objects are diversified by influence of the several qualities respectively. – Verse

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Ramkrishna Bhattacharya (2013), The base text and its commentaries: Problem of representing and understanding the Carvaka / Lokayata, Argument: Biannual Philosophical Journal, Issue 1, Volume 3, pages 133–150

4090:(word, testimony of past or present reliable experts). All of these have been further categorised by each sub-school of Vedanta in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error. 4756:). The objective of human life, according to Kashmir Shaivism, is to merge in Shiva or Universal Consciousness, or to realise one's already existing identity with Shiva, by means of wisdom, yoga and grace. 4444:). The potency of Bhagavan, which is transcendental, is not conceivable to humans and its relationship to Bhagwan is characterised as one in which there is "inconceivable difference in non-difference" ( 4144:. He wrote extensive commentaries on the major Vedantic scriptures and is celebrated as one of the major Hindu philosophers from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived. 7677: 3400:

Goodness is considered to be alleviating and enlightening; foulness, urgent and persisting; darkness, heavy and enveloping. Like a lamp, they cooperate for a purpose by union of contraries. – Verse 13

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and society, and divine (theistic) sustenance means to that end. The Mimamsa school was influential and foundational to the Vedanta school, with the difference that Mīmāṃsā developed and emphasises

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school of thought. It holds that there is neither afterlife nor rebirth, all existence is mere combination of atoms and substances, feelings and mind are an epiphenomenon, and free will exists.

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truths. In other words, the Cārvāka epistemology states that whenever one infers a truth from a set of observations or truths, one must acknowledge doubt; inferred knowledge is conditional.

4586:(400 – 200 BCE) is considered to be the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism. Shaivism is represented by various philosophical schools, including non-dualist ( 3669:

Vaiśeṣika metaphysical premises are founded on a form of atomism, that reality is composed of four substances (earth, water, air, and fire). Each of these four are of two types: atomic (

4732:), in Kashmir Shavisim, as opposed to Advaita, all things are a manifestation of this Consciousness. This implies that from the point of view of Kashmir Shavisim, the phenomenal world ( 4388:

enunciates that Brahman has created the world without connection with any external agency such as Māyā (which itself is His power) and manifests Himself through the world. That is why

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Vyasa wrote a commentary on the Yoga Sutras called Samkhyapravacanabhasya.(Radhankrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume II, p. 344.)

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Hindu philosophy also includes several sub-schools of theistic philosophies that integrate ideas from two or more of the six orthodox philosophies. Examples of such schools include:

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school holds that three are (perception, inference and testimony), while the Mīmāṃsā and Advaita schools hold that all six are epistemically useful and reliable means to knowledge.

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Second Translation (Verse 1): Ferenc Ruzsa (1997), [The triple suffering – A note on the Samkhya karika, Xth World Sanskrit Conference: Bangalore, University of Hungary, Budapest;

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Besides the major orthodox and non-orthodox schools, there have existed syncretic sub-schools that have combined ideas and introduced new ones of their own. The medieval scholar

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V.V. Raman (2012), Hinduism and Science: Some Reflections, Zygon – Journal of Religion and Science, 47(3): 549–574, Quote (page 557): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the

7455:, IEP, Quote: "Dvaita: Madhva is one of the principal theistic exponents of Vedānta. On his account, Brahman is a personal God, and specifically He is the Hindu deity Viṣṇu." 6724:

For modern translations and a history of the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra in the 1st millennium BCE, see: Stephen H. Phillips (1998), Classical Indian Metaphysics, Motilal Banarsidass,

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explains, "the author or representative of the Yoga-philosophy without being necessarily the author of the Sutras." Hindu philosophy recognises many types of Yoga, such as

4128:, that is all ultimate reality is interconnected oneness. This is the oldest and most widely acknowledged Vedantic school. The foundational texts of this school are the 8166:

Xavier Irudayaraj, "Self Understanding of Saiva Siddanta Scriptures" in the St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Ed. George Menachery, Vol.III, 2010, pp.14 ff.

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on issues of epistemology, metaphysics, logic, ethics or cosmology. The Vedas are regarded as Apauruseya, but, by the same token, they are not the Word of God either.

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Dharma is that from which results the accomplishment of Exaltation and of the Supreme Good. The authoritativeness of the Veda arises from its being an exposition of

3519:(mind, perception, matter); however, the Yoga school discusses this concept more generically as "seer, experiencer" and "seen, experienced" than the Samkhya school. 7373:

Michael Comans (1993), The question of the importance of Samadhi in modern and classical Advaita Vedanta, Philosophy East & West. Vol. 43, Issue 1, pages 19–38

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The Nyāya school uses a three-fold procedure: enumeration, definition, and examination. This procedure of enumeration, definition, and examination is recurrent in

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being the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive, lethargic, negative. Everything, all life forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three

6279: 4292:; it espouses dualism by theorising the existence of two separate realities. The first and the only independent reality, states the Dvaita school, is that of 4124:

literally means "not two, sole, unity". It is a sub-school of Vedanta, and asserts spiritual and universal non-dualism. Its metaphysics is a form of absolute

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is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows, how one does not, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired.

7669: 4934: 1754:, and others, which are thus broadly classified under Indian but not Hindu philosophy. Western scholars have debated the relationship and differences within 3808:

Soul, body, senses, objects of senses, intellect, mind, activity, fault, transmigration, fruit, suffering and release – are the objects of right knowledge.

7876:, there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Carvaka school.", 5686:"The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism" 4901:

authority by an orthodox school of Hindu philosophy; (Note: This differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions)

4520:(ca. 600 BCE), however, are missing or lost. Its theories and development has been compiled from historic secondary literature such as those found in the 3751:

of the first millennium BCE. The text is credited to Aksapada Gautama and its composition is variously dated between the sixth and second centuries BCE.

4420:). He followed the Dvaita concept of Madhvacharya. In accordance with the Vishnu Purana, this sub-school ascribes six virtues to God (Bhagavan): power ( 15140: 6947:

SC Vidyabhusana (Translator), The Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, University of Toronto Archives; A 1990 print is available from Motilal Banarsidass Publishers,

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Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus (2011), Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism, Walter de Gruyter GmbH (Berlin),

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and made significant strides, both philosophical and theological, until the end of the twelfth century CE. It is categorised by various scholars as

17673: 8035: 7929: 3648:, of the essence of the Predicables, Substance, Attribute, Action, Genus, Species and Combination, by means of their resemblances and differences. 2178:

current as of 14th century. Along with some of the major orthodox and non-orthodox schools and sub-schools, it includes the following sub-schools:

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Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta (1981), Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, A History of Indian Literature, Volume 2, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag,

17522: 2141:, a philosophy that accepts the existence of the ātman (Self), and is based on the teachings and enlightenment of twenty-four teachers known as 1774:. The various sibling traditions included in Indian philosophies are diverse and are united by: shared history and concepts, textual resources, 18579: 5313:

Klaus K. Klostermaier (1984), Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India, Wilfrid Laurier University Press,

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Klaus K. Klostermaier (1984), Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India, Wilfrid Laurier University Press,

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Klaus K. Klostermaier (1984), Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India, Wilfrid Laurier University Press,

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For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, "Contents", and pp. 453–487.

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Bṛhaspati is sometimes referred to as the founder of Cārvāka (also called Lokayata) philosophy. Much of the primary literature of Carvaka, the

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school. The Yoga school accepts Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is considered theistic because it accepts the concept of personal god (

3375:) who possess consciousness. Samkhya has historically been theistic or non-theistic, and there has been debate about its specific view on God. 4650:

refers to the effect (or created world), the word designates that which is dependent on something ulterior. Whereas, Pati means the cause (or

1162: 8013: 18531: 15879: 4300:, in a manner similar to monotheistic God in other major religions. The distinguishing factor of Dvaita philosophy, as opposed to monistic 3798:

Perception is that knowledge which arises from the contact of a sense with its object and which is determinate, unnameable and non-erratic.

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Lloyd Pflueger (2008), Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass,

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which relates to ceremonial acts and sacrificial rites, the early parts of the Vedas), while the Vedanta school developed and emphasises

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Jessica Frazier (2014), Hinduism in The Oxford Handbook of Atheism (Editors: Stephen Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford University Press,

5699: 4464:, an expansion of Bhagavan. And, Brahman is included within Bhagavan, who is the object of meditation and realisation for bhakti-yogis. 3997:

influenced other schools, their views were not shared by others. Mīmāṃsākas considered the purpose and power of language was to clearly

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Xavier Irudayaraj, "Saiva Siddanta", in the St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Ed. George Menachery, Vol.III, 2010, pp.10 ff.

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The emergence of the Vedanta school represented a period in which a more knowledge-centered understanding began to emerge, focusing on

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defines the character of someone or something, of nature and determines the progress of life. Samkhya theorises a pluralism of Selfs (

17367: 13744: 12769: 3741:āstika philosophy. The school's most significant contributions to Indian philosophy were its systematic development of the theory of 17818: 11350: 7802:

R Thomas (2014), Hindu Perspectives on Evolution: Darwin, Dharma, and Design, Sociology of Religion, Vol. 75, No. 1, pages 164–165,

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R Thomas (2014), Hindu Perspectives on Evolution: Darwin, Dharma, and Design. Sociology of Religion, Vol. 75, No. 1, pages 164–165,

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P Bilimoria (1993), Pramāṇa epistemology: Some recent developments, in Asian philosophy – Volume 7 (Editor: G Floistad), Springer,

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PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought: Toward a Constructive Postmodern Ethics, State University of New York Press,

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Hilko Schomerus and Humphrey Palme (2000), Śaiva Siddhānta: An Indian School of Mystical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers,

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Even though, both Kashmir Shaivism and Advaita Vedanta are non-dual philosophies which give primacy to Universal Consciousness (

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John Plott, James Dolin and Russell Hatton (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass,

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Andrew Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press,

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between witness-consciousness and 'nature' (mind, perception, matter). It regards the universe as consisting of two realities:

15457: 13406: 4410:(1486–1534), stated that the Self or energy of God is both distinct and non-distinct from God, whom he identified as Krishna, 1234: 17678: 11615: 8773: 8572: 8545: 8477: 8445: 8386: 8360: 7787: 7479: 7430: 7394: 7341: 6897: 6780: 6746: 6171: 6130: 6007:

Roy Perrett, Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges, Volume 1 (Editor: P Bilimoria et al), Ashgate,

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is a Hindu theory of knowledge and discusses the valid means by which human beings can gain accurate knowledge. The focus of

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John Koller (2007), in Chad Meister and Paul Copan (Editors): The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion, Routledge,

6565: 5617:(2012), Free will and Indian philosophy, Antiqvorvm Philosophia: An International Journal, Roma Italy, Volume 6, pages 19–30 18143: 15135: 5660:

Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press,

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Northrop Frye (2006), Educated Imagination and Other Writings on Critical Theory, 1933–1962, University of Toronto Press,

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Larson, Gerald James. Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning. Motilal Banarasidass, 1998. P. 13.

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Indian philosophy during the ancient and medieval periods also yielded philosophical systems that share concepts with the

18261: 17542: 17138: 7756: 4304:, is that God takes on a personal role and is seen as a real eternal entity that governs and controls the universe. Like 3800:

Inference is knowledge which is preceded by perception, and is of three kinds: a priori, a posteriori, and commonly seen.

2955: 2561: 1827:. Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions, which are nevertheless found in the 7806:: "some of the ancient Hindu traditions like Carvaka have a rich tradition of materialism, in general, other schools..." 7267:

Richard Brooks (1969), The Meaning of 'Real' in Advaita Vedānta, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 19, No. 4, pages 385–398

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Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass,

5222:: "some of the ancient Hindu traditions like Carvaka have a rich tradition of materialism, in general, other schools..." 3978:

and other texts related to self-knowledge and spirituality to be of secondary importance, a philosophical view that the

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3241:, and had a strong influence on other schools of Indian philosophies. Sāmkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose 18574: 16127: 13589: 8289:

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5882:, in Perceptual Experience and Concepts in Classical Indian Philosophy, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2015) 2822: 18536: 18431: 17557: 17552: 17508: 17133: 15977: 15199: 14184: 13619: 11641: 10401: 10257: 9788: 8050:

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4636:, 'of Paśupati') is the oldest of the major Shaiva schools. The philosophy of Pashupata sect was systematised by 4001:

the proper, correct and right. In contrast, Vedantins extended the scope and value of language as a tool to also

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R Prasad (2009), A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept Publishing,

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BK Matilal (1997), Logic, Language and Reality: Indian Philosophy and Contemporary Issues, Motilal Banarsidass,

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in another person and all of Brahman – the eternal, unchanging, entirety of cosmic principles and true reality.

4186:(liberation during life) can be achieved through Self-knowledge, the understanding that ātman within is same as 18391: 18216: 17489: 16503: 16444: 16331: 16210: 16142: 14528: 14166: 14085: 13645: 12805: 10748: 10375: 10086: 8675: 8424: 7708:(krishna.com) "This is called acintya-bheda-abheda-tattva, inconceivable, simultaneous oneness and difference." 6147: 1302: 1063: 16623: 16498: 8641: 7448: 7276:

AC Das (1952), Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 2, pages 144–154

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Michael Brannigan (2009), Striking a Balance: A Primer in Traditional Asian Values, Rowman & Littlefield,

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Carl Olson (2007), The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction, Rutgers University Press,

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According to this school of Vedanta, all reality is Brahman, and there exists nothing whatsoever which is not

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The soteriology in Samkhya aims at the realisation of Puruṣa as distinct from Prakriti; this knowledge of the

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John C. Plott et al (1984), Global History of Philosophy: The period of scholasticism, Motilal Banarsidass,

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AL Basham (2009), History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas – a Vanished Indian Religion, Motilal Banarsidass,

4547: 4509:, holding empiricism, perception and conditional inference as the proper source of knowledge Cārvāka is an 2818: 1562: 16633: 6644: 6487: 4337:, a 7th-century Vaishnava philosopher from the Andhra region which was further propounded by his disciple 18609: 18321: 18316: 18088: 16606: 16567: 16122: 16036: 15604: 15268: 13934: 13428: 13142: 11771: 10279: 6880:"Perception. An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge" (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. xiv. 4711:, theistic monism, realistic idealism, transcendental physicalism or concrete monism). It is a school of 3463: 3279: 3204:

nāstika philosophy holds that only one (perception) is an epistemically reliable means of knowledge, the

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John C. Plott et al (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass,

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James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 1 & 2, Rosen Publishing,

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Lynn Foulston and Stuart Abbott (2009), Hindu Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press,

6104:

James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, Vol. 1, Rosen Publishing,

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Buddhist propositions in his commentary on Brahma Sutras 2.2.18, 2.2.19, 2.2.20, 2.2.25, among others.

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James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing.

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as the spiritual reality that matters is caused by ignorance, and are the cause of sorrow, suffering.

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Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1986), Dreams, Illusion, and Other Realities, University of Chicago Press,

6311: 6264:– that is, suffering caused internally by self, cause by other human beings, caused by acts of nature 5466: 5330:

Jayandra Soni (1990), Philosophical Anthropology in Śaiva Siddhānta, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers,

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Comparison is the knowledge of a thing through its similarity to another thing previously well known.

2840: 1314: 1056: 16734: 8905: 4312:, with the metaphysical concept of Brahman in the Vedas identified with Vishnu and the one and only 2951: 18138: 18098: 18053: 17843: 17833: 17638: 17387: 17212: 17148: 17118: 17008: 16773: 16682: 16650: 16611: 16523: 15420: 14645: 14581: 14051: 14036: 13730: 13604: 13167: 12417: 12257: 12254: 11980: 11814: 11799: 10935: 10918: 10515: 10120: 9778: 9702: 9408: 9190: 9165: 8683: 8582: 6391: 4576: 4506: 4140:, who continued the line of thought of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of his teacher's teacher 3745:, methodology, and its treatises on epistemology. The foundational text of the Nyāya school is the 3632: 3524: 2725: 2706: 2225:

theistic ideas. Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions.

1979:– A monotheistic school which emerged from Samkhya and emphasises practical use of Samkhya theory: 1191: 964: 959: 723: 15088: 10979: 8940: 3391:

That is useless – if you say so, I say: No, because suffering is not absolute and final. – Verse 1

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BD Basu (Translator), The Sacred Books of the Hindus, Volume 6, University of Toronto Archives;

4414:, and that this, although unthinkable, may be experienced through a process of loving devotion ( 3610:

in natural philosophy. It postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to

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of the 18th and 19th centuries, based on limited availability of Indian literature and medieval

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non-Self. Salvation in Pāśupata involved the union of the Self with God through the intellect.

4033:(the portion of the Vedas that relates to knowledge of monism, the latter parts of the Vedas). 3990: 2812: 2781: 2616: 2608: 2465: 2171: 1557: 1510: 1475: 1223: 1203: 1139: 10892: 8751: 7905: 7899: 6401: 6395: 6161: 5246:: "Of the three heterodox systems, the remaining one, the Cārvāka system, is a Hindu system."; 4456:, which elaborates the marginal and external potencies of Bhagavan. Maya, which is central to 2102:

Schools that do not accept the authority of the Vedas are nāstika philosophies, of which four

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Shankarananda, (Swami). Consciousness is Everything, The Yoga of Kashmir Shaivism. PP. 56–59

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Eliot Deutsch, Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction, University of Hawaii Press,

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DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer,

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DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: Anthony Marsella), Springer,

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Mike McNamee and William J. Morgan (2015), Routledge Handbook of the Philosophy, Routledge,

6068: 3675:) and composite. An atom is, according to Vaiśeṣika scholars, that which is indestructible ( 2965: 18687: 18677: 18662: 18569: 18496: 18466: 18441: 18406: 18366: 18361: 18336: 18206: 18128: 18078: 18058: 18048: 17936: 17883: 17858: 17708: 17703: 17683: 17648: 17633: 17577: 17347: 17280: 17248: 17128: 17063: 16929: 16807: 16660: 16540: 16439: 16351: 16319: 16314: 16162: 15894: 15263: 15147: 14731: 14491: 14102: 14046: 13997: 13982: 13835: 13569: 13524: 13486: 13433: 13362: 13118: 12914: 12825: 12648: 12618: 12359: 11887: 11733: 11728: 11039: 10294: 10289: 10284: 10205: 9682: 9175: 9160: 8812: 8759: 7698: 4894: 4407: 3890:

subschool of Mīmāṃsā accepted five means to gaining knowledge as epistimetically reliable:

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Dasa, Satyanarayana (2007). "The Six Sandarbhas of Jiva Gosvami". In Bryant, Edwin (ed.).

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sub-school of Mīmāṃsā added a sixth way of knowing to its canon of reliable epistemology:

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The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices of Kashmir Shaivism

5614: 4846: 4831: 4821: 3974:(actions), and that the rituals are of primary importance and merit. They considered the 2972: 2624: 2573: 2354: 2093: 1801: 1672: 1572: 1376: 1331: 1285: 1218: 1198: 1149: 1134: 395: 12422: 11260: 10994: 10520: 8994: 8854: 7659:“Brahmavād Saṅgraha”, Pub. Vaishnava Mitra Mandal Sarvajanik Nyasa, Indore, India, 2014. 3842: 3836: 3419: 3052: 2830: 2260: 2128: 2022: 1832: 1712: 451: 405: 99: 18672: 18652: 18619: 18516: 18506: 18451: 18446: 18376: 18356: 18346: 18331: 18326: 18306: 18276: 18271: 18246: 18236: 18168: 18133: 18118: 18023: 17996: 17986: 17946: 17931: 17926: 17878: 17873: 17813: 17768: 17728: 17623: 17610: 17412: 17392: 17317: 17190: 17013: 16687: 16645: 16486: 16454: 16429: 16356: 16336: 16157: 16105: 16093: 16071: 15663: 15621: 15494: 15319: 15314: 15309: 15108: 14892: 14868: 14247: 14171: 13919: 13865: 13660: 13629: 13609: 13557: 13539: 13514: 13509: 13461: 13448: 13415: 13310: 13212: 13147: 13103: 13047: 12887: 12716: 12610: 12518: 12322: 12201: 12192: 12155: 12150: 12056: 12051: 12028: 11947: 11761: 11688: 10899: 10710: 10540: 10146: 10105: 9397: 9210: 9155: 8661: 8557: 8466: 8375: 7969: 7923: 5199: 4960: 4851: 4684:

and expression of concepts of Shaiva Siddhanta can be seen in the bhakti poetry of the

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The Viśiṣṭādvaita sub-school also disagrees with the Advaita claim that misconception (

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Christopher Etter (2006), A Study of Qualitative Non-Pluralism, iUniverse, pp. 59–60,

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from the 1st millennium BCE. Its first great consolidator was the 8th century scholar

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Classical Indian Metaphysics: Refutations of Realism and the Emergence of "New Logic"

6532: 6470: 6469:(2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, 6442: 6405: 6324: 6245: 6241: 6224: 6207: 6190: 6189:(2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, 6167: 6143: 6126: 6105: 6088: 6047: 6025: 6008: 5895: 5856: 5839: 5838:(2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, 5719: 5689: 5675: 5661: 5644: 5627: 5594: 5571: 5514: 5490: 5470: 5415: 5348: 5331: 5314: 5297: 5277: 5266: 5261: 5235: 5185: 5163: 5143: 5121: 5101: 5069: 5047: 5022: 4998: 4981: 4964: 4816: 4787: 4708: 4667: 3747: 3459: 3441: 3435: 3238: 3043: 2860: 2716: 2637: 2633: 2590: 2245: 2211: 1976: 1800:

historically used as a geographical and cultural identifier for people living in the

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Tom Flynn and Richard Dawkins (2007), The New Encyclopedia of Unbelief, Prometheus,

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Perception, Inference, Comparison and Word – these are the means of right knowledge.

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The Vaiśeṣika school is related to the Nyāya school but features differences in its

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Was Hinduism Invented?: Britons, Indians, and the Colonial Construction of Religion

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Dale Riepe (1996), Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought, Motilal Banarsidass,

7458: 3125:. It has been a key, much debated field of study in Hinduism since ancient times. 2255: 1790:

are often considered as distinct schools within Hindu philosophy because the word

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The Sarva-Darśana-Saṃgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy

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