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you saw on the tree, glad and laughing, this is the living Jesus. But this one into whose hands and feet they drive the nails is his fleshly part, which is the substitute being put to shame, the one who came into being in his likeness. But look at him and me.' But I, when I had looked, said 'Lord, no one is looking at you. Let us flee this place.' But he said to me, 'I have told you, 'Leave the blind alone!'. And you, see how they do not know what they are saying. For the son of their glory instead of my servant, they have put to shame.' And I saw someone about to approach us resembling him, even him who was laughing on the tree. And he was with a Holy Spirit, and he is the Savior. And there was a great, ineffable light around them, and the multitude of ineffable and invisible angels blessing them. And when I looked at him, the one who gives praise was revealed.
613:, the Sana'a manuscripts. About 12,000 fragments belonged to 926 copies of the Quran, the other 2,000 were loose fragments. The oldest known copy of the Quran so far belongs to this collection:According to Sadeghi and Bergmann, the results indicated that the parchment had a 68% (1σ) probability of belonging to the period between 614 CE to 656 CE. It had a 95% (2σ) probability of belonging to the period between 578 CE and 669 CE. The carbon dating was applicable to the lower text.But paleography suggest a date from mid to latter half of the 7th century CE.Upper text dated between end of 7CE and beginning of the 8CE.
20:
590:
2952:
772:
886:
877:, the divine law, is removed and Gog and Magog are to be set loose. Modern Islamic apocalyptic writers, holding to a literal reading, put forward various explanations for the absence of the wall from the modern world, some saying that Gog and Magog were the Mongols and that the wall is now gone, others that both the wall and Gog and Magog are present but invisible.
1506:"Et gentibus ipsorum autem apparuisse eum in terra hominem, et virtutes perfecisse. Quapropter neque passsum eum, sed Simonem quendam Cyrenæum angariatum portasse crucem ejus pro eo: et hunc secundum ignorantiam et errorem crucifixum, transfiguratum ab eo, uti putaretur ipse esse Jesus: et ipsum autem Jesum Simonis accepisse formam, et stantem irrisisse eos."
869:
Dhul-Qarneyn also journeys to the western and eastern extremities ("qarns", tips) of the Earth. In the west he finds the sun setting in a "muddy spring", equivalent to the "poisonous sea" which
Alexander found in the Syriac legend. In the Syriac original Alexander tested the sea by sending condemned
1042:
I saw him (Jesus) seemingly being seized by them. And I said 'What do I see, O Lord? That it is you yourself whom they take, and that you are grasping me? Or who is this one, glad and laughing on the tree? And is it another one whose feet and hands they are striking?' The Savior said to me, 'He whom
658:
in support of the dates proposed by the
Birmingham scholars. Professor Lumbard notes that the discovery of a Qur'anic text that may be confirmed by radiocarbon dating as having been written in the first decades of the Islamic era, and includes variations in the “under text.” recorded in the Islamic
722:
believes that the idea that humans evolved is against the Quran. Most
Muslims do not accept the theory of evolution, although there are substantial differences among countries (from <10% acceptance in Egypt to about 40% in Kazakhstan). Some Muslims point to a verse in the Quran as evidence for
620:
has been investigating these Quran fragments for years. His research team made 35,000 microfilm photographs of the manuscripts, which he dated to early part of the 8th century. Puin has not published the entirety of his work, but noted unconventional verse orderings, minor textual variations, and
998:
He appeared on earth as a man and performed miracles. Thus he himself did not suffer. Rather, a certain Simon of Cyrene was compelled to carry his cross for him. It was he who was ignorantly and erroneously crucified, being transfigured by him, so that he might be thought to be Jesus. Moreover,
981:
He did not himself suffer death, but Simon, a certain man of Cyrene, being compelled, bore the cross in his stead; so that this latter being transfigured by him, that he might be thought to be Jesus, was crucified, through ignorance and error, while Jesus himself received the form of Simon, and,
1028:
Another, their father, was the one who drank the gall and the vinegar; it was not I. Another was the one who lifted up the cross on his shoulder, who was Simon. Another was the one on whom they put the crown of thorns. But I was rejoicing in the height over all the riches of the archons and the
1161:
Christian-Muslim relations: yesterday, today, tomorrow
Munawar Ahmad Anees, Ziauddin Sardar, Syed Z. Abedin – 1991 For instance, a Christian critic engaging in textual criticism of the Quran from a biblical perspective will surely miss the essence of the quranic message. Just one example would
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standing by, laughed at them. For since he was an incorporeal power, and the Nous (mind) of the unborn father, he transfigured himself as he pleased, and thus ascended to him who had sent him, deriding them, inasmuch as he could not be laid hold of, and was invisible to all
1171:
Studies on Islam Merlin L. Swartz – 1981 One will find a more complete bibliographical review of the recent studies of the textual criticism of the Quran in the valuable article by
Jeffery, "The Present Status of Qur'anic Studies," Report on Current Research on the Middle
870:
prisoners into it, but the Quran changes this into a general administration of justice. In the east both the Syrian legend and the Quran have
Alexander/Dhul-Qarneyn find a people who live so close to the rising sun that they have no protection from its heat.
873:"Qarn" also means "period" or "century", and the name Dhul-Qarnayn therefore has a symbolic meaning as "He of the Two Ages", the first being the mythological time when the wall is built and the second the age of the end of the world when Allah's
938:";- but they killed him not, nor crucified him, but so it was made to appear to them, and those who differ therein are full of doubts, with no (certain) knowledge, but only conjecture to follow, for of a surety they killed him not:-
1118:
Religions of the world Lewis M. Hopfe – 1979 "Some
Muslims have suggested and practiced textual criticism of the Quran in a manner similar to that practiced by Christians and Jews on their bibles. No one has yet suggested the
723:
Evolution “when He truly created you in stages ˹of development˺?” Verse 71:14. Evolution is taught in many
Islamic countries, and some scholars have tried to reconcile the Quran and evolution.
543:, who set aside doctrines of the Quran's divinity, perfection, unchangeability, etc., accepted by Muslim scholars, and instead investigate the Quran's origin, text, composition, and history.
834:(839–923 CE) held it was because he went from one extremity ("horn") of the world to the other, but it may ultimately derive from the image of Alexander wearing the horns of the ram-god
2378:
1901:
2056:
Gillot, Claude (2008). "Reconsidering the
Authorship of the Quran. Is the Quran party the fruit of a progressive and collective work?". In Reynolds, Gabriel Said (ed.).
1815:
1779:"Retelling the Tale: A Computerised Oral-Formulaic Analysis of the Qur'an. Presented at the 2014 International Qur'an Studies Association Meeting in San Diego"
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Eddy, Paul Rhodes and
Gregory A. Boyd (2007). The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition. Baker Academic. p. 172.
1000:
2471:
1405:
Rubin, Uri. "Tradition in Transformation: the Ark of the Covenant and the Golden Calf in Biblical and Islamic Historiography," Oriens (Volume 36, 2001): 202.
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is a fact of history. The view that Jesus only appeared to be crucified and did not actually die predates Islam, and is found in several apocryphal gospels.
2399:
366:
2074:
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was not actually crucified and did not die on the cross. The general Islamic view supporting the denial of crucifixion was probably influenced by
557:
Scholars have identified several pre-existing sources for some Quranic narratives. The Quran assumes its readers' familiarity with the Christian
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disagree with the mainstream interpretation of the Quranic narrative of Jesus' death, arguing that the Quran nowhere disputes that Jesus died.
213:
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1997:
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is viewed to be the scriptural foundation of Islam and is believed by Muslims to have been sent down by Allah (God) and revealed to
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then created the landscape of the earth, placed the sky above it as a roof, and created the day and night cycles by appointing an
1018:
I was not afflicted at all, yet I did not die in solid reality but in what appears, in order that I not be put to shame by them
918:), which holds that someone else was crucified instead of Jesus, while concluding that Jesus will return during the end-times.
1577:. ...if there is any fact of Jesus' life that has been established by a broad consensus, it is the fact of Jesus' crucifixion.
2682:
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A Challenge to Islam for Reformation; Die Wiederentdeckung des Propheten Muhammad: eine Kritik am "christlichen" Abendland
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2288:
Reynolds, Gabriel Said (2008). "Introduction, Quranic studies and its controversies". In Reynolds, Gabriel Said (ed.).
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2007:
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Saadi, Abdul-Massih (2008). "Nascent Islam in the Seventh Century Syriac Sources". In Reynolds, Gabriel Said (ed.).
2215:
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in a similar way used by Christians and Jews. It has been practiced primarily by secular, Western scholars such as
174:
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668:
562:
472:
352:
196:
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2170:
1890:
1797:
Böwering, Gerhard (2008). "Recent Research on the Construction of the Quran". In Reynolds, Gabriel Said (ed.).
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418:
57:
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Near East. The wall Dhul-Qarnayn builds on his northern journey may have reflected a distant knowledge of the
1929:
1507:
123:
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van Bladel, Kevin (2008). "The Alexander Legend in the Qur'an 18:83–102". In Reynolds, Gabriel Said (ed.).
645:
2728:
2176:
1657:
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973:
574:
98:
1621:
Ayoub, Mahmoud M. (1980). "Towards an Islamic Christology, II:The Death of Jesus, Reality or Delusion".
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2407:. Foreword, Translations, and Expanded Notes by Andrew Rippin. Amherst, New York: Prometheus.
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1988:
1857:
1806:
807:("he of the two horns") in the Quran. The story of Dhul-Qarnayn has its origins in legends of
189:
2221:
1544:
1085:
1053:
633:
83:
2361:
2325:
2289:
2057:
1980:
1979:
Donner, Fred M. (2008). "The Quran in Recent Scholarship". In Reynolds, Gabriel Said (ed.).
1798:
2955:
2936:
2753:
2694:
2689:
2498:
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963:
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current in the Middle East in the early years of the Christian era. According to these the
698:, the Quran states that "the heavens and the earth were of one piece" before being parted.
641:
520:
335:
330:
44:
593:
554:. Scholarly criticism of the Quran is thus a nascent field of study in the Islamic world.
8:
2738:
2579:
931:
843:
808:
800:
465:
218:
2905:
2758:
2540:
2458:
1696:
1688:
1634:
1357:
847:
820:
685:
524:
288:
201:
184:
93:
1321:
819:, once defeated one of Alexander's generals, upon which Alexander built a wall in the
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2589:
2564:
2535:
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2408:
2384:
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2326:
2310:
2290:
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2225:
2166:
2119:
2080:
2058:
2031:
2003:
1981:
1960:
1886:
1863:
1824:
1799:
1758:
1638:
1601:
1570:
1550:
1526:
1361:
1349:
1341:
551:
393:
1879:
1700:
2850:
2810:
2805:
2748:
2450:
1748:
1680:
1630:
1333:
1120:
1080:
1049:
824:
744:
206:
88:
976:
describes Gnostic beliefs that bear remarkable resemblance with the Islamic view:
896:, which describes early Gnostic beliefs about Jesus' death which influenced Islam.
2860:
1733:
1305:
1029:
offspring of their error and their conceit, and I was laughing at their ignorance
859:
851:
654:
578:
528:
2981:
2910:
2898:
2544:
2140:
Ibn Warraq, ed. (2000). "2. Origins of Islam: A Critical Look at the Sources".
736:
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rare styles of orthography. He also suggested that some of the parchments were
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536:
532:
458:
441:
345:
62:
1684:
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2815:
1762:
1665:
Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies (University of London)
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1090:
816:
250:
237:
179:
133:
19:
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Nay, Allah raised him up unto Himself; and Allah is Exalted in Power, Wise;-
589:
153:
2800:
2584:
2569:
2559:
1353:
911:
863:
830:
The reasons behind the name "Two-Horned" are somewhat obscure: the scholar
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794:
699:
636:, dating from between approximately AD 568 and 645, were identified at the
617:
547:
446:
223:
128:
1734:"Demythologizing the Qur'an Rethinking Revelation Through Naskh al-Qur'an"
999:
Jesus assumed the form of Simon, and stood by laughing at them. Irenaeus,
2925:
2790:
2780:
2521:
1753:
839:
776:
740:
719:
715:
711:
489:
2149:
Ibn Warraq, ed. (2000). "1. Studies on Muhammad and the Rise of Islam".
1692:
2601:
2401:
Quranic Studies : Sources and Methods of Scriptural Interpretation
1546:
The Crucifixion and the Quran: A Study in the History of Muslim Thought
1301:"Muslim thought on evolution takes a step forward | Salman Hameed"
755:, some believe that his character is a reference to the worship of the
707:
622:
274:
245:
2462:
2930:
2893:
2743:
2644:
2574:
1672:
831:
823:
to keep them out of civilised lands (the basic elements are found in
812:
752:
695:
610:
2103:
Hawting, G.R. (2000). "16. John Wansbrough, Islam, and Monotheism".
1408:
2785:
2454:
2165:. Translated by Ibn Warraq. New York: Prometheus. pp. 23–106.
1778:
969:
915:
890:
855:
763:
of Samaria, conflating the two idol-worshiping incidents into one.
760:
504:
423:
388:
52:
731:
Quran recounts a story of the golden calf, where it mentions that
2733:
2162:
What the Koran Really Says : Language, Text & Commentary
950:
874:
771:
516:
512:
262:
147:
142:
2920:
1953:
Twenty Three Years: A Study of the Prophetic Career of Mohammad
923:
605:
In the 1970s, 14,000 fragments of Quran were discovered in the
566:
322:
257:
2490:
2241:
Understanding Islam : An Introduction to the Moslem World
1394:
779:
of Alexander the Great shown wearing the horns of the ram-god
2027:
How to Read the Qur'an: A New Guide, with Select Translations
1284:
1269:
935:
907:
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against the northern barbarians, or a conflation of the two.
703:
649:
558:
500:
493:
269:
118:
34:
24:
2380:
Gog and Magog in Early Eastern Christian and Islamic Sources
1598:
Conceptions of "Gospel" and Legitimacy in Early Christianity
1420:
1009:
Another Gnostic writing, found in the Nag Hammadi library,
954:
946:
835:
780:
2439:
The Sources of Islamic Law: Islamic Theories of Abrogation
1817:
The Sources of Islamic Law: Islamic Theories of Abrogation
885:
625:
which had been reused. Puin believed that this implied an
1473:
1432:
1228:"'Oldest' Koran fragments found in Birmingham University"
690:
1376:
706:
for both the sun and moon. Some Muslim apologists, like
550:, scholarly criticism of the Quran can be considered an
1485:
1463:
1461:
1459:
739:, created the calf while Moses was away for 40 days on
2377:
Van Donzel, Emeri J.; Schmidt, Andrea Barbara (2010).
688:
and may refer to the world being created in six days (
1502:
1500:
1444:
1456:
1131:
1129:
1037:, likewise, reveals the same views of Jesus' death:
962:Despite these views, theologians maintain that the
2437:Weiss, Bernard (April–June 1993). "Reviewed Work:
1878:
1497:
2376:
1414:
1126:
2968:
1253:"New Light on the History of the Qur'anic Text?"
989:Against Heresies, Book I, Chapter 24, Section 40
2107:. New York: Prometheus Books. pp. 489–509.
1999:Fables of the Ancients?: Folklore in the Qur'an
2261:Story-Telling Techniques in the Arabian Nights
766:
523:in the study of the Quran, but they have used
2506:
1517:
1515:
466:
1909:. Princeton University Press. Archived from
2072:
1479:
1438:
565:. Aside from the Bible, the Quran includes
2513:
2499:
1881:The Koran : A Very Short Introduction
1859:Contemporary Muslim Apocalyptic Literature
1512:
492:of the described or claimed events in the
473:
459:
2048:Mohammedanism : An Historical Survey
1931:HAGARISM, THE MAKING OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD
1752:
1614:
1595:
1374:
838:, as popularised on coins throughout the
799:Quran also employs popular legends about
694:), although this is highly debatable. In
563:parallels between the Bible and the Quran
2473:Moses in the Qur'an and Islamic Exegesis
2443:Journal of the American Oriental Society
2051:(2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
1655:
1377:"Are evolution and religion compatible?"
1225:
884:
770:
588:
18:
2610:
2469:
2257:
2002:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
1928:Crone, Patricia; Cook, Michael (1977).
1450:
1426:
1193:
854:showing the "Land of Gog and Magog" in
2969:
2030:. University of North Carolina Press.
1542:
1319:
1199:
1135:
922:That they said (in boast), "We killed
2494:
2159:Ibn Warraq (2002). Ibn Warraq (ed.).
2151:The Quest for the Historical Muhammad
2142:The Quest for the Historical Muhammad
2105:The Quest for the Historical Muhammad
2073:Glassé, Cyril; Smith, Huston (2003).
2023:
1620:
1549:. Oneworld Publications. p. 12.
1467:
673:
2323:
2279:Reynolds, Gabriel Said, ed. (2008).
1852:
1732:Roslan Abdul-Rahim (December 2017).
1491:
1013:has a similar view of Jesus' death:
662:
600:
2364:The Quran in its Historical Context
2328:The Quran in its Historical Context
2292:The Quran in its Historical Context
2281:The Quran in its Historical Context
2158:
2148:
2139:
2060:The Quran in its Historical Context
1983:The Quran in its Historical Context
1801:The Quran in its Historical Context
1656:Reynolds, Gabriel Said (May 2009).
994:Irenaeus mentions this view again:
486:Historical reliability of the Quran
13:
1903:Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam
1899:
1658:"The Muslim Jesus: Dead or Alive?"
1635:10.1111/j.1478-1913.1980.tb03405.x
584:
14:
3008:
2359:
2287:
2278:
2214:Leirvik, Oddbjørn (27 May 2010).
2213:
2111:
2102:
2055:
1813:
1710:from the original on 17 June 2012
1322:"Bracing for Islamic Creationism"
1011:Second Treatise of the Great Seth
880:
718:and contemporary Islamic scholar
2951:
2950:
2436:
2191:
1978:
1876:
789:Alexander the Great in the Quran
634:earliest known Quranic fragments
2520:
2224:; 2nd edition. pp. 33–66.
2217:Images of Jesus Christ in Islam
1995:
1796:
1776:
1731:
1725:
1649:
1589:
1580:
1563:
1536:
1399:
1387:
1381:The Stream – Al Jazeera English
1368:
1313:
1293:
1278:
1263:
1226:Coughlan, Sean (22 July 2015).
669:Biblical and Quranic narratives
659:historiographical tradition .
2238:
2144:. Prometheus. pp. 89–124.
2044:
1949:
1823:. Edinburgh University Press.
1245:
1219:
1184:
1175:
1165:
1155:
1112:
902:Islamic views on Jesus's death
1:
2397:
2153:. Prometheus. pp. 15–88.
2076:The New Encyclopedia of Islam
1862:. Syracuse University Press.
1543:Lawson, Todd (1 March 2009).
1415:Van Donzel & Schmidt 2010
1375:webmaster (6 December 2011).
1320:Hameed, Salman (2008-12-12).
1200:Lester, Toby (January 1999).
1136:LESTER, TOBY (January 1999).
1096:
846:(the 12th century scholar al-
488:concerns the question of the
2470:Wheeler, Brannon M. (2013).
2340:
2304:
2093:
1937:. Cambridge University Press
1600:. Mohr Siebeck. p. 80.
1596:Kelhoffer, James A. (2014).
1106:
646:Hamad Bin Khalifa University
27:, in traditional Arabic text
7:
2992:Quran-related controversies
2239:Lippman, Thomas W. (1982).
2094:Guillaume, Alfred (1978) .
1885:. Oxford University Press.
1523:Israel Oriental Studies XII
1059:
767:Alexander the Great legends
735:, a rebellious follower of
629:as opposed to a fixed one.
10:
3013:
2856:Hanging Gardens of Babylon
2220:(2nd ed.). New York:
2115:In the Shadow of the Sword
1741:Global Journal Al-Thaqafah
1677:Cambridge University Press
1052:and historian of religion
1035:Coptic Apocalypse of Peter
899:
792:
786:
680:Islamic views on evolution
677:
666:
2946:
2886:
2866:Massacre of the Innocents
2829:
2721:
2665:
2658:
2634:Lectio difficilior potior
2528:
2398:Wansbrough, John (2004).
2305:Rodinson, Maxime (2002).
1685:10.1017/S0041977X09000500
1048:However, Islamic scholar
906:The Quran maintains that
726:
2309:. London: Tauris Parke.
1900:Crone, Patricia (1987).
1190:Leirvik 2010, pp. 33–34.
1101:
1066:Historicity of the Bible
638:University of Birmingham
2987:Historicity of religion
2595:Comparative linguistics
2258:Pinault, David (1992).
2248:Lüling, Günter (1981).
2243:. New American Library.
2024:Ernst, Carl W. (2011).
1480:Glassé & Smith 2003
1439:Glassé & Smith 2003
1338:10.1126/science.1163672
747:. Due to the fact that
2618:Contextual credibility
2368:. Routledge. pp.
2332:. Routledge. pp.
2296:. Routledge. pp.
2064:. Routledge. pp.
2045:Gibb, H.A.R. (1953) .
1987:. Routledge. pp.
1877:Cook, Michael (2000).
1805:. Routledge. pp.
1071:Criticism of the Quran
1046:
1032:
1021:
1007:
992:
960:
897:
784:
597:
28:
2844:Sources and parallels
2341:Said, Edward (1978).
2195:Why I Am Not a Muslim
2112:Holland, Tom (2012).
1996:Dundes, Alan (2003).
1950:Dashti, `Ali (1994).
1814:Burton, John (1990).
1777:Bannister, Andrew G.
1086:Syriac Infancy Gospel
1054:Gabriel Said Reynolds
1039:
1025:
1015:
996:
978:
920:
888:
815:, the descendants of
774:
684:The Quran contains a
632:In 2015, some of the
592:
99:Birmingham manuscript
84:Samarkand Kufic Quran
22:
2937:Vaticinium ex eventu
2678:Acts of the Apostles
2640:Multiple attestation
1754:10.7187/GJAT122017-2
1429:, p. 181 fn.71.
1395:Surah Ta Ha, Ayah 85
1202:"What Is the Koran?"
1181:Leirvik 2010, p. 33.
1138:"What Is the Koran?"
1076:History of the Quran
964:Crucifixion of Jesus
642:Joseph E. B. Lumbard
521:historical criticism
2580:Cognitive philology
2252:. Erlangen: Luling.
2222:Bloomsbury Academic
2192:Ibn Warraq (1995).
2079:. Rowman Altamira.
1494:, pp. 205–206.
1332:(5908): 1637–1638.
1257:The Huffington Post
1162:clarify this point.
862:walls built in the
844:Great Wall of China
809:Alexander the Great
801:Alexander the Great
652:has written in the
616:The German scholar
561:and there are many
2977:Criticism of Islam
2906:Hadith terminology
2541:Biblical criticism
2201:. Prometheus Books
1508:Book 1, Chapter 19
1417:, p. 57 fn.3.
1309:. 11 January 2013.
898:
821:Caucasus Mountains
785:
686:creation narrative
674:Creation narrative
640:. Islamic scholar
598:
575:apocryphal gospels
353:Biblical parallels
94:Topkapi manuscript
29:
2964:
2963:
2916:Religious studies
2882:
2881:
2871:Geography of the
2734:Bardiya / Smerdis
2654:
2653:
2590:Textual criticism
2565:Demythologization
2441:by John Burton".
2125:978-0-385-53135-1
2118:. UK: Doubleday.
1840:on 4 January 2020
926:Jesus the son of
858:), or of various
663:Quran and History
601:Early manuscripts
594:Sanaʽa manuscript
569:narratives about
525:textual criticism
483:
482:
367:Mentioned by name
3004:
2954:
2953:
2931:Myth § Mythology
2851:Founding of Rome
2744:Caligula's horse
2663:
2662:
2608:
2607:
2515:
2508:
2501:
2492:
2491:
2487:
2466:
2433:
2431:
2429:
2423:
2417:. Archived from
2406:
2394:
2373:
2367:
2356:
2354:
2352:
2337:
2331:
2320:
2301:
2295:
2284:
2275:
2253:
2244:
2235:
2210:
2208:
2206:
2200:
2188:
2186:
2184:
2179:on 11 April 2019
2175:. Archived from
2154:
2145:
2136:
2134:
2132:
2108:
2099:
2098:. Penguin books.
2090:
2069:
2063:
2052:
2041:
2020:
2018:
2016:
1992:
1986:
1975:
1973:
1971:
1966:on 25 April 2015
1965:
1959:. Archived from
1958:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1936:
1924:
1922:
1921:
1915:
1908:
1896:
1884:
1873:
1849:
1847:
1845:
1839:
1833:. Archived from
1822:
1810:
1804:
1793:
1791:
1789:
1773:
1771:
1769:
1756:
1738:
1720:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1709:
1662:
1653:
1647:
1646:
1623:The Muslim World
1618:
1612:
1611:
1593:
1587:
1584:
1578:
1567:
1561:
1560:
1540:
1534:
1521:Joel L. Kraemer
1519:
1510:
1504:
1495:
1489:
1483:
1477:
1471:
1465:
1454:
1448:
1442:
1436:
1430:
1424:
1418:
1412:
1406:
1403:
1397:
1391:
1385:
1384:
1372:
1366:
1365:
1317:
1311:
1310:
1297:
1291:
1282:
1276:
1267:
1261:
1260:
1249:
1243:
1242:
1240:
1238:
1223:
1217:
1216:
1214:
1212:
1197:
1191:
1188:
1182:
1179:
1173:
1169:
1163:
1159:
1153:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1133:
1124:
1121:higher criticism
1116:
1081:Corpus Coranicum
1050:Mahmoud M. Ayoub
1002:Against Heresies
990:
974:Against Heresies
958:
894:Against Heresies
860:Sassanid Persian
825:Flavius Josephus
745:Ten Commandments
743:, receiving the
696:Sūrah al-Anbiyāʼ
475:
468:
461:
419:Quran and Sunnah
89:Sanaa manuscript
58:First revelation
31:
30:
3012:
3011:
3007:
3006:
3005:
3003:
3002:
3001:
2997:Religious texts
2967:
2966:
2965:
2960:
2942:
2878:
2861:Kurukshetra War
2831:
2825:
2717:
2650:
2606:
2524:
2519:
2484:
2427:
2425:
2424:on 29 July 2020
2421:
2415:
2404:
2391:
2350:
2348:
2317:
2272:
2247:
2232:
2204:
2202:
2198:
2182:
2180:
2173:
2130:
2128:
2126:
2087:
2038:
2014:
2012:
2010:
1969:
1967:
1963:
1956:
1940:
1938:
1934:
1927:
1919:
1917:
1913:
1906:
1893:
1870:
1843:
1841:
1837:
1831:
1820:
1787:
1785:
1767:
1765:
1736:
1728:
1723:
1713:
1711:
1707:
1660:
1654:
1650:
1619:
1615:
1608:
1594:
1590:
1585:
1581:
1568:
1564:
1557:
1541:
1537:
1520:
1513:
1505:
1498:
1490:
1486:
1478:
1474:
1466:
1457:
1449:
1445:
1437:
1433:
1425:
1421:
1413:
1409:
1404:
1400:
1392:
1388:
1373:
1369:
1318:
1314:
1306:TheGuardian.com
1299:
1298:
1294:
1283:
1279:
1268:
1264:
1259:. 24 July 2015.
1251:
1250:
1246:
1236:
1234:
1224:
1220:
1210:
1208:
1198:
1194:
1189:
1185:
1180:
1176:
1170:
1166:
1160:
1156:
1146:
1144:
1134:
1127:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1104:
1099:
1062:
991:
988:
959:
944:
939:
904:
883:
852:Roger of Sicily
850:drew a map for
797:
791:
769:
729:
682:
676:
671:
665:
655:Huffington Post
603:
587:
585:Textual history
529:John Wansbrough
479:
434:
433:
409:
408:
399:
398:
384:
383:
382:Characteristics
374:
373:
363:
361:Related persons
326:
325:
314:
313:
292:
291:
280:
279:
241:
240:
229:
228:
170:
169:
160:
159:
114:
113:
104:
103:
48:
47:
17:
16:Aspect of Islam
12:
11:
5:
3010:
3000:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2962:
2961:
2959:
2958:
2947:
2944:
2943:
2941:
2940:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2911:Historiography
2908:
2903:
2902:
2901:
2899:Pseudepigrapha
2890:
2888:
2884:
2883:
2880:
2879:
2877:
2876:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2847:
2846:
2835:
2833:
2827:
2826:
2824:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2772:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2725:
2723:
2719:
2718:
2716:
2715:
2710:
2702:
2700:Book of Mormon
2697:
2695:Book of Joshua
2692:
2690:Book of Esther
2687:
2686:
2685:
2680:
2669:
2667:
2660:
2656:
2655:
2652:
2651:
2649:
2648:
2637:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2614:
2612:
2605:
2604:
2599:
2598:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2545:Hadith studies
2538:
2536:Bayes' theorem
2532:
2530:
2526:
2525:
2518:
2517:
2510:
2503:
2495:
2489:
2488:
2482:
2467:
2455:10.2307/603054
2449:(2): 304–306.
2434:
2413:
2395:
2390:978-9004174160
2389:
2374:
2357:
2338:
2321:
2315:
2302:
2285:
2276:
2271:978-9004095304
2270:
2255:
2245:
2236:
2231:978-1441181602
2230:
2211:
2189:
2171:
2156:
2146:
2137:
2124:
2109:
2100:
2091:
2085:
2070:
2053:
2042:
2036:
2021:
2008:
1993:
1976:
1947:
1925:
1897:
1891:
1874:
1868:
1854:Cook, David B.
1850:
1829:
1811:
1794:
1774:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1721:
1648:
1613:
1606:
1588:
1579:
1562:
1556:978-1851686353
1555:
1535:
1511:
1496:
1484:
1472:
1470:, p. 133.
1455:
1443:
1431:
1419:
1407:
1398:
1386:
1367:
1312:
1292:
1277:
1262:
1244:
1218:
1192:
1183:
1174:
1164:
1154:
1125:
1123:of the Quran."
1110:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1094:
1093:
1088:
1083:
1078:
1073:
1068:
1061:
1058:
986:
942:
900:Main article:
882:
881:Death of Jesus
879:
793:Main article:
787:Main article:
768:
765:
728:
725:
678:Main article:
675:
672:
667:Main article:
664:
661:
602:
599:
586:
583:
579:Jewish legends
571:Dhu al-Qarnayn
537:Patricia Crone
533:Joseph Schacht
519:have not used
481:
480:
478:
477:
470:
463:
455:
452:
451:
450:
449:
444:
436:
435:
432:
431:
426:
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416:
410:
406:
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391:
385:
381:
380:
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372:
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359:
356:
355:
349:
348:
343:
338:
333:
327:
321:
320:
319:
316:
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311:
310:
309:
304:
293:
287:
286:
285:
282:
281:
278:
277:
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266:
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260:
254:
253:
248:
242:
236:
235:
234:
231:
230:
227:
226:
221:
216:
210:
209:
204:
199:
193:
192:
187:
182:
177:
171:
167:
166:
165:
162:
161:
158:
157:
150:
145:
139:
138:
137:
136:
131:
126:
115:
111:
110:
109:
106:
105:
102:
101:
96:
91:
86:
80:
79:
75:
74:
68:
67:
66:
65:
63:Asbab al-Nuzul
60:
49:
43:
42:
41:
38:
37:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3009:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2974:
2972:
2957:
2949:
2948:
2945:
2939:
2938:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2924:
2922:
2919:
2917:
2914:
2912:
2909:
2907:
2904:
2900:
2897:
2896:
2895:
2892:
2891:
2889:
2885:
2875:
2874:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2845:
2842:
2841:
2840:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2828:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2756:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2726:
2724:
2720:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2708:
2703:
2701:
2698:
2696:
2693:
2691:
2688:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2675:
2674:
2671:
2670:
2668:
2664:
2661:
2657:
2647:
2646:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2635:
2631:
2629:
2628:Embarrassment
2626:
2624:
2623:Dissimilarity
2621:
2619:
2616:
2615:
2613:
2609:
2603:
2600:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2577:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2554:
2553:
2548:
2547:
2546:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2533:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2516:
2511:
2509:
2504:
2502:
2497:
2496:
2493:
2485:
2483:9781136128905
2479:
2476:. Routledge.
2475:
2474:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2435:
2420:
2416:
2414:1-59102-201-0
2410:
2403:
2402:
2396:
2392:
2386:
2382:
2381:
2375:
2371:
2366:
2365:
2358:
2346:
2345:
2339:
2335:
2330:
2329:
2322:
2318:
2316:1-86064-827-4
2312:
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2299:
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2282:
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2267:
2263:
2262:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2242:
2237:
2233:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2218:
2212:
2197:
2196:
2190:
2178:
2174:
2168:
2164:
2163:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2143:
2138:
2127:
2121:
2117:
2116:
2110:
2106:
2101:
2097:
2092:
2088:
2086:9780759101906
2082:
2078:
2077:
2071:
2067:
2062:
2061:
2054:
2050:
2049:
2043:
2039:
2037:9781134823871
2033:
2029:
2028:
2022:
2011:
2009:9780585466774
2005:
2001:
2000:
1994:
1990:
1985:
1984:
1977:
1962:
1955:
1954:
1948:
1933:
1932:
1926:
1916:on 2016-05-28
1912:
1905:
1904:
1898:
1894:
1888:
1883:
1882:
1875:
1871:
1869:9780815630586
1865:
1861:
1860:
1855:
1851:
1836:
1832:
1830:0-7486-0108-2
1826:
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1802:
1795:
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1775:
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1755:
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1735:
1730:
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1702:
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1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1659:
1652:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1629:(2): 91–121.
1628:
1624:
1617:
1609:
1607:9783161526367
1603:
1599:
1592:
1583:
1576:
1572:
1566:
1558:
1552:
1548:
1547:
1539:
1532:
1531:9789004095847
1528:
1524:
1518:
1516:
1509:
1503:
1501:
1493:
1488:
1482:, p. 38.
1481:
1476:
1469:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1453:, p. 96.
1452:
1447:
1441:, p. 39.
1440:
1435:
1428:
1423:
1416:
1411:
1402:
1396:
1390:
1382:
1378:
1371:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
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1316:
1308:
1307:
1302:
1296:
1290:
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1281:
1275:
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1248:
1233:
1229:
1222:
1207:
1203:
1196:
1187:
1178:
1168:
1158:
1143:
1139:
1132:
1130:
1122:
1115:
1111:
1092:
1091:Noah in Islam
1089:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1077:
1074:
1072:
1069:
1067:
1064:
1063:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1045:
1044:
1038:
1036:
1031:
1030:
1024:
1020:
1019:
1014:
1012:
1006:
1004:
1003:
995:
985:
983:
977:
975:
971:
967:
965:
956:
952:
948:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
919:
917:
913:
909:
903:
895:
892:
887:
878:
876:
871:
867:
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
828:
826:
822:
818:
817:Gog and Magog
814:
810:
806:
802:
796:
790:
782:
778:
773:
764:
762:
758:
757:golden calves
754:
751:can mean the
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
724:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
692:
687:
681:
670:
660:
657:
656:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
630:
628:
627:evolving text
624:
619:
614:
612:
608:
596:of the Quran.
595:
591:
582:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
555:
553:
549:
544:
542:
538:
534:
530:
526:
522:
518:
514:
510:
507:by the angel
506:
502:
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215:
212:
211:
208:
205:
203:
200:
198:
195:
194:
191:
188:
186:
183:
181:
180:No compulsion
178:
176:
173:
172:
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141:
140:
135:
132:
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116:
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100:
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95:
92:
90:
87:
85:
82:
81:
77:
76:
73:
70:
69:
64:
61:
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2585:Decipherment
2570:Palaeography
2560:Bibliography
2552:Ilm al-rijāl
2551:
2543: /
2472:
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2438:
2426:. Retrieved
2419:the original
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2283:. Routledge.
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1835:the original
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1783:academia.edu
1782:
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1747:(2): 51–78.
1744:
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1726:Bibliography
1712:. Retrieved
1668:
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1586:Haer. 1.24.4
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1451:Wheeler 2013
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1427:Pinault 1992
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615:
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336:Hermeneutics
289:Translations
152:
71:
2926:Linguistics
2776:King Arthur
2759:myth theory
2529:Methodology
2522:Historicity
2428:29 February
2344:Orientalism
1768:26 February
1679:: 237–258.
1525:BRILL 1992
889:Papyrus of
840:Hellenistic
777:tetradrachm
741:Mount Sinai
720:Yasir Qadhi
716:creationism
712:Adnan Oktar
623:palimpsests
490:historicity
341:Esotericism
219:Eschatology
78:Manuscripts
72:Historicity
2971:Categories
2839:The Exodus
2830:Events and
2806:Robin Hood
2781:King David
2739:The Buddha
2602:Provenance
2172:157392945X
1920:2020-04-05
1892:0192853449
1714:17 January
1575:0801031141
1468:Ernst 2011
1097:References
1023:and also:
836:Zeus-Ammon
781:Zeus-Ammon
708:Zakir Naik
429:Shi’a view
346:Abrogation
154:Muqatta'at
2894:Apocrypha
2645:Mutawatir
2575:Philology
2383:. Brill.
2347:. Vintage
2264:. BRILL.
2131:29 August
1763:2232-0474
1673:Cambridge
1643:0027-4909
1492:Cook 2005
1362:206515329
1346:0036-8075
1107:Citations
932:Messenger
891:Irenaeus'
832:al-Tabari
813:Scythians
759:built by
753:Samaritan
749:as-Samiri
714:advocate
567:legendary
414:Criticism
394:Inerrancy
307:Ahmadiyya
112:Divisions
2956:Category
2811:Socrates
2796:Muhammad
2786:Lei Feng
2611:Criteria
2351:12 April
2307:Muhammad
2205:25 April
1970:10 April
1941:18 March
1856:(2005).
1705:Archived
1701:27268737
1693:40379003
1354:19074331
1289:21:31–33
1237:10 April
1232:BBC News
1211:10 April
1142:Atlantic
1060:See also
987:—
970:Irenaeus
945:Qur'an,
943:—
916:Docetism
856:Mongolia
761:Jeroboam
552:apostasy
505:Muhammad
442:Category
424:Quranism
323:Exegesis
207:Parables
202:Miracles
175:Prophets
2921:Legends
2887:Related
2873:Odyssey
2816:Sun Tzu
2769:Sources
2729:Abraham
2683:Gospels
2183:9 April
1844:21 July
1326:Science
1147:8 April
957:157–158
951:An-Nisa
875:shariah
803:called
775:Silver
546:In the
517:Muslims
513:Gabriel
509:Jibreel
407:Related
302:English
275:Qira'at
263:Tarteel
238:Reading
214:Science
197:Legends
190:Animals
168:Content
134:Medinan
45:History
2832:places
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924:Christ
848:Idrisi
733:Samiri
727:Samiri
611:Sana'a
577:, and
539:, and
258:Tajwid
129:Meccan
2982:Quran
2791:Moses
2764:Quest
2754:Jesus
2749:Homer
2713:Quran
2707:Iliad
2673:Bible
2666:Texts
2459:JSTOR
2422:(PDF)
2405:(PDF)
2372:-203.
2336:-222.
2199:(PDF)
2096:Islam
2068:-108.
2015:2 May
1964:(PDF)
1957:(PDF)
1935:(PDF)
1914:(PDF)
1907:(PDF)
1838:(PDF)
1821:(PDF)
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1708:(PDF)
1697:S2CID
1689:JSTOR
1671:(2).
1661:(PDF)
1533:p. 41
1358:S2CID
1285:Quran
1274:21:30
1270:Quran
1102:Notes
936:Allah
908:Jesus
737:Moses
704:orbit
650:Qatar
559:Bible
501:Quran
494:Quran
389:I'jaz
270:Ahruf
246:Qāriʾ
185:Women
119:Surah
35:Quran
25:Quran
2705:The
2478:ISBN
2430:2020
2409:ISBN
2385:ISBN
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2266:ISBN
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2207:2019
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2017:2019
2004:ISBN
1991:-50.
1972:2019
1943:2020
1887:ISBN
1864:ISBN
1846:2018
1825:ISBN
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1790:2019
1770:2019
1759:ISSN
1716:2021
1639:ISSN
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1527:ISBN
1350:PMID
1342:ISSN
1239:2019
1213:2019
1172:East
1149:2019
955:ayat
947:sura
928:Mary
710:and
691:yawm
499:The
331:List
297:List
251:Hifz
148:Juz'
143:Āyah
124:List
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