History of Germany during World War I

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the entire war. At the Somme River in March, 63 divisions attacked in a blinding fog. No matter, the German lieutenants had memorized their maps and their orders. The British lost 270,000 men, fell back 40 miles, and then held. They quickly learned how to handle the new German tactics: fall back, abandon the trenches, let the attackers overextend themselves, and then counterattack. They gained an advantage in firepower from their artillery and from tanks used as mobile pillboxes that could retreat and counterattack at will. In April Ludendorff hit the British again, inflicting 305,000 casualties—but he lacked the reserves to follow up. In total, Ludendorff launched five great attacks between March and July, inflicting a million British and French casualties. The Western Front now had opened up—the trenches were still there but the importance of mobility now reasserted itself. The Allies held. The Germans suffered twice as many casualties as they inflicted, including most of their precious stormtroopers. The new German replacements were under-aged youth or embittered middle-aged family men in poor condition. They were not inspired by the elan of 1914, nor thrilled with battle—they hated it, and some began talking of revolution. Ludendorff could not replace his losses, nor could he devise a new brainstorm that might somehow snatch victory from the jaws of defeat. The British likewise were bringing in reinforcements from the whole Empire, but since their home front was in good condition, and since they could see inevitable victory, their morale was higher. The great German spring offensive was a race against time, for everyone could see the Americans were training millions of fresh soldiers who would eventually arrive on the Western Front.

982:. They each lasted most of the year, achieved minimal gains, and drained away the best soldiers of both sides. Verdun became the iconic symbol of the murderous power of modern defensive weapons, with 280,000 German casualties, and 315,000 French. At the Somme, there were over 400,000 German casualties, against over 600,000 Allied casualties. At Verdun, the Germans attacked what they considered to be a weak French salient which nevertheless the French would defend for reasons of national pride. The Somme was part of a multinational plan of the Allies to attack on different fronts simultaneously. German woes were also compounded by Russia's grand "Brusilov offensive", which diverted more soldiers and resources. Although the Eastern front was held to a standoff and Germany suffered fewer casualties than their allies with ~150,000 of the ~770,000 Central powers casualties, the simultaneous Verdun offensive stretched the German forces committed to the Somme offensive. German experts are divided in their interpretation of the Somme. Some say it was a standoff, but most see it as a British victory and argue it marked the point at which German morale began a permanent decline and the strategic initiative was lost, along with irreplaceable veterans and confidence. 1073:

troops, and trained them all winter in the new tactics. With stopwatch timing, the German artillery would lay down a sudden, fearsome barrage just ahead of its advancing infantry. Moving in small units, firing light machine guns, the stormtroopers would bypass enemy strongpoints, and head directly for critical bridges, command posts, supply dumps and, above all, artillery batteries. By cutting enemy communications they would paralyze response in the critical first half hour. By silencing the artillery they would break the enemy's firepower. Rigid schedules sent in two more waves of infantry to mop up the strong points that had been bypassed. The shock troops frightened and disoriented the first line of defenders, who would flee in panic. In one instance an easy-going Allied regiment broke and fled; reinforcements rushed in on bicycles. The panicky soldiers seized the bikes and beat an even faster retreat. The stormtrooper tactics provided mobility, but not increased firepower. Eventually—in 1939 and 1940—the formula would be perfected with the aid of dive bombers and tanks, but in 1918 the Germans lacked both.

898: 1204:" in World War I, meant that food supplies had to be redirected towards the armed forces and, with German commerce being stopped by the British blockade, German civilians were forced to live in increasingly meager conditions. Food prices were first controlled. Bread rationing was introduced in 1915 and worked well; the cost of bread fell. Allen says there were no signs of starvation and states, "the sense of domestic catastrophe one gains from most accounts of food rationing in Germany is exaggerated." However Howard argues that hundreds of thousands of civilians died from malnutrition—usually from a typhus or a disease their weakened body could not resist. (Starvation itself rarely caused death.) A 2014 study, derived from a recently discovered dataset on the heights and weights of German children between 1914 and 1924, found evidence that German children suffered from severe malnutrition during the blockade, with working-class children suffering the most. The study furthermore found that German children quickly recovered after the war due to a massive international food aid program. 1232:

government offices for the first time hired women for clerical positions. Factories hired them for unskilled labor – by December 1917, half the workers in chemicals, metals, and machine tools were women. Laws protecting women in the workplace were relaxed, and factories set up canteens to provide food for their workers, lest their productivity fall off. The food situation in 1918 was better, because the harvest was better, but serious shortages continued, with high prices, and a complete lack of condiments and fresh fruit. Many migrants had flocked into cities to work in industry, which made for overcrowded housing. Reduced coal supplies left everyone in the cold. Daily life involved long working hours, poor health, and little or no recreation, and increasing fears for the safety of loved ones in the Army and in prisoner of war camps. The men who returned from the front were those who had been permanently disabled; wounded soldiers who had recovered were sent back to the trenches.

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nearly exhausted their manpower. Berlin had calculated it would take months for the Americans to ship all their soldiers and equipment—but the U.S. troops arrived much sooner, as they left their heavy equipment behind, and relied on British and French artillery, tanks, airplanes, trucks and equipment. Berlin also assumed that Americans were fat, undisciplined and unaccustomed to hardship and severe fighting. They soon realized their mistake. The Germans reported that "The qualities of the individually may be described as remarkable. They are physically well set up, their attitude is good... They lack at present only training and experience to make formidable adversaries. The men are in fine spirits and are filled with naive assurance."

1350: 1189: 1124: 788: 1398:"I have no idea what we are still fighting for anyway, maybe because the newspapers portray everything about the war in a false light which has nothing to do with the reality.....There could be no greater misery in the enemy country and at home. The people who still support the war haven't got a clue about anything...If I stay alive, I will make these things public...We all want peace...What is the point of conquering half of the world, when we have to sacrifice all our strength?..You out there, just champion peace! … We give away all our worldly possessions and even our freedom. Our only goal is to be with our wife and children again," 638: 1143:. One professor testified to a "great single feeling of moral elevation of soaring of religious sentiment, in short, the ascent of a whole people to the heights." At the same time, there was a level of anxiety; most commentators predicted a short victorious war – but that hope was dashed in a matter of weeks, as the invasion of Belgium bogged down and the French Army held in front of Paris. The Western Front became a killing machine, as neither army moved more than a few hundred yards at a time. Industry in late 1914 was in chaos, unemployment soared while it took months to reconvert to munitions productions. In 1916, the 706: 1362: 927:, designed to quickly attack France through neutral Belgium before turning southwards to encircle the French army on the German border. The Belgians fought back, and sabotaged their rail system to delay the Germans. The Germans did not expect this and were delayed, and responded with systematic reprisals on civilians, killing nearly 6,000 Belgian noncombatants, including women and children, and burning 25,000 houses and buildings. The plan called for the right flank of the German advance to converge on Paris and initially, the Germans were very successful, particularly in the 1228:

and lard were less than 20% of peacetime levels. In 1917 the harvest was poor all across Europe, and the potato supply ran short, and Germans substituted almost inedible turnips; the "turnip winter" of 1916–17 was remembered with bitter distaste for generations. Early in the war bread rationing was introduced, and the system worked fairly well, albeit with shortfalls during the Turnip Winter and summer of 1918. White bread used imported flour and became unavailable, but there was enough rye or rye-potato flour to provide a minimal diet for all civilians.

1386:"A terrible picture presented itself to me. A French and a General soldier on their knees were leaning against each other. They had pierced each other with the bayonet and had dropped like this to the ground...Courage, heroism, does it really exist? I am about to doubt it, since I haven't seen anything else than fear, anxiety, and despair in every face during the battle. There was nothing at all like courage, bravery, or the like. In reality, there is nothing else than texting discipline and coercion propelling the soldiers forward" 686:, the Social Democratic Party of Germany ended its differences with the Imperial government and abandoned its principles of internationalism to support the war effort. The German state spent 170 billion Marks during the war. The money was raised by borrowing from banks and from public bond drives. Symbolic purchasing of nails which were driving into public wooden crosses spurred the aristocracy and middle class to buy bonds. These bonds became worthless with the 1923 hyperinflation. 44: 906: 1208:

imports from abroad. The winter of 1916–1917 was known as the "turnip winter," because that hardly-edible vegetable, usually fed to livestock, was used by people as a substitute for potatoes and meat, which were increasingly scarce. Thousands of soup kitchens were opened to feed the hungry people, who grumbled that the farmers were keeping the food for themselves. Even the army had to cut the rations for soldiers. Morale of both civilians and soldiers continued to sink.

967: 775:. While Grey was suggesting a mediation between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, Bethmann Hollweg wanted Austria-Hungary to attack Serbia and so he tampered with the British message and deleted the last line of the letter: "Also, the whole world here is convinced, and I hear from my colleagues that the key to the situation lies in Berlin, and that if Berlin seriously wants peace, it will prevent Vienna from following a foolhardy policy. 1212: 505: 519: 958:. The Central Powers were thereby denied a quick victory and forced to fight a war on two fronts. The German army had fought its way into a good defensive position inside France and had permanently incapacitated 230,000 more French and British troops than it had lost itself. Despite this, communications problems and questionable command decisions cost Germany the chance of obtaining an early victory. 1392:"Our men have reached an agreement with the French to cease fire. They bring us bread, wine, sardines etc., we bring them schnapps. The masters make war, they have a quarrel, and the workers, the little men...have to stand there fighting against each other. Is that not a great stupidity?...If this were to be decided according to the number of votes, we would have been long home by now" 702:, both to produce food and to preserve grain. The winter of 1916/17 was called the "turnip winter" because the potato harvest was poor and people ate animal food, including vile-tasting turnips. From August 1914 to mid-1919, the excess deaths compared to peacetime caused by malnutrition and high rates of exhaustion and disease and despair came to about 474,000 civilians. 846:(respectively commander-in-chief and chief of staff for the Eastern Front) for an Eastern Offensive. They then succeeded, in August 1916 in securing Falkenhayn's replacement by Hindenburg as Chief of the General Staff, with Ludendorff as First Quartermaster-General (Hindenburg's deputy). Thereafter, Bethmann Hollweg's hopes for US President 1033:. This happened as the enthusiasm for war faded with the enormous numbers of casualties, the dwindling supply of manpower, the mounting difficulties on the homefront, and the never-ending flow of casualty reports. A grimmer and grimmer attitude began to prevail amongst the general population. The only highlight was the first use of 744:'s plea for friendship. Bethmann Hollweg was assured that Britain would not intervene in the frantic diplomatic rounds across the European powers. However, reliance on that assumption encouraged Austria to demand Serbian concessions. His main concern was Russian border manoeuvres, conveyed by his ambassadors at a time when 1159:

Staff. Military officers controlled civilian government officials, the staffs of banks, cartels, firms, and factories, engineers and scientists, workingmen, farmers-indeed almost every element in German society; and all efforts were directed in theory and in large degree also in practice to forwarding the war effort.

1185:, as well as supplies from occupied Belgium and France. It set prices and regulated the distribution to vital war industries. It began the development of ersatz raw materials. KRA suffered many inefficiencies caused by the complexity and selfishness KRA encountered from commerce, industry, and the government. 865:, Bethmann Hollweg weakened his own position by failing to establish good control over public relations. To avoid highly intensive negative publicity, he conducted much of his diplomacy and secret, thereby failed to build strong support for it. In 1914 he was willing to risk a world war to win public support. 1227:

The food supply increasingly focused on potatoes and bread, it was harder and harder to buy meat. The meat ration in late 1916 was only 31% of peacetime, and it fell to 12% in late 1918. The fish ration was 51% in 1916, and none at all by late 1917. The rations for cheese, butter, rice, cereals, eggs

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By 1917, after three years of war, the various groups and bureaucratic hierarchies which had been operating more or less independently of one another in peacetime (and not infrequently had worked at cross purposes) were subordinated to one (and perhaps the most effective) of their number: the General

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By September 1918, the Central Powers were exhausted from fighting, the American forces were pouring into France at a rate of 10,000 a day, the British Empire was mobilised for war peaking at 4.5 million soldiers and 4,000 tanks on the Western Front. The decisive Allied counteroffensive, known as the

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The attrition warfare now caught up to both sides. Germany had used up all the best soldiers they had, and still had not conquered much territory. The British likewise were bringing in youths of 18 and unfit and middle-aged men, but they could see the Americans arriving steadily. The French had also

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After, morale was helped by victories against Serbia, Greece, Italy, and Russia which made great gains for the Central Powers. Morale was at its greatest since 1914 at the end of 1917 and beginning of 1918 with the defeat of Russia following her rise into revolution, and the German people braced for

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Conditions deteriorated rapidly on the home front, with severe food shortages reported in all urban areas. The causes involved the transfer of so many farmers and food workers into the military, combined with the overburdened railroad system, shortages of coal, and the British blockade that cut off

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had full control of the army, they had a large supply of reinforcements moved from the Eastern front, and they trained storm troopers with new tactics to race through the trenches and attack the enemy's command and communications centers. The new tactics would indeed restore mobility to the Western

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Bethmann Hollweg sought public approval from a declaration of war. His civilian colleagues pleaded for him to register some febrile protest, but he was frequently outflanked by the military leaders, who played an increasingly important role in the direction of all German policy. However, according

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It soon became apparent that Germany was not prepared for a war lasting more than a few months. At first, little was done to regulate the economy for a wartime footing, and the German war economy would remain badly organized throughout the war. Germany depended on imports of food and raw materials,

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While the KRA handled critical raw materials, the crisis over food supplies grew worse. The mobilization of so many farmers and horses, and the shortages of fertilizer, steadily reduced the food supply. Prisoners of war were sent to work on farms, and many women and elderly men took on work roles.

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Ludendorff erred by attacking the British first in 1918, instead of the French. He mistakenly thought the British to be too uninspired to respond rapidly to the new tactics. The exhausted, dispirited French perhaps might have folded. The German assaults on the British were ferocious—the largest of

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Bethmann Hollweg, much of whose foreign policy before the war had been guided by his desire to establish good relations with Britain, was particularly upset by Britain's declaration of war following the German violation of Belgium's neutrality during its invasion of France. He reportedly asked the

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deceptions were revealed. The Kaiser's first words to him were suitably brusque: "How did it all happen?" Rather than attempt to explain, the Chancellor offered his resignation by way of apology. Wilhelm refused to accept it, muttering furiously, "You've made this stew, now you're going to eat it!"

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in July 1914 was the steady growth of Russian power, and the growing closeness of the British and French military collaboration. Under these circumstances he decided to run what he considered a calculated risk to back Vienna in a local small-scale war against Serbia, while risking a major war with

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parties. That same July the strong opposition to him from high-level military leaders – including Hindenburg and Ludendorff who both threatened to resign – was exacerbated when Bethmann Hollweg convinced the Emperor to agree publicly to the introduction of equal manhood suffrage in Prussian state

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During the winter of 1917-18 it was "quiet" on the Western Front—British casualties averaged "only" 3,000 a week. Serious attacks were impossible in the winter because of the deep caramel-thick mud. Quietly the Germans brought in their best soldiers from the eastern front, selected elite storm

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German women were not employed in the Army, but large numbers took paid employment in industry and factories, and even larger numbers engaged in volunteer services. Housewives were taught how to cook without milk, eggs or fat; agencies helped widows find work. Banks, insurance companies and

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When Wilhelm arrived at the Potsdam station late in the evening of July 26, he was met by a pale, agitated, and somewhat fearful Chancellor. Bethmann Hollweg's apprehension stemmed not from the dangers of the looming war, but rather from his fear of the Kaiser's wrath when the extent of his

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Many Germans wanted an end to the war and increasing numbers of Germans began to associate with the political left, such as the Social Democratic Party and the more radical Independent Social Democratic Party which demanded an end to the war. The third reason was the entry of the

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Due to German military forces still occupying portions of France on the day of the armistice, various nationalist groups and those angered by the defeat in the war shifted blame to civilians; accusing them of betraying the army and surrendering. This contributed to the

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Although German armies were still on enemy soil as the war ended, the generals, the civilian leadership—and indeed the soldiers and the people—knew all was hopeless. They started looking for scapegoats. The hunger and popular dissatisfaction with the war precipitated

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Despite the often ruthless conduct of the German military machine, in the air and at sea as well as on land, individual German and soldiers could view the enemy with respect and empathy and the war with contempt. Some examples from letters homeward :

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Germany had no plans for mobilizing its civilian economy for the war effort, and no stockpiles of food or critical supplies had been made. Germany had to improvise rapidly. All major political sectors initially supported the war, including the Socialists.

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on 11 November 1918; in practice it was a surrender, and the Allies kept up the food blockade to guarantee an upper hand in negotiations. The now defunct German Empire had gotten so defunct that it fell and France took all of the empire.

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held senior posts in the Raw Materials Department of the War Ministry, while becoming chairman of AEG upon his father's death in 1915. Rathenau played the key role in convincing the War Ministry to set up the War Raw Materials Department

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In spring 1918, Germany realized that time was running out. It prepared for the decisive strike with new armies and new tactics, hoping to win the war on the Western front before millions of American soldiers appeared in battle. General

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materials, such as paper and cardboard for cloth and leather proved unsatisfactory. Soap was in short supply, as was hot water. All the cities reduced tram services, cut back on street lighting, and closed down theaters and cabarets.

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Out of a population of 65 million, Germany suffered 1.7 million military deaths and 430,000 civilian deaths due to wartime causes (especially the food blockade), plus about 17,000 killed in Africa and the other overseas colonies.

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had put it, which was readily supported by prevalent nationalism among the public. The German establishment hoped the war would unite the public behind the monarchy, and lessen the threat posed by the dramatic growth of the

1139:" was the enthusiastic support of mostly the educated middle- and upper-class elements of the population for the war when it first broke out in 1914. In the Reichstag, the vote for credits was unanimous, including from the 1181:- 'KRA'); he was in charge of it from August 1914 to March 1915 and established the basic policies and procedures. His senior staff were on loan from industry. KRA focused on raw materials threatened by the 1109:

throughout Germany. By 11 November Germany had virtually surrendered, the Kaiser and all the royal families had abdicated, and the German Empire fell and Germany actually never became a country of today.

850:'s mediation at the end of 1916 came to nothing. Over Bethmann Hollweg's objections, Hindenburg and Ludendorff forced the adoption of unrestricted submarine warfare in March 1917, adopted as a result of 1016: 733:

for quick victory against a poorly prepared France. By rushing through Belgium, Germany expanded the war to include England. Bethmann thus failed to keep France and Britain out of the conflict.

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Cox, Mary Elisabeth (2015-05-01). "Hunger games: or how the Allied blockade in the First World War deprived German children of nutrition, and Allied food aid subsequently saved them".

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and when Russia attacked in this region it diverted German forces intended for the Western Front. Germany defeated Russia in a series of battles collectively known as the First

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German soldiers on the way to the front in 1914. A message on the freight car spells out "Trip to Paris"; early in the war, all sides expected the conflict to be a short one.

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The drafting of miners reduced the main energy source, coal. The textile factories produced Army uniforms, and warm clothing for civilians ran short. The device of using

838:, which was a survey of ideas from the elite should Germany win the war. Bethmann Hollweg, with all credibility and power now lost, conspired over Falkenhayn's head with 1429: 2775: 729:

Russia. He calculated that France would not support Russia. It failed when Russia decided on general mobilization, and his own Army demanded the opportunity to use the

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called for the mobilization of all economic resources to produce artillery, shells, and machine guns. Church bells and copper roofs were ripped out and melted down.

4279: 2626: 939:(5–12 September). The last days of this battle signified the end of mobile warfare in the west. The French offensive into Germany launched on 7 August with the 2827: 550: 4309: 4214: 595:

fronts, although German territory itself remained relatively safe from widespread invasion for most of the war, except for a brief period in 1914 when

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elections. The combination of political and military opposition forced Bethmann Hollweg's resignation and replacement by a relatively unknown figure,

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The German population responded to the outbreak of war in 1914 with a complex mix of emotions, in a similar way to the populations of emotions in the

1101:, began on 8 August 1918—what Ludendorff called the "Black Day of the German army." The Allied armies advanced steadily as German defenses faltered. 1080: 4304: 709:

Bethmann Hollweg in uniform. He never served in the army, but after the war started, he was appointed to an honorary rank with a general's uniform.

1279:, they quickly spread the revolt across Germany. Meanwhile, Hindenburg and the senior generals lost confidence in the Kaiser and his government. 4174: 3961: 3209: 3052: 429: 1010: 4149: 3414: 2430:

A History of the Blockade of Germany and the Countries Associated with Her in the Great War, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey, 1914–1918

1578: 954:(17 August – 2 September), but this diversion exacerbated problems of insufficient speed of advance from rail-heads not foreseen by the 819:, writing in the 1960s, Bethmann Hollweg made more concessions to the nationalist right than had previously been thought. He supported the 4204: 2178:(Pen and Sword Military, 2010). This book is a compilation of German soldiers' letters and memoirs. All the references come from this book. 1029: 2450:

Burchardt, Lothar. "The Impact of the War Economy on the Civilian Population of Germany during the First and the Second World Wars," in

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Wolfgang J. Mommsen,"Public opinion and foreign policy in Wilhelmian Germany, 1897–1914." Central European History 24.4 (1991): 381-401.

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and the workers' and soldiers' councils, the Kaiser and all German ruling princes abdicated. On 9 November 1918, the Social Democrat

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Wilhelm Diest and E. J. Feuchtwanger, "The Military Collapse of the German Empire: the Reality Behind the Stab-in-the-Back Myth,"

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Posters of the German Military Government in the Generalgouvernement Warshau (German occupied Poland) from World War I, 1915-1916

2097: 1302: 877: 669:. The war was presented inside Germany as the chance for the nation to secure "our place under the sun," as the Foreign Minister 596: 102: 2839: 1008:(SAG, "Social Democratic Working Group"). On 17 January they expelled them, and in April 1917 the left-wing went on to form the 1004:

In early 1917 the SPD leadership became concerned about the activity of its anti-war left-wing which had been organising as the

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Great War, Total War: Combat and Mobilization on the Western Front, 1914-1918 (Publications of the German Historical Institute)

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When the Austro-Hungarian ultimatum was presented to Serbia, Kaiser Wilhelm II ended his vacation and hurried back to Berlin.

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into the war in April 1917, which tipped the long-run balance of power even more to the Allies. The end of October 1918, in

771:, were instrumental in assuring Austria-Hungary of Germany's unconditional support, regardless of Austria's actions against 4234: 3481: 2857: 3991: 3954: 3328: 3311: 3144: 2286:

German and Austrian Aviation of World War I: A Pictorial Chronicle of the Airmen and Aircraft That Forged German Airpower

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Dasey, Robyn. "Women's Work and the Family: Women Garment Workers in Berlin and Hamburg before the First World War," in

1246: 4345: 3219: 3184: 3129: 2623: 2231: 1306: 1140: 991: 675: 608: 449: 243: 98: 756:, "Russian mobilisation measures would compel us to mobilise and that then European war could scarcely be prevented." 4269: 3668: 3572: 3409: 2821: 2444: 2293: 2278: 1862: 1835: 1608: 1500: 858:. Bethmann Hollweg had been a reluctant participant and opposed it in cabinet. The US entered the war in April 1917. 2851: 1522: 4026: 2515:

Donson, Andrew. "Why did German youth become fascists? Nationalist males born 1900 to 1908 in war and revolution,"

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Terraine, John. "'An Actual Revolutionary Situation': In 1917 there was little to sustain German morale at home,"

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Germany's Defeat in the First World War: The Lost Battles and Reckless Gambles That Brought Down the Second Reich

797: 255: 120: 1188: 913:, the German soldiers bound westwards to France and those bound eastwards to Russia smilingly salute each other. 4093: 4088: 3947: 3517: 3333: 3017: 2875: 2833: 2713: 1660: 1272: 1151: 124: 83: 2881: 2730: 1543:

Konrad H. Jarausch, "The Illusion of Limited War: Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg's Calculated Risk, July 1914."

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Total Warfare and Compulsory Labor: A Study of the Military-Industrial Complex in Germany during World War I

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The Silent Dictatorship: The Politics of the German High Command under Hindenburg and Ludendorff, 1916–1918

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N.P. Howard, N.P. "The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918-19,"

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The German Family: Essays on the Social History of the Family in Nineteenth-and Twentieth-Century Germany,

2447:. Covers France, UK, USA, Russia, Italy, Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and the Netherlands 1317:

7 million soldiers and sailors were quickly demobilized. Some joined right-wing organizations such as the

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Feldman, Gerald D. "The Political and Social Foundations of Germany's Economic Mobilization, 1914-1916,"

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Feldman, Gerald D. "The Political and Social Foundations of Germany's Economic Mobilization, 1914-1916,"

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Bethmann Hollweg remained in office until July 1917, when a Reichstag revolt resulted in the passage of

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N. P. Howard, "The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918-19,"

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were limited, then rationing was introduced. In 1915 five million pigs were massacred in the so-called

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Howard, N.P. "The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918-19,"

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N.P. Howard, "The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918-19,"

4335: 4264: 4189: 4042: 3986: 3801: 2986: 2575: 2378:(U. of Nebraska Press, 1982); Contains design and production figures, as well as economic influences. 936: 816: 679: 132: 128: 63: 4259: 4103: 4078: 3778: 3740: 3577: 3348: 1241: 851: 140: 2611:

Moeller, Robert G. "Dimensions of Social Conflict in the Great War: A View from the Countryside,"

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War and Revolution in Leipzig, 1914–1918: Socialist Politics and Urban Evolution in a German City

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Marquis, H. G. "Words as Weapons: Propaganda in Britain and Germany during the First World War."

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Allen, Keith. "Sharing Scarcity: Bread Rationing and the First World War in Berlin, 1914– 1923,"

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edited by Richard Wall and Jay M. Winter, (Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 289–416.

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Keith Allen, "Sharing scarcity: Bread rationing and the First World War in Berlin, 1914-1923,"

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Keith Allen, "Sharing scarcity: Bread rationing and the First World War in Berlin, 1914-1923,"

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edited by Richard Wall and Jay M. Winter, (Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 159–96.

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caused severe food shortages in the cities, especially in the winter of 1916–17, known as the

4224: 4098: 4047: 3876: 3695: 3680: 3643: 2904: 1332: 1295: 584: 470: 112: 2815: 2802: 1650: 670: 3658: 3602: 3486: 3424: 3419: 3389: 3321: 3299: 3247: 3149: 955: 737: 683: 465: 293: 280: 172: 2795: 607:. At the end of the war, Germany's defeat and widespread popular discontent triggered the 8: 4118: 3841: 3735: 3710: 3705: 3582: 3527: 3466: 3372: 3103: 3037: 2913: 1299: 1065: 979: 862: 839: 824: 653:

have been challenged by more recent scholarship. The German government, dominated by the

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Despite its membership in the 3955: 2934: 2639:(1991), on food supply of Britain and Germany 2463:Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914–1918 2032:Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914-1918 1879:Imperial Germany and the Great War, 1914-1918 1400:Anonymous Bavarian soldier, 17 October 1914. 544: 2503:Authority and Upheaval in Leipzig, 1910–1920 2452:The German Military in the Age of Total War, 2435:Broadberry, Stephen and Mark Harrison, eds. 2342:Hubatsch, Walther; Backus, Oswald P (1963), 2045:Germany, Propaganda and Total War, 1914-1918 1691: 412: 298: 3053:Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16) 2888:War Aims and War Aims Discussions (Germany) 2748:War Experiences in Rural Germany, 1914-1923 2572:Facing total war: German society, 1914-1918 2519:Aug2006, Vol. 31, Issue 3, pp. 337–358 1323:; radicals or the far Left helped form the 1030:Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany 3962: 3948: 2941: 2927: 2346:, Lawrence, Kansas: University of Kansas, 1975:April 1993, Vol. 11, Issue 2, pp. 161-188. 946:In the east, only one Field Army defended 748:himself was preparing a secret mission to 551: 537: 2725:Winter, Jay, and Jean-Louis Robert, eds. 2665:The Allied Blockade of Germany, 1914–1916 2384:The German Army on the Somme: 1914 - 1916 2139:April 1996, Vol. 3, Issue 2, pp. 186-207. 1655:. Cornell University Press. p. 233. 1365:German workshop creating artificial limbs 876:by an alliance of the Social Democratic, 2765:Recent Revelations Of European Diplomacy 2421:Bailey, S. "The Berlin Strike of 1918," 2246:Wilhelm II: Emperor and Exile, 1900-1941 1933:(2001), pp. 1014-49 on Rathenau and KRA. 1482: 1376: 1360: 1348: 1245: 1210: 1187: 1122: 1079: 995: 965: 904: 896: 786: 759:Following the assassination of Archduke 704: 636: 2858:Organization of War Economies (Germany) 2651:Faust's Metropolis: a History of Berlin 2432:(London: H. M. Stationery Office, 1937) 2381: 1962:(1998), 32#2, pp. 371-93, quote p. 380. 1823: 1006:Sozialdemokratische Arbeitsgemeinschaft 641:World War I mobilization, 1 August 1914 4323: 2846:Women's Mobilisation for War (Germany) 2095: 1931:The First World War: Volume I: To Arms 1918:Zeitschrift für Unternehmensgeschichte 1850: 1596: 3943: 2922: 2386:. 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Nijhoff, 1964) 2152:(Yale University Press, 1940) 2102:Deutsches Historisches Museum 1425:Home front during World War I 1410:German entry into World War I 1353:German trench destroyed by a 1338: 1113: 796:departing British Ambassador 720:German entry into World War I 713: 629:German entry into World War I 4331:German Empire in World War I 2912:From the Collections at the 2876:Propaganda at Home (Germany) 2834:Food and Nutrition (Germany) 2437:The Economics of World War I 1597:Butler, David Allen (2010). 1265:German Revolution of 1918–19 1118: 892: 7: 2882:Warfare 1914-1918 (Germany) 2465:(1998), wide-ranging survey 2237: 2098:"Der Matrosenaufstand 1918" 1990:The Economic History Review 1851:Tucker, Spencer C. (2005). 1710:Canadian Journal of History 1577:(1997), pp. 70-89 at p. 71. 1575:The Outbreak of World War I 1403: 1309:called for and received an 919:Western Front (World War I) 622: 583:. German forces fought the 10: 4372: 3160:North German Confederation 3140:Confederation of the Rhine 2870:Press/Journalism (Germany) 2524:Armed Forces & Society 2371:(London: Croom Helm, 1976) 2336:A Companion to World War I 1960:Journal of Social History, 1946:(1976), 3#1, pp. 121-145. 1944:Armed Forces & Society 1695:Neue Deutsche Biographie 2 1342: 1325:Communist Party of Germany 1239: 1163: 1052: 989: 916: 717: 626: 316:North German Confederation 286:Confederation of the Rhine 4346:Modern history of Germany 4297: 4137: 4066: 4035: 3979: 3894: 3754: 3634: 3625: 3508: 3499: 3380: 3371: 3307: 3298: 3261: 3240: 3122: 3076: 3000: 2969: 2960: 2770:Lutz, Ralph Haswell, ed. 2409:Journal of Social History 2071:Journal of Social History 1749:Fred R. Van Hartesveldt, 1560:15#3 (1990), pp. 120–50, 1469:(1993), 11#2, pp. 161-88 937:First Battle of the Marne 3312:Administrative divisions 2689:Central European History 2653:(1998), pp. 234–83. 2613:Central European History 2423:Central European History 2312:Zeppelins of World War I 1857:ABC-CLIO. p. 1256. 1545:Central European History 1440: 1242:Aftermath of World War I 852:Henning von Holtzendorff 597:East Prussia was invaded 2892:Whalen, Robert Weldon: 2676:excerpt and text search 2591:(1938) a brief survey 2331:(1996), mostly military 2288:(2000). Osprey Pub Co. 1824:Millett, Allan (1991). 1456:(Cambridge U.P., 2000). 1388:Dominik Richert, 1914. 1307:German Social Democrats 1179:Kriegsrohstoffabteilung 1150:According to historian 1055:German spring offensive 1048: 985: 961: 929:Battle of the Frontiers 4351:World War I by country 3573:Science and technology 3274:History of Brandenburg 3165:Unification of Germany 3155:Frankfurt Constitution 2576:online at ACLS e-books 2382:Sheldon, Jack (2005). 2310:Cross, Wilbur (1991), 1907:(1991 edition) p. 742. 1784:Bruce I. Gudmundsson, 1558:International Security 1530:Encyclopedia Americana 1483:Strachan, Hew (1998). 1366: 1358: 1345:World War I casualties 1251: 1216: 1193: 1132: 1099:Hundred Days Offensive 1089: 1024: 1001: 971: 914: 902: 807:), which was the 1839 792: 785: 710: 642: 413: 299: 168:Linear Pottery culture 3974:by region and country 3210:Flight and expulsions 2905:Spartacus Educational 2868:Altenhöner, Florian: 2864:War Finance (Germany) 2856:Ullmann, Hans-Peter: 2801:Articles relating to 2796:"The First World War" 2792:"Der Erste Weltkrieg" 2587:Lutz, Ralph Haswell. 2244:Cecil, Lamar (1996), 1377:Soldiers' experiences 1364: 1352: 1333:Stab-in-the-back myth 1303:proclaimed a Republic 1271:at the prospect of a 1249: 1214: 1191: 1126: 1083: 1053:Further information: 999: 969: 943:had limited success. 908: 900: 790: 780: 708: 640: 94:Territorial evolution 3882:World Heritage Sites 3560:German states by GDP 3150:German Confederation 2894:War Losses (Germany) 2838:Oppelland, Torsten: 2774:(2 vol 1932). 868pp 2299:Cruttwell, C.R.M.F. 1905:The Rise of the West 1903:William H. McNeill, 1814:(1935), pp. 505-35r. 1810:C.R.M.F. Cruttwell, 1394:Hermann Baur, 1915. 956:German General Staff 952:Battle of Tannenberg 752:. He wrote to Count 684:Second International 615:and established the 611:which overthrew the 430:Expulsion of Germans 396:Contemporary Germany 294:German Confederation 3518:Automobile industry 3104:Carolingian dynasty 3038:History of the Huns 2914:Library of Congress 2826:Bruendel, Steffen: 2812:Hirschfeld, Gerhard 2746:Ziemann, Benjamin. 2649:Richie, Alexandra. 2618:Moeller, Robert G. 2461:Chickering, Roger. 2226:Watson, Alexander. 2086:(1998), pp. 277-80. 1854:World War I: A - D. 1801:(2011), pp. 30-111. 1788:(1989), pp. 155-70. 1300:Philipp Scheidemann 1296:German High Command 1066:Paul von Hindenburg 863:Wolfgang J. Mommsen 840:Paul von Hindenburg 825:Polish Border Strip 692:blockade of Germany 244:Early Modern period 231:Eastward settlement 3588:Telecommunications 3269:History of Prussia 3185:Revolution of 1918 3180:War guilt question 3099:Carolingian Empire 3068:Sack of Rome (410) 2977:History of Germany 2886:Löffelbein, Nils: 2880:Pöhlmann, Markus: 2820:Fehlemann, Silke: 2708:Verhey, Jeffrey. 2629:2016-03-09 at the 2601:(1978) 12: 467–98. 2553:Herwig, Holger H. 2495:2020-11-17 at the 2327:Herwig, Holger H. 2084:Faust's Metropolis 2082:Alexandra Richie, 2030:Roger Chickering, 1892:Faust's Metropolis 1877:Roger Chickering, 1771:Holger H. Herwig, 1753:(1996), pp. 26-27. 1737:The Guns of August 1712:2.2 (1967): 49-61. 1633:The Guns of August 1584:2022-01-29 at the 1547:2.1 (1969): 48-76. 1415:History of Germany 1367: 1359: 1275:, and by means of 1252: 1217: 1194: 1152:William H. MacNeil 1145:Hindenburg Program 1133: 1131:, who is in a car. 1090: 1064:and Field Marshal 1002: 972: 941:Battle of Mulhouse 915: 903: 870:Matthias Erzberger 823:of Poles from the 793: 769:Gottlieb von Jagow 711: 671:Bernhard von Bülow 643: 524:History portal 510:Germany portal 261:Kingdom of Prussia 221:Kingdom of Germany 193:Barbarian kingdoms 4318: 4317: 4027:Southern Rhodesia 4022:South West Africa 3937: 3936: 3890: 3889: 3621: 3620: 3535:Chemical Triangle 3495: 3494: 3482:Political parties 3430:Foreign relations 3367: 3366: 3294: 3293: 3205:Allied occupation 3109:Holy Roman Empire 2903:article index at 2844:Stibbe, Matthew: 2778:, primary sources 2722:(IB Tauris, 2014) 2604:McKibbin, David. 2550:(1977), economics 2532:Feldman, Gerald. 2483:Davis, Belinda J. 2428:Bell, Archibald. 2414:Armeson, Robert. 2393:978-1-84415-269-8 2367:Kitchen, Martin. 2334:Horne, John, ed. 2321:978-1-55778-382-0 2314:, Paragon House, 2255:978-0-8078-2283-8 2002:10.1111/ehr.12070 1797:David Stevenson, 1734:Barbara Tuchman, 1630:Barbara Tuchman, 1290:suing for peace, 1236:Defeat and revolt 1084:German troops in 836:Septemberprogramm 802:ein Fetzen Papier 742:Leopold Berchtold 561: 560: 492: 491: 386: 385: 226:Holy Roman Empire 103:Holy Roman Empire 4363: 4336:1910s in Germany 3964: 3957: 3950: 3941: 3940: 3917: 3910: 3903: 3867:Prussian virtues 3632: 3631: 3540:Economic history 3506: 3505: 3400: 3378: 3377: 3329:Cities and towns 3305: 3304: 3285:Baden Revolution 3089:Treaty of Verdun 3058:Marcomannic Wars 3013:Migration Period 3008:Germanic peoples 2992:Military history 2967: 2966: 2943: 2936: 2929: 2920: 2919: 2862:Gross, Stephen: 2832:Davis, Belinda: 2790: 2539:Ferguson, Niall 2397: 2354: 2324: 2303:(1935) ch 15-29 2266: 2215: 2209: 2203: 2197: 2191: 2185: 2179: 2172: 2166: 2159: 2153: 2146: 2140: 2133: 2127: 2120: 2114: 2113: 2111: 2109: 2093: 2087: 2080: 2074: 2067: 2061: 2058:Imperial Germany 2054: 2048: 2041: 2035: 2034:(2004) p. 141-42 2028: 2022: 2021: 1985: 1976: 1969: 1963: 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1922: 1909: 1896: 1883: 1870: 1863: 1843: 1836: 1816: 1803: 1790: 1777: 1764: 1755: 1742: 1727: 1714: 1701: 1684: 1675: 1661: 1638: 1623: 1609: 1589: 1566: 1549: 1536: 1508: 1501: 1475: 1467:German History 1458: 1444: 1442: 1439: 1438: 1437: 1435:Central Powers 1432: 1427: 1422: 1417: 1412: 1405: 1402: 1378: 1375: 1355:mine explosion 1343:Main article: 1340: 1337: 1288:Ottoman Empire 1237: 1234: 1165: 1162: 1161: 1160: 1137:spirit of 1914 1120: 1117: 1115: 1112: 1050: 1047: 987: 984: 963: 960: 933:British forces 917:Main article: 911:Heinrich Zille 894: 891: 848:Woodrow Wilson 798:Edward Goschen 754:Sergey Sazonov 718:Main article: 715: 712: 651:Spirit of 1914 647:United Kingdom 624: 621: 573:Central Powers 559: 558: 556: 555: 548: 541: 533: 530: 529: 528: 527: 513: 496: 495: 490: 489: 486: 484:Modern history 480: 479: 476: 474: 473: 468: 462: 459: 458: 455: 453: 452: 439: 436: 435: 432: 426: 425: 424:1945–1949/1952 422: 420: 419: 410: 404: 399: 394: 393: 390: 389: 384: 383: 380: 374: 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3669:Ethnic groups 3667: 3666: 3665: 3662: 3660: 3657: 3655: 3652: 3650: 3647: 3645: 3642: 3640: 3637: 3636: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3624: 3614: 3611: 3609: 3606: 3604: 3601: 3599: 3596: 3594: 3591: 3589: 3586: 3584: 3581: 3579: 3576: 3574: 3571: 3569: 3567: 3563: 3561: 3558: 3556: 3553: 3551: 3548: 3546: 3543: 3541: 3538: 3536: 3533: 3529: 3526: 3525: 3524: 3521: 3519: 3516: 3514: 3511: 3510: 3507: 3504: 3502: 3498: 3488: 3485: 3483: 3480: 3478: 3475: 3473: 3470: 3468: 3465: 3463: 3460: 3458: 3455: 3451: 3448: 3446: 3443: 3441: 3438: 3437: 3436: 3433: 3431: 3428: 3426: 3423: 3421: 3418: 3416: 3413: 3411: 3408: 3406: 3403: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3391: 3388: 3386: 3383: 3382: 3379: 3376: 3374: 3370: 3360: 3357: 3355: 3352: 3350: 3347: 3345: 3342: 3340: 3337: 3335: 3332: 3330: 3327: 3323: 3320: 3318: 3315: 3314: 3313: 3310: 3309: 3306: 3303: 3301: 3297: 3286: 3283: 3280: 3277: 3275: 3272: 3270: 3267: 3266: 3264: 3260: 3254: 3251: 3249: 3248:Reunification 3246: 3245: 3243: 3239: 3231: 3228: 3226: 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G. 2762: 2761: 2753: 2750:(Berg, 2007) 2749: 2745: 2742: 2739:Winter, Jay. 2738: 2736: 2732: 2731:vol 1 excerpt 2728: 2724: 2721: 2717: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2704: 2700: 2697: 2693: 2690: 2686: 2683: 2682:History Today 2679: 2677: 2673: 2669: 2666: 2662: 2659: 2656:Ryder, A. J. 2655: 2652: 2648: 2645: 2641: 2638: 2634: 2632: 2628: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2614: 2610: 2607: 2603: 2600: 2596: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2583: 2579: 2577: 2573: 2569: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2556: 2552: 2549: 2545: 2542: 2538: 2535: 2531: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2518: 2514: 2511: 2507: 2504: 2500: 2498: 2494: 2491: 2487: 2484: 2481: 2478: 2474: 2471: 2468:Daniel, Ute. 2467: 2464: 2460: 2457: 2456:Wilhelm Deist 2453: 2449: 2446: 2445:0-521-85212-9 2442: 2438: 2434: 2431: 2427: 2424: 2420: 2417: 2413: 2410: 2406: 2405: 2395: 2389: 2385: 2380: 2377: 2373: 2370: 2366: 2364: 2360: 2356: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2340: 2337: 2333: 2330: 2326: 2323: 2317: 2313: 2308: 2306: 2302: 2298: 2295: 2294:1-84176-069-2 2291: 2287: 2283: 2280: 2279:0-521-77352-0 2276: 2272: 2268: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2251: 2247: 2242: 2241: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2224: 2213: 2208: 2201: 2196: 2189: 2184: 2177: 2171: 2164: 2158: 2151: 2145: 2138: 2132: 2125: 2122:A. J. Ryder, 2119: 2103: 2099: 2092: 2085: 2079: 2072: 2066: 2059: 2053: 2046: 2043:David Welch, 2040: 2033: 2027: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1984: 1982: 1974: 1968: 1961: 1955: 1949: 1945: 1939: 1932: 1926: 1919: 1913: 1906: 1900: 1894:, pp. 272-75. 1893: 1887: 1880: 1874: 1866: 1864:9781851094202 1860: 1856: 1855: 1847: 1839: 1837:9780029215968 1833: 1829: 1828: 1820: 1813: 1807: 1800: 1794: 1787: 1781: 1774: 1768: 1759: 1752: 1746: 1739: 1738: 1731: 1724: 1721:Jeff Lipkes, 1718: 1711: 1705: 1697: 1696: 1688: 1679: 1664: 1658: 1654: 1653: 1648: 1642: 1635: 1634: 1627: 1612: 1610:9781935149576 1606: 1602: 1601: 1593: 1587: 1583: 1580: 1576: 1570: 1563: 1559: 1553: 1546: 1540: 1532: 1531: 1525: 1518: 1517:public domain 1512: 1504: 1502:9780198206149 1498: 1494: 1489: 1488: 1479: 1472: 1468: 1462: 1455: 1449: 1445: 1436: 1433: 1431: 1428: 1426: 1423: 1421: 1418: 1416: 1413: 1411: 1408: 1407: 1401: 1399: 1395: 1393: 1389: 1387: 1383: 1374: 1371: 1363: 1356: 1351: 1346: 1336: 1334: 1328: 1326: 1322: 1321: 1315: 1312: 1308: 1304: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1280: 1278: 1274: 1270: 1266: 1262: 1258: 1257:United States 1248: 1243: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1222: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1203: 1198: 1190: 1186: 1184: 1180: 1175: 1170: 1157: 1156: 1155: 1153: 1148: 1146: 1142: 1138: 1130: 1125: 1111: 1108: 1102: 1100: 1094: 1087: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1067: 1063: 1056: 1046: 1044: 1041:what General 1038: 1036: 1032: 1031: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1013: 1012: 1007: 998: 993: 983: 981: 977: 968: 959: 957: 953: 949: 944: 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 920: 912: 907: 899: 890: 888: 883: 879: 875: 871: 866: 864: 861:According to 859: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 837: 832: 830: 829:Germanisation 826: 822: 818: 817:Fritz Fischer 815:to historian 812: 810: 803: 799: 789: 784: 779: 776: 774: 770: 766: 762: 757: 755: 751: 750:St Petersburg 747: 743: 739: 738:Hoyos Mission 734: 732: 727: 721: 707: 703: 701: 697: 693: 687: 685: 681: 677: 672: 668: 664: 660: 656: 652: 648: 639: 634: 630: 620: 618: 614: 610: 606: 605:Turnip Winter 602: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 579:by its ally, 578: 574: 570: 569:German Empire 566: 554: 549: 547: 542: 540: 535: 534: 532: 531: 525: 514: 511: 500: 499: 498: 497: 487: 485: 482: 481: 477: 472: 469: 467: 466:Reunification 464: 463: 461: 460: 456: 451: 448: 444: 441: 440: 438: 437: 433: 431: 428: 427: 423: 417: 416: 411: 409: 406: 405: 403: 402: 397: 392: 391: 381: 379: 376: 375: 371: 369: 366: 365: 361: 359: 356: 355: 351: 349: 346: 345: 341: 339: 338:German Empire 336: 335: 330: 325: 324: 317: 314: 312: 309: 303: 302: 297: 295: 292: 291: 289: 287: 284: 282: 281:Mediatisation 279: 278: 275: 270: 269: 262: 259: 257: 254: 252: 249: 248: 245: 240: 239: 232: 229: 227: 224: 222: 219: 217: 214: 213: 207: 206: 199: 196: 194: 191: 189: 186: 184: 181: 179: 176: 174: 171: 169: 166: 165: 162:Early history 159: 158: 150: 146: 142: 138: 134: 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 110: 107: 104: 100: 97: 95: 92: 90: 87: 85: 82: 80: 77: 75: 72: 70: 67: 65: 62: 60: 57: 56: 50: 49: 45: 41: 40: 37: 31: 30: 25: 20: 19: 16: 4184: 4017:South Africa 3915:Bibliography 3789:Coat of arms 3769:Architecture 3746:Trade unions 3726:Prostitution 3686:Homelessness 3649:Demographics 3598:Trade unions 3565: 3555:German model 3528:Central bank 3472:Conservatism 3435:Human rights 3420:Court system 3415:Constitution 3395: 3241:Contemporary 3230:West Germany 3225:East Germany 3200:World War II 3195:Nazi Germany 3174: 3135:18th-century 3094:East Francia 3048:Cimbrian War 2771: 2764: 2747: 2740: 2726: 2719: 2709: 2702: 2695: 2688: 2681: 2671: 2664: 2657: 2650: 2643: 2636: 2619: 2612: 2605: 2598: 2588: 2581: 2571: 2561: 2554: 2547: 2540: 2533: 2523: 2516: 2509: 2502: 2485: 2476: 2469: 2462: 2451: 2436: 2429: 2422: 2415: 2408: 2383: 2375: 2368: 2358: 2343: 2335: 2328: 2311: 2300: 2285: 2270: 2245: 2227: 2211: 2207: 2199: 2195: 2187: 2183: 2175: 2170: 2165:(1993) p 162 2162: 2157: 2149: 2144: 2136: 2131: 2123: 2118: 2106:. 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First 623:Overview 613:monarchy 450:division 109:Monarchs 69:Military 24:a series 22:Part of 4298:Oceania 4288:Ireland 4275:Ukraine 4245:Romania 4200:Ireland 4195:Hungary 4185:Germany 4175:Estonia 4170:Denmark 4165:Croatia 4155:Belgium 4145:Albania 4124:Vietnam 4012:Morocco 4007:Liberia 3901:Outline 3807:Fashion 3794:Cuisine 3756:Culture 3721:Poverty 3664:Germans 3627:Society 3608:Welfare 3593:Tourism 3550:Exports 3523:Banking 3501:Economy 3405:Cabinet 3344:Islands 3339:Geology 3262:Regions 3028:Teutons 3001:Ancient 2963:History 2950:Germany 2816:Germany 2803:Germany 2714:excerpt 2712:(2006) 2674:(2008) 2505:(2000). 2488:(2000) 2439:(2005) 2363:excerpt 2232:excerpt 1616:30 July 1519:: 1164:Economy 700:Germany 667:Britain 655:Junkers 593:western 589:eastern 563:During 137:Prussia 133:Bavaria 129:Austria 84:Judaism 74:Economy 35:Germany 4265:Sweden 4255:Serbia 4250:Russia 4235:Poland 4225:Norway 4190:Greece 4180:France 4138:Europe 4048:Canada 4043:Brazil 3987:Angola 3980:Africa 3929:Portal 3784:Cinema 3764:Anthem 3731:Racism 3545:Energy 3359:Rivers 3317:States 3287:, 1848 3123:Modern 2952: 2743:(1995) 2667:(1957) 2646:(2004) 2566:online 2536:(1966) 2528:online 2472:(1997) 2443: 2390: 2350: 2338:(2012) 2318: 2292: 2277: 2262: 2252: 2126:(2008) 2016: 2008: 1948:online 1861: 1834: 1740:(1962) 1725:(2007) 1668:7 July 1659: 1607: 1579:online 1499: 1471:online 1357:, 1917 1221:ersatz 1021:German 976:Verdun 882:Centre 880:, and 773:Serbia 663:Russia 659:France 585:Allies 577:Serbia 567:, the 141:Saxony 113:Queens 53:Topics 26:on the 4284:Wales 4260:Spain 4205:Italy 4129:Yemen 4104:Japan 4089:India 4079:China 3997:Egypt 3908:Index 3872:Sport 3857:Names 3852:Music 3847:Media 3802:Dance 3674:Women 3639:Crime 3613:Women 3349:Lakes 3023:Goths 2214:, 51. 2202:, 64. 2190:, 77. 2014:S2CID 1441:Notes 1135:The " 89:Women 4119:Siam 4099:Iraq 4094:Iran 4067:Asia 3822:Flag 3779:Arts 3445:LGBT 2441:ISBN 2388:ISBN 2348:OCLC 2316:ISBN 2290:ISBN 2275:ISBN 2260:OCLC 2250:ISBN 2110:2024 2006:ISSN 1859:ISBN 1832:ISBN 1670:2009 1657:ISBN 1618:2012 1605:ISBN 1497:ISBN 1261:Kiel 1086:Kiev 1049:1918 986:1917 978:and 962:1916 842:and 665:and 631:and 591:and 478:1990 447:East 443:West 121:1918 79:LGBT 3774:Art 3457:Law 2805:at 1998:doi 1493:125 872:'s 854:'s 763:in 4327:: 4286:, 2814:: 2733:; 2258:, 2012:. 2004:. 1994:68 1992:. 1980:^ 1527:. 1495:. 1327:. 1267:. 1154:: 1023:: 889:. 661:, 619:. 147:, 143:, 139:, 135:, 131:, 127:, 123:, 119:, 115:, 4290:) 4282:( 3963:e 3956:t 3949:v 2942:e 2935:t 2928:v 2396:. 2112:. 2020:. 2000:: 1867:. 1840:. 1672:. 1620:. 1564:. 1533:. 1505:. 1331:" 1177:( 1014:( 805:" 552:e 545:t 538:v 445:– 151:) 111:( 105:) 101:(

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