History of Germany (1945–1990)

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Ulbricht announced that "the democratic (sic) and economic development, and the consciousness (Bewusstsein) of the working class and the majority of the employed classes must be developed so that the construction of Socialism becomes their most important objective." This meant that the administration, the armed forces, the planning of industry and agriculture would be under the sole authority of the S.E.D. and its planning committee. Industries would be nationalized and collectivization introduced in the farm industry. When the first Five-Year Plan was announced, the flow of refugees out of East Germany began to grow. As a consequence, production fell, food became short and protests occurred in a number of factories. On 14 May 1952, the S.E.D. ordered that the production quotas (the output per man per shift) were to be increased by 10%, but wages to be kept at the former level. This decision was not popular with the new leaders in the Kremlin. Stalin had died in March 1953 and the new leadership was still evolving. The imposition of new production quotas contradicted the new direction of Soviet policies for their satellites.

2185:. The men on trial in Frankfurt were tried only for murders and other crimes that they committed on their own initiative at Auschwitz and were not tried for anything that they did at Auschwitz when following orders, which was considered by the courts to be the lesser crime of accomplice to murder. Because of this, Bauer could only indict for murder those who killed when not following orders, and those who had killed when following orders were indicted as accomplices to murder. Moreover because of the legal distinction between murderers and accomplices to murder, an SS man who killed thousands while operating the gas chambers at Auschwitz could only be found guilty of being accomplice to murder because he had been following orders, while an SS man who had beaten one inmate to death on his initiative could be convicted of murder because he had not been following orders. Daily newspaper reports and visits by school classes to the proceedings revealed to the German public the nature of the concentration camp system and it became evident that the 2559:

Kohl stated that Reagan could come to the Federal Republic to hold a ceremony to honor the dead of Bitburg or not come at all, and that to change the venue of the service to another war cemetery that did not have SS men buried in it was not acceptable to him. Even more controversy was caused by Reagan's statement that all of the SS men killed fighting for Hitler in World War II were "just kids" who were just as much the victims of Hitler as those who been murdered by the SS in the Holocaust. Despite the huge controversy caused by honoring the SS men buried at Bitburg, the visit to Bitburg went ahead, and Kohl and Reagan honored the dead of Bitburg. What was intended to promote German-American reconciliation turned out to be a public relations disaster that had the opposite effect. Public opinion polls showed that 72% of West Germans supported the service at Bitburg while American public opinion overwhelming disapproved of Reagan honoring the memory of the SS men who gave their lives for Hitler.

1912: 1999:(a type of comic book in Germany glorifying war), the Wehrmacht was celebrated as an awesome, heroic fighting force that had fought a "clean war" unlike the SS and which would have won the war as the Wehrmacht was always portrayed as superior to the Allied forces had not been for mistakes on the part of Hitler or workings of "fate". The Second World War was usually portrayed in heavily romantic aura in various works that celebrated the comradeship and heroism of ordinary soldiers under danger with the war itself being shown as "a great adventure for idealists and daredevils" who for the most part had a thoroughly fun time. The tendency in the 1950s to glorify war by depicting World War II as a fun-filled, grand adventure for the men who served in Hitler's war machine meant the horrors and hardship of the war were often downplayed. In his 2004 essay "Celluloid Soldiers" about post-war German films, the Israeli historian 2454: 2306: 1009: 2643: 2365:, which began by making bank raids to finance their activities and eventually went underground having killed a number of policemen, several bystanders and eventually two prominent West Germans, whom they had taken captive in order to force the release of prisoners sympathetic to their ideas. The "Baader-Meinhof gang" was committed to the overthrow of the Federal Republic via terrorism in order to achieve the establishment of a Communist state. In the 1990s attacks were still being committed under the name "RAF". The last action took place in 1993 and the group announced it was giving up its activities in 1998. Evidence that the groups had been infiltrated by German Intelligence undercover agents has since emerged, partly through the insistence of the son of one of their prominent victims, the State Counsel Buback. 1178:, with the U.S. operating under influence of the Morgenthau plan, the victorious Allies decided to abolish the German armed forces as well as all munitions factories and civilian industries that could support them. This included the destruction of all ship and aircraft manufacturing capability. Further, it was decided that civilian industries which might have a military potential, which in the modern era of "total war" included virtually all, were to be severely restricted. The restriction of the latter was set to Germany's "approved peacetime needs", which were defined to be set on the average European standard. In order to achieve this, each type of industry was subsequently reviewed to see how many factories Germany required under these minimum level of industry requirements. 984:

distribution of these Germans among the several zones of occupation. They are accordingly instructing their respective representatives on the control council to report to their Governments as soon as possible the extent to which such persons have already entered Germany from Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary, and to submit an estimate of the time and rate at which further transfers could be carried out, having regard to the present situation in Germany. The Czechoslovak Government, the Polish Provisional Government and the control council in Hungary are at the same time being informed of the above and are being requested meanwhile to suspend further expulsions pending the examination by the Governments concerned of the report from their representatives on the control council.

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for the most part convinced that the transformation of the GDR into a socialist state was the proper course to take but that the S.E.D. had taken a wrong turn. The S.E.D. responded with all of the force at its command and also with the help of the Soviet Occupation force. Thousands were arrested, sentenced to jail and many hundreds were forced to leave for West Germany. The S.E.D. later moderated its course but the damage had been done. The real face of the East German regime was revealed. The S.E.D. claimed that the strikes had been instigated by West German agents, but there is no evidence for this. Over 250 strikers were killed, around 100 policemen and some 18 Soviet soldiers died in the uprising; 17 June was declared a national day of remembrance in West Germany.

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two department stores in Frankfurt; they were brought to trial and made very clear to the court that they regarded their action as a legitimate act in what they described as the 'struggle against imperialism'. The student movement began to split into different factions, ranging from the unattached liberals to the Maoists and supporters of direct action in every form—the anarchists. Several groups set as their objective the aim of radicalizing the industrial workers and, taking an example from activities in Italy of the Brigade Rosse, many students went to work in the factories, but with little or no success. The most notorious of the underground groups was the 'Baader-Meinhof Group', later known as the

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for suffering during the National Socialist era, only those with a territorial connection with Germany could receive compensation for their suffering, which had the effect of excluding the millions of people, mostly from Central and Eastern Europe, who had been taken to Germany to work as slave labor during World War II. In the same vein, to be eligible for compensation they would have to prove that they were part of the "realm of German language and culture", a requirement that excluded most of the surviving slave laborers who did not know German or at least enough German to be considered part of the "realm of German language and culture". Likewise, the law excluded homosexuals, Gypsies, Communists,

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in other Soviet bloc countries, electoral participation was consistently high, as the following results indicate. In October 1950, a year after the formation of the GDR, 98.53% of the electorate voted. 99.72% of the votes were valid and 99.72% were cast in favor of the 'National Front'—the title of the 'coalition' of the Unity Party plus their associates in other conformist groups. In election after election, the votes cast for the Socialist Unity Party were always over 99%, and in 1963, two years after the Berlin Wall was constructed, the support for the S.E.D. was 99.95%. Only 0.05% of the electorate opposed the party according to these results, the veracity of which is disputable.

6425: 1185:. In January 1946 the Allied Control Council set the foundation of the future German economy by putting a cap on German steel production—the maximum allowed was set at about 5,800,000 tons of steel a year, equivalent to 25% of the pre-war production level. The UK, in whose occupation zone most of the steel production was located, had argued for a more limited capacity reduction by placing the production ceiling at 12 million tons of steel per year, but had to submit to the will of the U.S., France and the Soviet Union (which had argued for a 3 million ton limit). Germany was to be reduced to the standard of life it had known at the height of the 1899:, who led the Ministry of Economics during the decade. Unemployment at the start of the decade stood at 10.3%, but by 1960 it had dropped to 1.2%, practically speaking full employment. In fact, there was a growing demand for labor in many industries as the workforce grew by 3% per annum, the reserves of labor were virtually used up. The millions of displaced persons and the refugees from the eastern provinces had all been integrated into the workforce. At the end of the decade, thousands of younger East Germans were packing their bags and migrating westwards, posing an ever-growing problem for the GDR nomenclature. With the construction of the 1089: 2172:

Stashynsky case, namely that in a totalitarian system only executive decision-makers can be held legally responsible for any murders committed and that anyone else who follows orders and commits murders were just accomplices to murder was to greatly hinder the prosecution of Nazi war criminals in the coming decades, and ensured that even when convicted, that Nazi criminals received the far lighter sentences reserved for accomplices to murders than the harsher sentences given to murderers. The term executive decision-maker who could be found guilty of murder was reserved by the courts only for those at the highest levels of the

1966:, which had been banned in 1951 by the Hamburg government as a Communist front organisation, the new law did not help many of the KPD survivors. Compensation started to be paid to most Communist survivors regardless if they had belonged to the VVN or not following a 1967 court ruling, through the same court ruling had excluded those Communists who had "actively" fought the constitutional order after the banning of the KPD again in 1956. Only in the 1980s were demands made mostly from members of the SPD, FDP and above all the Green parties that the Federal Republic pay compensation to the Roma, Sinti, gay, homeless and 954:, although the exact delimitation of the boundary was left to be resolved at an eventual Peace Conference. Under the wartime alliances of the United Kingdom with the Czechoslovak and Polish governments-in-exile, the British had agreed in July 1942 to support "the General Principle of the transfer to Germany of German minorities in Central and South Eastern Europe after the war in cases where this seems necessary and desirable". In 1944 roughly 12.4 million ethnic Germans were living in territory that became part of post-war Poland and Soviet Union. Approximately 6 million fled or were evacuated before the 1331:

desperate economic situation within the Soviet Union took priority over alliance building. The allied leaders had agreed on paper to economic and political cooperation but the issue of reparations dealt an early blow to the prospect of a united Germany in 1945. The figure of $ 20 Billion had been floated by Stalin as an adequate recompense but as the United States refused to consider this a basis for negotiation The Soviet Union was left only with the opportunity of extracting its own reparations, at a heavy cost to the East Germans. This was the beginning of the formal split of Germany.

2446: 1940:("Asocials" – people considered by the National Socialist state to be anti-social, a broad category comprising anyone from petty criminals to people who were merely eccentric and non-conformist), and homeless people for their suffering in the concentration camps under the grounds that all these people were "criminals" whom the state was protecting German society from by sending them to concentration camps, and in essence these victims of the National Socialist state got what they deserved, making them unworthy of compensation. In this regard it is significant that the 1935 version of 1057:, consisting of the commanders-in-chief in Germany of the United States, the United Kingdom, France and the Soviet Union; who exercised supreme authority in their respective zones, while supposedly acting in concert on questions affecting the whole country. In actuality however, the French consistently blocked any progress towards re-establishing all-German governing institutions; substantially in pursuit of French aspirations for a dismembered Germany, but also as a response to the exclusion of France from the Yalta and Potsdam conferences. 50: 2697:

projects in the ruins of East Berlin was the construction of Stalin Allee, on which the most 'class-conscious' workers (in S.E.D. propaganda terms) were involved. At a meeting, strikers declared "You give the capitalists (the factory owners) presents, and we are exploited!" A delegation of building workers marched to the headquarters of the S.E.D. demanding that the production quotas be rescinded. The crowd grew, demands were made for the removal of Ulbricht from office and a general strike called for the following day.

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the whole German armament industry, and the removal or destruction of other key industries which are basic to military strength. ... Within a short period, if possible not longer than 6 months after the cessation of hostilities, all industrial plants and equipment not destroyed by military action shall either be completely dismantled and removed from the area or completely destroyed. All equipment shall be removed from the mines and the mines shall be thoroughly wrecked.

4985: 80: 2469:, a leading FDP official, became Vice Chancellor and Foreign Minister. Schmidt, a strong supporter of the European Community (EC) and the Atlantic alliance, emphasized his commitment to "the political unification of Europe in partnership with the USA". Throughout the 1970s, the Red Army Faction had continued its terrorist campaign, assassinating or kidnapping politicians, judges, businessmen, and policemen. The highpoint of the RAF violence came with the 1928:

that single workers would come to Germany, would work for a limited number of years and then return home. The significant differences between wages in their home countries and in Germany led many workers to bring their families and to settle—at least until retirement—in Germany. That the German authorities took little notice of the radical changes that these shifts of population structure meant was the cause of considerable debate in later years.

273: 1806: 4999: 879: 69: 1021:; maintaining a strong culture of grievance and victimhood against Soviet Power, pressing for a continued commitment to full German reunification, claiming compensation, pursuing the right of return to lost property in the East, and opposing any recognition of the postwar extension of Poland and the Soviet Union into former German lands. Owing to the Cold War rhetoric and successful political machinations of 893: 1440:

of food. The U.S. Army sent in large shipments of food to feed some 7.7 million prisoners of war—far more than they had expected—as well as the general population. For several years following the surrender, German nutritional levels were low. The Germans were not high on the priority list for international aid, which went to the victims of the Nazis. It was directed that all relief went to non-German

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inaccurate. ... Many Germans believe that the Marshall Plan was alone responsible for the economic miracle of the Fifties. And when scholars come along and explain that reality was far more complex, they are skeptical and disappointed. They should not be. For the Marshall Plan certainly did play a key role in Germany's recovery, albeit perhaps more of a psychological than a purely economic one.

2404:—gained enough votes to form a coalition government with the FDP. Although chancellor for only just over four years, Brandt was one of the most popular politicians in the whole period. Brandt was a gifted speaker and the growth of the Social Democrats from there on was in no small part due to his personality. Brandt began a policy of rapprochement with West Germany's eastern neighbors known as 2353: 1619:, with West Berlin completely surrounded by East German territory. Though the German inhabitants of West Berlin were citizens of the Federal Republic of Germany, West Berlin was not legally incorporated into West Germany; it remained under the formal occupation of the western allies until 1990, although most day-to-day administration was conducted by an elected West Berlin government. 1411:. During the more than two years that this policy was in place, no industrial research in Germany could take place, as any results would have been automatically available to overseas competitors who were encouraged by the occupation authorities to access all records and facilities. Meanwhile, thousands of the best German scientists were being put to work in the U.S. (see also 2349:, which not only made homosexual acts a felony, but had also made any expressions of homosexuality illegal (before 1935 only gay sex had been illegal). However, Paragraph 175 which made homosexual acts illegal remained on the statute books and was not repealed until 1994, although it had been softened in 1973 by making gay sex illegal only with those under the age of 18. 2494:

The Red Army Faction was to continue its terrorist campaign into the 1990s, but the German Autumn of 1977 was the highpoint of its campaign. That the Federal Republic had faced a crisis caused by a terrorist campaign from the radical left without succumbing to dictatorship as many feared that it would, was seen as vindication of the strength of German democracy.

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the prime cause of the violence against students. Trucks carrying newspapers were set on fire and windows in office buildings broken. In the wake of these demonstrations, in which the question of America's role in Vietnam began to play a bigger role, came a desire among the students to find out more about the role of their parents' generation in the Nazi era.

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83 that he would take on the position. His aim was apparently to remain in control of German politics for another ten years despite the growing mood for change, but when his advisers informed him just how limited the powers of the president were he quickly lost interest. An alternative candidate was needed and eventually the Minister of Agriculture,

1790:(EDC), with an integrated army, navy and air force, composed of the armed forces of its member states. The West German military would be subject to complete EDC control, but the other EDC member states (Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands) would cooperate in the EDC while maintaining independent control of their own armed forces. 1528:). Naimark concludes "The social psychology of women and men in the Soviet zone of occupation was marked by the crime of rape from the first days of occupation, through the founding of the GDR in the fall of 1949, until—one could argue—the present." Some of the victims had been raped as many as 60 to 70 times. According to German historian 1042:

which West Germany contrived to inhibit consideration of unification or a final Peace Treaty until the West was strong enough to face the Soviets on equal terms. Consequently, the Federal Republic in the 1950s adopted much of the symbolism of expellee groups; especially in appropriating and subverting the terminology and imagery of the

1802:(WEU). West Germany was to be permitted to rearm, and have full sovereign control of its military; the WEU would, however, regulate the size of the armed forces permitted to each of its member states. Fears of a return to Nazism, however, soon receded, and as a consequence, these provisions of the WEU treaty have little effect today. 1957:

during the National Socialist era. The cause of the Roma and Sinti excited so little public interest that it was not until 1979 that a group was founded to lobby for compensation for the Roma and the Sinti survivors. Communist concentration camp survivors were excluded from compensation under the grounds that in 1933 the

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maintain a military presence in Berlin until the complete withdrawal of the Western Group of Forces (ex-Soviet) from the territory of the former East Germany. The Russian withdrawal was completed 31 August 1994. Ceremonies were held on 8 September 1994, to mark the final departure of Western Allied troops from Berlin.

2410:, a policy opposed by the CDU. The issue of improving relations with Poland, Czechoslovakia, and East Germany made for an increasingly aggressive tone in public debates but it was a huge step forward when Willy Brandt and the Foreign Minister, Walther Scheel (FDP) negotiated agreements with all three countries ( 2426:, signed in December 1972). These agreements were the basis for a rapid improvement in the relations between east and west and led, in the long term, to the dismantlement of the Warsaw Treaty and the Soviet Union's control over East-Central Europe. During a visit to Warsaw on 7 December 1970, Brandt made the 3268:

It should be the aim of the Allied Forces to accomplish the complete demilitarization of Germany in the shortest possible period of time after its surrender. This means completely disarming the German Army and people (including the removal or destruction of all war material), the total destruction of

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ended Berlin's special status as a separate area under Four Power control. Under the terms of the treaty between West and East Germany, Berlin became the capital of a unified Germany. The Bundestag voted in June 1991 to make Berlin the seat of government. The Government of Germany asked the Allies to

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On 17 June 1953 strikes and demonstrations occurred in 250 towns and cities in the GDR. Between 300,000 and 400,000 workers took part in the strikes, which were specifically directed towards the rescinding of the production quotas and were not an attempt to overthrow the government. The strikers were

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Despite or perhaps because of the Bitburg controversy, in 1985 a campaign had been started to build a memorial to the victims of the Holocaust in Berlin. It was felt by at least some Germans that there was something wrong about the Chancellor and the President of the United States honoring the memory

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commando unit, who were able to free the hostages. The same day, the leaders of the Baader-Meinhof gang, who had been waging a hunger strike, were found dead in their prison cells with gunshot wounds, which led to Schleyer being executed by his captors. The deaths were controversially ruled suicides.

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Anger over the treatment of demonstrators following the death of Benno Ohnesorg and the attack on Rudi Dutschke, coupled with growing frustration over the lack of success in achieving their aims, led to growing militancy among students and their supporters. In May 1968, three young people set fire to

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The proceedings of the War Crimes Tribunal at Nuremberg had been widely publicised in Germany but, a new generation of teachers, educated with the findings of historical studies, could begin to reveal the truth about the war and the crimes committed in the name of the German people. In 1963, a German

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The grand old man of German postwar politics had to be dragged—almost literally—out of office in 1963. In 1959, it was time to elect a new president and Adenauer decided that he would place Erhard in this office. Erhard was not enthusiastic, and to everybody's surprise, Adenauer decided at the age of

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Until the end of occupation in 1990, the three Western Allies retained occupation powers in Berlin and certain responsibilities for Germany as a whole. Under the new arrangements, the Allies stationed troops within West Germany for NATO defense, pursuant to stationing and status-of-forces agreements.

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was not repealed until 1969. As a result, German homosexuals – in many cases survivors of the concentration camps – between 1949 and 1969 continued to be convicted under the same law that had been used to convict them between 1935 and 1945, though in the period 1949–69 they were sent to prison rather

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During the war, Germans seized food supplies from occupied countries and forced millions of foreigners to work on German farms and factories, in addition to food shipped from farms in eastern Germany. When this ended in 1945, the German rationing system (which stayed in place) had much lower supplies

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began. It was agreed at Potsdam that the leading members of the Nazi regime who had been captured should be put on trial accused of crimes against humanity, and this was one of the few points on which the four powers were able to agree. In order to secure the presence of the western allies in Berlin,

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is a digital collection that provides a varied selection of publications in both English and German from the period immediately following World War II. Many are publications of the U.S. occupying forces, including reports and descriptions of efforts to introduce U.S.-style democracy to Germany. Some

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around West Berlin to slow the flood of refugees to a trickle, effectively cutting the city in half and making West Berlin an enclave of the Western world in communist territory. The Wall became the symbol of the Cold War and the division of Europe. Shortly afterward, the main border between the two

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and that of West Germany. Representatives of the city participated as non-voting members in the West German Parliament; appropriate West German agencies, such as the supreme administrative court, had their permanent seats in the city; and the governing mayor of West Berlin took his turn as President

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With the formation of a separate East German communist state in October 1949, the Socialist Unity Party faced a huge range of problems. Not only were the cities in ruins, much of the productive machinery and equipment had been seized by the Soviet occupation force and transported to The Soviet Union

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passed the Misdemeanors Bill without bothering to read the bill in its entirety so its members missed Dreher's amendment. It was estimated in 1969 that thanks to Dreher's amendment to the Misdemeanors Bill that 90% of all Nazi war criminals now enjoyed total immunity from prosecution. The prosecutor

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of 15 years from the time of the offense for the crime of being an accomplices to murder which was to apply retroactively, which made it impossible to prosecute war criminals even for being accomplices to murder since the statute of limitations as now defined for the last of the suspects had expired

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had been seeking "violent domination" by working for a Communist revolution, and thus the banning of the KPD and the subsequent repression of the Communists were justified. In 1956, the law was amended to allow Communist concentration camp survivors to collect compensation provided that they had not

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Between 1949 and 1960, the West German economy grew at an unparalleled rate. Low rates of inflation, modest wage increases and a quickly rising export quota made it possible to restore the economy and brought a modest prosperity. According to the official statistics the German gross national product

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was dissolved, and the International Red Cross and the few other allowed international relief agencies were kept from helping Germans through strict controls on supplies and on travel. The few agencies permitted to help Germans, such as the indigenous Caritasverband, were not allowed to use imported

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worked against the possibility of achieving the objectives of the expellee population from the east through negotiation with the Soviet Union. But for Adenauer, fostering and encouraging unrealistic demands and uncompromising expectations amongst the expellees would serve his "Policy of Strength" by

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Between 1948 and 1990, major events such as fairs and festivals were sponsored in West Berlin, and investment in commerce and industry was encouraged by special concessionary tax legislation. The results of such efforts, combined with effective city administration and the West Berliners' energy and

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refused to participate any longer in the quadripartite administration of Germany. They also refused to continue the joint administration of Berlin and drove the government elected by the people of Berlin out of its seat in the Soviet sector and installed a communist regime in East Berlin. From then

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nominally consisting of the SED, four other political parties controlled and directed by the SED, and the four principal mass organizations—youth, trade unions, women, and culture. However, control was clearly and solely in the hands of the SED. Balloting in East German elections was not secret. As

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was aired, there was a companion show where a panel of historians could answer questions from people phoning in. The historians' panels were literally overwhelmed with thousands of phone calls from shocked and outraged Germans, a great many of whom stated that they were born after 1945 and that was

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and university campuses in a constant state of uproar. A key event in the development of open democratic debate occurred in 1967 when the Shah of Iran visited West Berlin. Several thousand demonstrators gathered outside the Opera House where he was to attend a special performance. Supporters of the

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In the early sixties, the rate of economic growth slowed down significantly. In 1962, the growth rate was 4.7% and the following year, 2.0%. After a brief recovery, the growth rate petered into a recession, with no growth in 1967. The economic showdown forced Erhard's resignation in 1966 and he was

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versus the neglect of the former concentration camps suggested that in both official and popular memory that some victims of the Nazis were considered more worthy of remembrance than others. It was against this context where popular memory was focused on glorifying the heroic deeds of the Wehrmacht

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In regards to the memory of the Nazi period in the 1950s Federal Republic, there was a marked tendency to argue that everyone regardless of what side they had been on in World War II were all equally victims of the war. In the same way, the Nazi regime tended to be portrayed in the 1950s as a small

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for compensation for those who had suffered under the Nazis was limited to only those who had suffered from "racial, religious or political reasons", which were defined in such a way as to sharply limit the number of people entitled to collect compensation. According to the 1953 law on compensation

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Though the EDC treaty was signed (May 1952), it never entered into force. France's Gaullists rejected it on the grounds that it threatened national sovereignty, and when the French National Assembly refused to ratify it (August 1954), the treaty died. The French had killed their own proposal. Other

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subsequently sanctioned the "orderly and humane" transfer to Germany of individuals regarded as "ethnic Germans" by authorities in Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Hungary. The Potsdam Agreement recognized that these expulsions were already underway and were putting a burden on authorities in the German

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as President, and an SED government was set up. The Soviet Union and its East European allies immediately recognized East Germany, although it remained largely unrecognized by noncommunist countries until 1972–73. East Germany established the structures of a single-party, centralized, totalitarian

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to mark the 40th anniversary of the end of World War II. The Bitburg cemetery was soon revealed to contain the graves of SS men, which Kohl stated that he did not see as a problem and that to refuse to honor all of the dead of Bitburg including the SS men buried there was an insult to all Germans.

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The calling in question of the actions and policies of the government led to a new climate of debate by the late 1960s. The issues of emancipation, colonialism, environmentalism and grass roots democracy were discussed at all levels of society. In 1979, the environmental party, the Greens, reached

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who also criticised the forms of capitalism that were to be seen in West Berlin. Just before Easter 1968, a young man tried to kill Dutschke as he bicycled to the student union, seriously injuring him. All over West Germany, thousands demonstrated against the Springer newspapers which were seen as

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In October 1961 an initial agreement was signed with the Turkish government and the first Gastarbeiter began to arrive. By 1966, some 1,300,000 foreign workers had been recruited mainly from Italy, Turkey, Spain, and Greece. By 1971, the number had reached 2.6 million workers. The initial plan was

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The initial demand for housing, the growing demand for machine tools, chemicals, and automobiles and a rapidly increasing agricultural production were the initial triggers to this 'Wirtschaftswunder' (economic miracle) as it was known, although there was nothing miraculous about it. The era became

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The outbreak of the Korean War (June 1950) led to Washington calling for the rearmament of West Germany in order to defend western Europe from the Soviet threat. But the memory of German aggression led other European states to seek tight control over the West German military. Germany's partners in

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and the US War Department initially implemented a strict non-fraternization policy between the US troops and German citizens. The State Department and individual US congressmen pressured to have this policy lifted. In June 1945 the prohibition against speaking with German children was loosened. In

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The S.E.D.'s intention was to transform the GDR into a socialist and later into a communist state. These processes would occur step by step according to the laws of scientific 'Marxism-Leninism' and economic planning was the key to this process. In July 1952, at a conference of the S.E.D., Walter

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wrote that German films of the 1950s always showed the average German soldier as a heroic victim: noble, tough, brave, honourable and patriotic, while fighting hard in a senseless war for a regime that he did not care for. Commendations of the victims of the Nazis tended to center around honoring

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wrote that the decision to deny that the Roma and the Sinti had been victims of National Socialist racism and to exclude the Roma and Sinti from compensation under the grounds that they were all "criminals" reflected the same anti-Gypsy racism that made them the target of persecution and genocide

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to build the memorial at the site for the former Gestapo headquarters. In April 1992, the City of Berlin finally decided that a Holocaust memorial could be built. Along the same lines, in August 1987, protests put a stop to plans by the City of Frankfurt to raze the last remains of the Frankfurt

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provincial election. Also of great significance was the steady growth of a feminist movement in which women demonstrated for equal rights. Until 1979, a married woman had to have the permission of her husband if she wanted to take on a job or open a bank account. Parallel to this, a gay movement

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in the months preceding and years following the capitulation will never be known, their numbers are likely in the hundreds of thousands, quite possibly as high as the 2,000,000 victims estimate made by Barbara Johr, in "Befreier und Befreite". Many of these victims were raped repeatedly. Naimark

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With the beginning of the Cold War, the Western policies changed as it became evident that a return to operation of the West German industry was needed not only for the restoration of the whole European economy but also for the rearmament of West Germany as an ally against the Soviet Union. On 6

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often violent attacks on them. Protests against the US intervention in Vietnam, mingled with anger over the vigor with which demonstrations were repressed, led to mounting militancy among the students at the universities of Berlin. One of the most prominent campaigners was a young man from East

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of Lower Saxony opened Bergen-Belsen to the public by founding a small "house of documentation", and even then it was in response to criticism that the Lower Saxon government was intentionally neglecting the ruins of Bergen-Belsen. Though it was usually claimed at the time that everybody in the

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to a broad program of decentralization, treating Germany as a single economic unit with some central administrative departments. These plans never materialized, initially because France blocked any establishment of central administrative or political structures for Germany; and also as both the

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who had committed several murders in the Federal Republic in the late 1950s was not legally guilty of murder, but was only an accomplice to murder as the responsibility for Stashynsky's murders rested only with his superiors in Moscow who had given him his orders. The legal implications of the

1493:

as part of the reparations to be extracted. German prisoners were for example forced to clear minefields in France and the Low Countries. By December 1945 it was estimated by French authorities that 2,000 German prisoners were being killed or injured each month in accidents. In Norway the last

1402:

of great value, all German patents, both in Germany and abroad, and used them to strengthen their own industrial competitiveness by licensing them to Allied companies. Beginning immediately after the German surrender and continuing for the next two years, the U.S. pursued a vigorous program to

1330:

The Soviet Union engaged in a massive industrial dismantling campaign in its occupation zone, much more intensive than that carried out by the Western powers. While the Soviet powers soon realized that their actions alienated the German workforce from the Communist cause, they decided that the

1124:

Soviet Union and France were intent on extracting as much material benefit as possible from their occupation zones in order to make good in part the enormous destruction caused by the German Wehrmacht; and the policy broke down completely in 1948 when the Russians blockaded West Berlin and the

1050:, the unified Germany indeed confirmed in treaties with Poland and the Soviet Union that the transfer of sovereignty over the former German eastern territories in 1945 had been permanent and irreversible; Germany now undertaking never again to make territorial claims in respect of these lands. 2696:

On 5 June 1953, the S.E.D. announced a 'new course' in which farmers, craftsmen, and factory owners would benefit from a relaxation of controls. The new production quotas remained; the East German workers protested and up to sixty strikes occurred the following day. One of the window-dressing

2571:

In January 1987, the Kohl-Genscher government was returned to office, but the FDP and the Greens gained at the expense of the larger parties. Kohl's CDU and its Bavarian sister party, the CSU, slipped from 48.8% of the vote in 1983 to 44.3%. The SPD fell to 37%; long-time SPD chairman Brandt

958:

occupied the area. Of the remainder, around 2 million died during the war or in its aftermath (1.4 million as military casualties; 600,000 as civilian deaths), 3.6 million were expelled by the Poles, one million declared themselves to be Poles, and 300,000 remained in Poland as Germans. The

983:

Since the influx of a large number of Germans into Germany would increase the burden already resting on the occupying authorities, they consider that the Allied Control Council in Germany should in the first instance examine the problem with special regard to the question of the equitable

1660: 173:, where many times more had died from starvation, harsh conditions, murder, or being worked to death. Between 1944 and 1950, some 12 to 14 million German-speaking refugees and expellees arrived in Western and central Germany from the former eastern territories and other countries in 3658:

There is another reason for the Plan's continued vitality. It has transcended reality and become a myth. To this day, a truly astonishing number of Germans (and almost all advanced high school students) have an idea what the Marshall Plan was, although their idea is very often very

1240:, which had directed the U.S. forces in Germany to "take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany." It was replaced by JCS 1779, which instead stressed that "n orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany." 2193:

piece that references "the hundreds and thousands of European Jews still surviving the Nazi holocaust". The term came into widespread use to describe the event following the TV film Holocaust in 1978) The processes set in motion by the Auschwitz trial reverberated decades later.

1614:

In English, the two larger states were known informally as "West Germany" and "East Germany" respectively. In both cases, the former occupying troops remained permanently stationed there. The former German capital, Berlin, was a special case, being divided into East Berlin and

1137:

July troops were permitted to speak to German adults in certain circumstances. In September 1945 the entire policy was dropped. Only the ban on marriage between Americans and German or Austrian civilians remained in place until 11 December 1946 and 2 January 1946 respectively.

2676:

in order to make some kind of reconstruction possible. While West Germany received loans and other financial assistance from the United States, the GDR was in the role of an exporter of goods to the USSR—a role that its people could ill afford but which they could not avoid.

1903:

in August 1961 they hoped to end the loss of labor and in doing so they posed the West German government with a new problem—how to satisfy the apparently insatiable demand for labor. The answer was to recruit unskilled workers from Southern European countries; the era of the

2321:

passed a Misdemeanors Bill dealing with traffic misdemeanors, into which a high-ranking civil servant named Dr. Eduard Dreher who had been drafting the bill inserted a prefatory section to the bill under a very misleading heading that declared that henceforth there was a

1302:

stated the U.S. motive in detaching the Saar from Germany as "The United States does not feel that it can deny to France, which has been invaded three times by Germany in 70 years, its claim to the Saar territory". The Saar came under French administration in 1946 as the

988:

Many of the ethnic Germans, who were primarily women and children, and especially those under the control of Polish and Czechoslovakian authorities, were severely mistreated before they were ultimately deported to Germany. Thousands died in forced labor camps such as

2332:

Adalbert Rückerl who headed the Central Bureau for the Prosecution of National Socialist Crimes told an interviewer in 1969 that this amendment had done immense harm to the ability of the Bureau to prosecute those suspected of war crimes and crimes against humanity.

1247:

wrote to the Allies requesting that it end, citing the inherent contradiction between encouraging industrial growth and removing factories and also the unpopularity of the policy. Support for dismantling was by this time coming predominantly from the French, and the

5038: 5026: 1566:. It was not allowed to join its fellow German neighbors until a plebiscite in 1955 rejected the proposed autonomy. This paved the way for the accession of the Saarland to the Federal Republic of Germany as its 12th state, which went into effect on 1 January 1957. 2563:

of the SS men buried at Bitburg while there was no memorial to any of the people murdered in the Holocaust. The campaign to build a Holocaust memorial, which Germany until then lacked, was given a major boost in November 1989 by the call by television journalist

1457:. In early October 1945 the UK government privately acknowledged in a cabinet meeting that German civilian adult death rates had risen to 4 times the pre-war levels and death rates amongst the German children had risen by 10 times the pre-war levels. The German 2904:(for example, in lifestyle, wealth, and political beliefs) and thus it is still common to speak of eastern and western Germany distinctly. The eastern German economy has struggled since unification, and large subsidies are still transferred from west to east. 2229: 5087:

of the other books and documents describe conditions in a country devastated by years of war, efforts at political, economic and cultural development, and the differing perspectives coming from the U.S. and British zones and the Russian zone of occupation.

2154:

affair marked an important turning point in German values as ordinary people rejected the old authoritarian values in favor of the more democratic values that are today seen as the bedrock of the Federal Republic. Adenauer's own reputation was impaired by

2040:

Second World War was a victim, Ludtke commented that the disparity between the millions of Deutsche Marks spent in the 1950s in turning the Benderblock and Plötzensee prison into sites of remembrance honoring those conservatives executed after the 20 July

979:

Occupation Zones, including the re-defined Soviet Occupation Zone. Most of the Germans who were being expelled were from Czechoslovakia and Poland, which included most of the territory to the east of the Oder-Neisse Line. The Potsdam Declaration stated:

941:

was administratively assigned by the Potsdam Agreement to the Soviet Union, pending a final Peace Conference (with the commitment of Britain and the United States to support its incorporation into Russia); and was then annexed by the Soviet Union. The

2513:

governments stop neglecting the sites of the concentration camps, and start turning them into proper museums and sites of remembrance, turning them into "locations of learning" meant to jar visitors into thinking critically about the Nazi period.

2503:

aired in West Germany. The series, which was watched by 20 million people or 50% of West Germans, first brought the matter of the genocide in World War II to widespread public attention in a way that it had never been before. After each part of

2609:

A series of people's congresses were called in 1948 and early 1949 by the SED. Under Soviet direction, a constitution was drafted on 30 May 1949, and adopted on 7 October, the day when East Germany was formally proclaimed. The People's Chamber

1727:, the body which elects the German Federal President. However, the Soviets disrupted the use of the Reichstag building by flying very noisy supersonic jets near the building. A number of cities were proposed to host the federal government, and 2734:, governing bodies established by constitutional process and chosen by free elections. The Allies and German authorities in West Germany and West Berlin never recognized the communist city regime in East Berlin or East German authority there. 1669:

The Western Allies turned over increasing authority to West German officials and moved to establish a nucleus for a future German government by creating a central Economic Council for their zones. The program later provided for a West German

2176:

leadership during the Nazi period. The only way that a Nazi criminal could be convicted of murder was to show that they were not following orders at the time and had acted on their initiative when killing someone. One courageous attorney,

6289: 2517:

In 1980, the CDU/CSU ran Strauss as their joint candidate in the elections, and he was crushingly defeated by Schmidt. In October 1982, the SPD-FDP coalition fell apart when the FDP joined forces with the CDU/CSU to elect CDU chairman

3448: 1452:

inmates. During 1945 it was estimated that the average German civilian in the U.S. and UK occupation zones received 1200 kilocalories a day in official rations, not counting food they grew themselves or purchased on the large-scale

2055:("coming to terms with the past"). Adorno stated that most people were engaged in a process of "willful forgetting" about the Nazi period and used euphemistic language to avoid confronting the period such as the use of the term 2137:

spent some time in jail before the public outcry over the breaking of laws on freedom of the press became too loud to be ignored. The FDP members of Adenauer's cabinet resigned from the government, demanding the resignation of

319:, these four zones in total were denoted as 'Germany as a whole', and the four Allied Powers exercised the sovereign authority they now claimed over Germany in agreeing 'in principle' to the ceding of territory of the former 5035: 5023: 1470:

forbade it. The German food situation became worse during the very cold winter of 1946–1947 when German calorie intake ranged from 1,000–1,500 kilocalories per day, a situation made worse by severe lack of fuel for heating.

2875: 330:, the territory of the extinguished German Reich was to be treated as the land area within its borders as of 31 December 1937. All land expansion from 1938 to 1945 was hence treated as automatically invalid, including 2920:

Note: The $ 10 billion compares to the U.S. annual GDP of $ 258 billion in 1948. It also compares to the total Marshall plan expenditure (1948–1952) of $ 13 billion, of which Germany received $ 1,4 billion (partly as

1990:

argued in popular memory that it was a case of "us" (i.e ordinary people) ruled over by "them" (i.e. the Nazis). Though the Nazi regime itself was rarely glorified in popular memory, in the 1950s World War II and the

1232:, the Truman administration decided that economic recovery in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the German industrial base on which it had previously been dependent. In July 1947, President 2580:. Unknown to Kohl, the meeting room had been bugged by the Stasi, and the Stasi tapes of the summit had Kohl saying to Honecker that he did not see any realistic chance of reunification in the foreseeable future. 2260:

Shah (later known as 'Jubelperser'), armed with staves and bricks, attacked the protesters while the police stood by and watched. A demonstration in the center was being forcibly dispersed when a bystander named

2639:(districts) were established. Even though other parties formally existed, effectively, all government control was in the hands of the SED, and almost all important government positions were held by SED members. 1159:, was one of "pastoralization". The Morgenthau Plan, though subsequently ostensibly shelved due to public opposition, influenced occupation policy; most notably through the U.S. punitive occupation directive 1719:(interim parliament) proposed a new location for the capital, as Berlin was then a special administrative region controlled directly by the allies and surrounded by the Soviet zone of occupation. The former 2832:

announced that West Germany would remain firmly rooted in the Atlantic alliance, but would intensify efforts to improve relations with the Eastern Bloc, especially East Germany. West Germany commenced this

1016:

Altogether, around 8 million ethnic German refugees and expellees from across Europe eventually settled in West Germany, with a further 3 million in East Germany. In West Germany these represented a major

1196:

Timber exports from the U.S. occupation zone were particularly heavy. Sources in the U.S. government stated that the purpose of this was the "ultimate destruction of the war potential of German forests".

1192:

By 1950, after the virtual completion of the by then much watered-down plans, equipment had been removed from 706 factories in the west and steel production capacity had been reduced by 6,700,000 tons.

2842:

West Germany's relations with East Germany posed particularly difficult questions. Though anxious to relieve serious hardships for divided families and to reduce friction, West Germany under Brandt's

1674:, an occupation statute governing relations between the Allies and the German authorities, and the political and economic merger of the French with the British and American zones. On 23 May 1949, the 1252:

of November 1949 reduced the levels vastly, though dismantling of minor factories continued until 1951. The final limitations on German industrial levels were lifted after the establishment of the

6384: 6349: 6249: 5107: 2816:

to West Germany placed great strains on East German-West German relations in the 1950s. East Germany sealed the borders to West Germany in 1952, but people continued to flee from East Berlin to

6344: 2576:. The FDP's share rose from 7% to 9.1%, its best showing since 1980. The Greens' share rose to 8.3% from their 1983 share of 5.6%. Later in 1987, Kohl had a summit with the East German leader 6324: 3452: 6446: 6339: 6304: 6274: 6269: 2379:– that no one has the right to give up a policy whose goal is the eventual reunification of Germany. But in a realistic view of the world, this is a goal that could take generations beyond 5050: 6399: 6379: 6374: 6314: 6309: 6254: 6369: 6259: 2509:

the first time that they learned that their country had practiced genocide in World War II. By the late 1970s, an initially small number of young people had started to demand that the

7819: 6319: 6279: 6264: 1213:, also known as the Stuttgart speech, where he amongst other things repudiated the Morgenthau plan-influenced policies and gave the West Germans hope for the future. Reports such as 6334: 6294: 2080:

With the exception of 45,000 French troops, Allied forces were under NATO's joint defense command. (France withdrew from the collective military command structure of NATO in 1966.)

2221:—the grand coalition gave the ruling parties the two-thirds majority of votes required for their ratification. These controversial acts allowed basic constitutional rights such as 946:

and the southern half of East Prussia were incorporated into and annexed by Poland; the Allies having assured the Polish government-in-exile of their support for this after the

2272:

security forces.) Protest demonstrations continued, and calls for more active opposition by some groups of students were made, which was declared by the press, especially the

1611:

but Britain, France, and the United States rejected the offer as insincere. Also, West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer preferred "Westintegration", rejecting "experiments".

2761:

Government offices have been moving progressively to Berlin, and it became the formal seat of the federal government in 1999. Berlin also is one of the Federal Republic's 16

9154: 5298: 2150:

argued that the Federal Republic under Adenauer retained many of the characteristics of the authoritarian "deep state" that existed under the Weimar Republic, and that the

6284: 2746:. In addition, the Allies carefully consulted with the West German and West Berlin Governments on foreign policy questions involving unification and the status of Berlin. 2737:

During the years of West Berlin's isolation—176 kilometers (110 mi.) inside East Germany—the Western Allies encouraged a close relationship between the Government of

2121:

published an analysis of the West German military defense. The conclusion was that there were several weaknesses in the system. Ten days after publication, the offices of

1357:

of economic aid was extended to Western Germany in 1948 and a currency reform, which had been prohibited under the previous occupation directive JCS 1067, introduced the

6217: 1361:

and halted rampant inflation. Though the Marshall Plan is regarded as playing a key psychological role in the West German recovery, other factors were also significant.

2839:, initially under fierce opposition from the conservatives, by negotiating nonaggression treaties with the Soviet Union, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, and Hungary. 2189:

was of vastly greater dimensions than the German population had believed. (The term 'Holocaust' for the systematic mass-murder of Jews first came into use in 1943 in a

1214: 1018: 2809:

involved non-recognition of East Germany and restricted (or often ceased) diplomatic relations with countries that gave East Germany the status of a sovereign state.

2341:

began to grow in the larger cities, especially in West Berlin, where homosexuality had been widely accepted during the twenties in the Weimar Republic. In 1969, the

2181:

patiently gathered evidence on the guards of the Auschwitz death camp and about twenty were put trial in Frankfurt between 1963–1965 in what came to be known as the

1005:, Glaz, Milecin, Gronowo, and Sikawa. Others starved, died of disease, or froze to death while being expelled in slow and ill-equipped trains; or in transit camps. 6195: 2061:(Crystal Night) for the pogrom of November 1938. Adorno called for promoting a critical "consciousness" that would allow people to "come to terms with the past". 3777:

Wiggers, Richard Dominic (2003). "The United States and the Refusal to Feed German Civilians after World War II". In Vardy, Steven Bela; Tooley, T. Hunt (eds.).

307:— France in the southwest, the United Kingdom in the northwest, the United States in the south, and the Soviet Union in the east, bounded on the east by the new 2754: 1638:(1950–53) led to a worldwide increased demand for goods, where the resulting shortage helped overcome lingering resistance to the purchase of German products. 1047: 1494:

available casualty record, from 29 August 1945, shows that by that time a total of 275 German soldiers died while clearing mines, while 392 had been injured.

1284:. French support to internationalize the Ruhr through the IAR was abandoned in 1951 with the West German agreement to pool its coal and steel markets within 8005: 4503:

The Hallstein Doctrine. The diplomatic war between the FRG and the German Democratic Republic 1955–1973. From the files of the two German foreign ministries

7436: 2546:

cruise missiles by the Soviet Union in East Germany. In 1985, Kohl, who had something of a tin ear when it came to dealing with the Nazi past, caused much

924: 3957: 3930: 3912: 1164: 7484: 1986:

clique of criminals entirely unrepresentative of German society who were sharply demarcated from the rest of German society or as the German historian

3023: 284:

controlled by France. Berlin is the multinational area within the Soviet zone, and the American portions within the British zone is the city-state of

3449:

The Necessary Steps for Promotion of German Exports, so as to Relieve American Taxpayers of the Burdens of Relief and for Economic Recovery of Europe

1684:

of the Federal Republic of Germany, was promulgated. Following elections in August, the first federal government was formed on 20 September 1949, by

1181:

The first plan, from 29 March 1946, stated that German heavy industry was to be lowered to 50% of its 1938 levels by the destruction of 1,500 listed

1911: 9364: 9139: 8666: 7416: 2530:, Kohl emerged in firm control of both the government and the CDU. The CDU/CSU fell just short of an absolute majority, due to the entry into the 2434:, a gesture of humility and penance that no German chancellor had made until that time. Chancellor Brandt was forced to resign in May 1974, after 6983: 6210: 5465: 5308: 5165: 5047: 803: 144: 6424: 3212:

Biddiscombe, Perry (2001). "Dangerous Liaisons: The Anti-Fraternization Movement in the US Occupation Zones of Germany and Austria, 1945–1948".

9225: 6734: 6543: 2883: 2594:

In the Soviet occupation zone, the Social Democratic Party was forced to merge with the Communist Party in April 1946 to form a new party, the

2477:

was kidnapped on 5 September 1977 in order to force the government to free the imprisoned leaders of the Baader-Meinhof Gang. A group from the

2717:(ACC) i.e. the "Four Powers", which was to have governed Germany as a whole until the conclusion of a peace settlement. In 1948, however, the 9309: 5670: 3531: 3414: 3382: 2478: 2285:

waged a massive campaign against the protesters who were declared to be just hooligans and thugs in the pay of East Germany. The press baron

387: 17: 3637: 1307:, but did return to Germany in January 1957 (following a referendum), with economic reintegration with Germany occurring a few years later. 9215: 5098: 3152: 2076:, while demarcating the sphere of legitimate political activity against blatant attempts at a political rehabilitation of the Nazi regime. 1675: 4499:

Die Hallstein-Doktrin. Der diplomatische Krieg zwischen der BRD und der DDR 1955–1973. Aus den Akten der beiden deutschen Außenministerien

2305: 9189: 8076: 49: 2846:

was intent on holding to its concept of "two German states in one German nation". Relations gradually improved. In the early 1970s, the

1995:

were intensely gloried and celebrated by the public. In countless memoirs, novels, histories, newspaper articles, films, magazines, and

1008: 9304: 9179: 6441: 6203: 1480: 1403:

harvest all technological and scientific know-how as well as all patents in Germany. John Gimbel comes to the conclusion, in his book "

235:, West Germany built strong relationships with France, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Israel. West Germany also joined the 2750:

spirit, were encouraging. West Berlin's morale was sustained, and its industrial production considerably surpassed the pre-war level.

2453: 1766:

West Germany quickly progressed toward fuller sovereignty and association with its European neighbors and the Atlantic community. The

9268: 6299: 5072: 1770:

of 1954 restored most of the state's sovereignty (with some exceptions) in May 1955 and opened the way for German membership in the

255:. The country was reunited on 3 October 1990, following the decline and fall of the SED as the ruling party of East Germany and the 9220: 7253: 6394: 6225: 5956: 5196: 2726:. To the degree compatible with the city's special status, however, they turned over control and management of city affairs to the 2389: 968: 917: 2642: 2083:

Political life in West Germany was remarkably stable and orderly. The Adenauer era (1949–63) was followed by a brief period under

2045:

while treating the genocide by the National Socialist regime as almost a footnote that in the autumn of 1959 that the philosopher

8656: 7300: 6389: 6137: 1963: 476: 4460:

Zahlenspiegel ein Vergleich Bundesrepublik Deutschland Deutsche Demokratische Republik Ministerium für Innerdeutsche Beziehungen

9149: 7421: 4429: 2163:, who was the man widely credited as the father of the "economic miracle" of the 1950s and of whom great things were expected. 1707:

intervened emphatically for Bonn (which was only fifteen kilometers away from his hometown). Most of the members of the German

1577:

as its "provisional" capital. It comprised the area of 11 newly formed states (replacing the pre-war states), with present-day

4377: 2651: 9359: 9144: 7079: 6766: 6744: 6409: 5430: 5136: 5116: 4730: 4709: 4668: 4656: 4246: 4206: 3896: 1978: 1689: 1503: 1030: 857: 788: 721: 132: 31: 8167: 4558: 3507: 2133:

that the article was tantamount to high treason and that the authors would be prosecuted. The editor/owner of the magazine,

9299: 9294: 7986: 7911: 7571: 7171: 6359: 5737: 4878: 4222:

Bartov, Omer (2004). "Celluloid Soldiers: Cinematic Images of the Wehrmacht". In Erickson, Ljubica; Erickson, Mark (eds.).

2202:

of the CDU. Kiesinger was to attract much controversy because in 1933 he had joined the National Socialist Legal Guild and

1273: 2722:

until unification, the Western Allies continued to exercise supreme authority—effective only in their sectors—through the

2142:, Defence Minister, who had decidedly overstepped his competence during the crisis by his heavy-handed attempt to silence 2125:

in Hamburg were raided by the police and quantities of documents were seized under the orders of the CSU Defense Minister

1746: 9184: 7591: 6724: 6414: 6354: 5584: 5567: 5400: 2785: 1393: 1129:

the United States agreed to withdraw from Thuringia and Saxony in exchange for the division of Berlin into four sectors.

910: 684: 452: 6833: 6761: 2568:

Jewish Ghetto in order to redevelop the land, arguing that the remnants of the Frankfurt ghetto needed to be preserved.

2252: 2206:(membership in the former was necessary in order to practice law, but membership in the latter was entirely voluntary). 9273: 8626: 7721: 6699: 6584: 6538: 6533: 6479: 5440: 5385: 4816:

Miller, Paul D (2013). "A bibliographic essay on the Allied occupation and reconstruction of West Germany, 1945–1955".

4610:, Germany in the Twentieth Century, (From pre-1918 to the restoration of German unity), Batsford, Third edition, 1991. 3886: 2523: 2214: 2091:(1966–69). All governments between 1949 and 1966 were formed by coalitions of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and 1739:, it would be accepted as a "permanent" capital of Germany, thereby weakening the West German population's support for 1431: 1061:, which lay in the Soviet (eastern) sector, was also divided into four sectors with the Western sectors later becoming 617: 472: 236: 8358: 7921: 7191: 7132: 6329: 6233: 5924: 5828: 5665: 4909: 4870: 4744: 4625: 4615: 4510: 4282: 3869: 3786: 3733: 3110: 3085: 2527: 2092: 1779: 1622:

West Germany was allied with the United States, the United Kingdom, and France. A western democratic country with a "

1423: 1285: 1253: 136: 6929: 3048: 1012:

August 1948, German children deported from the eastern areas of Germany taken over by Poland arrive in West Germany.

8061: 8056: 7551: 7514: 7243: 6689: 2595: 2096: 2024: 1520:

states that not only had each victim to carry the trauma with her for the rest of her days, it inflicted a massive

1292: 1210: 1202: 1112:

was established as a temporary German flag. It remained the official flag of the country (necessary for reasons of

467: 224: 7739: 7601: 7285: 4778:

Lovelace, Alexander G (2013). "Trends in the Western Historiography of the United States' Occupation of Germany".

2146:

for essentially running a story that was unflattering to him (which incidentally was true). The British historian

518: 8781: 8162: 8091: 7991: 7869: 7641: 7631: 7218: 6605: 6364: 5790: 5390: 2240: 629: 494: 7556: 7443: 7431: 4630:

David H Childs, The Two Red Flags: European Social Democracy & Soviet Communism Since 1945, Routledge, 2000.

2538:, who received 5.6% of the vote. In 1983, despite major protests from peace groups, the Kohl government allowed 8212: 7981: 7561: 7463: 7196: 6640: 6635: 5773: 5589: 5273: 2870:(December 1972) helped to normalise relations between East and West Germany and led to both states joining the 2859: 2419: 2159:

and he announced that he would step down in the autumn of 1963. His successor was to be the Economics Minister

498: 457: 7881: 7611: 7122: 6894: 1581:

being split into three states until 1952). The Federal Republic was declared to have "the full authority of a

1368:

reform; in March 1948 they withdrew from the four-power governing bodies, and in June 1948 they initiated the

9314: 9159: 8174: 8127: 7891: 7814: 7546: 6067: 5843: 5705: 5609: 5508: 2683: 2659: 2239:

During the time leading up to the passing of the laws, there was fierce opposition to them, above all by the

1962:

been associated with Communist causes after 1945, but as almost all the surviving Communists belonged to the

1949: 7606: 7315: 7238: 6909: 1314:, a treaty they themselves had proposed. Germany was eventually allowed to rearm under the auspices of the 8192: 8152: 8122: 8071: 7931: 7849: 7845: 7716: 7646: 7411: 7228: 6994: 6889: 6821: 6087: 5815: 5685: 5189: 4880:

The Overlooked Majority: German Women in the Four Zones of Occupied Germany, 1945–1949, a Comparative Study

2147: 1767: 1349:

With the Western Allies eventually becoming concerned about the deteriorating economic situation in their "

1002: 998: 490: 2051: 9164: 8636: 8631: 8348: 8026: 7754: 7499: 7458: 7402: 7305: 7186: 7144: 7049: 6574: 6528: 5882: 5795: 5247: 5078: 4303: 2731: 1724: 1277: 510: 462: 447: 442: 397: 240: 201: 124: 4047: 2485:

to seize further hostages to free the RAF leaders. On 18 October 1977, the Lufthansa jet was stormed in

2023:. By contrast, almost no ceremonies were held in the 1950s at the ruins of the concentration camps like 9001: 8222: 8207: 8197: 8051: 7651: 7139: 6942: 6709: 5805: 5717: 5695: 5614: 5599: 5415: 5395: 5237: 3644:. German Embassy's Department for Press, Information and Public Affairs, Washington D.C. Archived from 2182: 1958: 1787: 1692:). Adenauer's government was a coalition of the CDU, the CSU and the Free Democrats. The next day, the 1525: 1311: 689: 659: 432: 216: 5162: 4120:"'Coming to Terms with the Past': Illusions of Remembering, Ways of Forgetting Nazism in West Germany" 2976:

Die deutschen Vertreibungsverluste. Bevölkerungsbilanzen für die deutschen Vertreibungsgebiete 1939/50

9354: 9349: 9344: 9339: 9334: 9329: 9230: 9106: 9051: 8871: 7859: 7566: 7127: 6739: 6656: 6057: 5242: 2499: 2438:, a senior member of his staff, was uncovered as a spy for the East German intelligence service, the 2028: 506: 502: 437: 327: 105: 4846:

Konrad Adenauer: A German Politician and Statesman in a Period of War, Revolution and Reconstruction

1723:

in Berlin was occasionally used as a venue for sittings of the Bundestag and its committees and the

1562:

had been established under French control, in the area corresponding to the current German state of

1170:

The "Level of Industry plans for Germany" were the plans to lower German industrial potential after

967:, were returned to Czechoslovakia; these territories containing a further 3 million ethnic Germans. 8856: 8423: 7686: 7576: 7330: 6874: 6034: 5996: 5833: 5604: 2863: 1604: 514: 170: 8596: 3999: 3539: 3508:"The Road Ahead: Lessons in Nation Building from Japan, Germany, and Afghanistan for Postwar Iraq" 3422: 3392: 8086: 8031: 8016: 7956: 7764: 7744: 7504: 7181: 6786: 6170: 6044: 6024: 6001: 5981: 5941: 5904: 5853: 5727: 5690: 5460: 5182: 4560:"The Two Germanies, 1945–90" (ch. 7) and "The Federal Republic of Germany Since 1990" (ch. 8) in 3645: 2855: 2851: 2415: 2411: 2256: 2244: 1932: 1708: 1533: 1026: 781: 482: 304: 296: 243:. East Germany's economy, centrally planned in the Soviet style, grew increasingly stagnant; the 205: 113: 6989: 4274: 3475: 3368: 3305: 3156: 169:

in Germany, mainly forced laborers and prisoners. This included around 400,000 survivors of the

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where the Hessian administration had already started the construction of an assembly hall. The

1315: 1088: 1054: 647: 541: 155: 148: 128: 9086: 4505:]. Zeitgeschichtliche Forschngen (in German). Vol. 7. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot. 3451:(Report). The President's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria. Vol. 3. Archived from 2011:

attempt of 1944, which meant annual ceremonies attended by all the leading politicians at the

1407:", that the "intellectual reparations" taken by the U.S. and the UK amounted to close to $ 10 950:

in 1943. It was also agreed at Potsdam that Poland would receive all German lands East of the

9324: 9319: 9111: 8395: 8390: 8157: 8046: 8001: 7961: 7896: 7840: 7759: 7541: 7355: 7233: 7151: 7059: 7024: 6934: 6879: 6776: 6617: 6132: 5951: 5936: 5899: 4034: 3324:

Gareau, Frederick H. (June 1961). "Morgenthau's Plan for Industrial Disarmament in Germany".

2895: 2663: 2474: 2268:. (It has now been established that the policeman, Kurras, was a paid spy of the East German 2218: 1716: 1623: 1399: 1384:

of supplies to the western half of the city. The Soviets ended the blockade after 11 months.

1221: 844: 486: 308: 300: 4899: 8651: 8418: 8273: 8227: 8142: 8137: 7936: 7835: 7784: 7779: 7671: 7626: 7581: 7519: 7350: 7325: 7275: 7203: 7117: 6967: 6569: 6548: 5914: 5858: 5742: 5680: 5675: 5645: 5577: 5555: 5503: 5405: 5083: 3677: 3247: 2743: 2482: 2445: 2442:. Brandt's contributions to world peace led to his winning the Nobel Peace Prize for 1971. 2199: 2088: 1763: 1740: 1671: 1597: 1310:

In August 1954 the French parliament voted down the treaty that would have established the

1249: 1156: 1133: 839: 667: 654: 546: 371: 351: 220: 178: 117: 4620:

David H Childs and Jeffrey Johnson, West Germany: Politics And Society, Croom Helm, 1982.

3251: 2016: 1731:(among others) was eliminated in the first round. Other politicians opposed the choice of 1578: 1116:) until East Germany and West Germany (see below) were independently established in 1949. 8: 9096: 9011: 9006: 8906: 8769: 8566: 8450: 8365: 8253: 8106: 8101: 8081: 8066: 7976: 7971: 7876: 7809: 7799: 7711: 7706: 7696: 7596: 7536: 7509: 7335: 7320: 7290: 7268: 7054: 7044: 6771: 6694: 6664: 6648: 6097: 5991: 5966: 5961: 5838: 5783: 5722: 5628: 5359: 5293: 5157: 4990: 4534: 4307: 4169: 4119: 2867: 2813: 2723: 2547: 2427: 2255:

and members of the Campaign against Nuclear Armament. The late 1960s saw the rise of the

2222: 2139: 2126: 1412: 1408: 1182: 1046:; applying this to post-war German experience instead. Eventually in 1990, following the 943: 367: 256: 177:; an estimated two million of them died on the way there. Some nine million Germans were 166: 7951: 7864: 5455: 4956:

The East German Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives in the Interpretation of the GDR

3888:

The Struggle for Europe The Turbulent History of a Divided Continent 1945 to the Present

3802:

MacKenzie, S. P. (September 1994). "The Treatment of Prisoners of War in World War II".

3672: 3105:. Translated by Brown, Allison; Cooper, Belinda. Providence: Berghahn Books. p. 1. 2449:

U.S. military convoys were still a regular sight in West Germany in the 1970s and 1980s.

2435: 1151:

The initial proposal for the post-surrender policy of the Western powers, the so-called

9250: 9046: 9031: 8956: 8936: 8931: 8916: 8763: 8511: 8263: 8147: 7901: 7804: 7789: 7701: 7691: 7666: 7661: 7426: 7380: 7295: 7280: 7223: 7039: 6962: 6838: 6729: 6719: 6163: 6156: 6011: 5976: 5863: 5848: 5778: 5756: 5732: 5660: 5594: 5524: 5435: 5354: 5323: 5232: 5209: 5147: 5091: 5075:

Allied discussions on the dismemberment of Germany into separate states, 29 March 1945.

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help from the Allies, the currency reform of June 1948 and helped by the fact that the

1449: 1296: 1269: 1175: 975: 634: 594: 566: 406: 292: 280:, ceded to Poland and the Soviet Union, are shown as white as is the likewise detached 159: 8946: 8775: 375: 9263: 9116: 9061: 9036: 8991: 8921: 8896: 8861: 8851: 8820: 8707: 8591: 8561: 8298: 8288: 8202: 8096: 7941: 7656: 7453: 7310: 7263: 7161: 7112: 7086: 7064: 6904: 6884: 6828: 6816: 6630: 6465: 6117: 6092: 6039: 5986: 5800: 5572: 5364: 5132: 5112: 4905: 4866: 4837: 4740: 4726: 4705: 4664: 4652: 4621: 4611: 4597: 4587: 4577: 4567: 4516: 4506: 4278: 4242: 4143: 3892: 3865: 3823: 3782: 3729: 3622: 3233: 3116: 3106: 3081: 2979: 2802: 2763: 2618:—the lower house of the East German parliament—and an upper house—the States Chamber 2573: 2380: 2265: 2168: 2046: 1810: 1736: 1712: 1703:

capital of the Federal Republic of Germany was established in Bonn, after Chancellor

1627: 1626:", the country would from the 1950s onwards come to enjoy prolonged economic growth ( 1559: 1553: 1521: 1304: 1113: 994: 947: 599: 522: 281: 151: 9240: 8911: 4437: 3283:

The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941–1945

3256:

President's Secretary's Files (PSF), German Diplomatic Files, Jan.–Sept. 1944 (i297)

2109: 1735:

out of concern that, as one of the largest German cities and a former centre of the

30:"History of Germany since 1945" redirects here. For events after reunification, see 9026: 8951: 8881: 8866: 8846: 8793: 8576: 8571: 8551: 8501: 8491: 8318: 8283: 8268: 8217: 7946: 7886: 7726: 7385: 7365: 7074: 7016: 7010: 6977: 6957: 6947: 6796: 6597: 6589: 6179: 6127: 6122: 6112: 6107: 6102: 5929: 5894: 5868: 5540: 5344: 5313: 5268: 5263: 4972:(June 1962) Vol. 6, p375-384, summarizes the series of crises 1946 to 1961; online. 4825: 4787: 4131: 3972: 3811: 3751:

The Bitter Road to Freedom: The Human Cost of Allied Victory in World War II Europe

3610: 3470:

Germany Under Direct Controls; Economic Aspects of Industrial Disarmament 1945–1948

3333: 3221: 2727: 2362: 2289:

emerged as one of the principal hate figures for the student protesters because of

2073: 1916: 1515:

that although the exact number of women and girls who were raped by members of the

1486: 1467: 1441: 1186: 964: 951: 561: 556: 551: 312: 277: 209: 2602:

or SED). The October 1946 elections resulted in coalition governments in the five

2542:

missiles to be stationed in the Federal Republic to counter the deployment of the

1952:, only 700 were entitled to compensation under the 1953 law. The German historian 9245: 9101: 9091: 9076: 9056: 9041: 9016: 8961: 8726: 8694: 8586: 8546: 8308: 8303: 8243: 8184: 7916: 7794: 7621: 7586: 7494: 7489: 7213: 7107: 6781: 6714: 6704: 6669: 6625: 6612: 6564: 6433: 6082: 6077: 6072: 6019: 5445: 5169: 5054: 5042: 5030: 4849: 4829: 4697: 3514: 3387: 2794: 2210: 2156: 2134: 1795: 1751: 1704: 1685: 1663: 1529: 1369: 1299: 1244: 1233: 1229: 1206: 1152: 1146: 1109: 1022: 731: 335: 232: 7208: 4162: 3722: 9071: 8996: 8986: 8981: 8841: 8581: 8370: 8293: 8021: 7926: 7676: 7616: 7248: 7166: 7069: 7029: 6999: 6899: 6854: 6184: 6062: 6049: 5712: 5470: 5004: 4607: 3717: 3444: 3196: 3179: 3135: 3006: 2945: 2900:

To this day, there remain vast differences between the former East Germany and

2879: 2871: 2577: 2543: 2526:. Genscher continued as Foreign Minister in the new Kohl government. Following 2462: 2337: 2261: 2065: 1920: 1608: 1508: 1405:

Science Technology and Reparations: Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany

1381: 1225: 1097: 1083: 1038: 897: 883: 624: 347: 285: 252: 174: 5090:

For representation of the German Partition in literature, one can consult the

4791: 4352: 4239:

Vergangenheitspolitik: Die Anfänge der Bundesrepublik und die NS-Vergangenheit

3862:

The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949

3838: 3614: 1513:

The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949

1435:

Collapsed employee of the labor office during the hunger-winter, December 1948

9288: 9235: 9081: 8976: 8941: 8926: 8886: 8428: 8258: 7996: 7906: 7769: 7749: 7636: 7397: 7375: 7340: 6919: 6914: 6869: 6791: 6751: 6500: 5425: 5153: 4520: 4202: 3073: 2627: 2551: 2470: 2346: 2298: 2286: 2232: 2160: 2084: 2069: 2057: 1941: 1896: 1696:

came into force, granting powers of self-government with certain exceptions.

1631: 1585:

state" on 5 May 1955. On 7 October 1949 the German Democratic Republic (GDR,

1358: 1354: 1344: 1340: 1043: 711: 363: 331: 5127:, edited by G.N. Ray, J. Sarkar, and A. Bhattacharyya, and published by the 5024:

The President's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria, Report No. 1 (1947)

3120: 1953: 1217:

helped to show the U.S. public how bad the situation in Germany really was.

938: 9021: 8971: 8901: 8891: 8745: 8733: 8720: 8526: 8353: 7854: 7102: 6952: 6811: 6806: 6801: 6507: 6241: 6228: 5810: 5485: 5480: 5450: 5349: 5303: 4805: 2901: 2829: 2798: 2718: 2710: 2589: 2401: 2277: 2012: 2005: 1973: 1948:

A study done in 1953 showed that of the 42,000 people who had survived the

1755: 1681: 1654: 1642: 1641:

East Germany was at first occupied by and later (May 1955) allied with the

1549: 1545: 1490: 1466:

attempted to transmit food supplies from Chile to German infants, the U.S.

1454: 1373: 1281: 1236:

rescinded on "national security grounds" the punitive occupation directive

1171: 820: 816: 751: 741: 702: 589: 343: 320: 276:

Occupation zone borders in Germany, late 1947. The territories east of the

193: 189: 140: 109: 101: 84: 73: 4716:

Come as Conqueror: The United States Army’s Occupation of Germany, 1945–49

4398:

A rising middle power?: German foreign policy in transformation, 1989–1999

3225: 1119:

The United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union had agreed at

417: 9066: 8671: 8641: 8496: 8486: 8385: 8248: 8041: 7530: 7360: 7345: 7156: 7004: 6972: 6859: 6674: 6579: 6518: 5820: 5534: 5369: 5318: 5139:; pages-367-90), Roy examines the attitudes and ideologies of those anti- 4411: 3958:"The European Coal and Steel Community: A political and legal innovation" 2821: 2817: 2738: 2647: 2626:

was abolished again in 1958.) On 11 October 1949, the two houses elected

2613: 2539: 2519: 2376: 2310: 2178: 2117: 2000: 1900: 1616: 1593: 1582: 1377: 1243:

The dismantling did however continue, and in 1949 West German Chancellor

1066: 1062: 990: 960: 604: 248: 5036:

The President's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria, Report 3 (1947)

5017: 4772: 4768: 3841:[German soldiers used for mine-clearing] (in Norwegian). VG Nett 3579: 2465:(SPD) formed a coalition and he served as Chancellor from 1974 to 1982. 1794:

means had to be found to allow West German rearmament. In response, the

1589:), with East Berlin as its capital, was established in the Soviet Zone. 8825: 8536: 8506: 8460: 8375: 8343: 8335: 8278: 7966: 7681: 7370: 7258: 6864: 6029: 5650: 5060: 5012: 4935:

Dictatorship As Experience: Towards a Socio-Cultural History of the GDR

4678: 4675:

Modern Germany: society, economy, and politics in the twentieth century

3580:"French proposal regarding the detachment of German industrial regions" 2850:

led to a form of mutual recognition between East and West Germany. The

2835: 2406: 2203: 1987: 1635: 1601: 1573:) was established on the territory of the Western occupied zones, with 674: 223:

socialist republic with its leadership dominated by the Soviet-aligned

219:, established on 7 October 1949, commonly known as East Germany, was a 7479: 4692: 3984: 3601:

Yoder, Amos (July 1955). "The Ruhr Authority and the German Problem".

3345: 2068:

process that had been started by the occupying powers and to liberate

1774:(NATO). In April 1951, West Germany joined with France, Italy and the 1758:

inspect formations of the newly created Bundeswehr on 20 January 1955.

9121: 8966: 8815: 8788: 8601: 8556: 8465: 8433: 8413: 8405: 7734: 7524: 5640: 5288: 5128: 5095: 4963:

The Plans That Failed: An Economic History of East Germany, 1945–1989

4640:

Ahonen, Pertti. "Germany and the Aftermath of the Second World War".

2486: 1992: 1732: 1458: 1033:; although in practice 'westward-looking' CDU policies favouring the 5146:

litterateurs who were forced to relocate due to their opposition to

4649:

A History of West Germany Vol 1: From Shadow to Substance, 1945–1963

3100: 2213:

was between West Germany's two largest parties, the CDU/CSU and the

204:, established on 23 May 1949, commonly known as West Germany, was a 8700: 8541: 8438: 8313: 8132: 8036: 7176: 7034: 6488: 5174: 4135: 3976: 3815: 3337: 2564: 1805: 1563: 1516: 1463: 1365: 1237: 1220:

The next improvement came in July 1947, when after lobbying by the

1160: 1125: 1101: 955: 272: 185: 7820:

Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union

5073:

Special German series 2. The Committee on Dismemberment of Germany

3582:. Centre Virtuel de la Connaissance sur l’Europe. 8 September 1945 2770: 8646: 8531: 8521: 8470: 8011: 6756: 5919: 5339: 5283: 5205: 5143: 4723:

Trading Power: West Germany’s Rise to Global Influence, 1963–1975

4535:"Grundgesetz für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland vom 23. Mai 1949" 4340:] (in German). Vol. 2. Rogner und Bernhard. p. 356. 3931:"Results of the referendum on the Saar Statute (23 October 1955)" 3480:

The two quotes used by Balabkins are referenced to respectively:

3024:"Germany 1945–1949: a case study in post-conflict reconstruction" 2993:

Facts concerning the problem of the German expellees and refugees

2978:. Herausgeber: Statistisches Bundesamt – Wiesbaden. – Stuttgart: 2801:

declared its right to speak for the entire German nation with an

2555: 1775: 1350: 1265: 1120: 769: 571: 359: 355: 339: 316: 4800:

Public opinion in occupied Germany: the OMGUS surveys, 1945-1949

4683:

Bernhard, Michael. "Democratization in Germany: A Reappraisal".

4604:, 2 Vols., Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1974. 4564:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004): 203–249; 249–257. 3300:

Money and conquest; allied occupation currencies in World War II

1659: 8714: 8516: 8455: 7390: 1728: 1105: 1072: 1058: 4767:(2 vol 2004), 150 short essays by scholars covering 1945–1990 4737:

Germany, America, Europe: Forty Years of German Foreign Policy

1427:

The average daily food ration in the UK occupation zone (1948)

1264:

Germany's second largest center of mining and industry, Upper

1189:(1932). Car production was set to 10% of pre-war levels, etc. 323:

east of 'Germany as a whole' to Poland and the Soviet Union.

299:

on 8 May 1945, the Allies officially divided Germany into the

131:, Germany was stripped of its territorial gains. Beyond that, 9199: 9155:

American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation

8661: 8444: 6523: 5299:

Chronology of warfare between the Romans and Germanic peoples

5278: 4260: 4258: 4155: 4153: 2490: 2439: 2269: 2264:

was shot in the head and killed by a plain-clothed policeman

2019:

to honor those executed for their involvement in the 20 July

1648: 1276:(IAR) was created as part of the agreement negotiated at the 244: 188:, the remaining territory of Germany was divided between the 4751:

Aftermath: Life in the Fallout of the Third Reich, 1945–1955

2583: 2072:

from prison, including those that had been convicted at the

2035:

governments in charge of their care. Not until 1966 did the

1818:

grew in average by about 7% annually between 1950 and 1960.

1272:

and the German population was being forcibly expelled. The

8739: 8621: 6513: 6457: 5140: 3319: 3317: 3315: 2670: 2606:(state) parliaments with the SED as the undisputed leader. 2352: 2336:

the 5% limit required to obtain parliamentary seats in the

1771: 1574: 1319: 1295:, held in Stuttgart on 6 September 1946, the United States 1034: 5105:: A Very Brief Review of German Partition Literature", in 4255: 4150: 3772: 3770: 3768: 3766: 3764: 3762: 3760: 2991:

Federal Ministry for Expellees, Refugees and War Victims.

165:

At the end of World War II, there were some eight million

9194: 9174: 9169: 5125:

Writing Difference: Nationalism, Identity, and Literature

5065:

Institute for Contemporary Historical Research in Potsdam

4810:

The Insulted Landscape: Post-War German Culture 1960–1995

4572:

Germany Beyond The Wall: People, Politics, and Prosperity

3483:

A Year of Potsdam: The German Economy Since the Surrender

2572:

subsequently resigned in April 1987 and was succeeded by

1445: 1140: 381: 5048:

The Struggle for Germany and the Origins of the Cold War

4765:

The United States and Germany in the Era of the Cold War

3312: 196:

led by the USSR. Two separate German countries emerged:

3757: 3485:. U.S. Office of Military Government. 1946. p. 70. 3103:

Uniting Germany : documents and debates, 1944–1993

2812:

The constant stream of East Germans fleeing across the

2228: 1215:

The President's Economic Mission to Germany and Austria

4897: 4226:. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 134–135. 3492:. U.S. Office of Military Government. 1948. p. 2. 2217:(SPD). This was important for the introduction of new 2064:

West German authorities made great efforts to end the

1798:

was modified to include West Germany, and to form the

1569:

On 23 May 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG,

1268:, had been handed over by the Allies to Poland at the 1256:

in 1951, though arms manufacture remained prohibited.

1053:

The intended governing body of Germany was called the

1048:

Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany

5131:-based Atlantic Publishers and Distributors in 2014 ( 4901:

The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Germany: 1944–1946

4430:"Pat Buchanan's Response to Norman Podhoretz's Op-Ed" 3153:"An Exploration of the Inner Landscape of Experience" 3101:

Jarausch, Konrad Hugo; Gransow, Volker, eds. (1994).

2820:. On 13 August 1961, East Germany began building the 2430:

by kneeling before a monument to those killed in the

2281:

newspaper, to be acts of terrorism. The conservative

2095:(CSU), either alone or in coalition with the smaller 1743:

and the eventual return of the Government to Berlin.

4980: 4928:

Anatomy of a Dictatorship: Inside the GDR, 1949–1989

2424:

agreement on relations between West and East Germany

2049:

gave a much-publicized speech on TV that called for

1786:

the Coal and Steel Community decided to establish a

1334: 158:", because the Soviet Union opposed it, making it a 4436:. Internet Archive. 5 November 1999. Archived from 3566:

A History of West Germany: From Shadow to Substance

2874:in September 1973. The two German states exchanged 2789:

East German guard/soldier defecting to West Germany

2368: 937:The northern half of East Prussia in the region of 212:

economic system and free churches and labor unions;

5150:and hence suffered from a sort of identity-crisis. 5123:: 1939–45 German Émigré Literature", collected in 4802:(University of Illinois Press, 1970), OMGUS polls. 4266: 4211:, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, p. 235 4161: 4159: 3997: 3721: 3467: 3360: 3297: 2631:communist state. On 23 July 1952, the traditional 2554:of the United States to visit the war cemetery at 1711:(as well as the U.S. Supreme Command) had favored 154:from 1947 to 1956 without the recognition of the " 5154:Post-World War II Posters from Germany, 1945–1947 4942:Uniting Germany: Documents and Debates, 1944–1993 4197: 4195: 4193: 4191: 4189: 4187: 4185: 4183: 4181: 4179: 4168:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 4006:– via The Library of Economics and Liberty. 3459: 2878:in 1974, and, in 1987, East German head of state 2457:U.S. Army tanks being transported by rail in 1978 9286: 9140:List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States 4160:Burleigh, Michael; Wippermann, Wolfgang (1991). 4021: 4019: 4017: 4015: 4013: 3501: 3499: 133:more than a quarter of its old pre-war territory 7577:North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972 6984:On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences 3864:. Harvard University Press. pp. 132, 133. 2771:Relations between East Germany and West Germany 2225:to be limited in case of a state of emergency. 1380:. The Western Allies replied with a continuous 1372:, blocking all ground transport routes between 267: 4940:Jarausch, Konrad H., and Volker Gransow, eds. 4780:International Bibliography of Military History 4176: 3252:"Suggested Post-Surrender Program for Germany" 2422:over the status of West Berlin in 1971 and an 1325: 971:began immediately after the German surrender. 6473: 6211: 5190: 4758:After Hitler: Recivilizing Germans, 1945–1995 4584:, New York: Henry, Holt, & Company, 1990. 4574:, Boston: Little, Brown, & Company, 1969. 4477: 4475: 4473: 4471: 4469: 4412:"No new investigation into RAF prison deaths" 4378:Kohl Says He'd Bring ‘Sounder’ Policy in Bonn 4113: 4111: 4109: 4107: 4105: 4103: 4101: 4099: 4097: 4095: 4093: 4091: 4089: 4087: 4085: 4083: 4081: 4079: 4077: 4010: 3496: 2963:KL; A History of the Nazi Concentration Camps 2479:Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine 918: 9216:Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War 6767:Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council 4490: 4422: 4327: 4325: 4075: 4073: 4071: 4069: 4067: 4065: 4063: 4061: 4059: 4057: 3955: 3779:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe 3198:The German War; a nation under arms, 1939–45 3181:The German War; a nation under arms, 1939–45 3137:The German War; a nation under arms, 1939–45 3008:The German War; a nation under arms, 1939–45 2947:The German War; a nation under arms, 1939–45 2688: 1474: 1073:Elimination of war potential and reparations 786: 672: 295:(17 July to 2 August 1945), after Germany's 8077:1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre 5309:Roman campaigns in Germania (12 BC – AD 16) 5163:Chronology of the East-West-German division 5119:) 11 (2), April–June 2012: 157–68. In his " 3304:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press. pp. 3211: 2102: 963:territories, surrendered to Germany by the 9180:United States involvement in regime change 6735:1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine 6480: 6466: 6218: 6204: 5197: 5183: 4798:Merritt, Anna J., and Richard L. Merritt. 4466: 4298: 4296: 4294: 3937:. Saarbrücken. 24 October 1955. p. 10 3609:(3). Cambridge University Press: 345–358. 3246: 2600:Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands 2497:In January 1979, the American mini-series 2115:In October 1962, the weekly news magazine 2031:, which were ignored and neglected by the 1813:was an icon of West German reconstruction. 1649:West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany) 1481:Forced labor of Germans after World War II 1387: 925: 911: 27:Period of German history from 1945 to 1990 4894:(Central European University Press, 2004) 4527: 4395: 4338:Frankfurt School and the Student Movement 4331: 4322: 4054: 3884: 3836: 3801: 3748: 3712: 3710: 3564:Bark, Dennis L.; Gress, David R. (1989). 3563: 3559: 3557: 3465: 2960: 2584:East Germany (German Democratic Republic) 1977:Anti-communist propaganda posters of the 1532:, as many as 190,000 women were raped by 388:Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50) 4944:(1994), primary sources on reunification 4777: 4334:Frankfurter Schule und Studentenbewegung 3513:. Peaceworks. p. 15. Archived from 3505: 3258:. Franklin D. Roosevelt Digital Archives 3194: 3177: 3133: 3004: 2943: 2784: 2682: 2671:Industry and agriculture in East Germany 2641: 2452: 2444: 2400:In the 1969 election, the SPD—headed by 2351: 2304: 2227: 2129:. Chancellor Adenauer proclaimed in the 2087:(1963–66) who, in turn, was replaced by 1972: 1910: 1804: 1745: 1658: 1430: 1422: 1259: 1096:A key item in the occupiers' agenda was 1087: 1007: 271: 143:. The German populations of these areas 7306:Transition to the New Order (Indonesia) 4661:Democracy and Its Discontents 1963–1988 4594:, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1963. 4302: 4291: 3913:"Were Americans As Bad as the Soviets?" 3859: 3776: 3638:"Marshall Plan 1947–1997 A German View" 3358: 3049:"Allies end occupation of West Germany" 3021: 2635:were abolished and, in their place, 14 2112:took on the task and was duly elected. 1964:Union of Persecutees of the Nazi Regime 247:tightly controlled daily life, and the 14: 9287: 9150:Russian espionage in the United States 7422:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia 5108:The Atlantic Critical Review Quarterly 4815: 4496: 4481: 4264: 4221: 4117: 3839:"Tyske soldater brukt som mineryddere" 3716: 3707: 3670: 3554: 3443: 3323: 3295: 3150: 3072: 2939: 2937: 2167:court ruled that a KGB assassin named 1970:survivors of the concentration camps. 1141:Industrial disarmament in West Germany 382:Flight and expulsion of ethnic Germans 262: 9145:Soviet espionage in the United States 7301:Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966 7080:Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution 6745:1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight 6461: 6199: 5178: 4968:Windsor, Philip. "The Berlin Crises" 4876: 4647:Bark, Dennis L., and David R. Gress. 4350: 4208:The Wehrmacht: History, Myth, Reality 4201: 4004:The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics 3600: 3280: 1979:Christian Democratic Union of Germany 1587:Deutsche Demokratische Republik (DDR) 1504:Rape during the occupation of Germany 1418: 1031:Christian Democratic Union of Germany 969:'Wild' expulsions from Czechoslovakia 9310:Aftermath of World War II in Germany 9221:Soviet Union–United States relations 7572:1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China 5204: 5013:Germany at the onset of the Cold War 4886:(Thesis). The Ohio State University. 4877:Stark, John Robert (10 March 2003). 4273:. London: Bloomsbury Press. p. 4236: 4027:Informationen für Politische Bildung 3506:Jennings, Ray Salvatore (May 2003). 3474:. Rutgers University Press. p. 2345:repealed the 1935 Nazi amendment to 1782:(forerunner of the European Union). 1539: 1274:International Authority for the Ruhr 98:history of Germany from 1945 to 1990 9365:East Germany–West Germany relations 9185:Soviet involvement in regime change 4933:Jarausch, Konrad H. and Eve Duffy. 4858:(1990), a major scholarly biography 4164:The Racial State: Germany 1933–1945 3698: 2934: 1394:German reparations for World War II 116:on 5 June 1945, and ended with the 24: 9226:Soviet Union–United States summits 6700:1947 Polish parliamentary election 6585:Guerrilla war in the Baltic states 4873:, broad survey of reunified nation 4725:Cambridge University Press, 2023. 4704:(Harper Collins Publishers, 2009) 4634: 4351:Denso, Christian (8 August 2011). 3671:Walker, C. Lester (October 1946). 3490:The German Forest Resources Survey 3080:. Penguin Books. pp. 402 ff. 3022:Knowles, Chris (29 January 2014). 2524:Constructive Vote of No Confidence 2473:in autumn 1977. The industrialist 1772:North Atlantic Treaty Organization 1364:The Soviets had not agreed to the 237:North Atlantic Treaty Organization 192:led by the United States, and the 25: 9376: 9305:20th century in Germany by period 7987:Lord's Resistance Army insurgency 7922:United States invasion of Grenada 7192:Guinea-Bissau War of Independence 7133:Expulsion of Soviets from Albania 6234:Foreign relations of East Germany 5018:James F. Byrnes, Speaking Frankly 4976: 4812:Königshausen & Neumann (2021) 4396:Otte, Max; Greve, Jürgen (2000). 3837:Tjersland, Jonas (8 April 2006). 3635: 3391:. 21 January 1946. Archived from 3383:"Economics: Cornerstone of Steel" 3363:Mainsprings of the German Revival 1780:European Coal and Steel Community 1335:Marshall Plan and currency reform 1286:European Coal and Steel Community 1254:European Coal and Steel Community 1104:and other outward symbols of the 1077: 114:Allied-occupied period in Germany 32:History of Germany (1990–present) 8062:United States invasion of Panama 7912:1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War 7552:1971 Turkish military memorandum 7515:Communist insurgency in Thailand 7485:Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 7417:Communist insurgency in Malaysia 7244:Assassination of John F. Kennedy 7172:Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation 6690:Restatement of Policy on Germany 6423: 6227: 4997: 4983: 4856:Lucius D. Clay: An American Life 4582:Lucius D. Clay: An American Life 4308:"How the Auschwitz Trial failed" 4224:Russia War, Peace, and Diplomacy 2713:, Berlin became the seat of the 2528:national elections in March 1983 2369:Political developments 1969–1990 2253:Außerparlamentarische Opposition 1895:closely linked with the name of 1293:Restatement of Policy on Germany 1211:Restatement of Policy on Germany 1203:United States Secretary of State 1165:the industrial plans for Germany 891: 877: 416: 225:Socialist Unity Party of Germany 78: 67: 48: 8782:Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 8163:Dissolution of the Soviet Union 8092:Fall of the inner German border 7992:1988 Black Sea bumping incident 7642:Strategic Arms Limitation Talks 7632:Spanish transition to democracy 7592:1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency 7219:Communist insurgency in Sarawak 6725:Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948 6606:Occupation of the Baltic states 5401:German revolutions of 1848–1849 5370:Ostsiedlung (East Colonisation) 4898:Ziemke, Earl Frederick (1975). 4863:Developments in German Politics 4702:Germany 1945: From War to Peace 4452: 4404: 4389: 4371: 4344: 4230: 4215: 3991: 3949: 3923: 3905: 3878: 3853: 3830: 3795: 3742: 3724:Germany 1945: From War to Peace 3692: 3664: 3629: 3594: 3572: 3532:"Conferences: Pas de Pagaille!" 3524: 3437: 3407: 3375: 3352: 3326:The Western Political Quarterly 3289: 3274: 3240: 3205: 3188: 3171: 3155:. H-Net Reviews. Archived from 3144: 3127: 2914: 1931:In the 1950s Federal Republic, 1524:on the East German nation (the 1485:As agreed by the Allies at the 1065:and the Soviet sector becoming 1025:, this block eventually became 685:German revolutions of 1848–1849 326:In addition, under the Allies' 108:, marking the abolition of the 100:comprises the period following 7562:Four Power Agreement on Berlin 7197:Mozambican War of Independence 6636:Indonesian National Revolution 5386:Early modern period, 1500–1800 5274:List of early Germanic peoples 4949:The Making of the GDR, 1945–53 4904:. Government Printing Office. 3956:Gerhard Bebr (November 1953). 3891:. Knopf Doubleday Publishing. 3885:Hitchcock, William I. (2004). 3749:Hitchcock, William I. (2008). 3538:. 28 July 1947. Archived from 3421:. 8 April 1946. Archived from 3094: 3066: 3041: 3015: 2998: 2985: 2969: 2954: 2860:Four Power Agreement on Berlin 1945:than to a concentration camp. 1280:in June 1948 to establish the 171:Nazi concentration camp system 13: 1: 9160:CIA and the Cultural Cold War 8175:Dissolution of Czechoslovakia 8128:Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident 7850:1984 Summer Olympics boycotts 7815:Seven Days to the River Rhine 7547:Corrective Revolution (Egypt) 6834:March 1949 Syrian coup d'état 6762:1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état 5509:History of Germany since 1990 5079:East Berlin, Past and Present 4850:excerpt and text search vol 2 4818:Small Wars & Insurgencies 4773:excerpt and text search vol 2 4769:excerpt and text search vol 1 4462:(in German). 1973. p. 7. 4124:The Journal of Modern History 3804:The Journal of Modern History 3781:. Social Science Monographs. 2965:. Little, Brown. p. 544. 2928: 2825:German states was fortified. 2338:Free Hanseatic City of Bremen 1950:Buchenwald concentration camp 1132:Future President and General 18:History of Germany since 1945 9360:History of Germany by period 8153:Fall of communism in Albania 8123:Mongolian Revolution of 1990 8072:Polish Round Table Agreement 7412:1968 Polish political crisis 7229:Eritrean War of Independence 6995:Hungarian Revolution of 1956 6890:East German uprising of 1953 6822:Chinese Communist Revolution 6487: 5156:From the Collections at the 5103:Das Bewusstsein für die Wand 5084:Germany Under Reconstruction 4830:10.1080/09592318.2013.857935 4602:The Papers of Lucius D. Clay 4562:A Concise History of Germany 4484:Deutsch Geschichte 1945–1961 4353:"Gefangen in der Geschichte" 4332:Kraushaar, Wolfgang (1998). 3568:. Vol. 1. Oxford Press. 3466:Balabkins, Nicholas (1964). 2961:Wachsmann, Nikolaus (2015). 2889: 2375:The principle is written in 1497: 1003:Central Labour Camp Jaworzno 999:Central Labour Camp Potulice 268:Four military occupied zones 253:flow of refugees to the West 147:to the west. Saarland was a 104:. The period began with the 7: 9300:Contemporary German history 9295:Cold War history of Germany 8027:Korean Air Lines Flight 007 7755:Korean Air Lines Flight 902 7500:Corrective Movement (Syria) 7464:New People's Army rebellion 7459:Sino-Soviet border conflict 7187:Angolan War of Independence 7050:Second Taiwan Strait Crisis 6930:1954 Guatemalan coup d'état 6575:Jamaican political conflict 5121:Patriots in Fremden Landern 4916:, the official Army history 3998:David R. Henderson (2008). 3860:Naimark, Norman M. (1995). 3201:. Bodley Head. p. 558. 3195:Stragart, Nicholas (2015). 3184:. Bodley Head. p. 556. 3178:Stragart, Nicholas (2015). 3140:. Bodley Head. p. 557. 3134:Stragart, Nicholas (2015). 3011:. Bodley Head. p. 551. 3005:Stragart, Nicholas (2015). 2950:. Bodley Head. p. 549. 2944:Stragart, Nicholas (2015). 2251:(Democracy in Crisis), the 1768:London and Paris agreements 1546:Federal Republic of Germany 1326:Dismantling in East Germany 1282:Federal Republic of Germany 1278:London Six-Power conference 241:European Economic Community 202:Federal Republic of Germany 125:collapse of the Third Reich 10: 9381: 8223:Sino-Indian border dispute 8052:First Nagorno-Karabakh War 7982:1987–1989 JVP insurrection 7740:1976 Argentine coup d'état 7652:Turkish invasion of Cyprus 7602:1973 Uruguayan coup d'état 7286:1964 Brazilian coup d'état 7254:Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964 6943:First Taiwan Strait Crisis 6710:Asian Relations Conference 5416:North German Confederation 5396:Confederation of the Rhine 4265:Taylor, Frederick (2011). 3935:Saarländische Volkszeitung 3673:"Secrets by the Thousands" 3359:Wallich, Henry C. (1955). 2893: 2774: 2587: 2550:when he invited President 2183:Frankfurt Auschwitz Trials 1908:(foreign laborers) began. 1788:European Defence Community 1652: 1571:Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1550:German Democratic Republic 1543: 1526:German Democratic Republic 1501: 1478: 1391: 1338: 1312:European Defense Community 1144: 1108:regime were banned, and a 1081: 690:North German Confederation 660:Confederation of the Rhine 385: 217:German Democratic Republic 184:With the beginning of the 129:its defeat in World War II 29: 9259: 9208: 9130: 9107:William Appleman Williams 9052:Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. 8834: 8806: 8755: 8687: 8680: 8614: 8479: 8404: 8334: 8327: 8236: 8183: 8115: 7828: 7567:Bangladesh Liberation War 7557:1971 Sudanese coup d'état 7472: 7444:1969 Sudanese coup d'état 7432:1968 Peruvian coup d'état 7095: 6870:Arab Cold War (1952–1979) 6847: 6557: 6495: 6432: 6421: 6240: 6150: 6010: 5890: 5881: 5764: 5755: 5636: 5627: 5563: 5554: 5517: 5496: 5378: 5332: 5256: 5225: 5216: 5020:(The division of Germany) 4792:10.1163/22115757-03302004 4642:Journal of Modern History 4000:"German economic miracle" 3615:10.1017/s0034670500014261 3415:"Germany: Cost of Defeat" 3296:Petrov, Vladimir (1967). 3214:Journal of Social History 3078:Berlin: The Downfall 1945 2876:permanent representatives 2704: 2689: 2247:, a group calling itself 2052:Vergangenheitsbewältigung 1558:On 17 December 1947, the 1475:Forced labour reparations 328:Berlin Declaration (1945) 245:East German secret police 90: 77: 66: 56: 47: 7882:1980 Turkish coup d'état 7717:Cambodian–Vietnamese War 7687:1978 Somali coup attempt 7647:Second Iraqi–Kurdish War 7612:1973 Chilean coup d'état 7437:Revolutionary Government 7331:South African Border War 7123:1960 Turkish coup d'état 7040:Iraqi 14 July Revolution 6895:1953 Iranian coup d'état 6875:1952 Egyptian revolution 5568:Administrative divisions 4029:(in German) (256). 1997. 2907: 2732:House of Representatives 2646:North Vietnamese leader 2103:1960s: a time for reform 1534:U.S. soldiers in Germany 1110:Provisional Civil Ensign 1092:Provisional Civil Ensign 251:(1961) ended the steady 167:foreign displaced people 8087:Fall of the Berlin Wall 8032:People Power Revolution 8017:Central American crisis 7957:1986 Black Sea incident 7607:1973 Afghan coup d'état 7505:Western Sahara conflict 7316:1966 Syrian coup d'état 7239:1963 Syrian coup d'état 7182:Portuguese Colonial War 7145:First Iraqi–Kurdish War 6910:1954 Syrian coup d'état 6787:Annexation of Hyderabad 6730:1947–1949 Palestine war 4714:Davis, Franklin M. Jr. 4673:Berghahn, Volker Rolf. 4497:Kilian, Werner (2001). 4434:The Wall Street Journal 3701:The Russians in Germany 2755:Final Settlement Treaty 2249:Notstand der Demokratie 2245:German student movement 2215:Social Democratic Party 1709:constitutional assembly 1398:The Allies confiscated 1388:Reparations to the U.S. 1209:made the famous speech 297:unconditional surrender 206:parliamentary democracy 8381:Neoclassical economics 7892:Gulf of Sidra incident 7449:1969 Libyan revolution 7140:Iraqi–Kurdish conflict 6925:1954 Geneva Conference 6685:Turkish straits crisis 6680:Corfu Channel incident 5829:Science and technology 5530:History of Brandenburg 5421:Unification of Germany 5411:Frankfurt Constitution 5053:27 August 2016 at the 4920: 4735:Hanrieder, Wolfram F. 4687:33#4 (2001): 379–400. 4237:Frei, Norbert (1996). 3603:The Review of Politics 3281:Beschloss, Michael R. 2862:(September 1971), the 2790: 2777:Inner German relations 2715:Allied Control Council 2693: 2687:Gerhard Behrendt with 2655: 2467:Hans-Dietrich Genscher 2458: 2450: 2432:Warsaw Ghetto Uprising 2386: 2357: 2324:statute of limitations 2314: 2313:in West Berlin in 1968 2236: 2093:Christian Social Union 2004:those involved in the 1982: 1924: 1814: 1800:Western European Union 1759: 1666: 1436: 1428: 1316:Western European Union 1093: 1055:Allied Control Council 1013: 986: 787: 673: 542:Linear Pottery culture 288: 43:Inter–German relations 9231:Russia–NATO relations 9112:Jonathan Reed Winkler 8396:Democratic capitalism 8391:Supply-side economics 8359:American conservatism 8158:Breakup of Yugoslavia 8047:Bougainville conflict 7962:South Yemen civil war 7897:Martial law in Poland 7760:Nicaraguan Revolution 7735:Dirty War (Argentina) 7542:1971 JVP insurrection 7356:Years of Lead (Italy) 7234:North Yemen civil war 7152:Berlin Crisis of 1961 7128:Albanian–Soviet split 7060:1959 Tibetan uprising 7025:Syrian Crisis of 1957 6880:Iraqi Intifada (1952) 6740:1948 Arab–Israeli War 5466:Flight and expulsions 5041:21 April 2016 at the 5029:15 April 2016 at the 4844:Schwarz, Hans-Peter. 4721:Gray, William Glenn. 4644:89#2 (2017): 355–387. 4592:The Defense of Berlin 3248:Morgenthau, Henry Jr. 3226:10.1353/jsh.2001.0002 2896:New states of Germany 2894:Further information: 2858:(December 1970), the 2788: 2686: 2664:umbrella organization 2645: 2596:Socialist Unity Party 2475:Hanns-Martin Schleyer 2456: 2448: 2372: 2355: 2308: 2241:Free Democratic Party 2231: 2097:Free Democratic Party 1976: 1914: 1822:GNP growth 1950–1960 1808: 1749: 1717:Parlamentarischer Rat 1662: 1624:social market economy 1489:Germans were used as 1434: 1426: 1400:intellectual property 1392:Further information: 1260:Relations with France 1222:Joint Chiefs of Staff 1091: 1027:substantially aligned 1011: 981: 468:Territorial evolution 386:Further information: 309:Poland-Germany border 275: 9315:Partition (politics) 8652:Non-Aligned Movement 8274:Peaceful coexistence 8228:North Borneo dispute 8143:German reunification 8138:Min Ping Yu No. 5202 7836:Salvadoran Civil War 7785:Grand Mosque seizure 7780:Yemenite War of 1979 7672:Mozambican Civil War 7627:Carnation Revolution 7582:Yemenite War of 1972 7520:1970 Polish protests 7351:1967 Hong Kong riots 7326:Argentine Revolution 7276:Guatemalan Civil War 7204:Cuban Missile Crisis 7118:Bay of Pigs Invasion 6990:1956 Poznań protests 6968:Geneva Summit (1955) 6570:Hukbalahap Rebellion 6549:Non-Aligned Movement 6138:World Heritage Sites 5816:German states by GDP 5406:German Confederation 5061:Contemporary History 5057:by Melvyn P. Leffler 4854:Smith, Jean Edward. 4763:Junker, Detlef, ed. 4756:Jarausch, Konrad H. 4685:Comparative Politics 4118:Ludtke, Alf (1993). 3425:on 30 September 2007 3151:Alrich, Amy (2004). 3028:History & Policy 2866:(May 1972), and the 2828:In 1969, Chancellor 2622:—were created. (The 2483:Lufthansa Flight 181 2420:Four-Power Agreement 2309:Protest against the 2209:Kiesinger's 1966–69 2200:Kurt Georg Kiesinger 2089:Kurt Georg Kiesinger 1915:Konrad Adenauer and 1764:Petersberg agreement 1672:constituent assembly 1598:German reunification 1250:Petersberg Agreement 1183:manufacturing plants 1157:Henry Morgenthau Jr. 1134:Dwight D. Eisenhower 804:Expulsion of Germans 770:Contemporary Germany 668:German Confederation 118:German reunification 9097:Alex von Tunzelmann 9087:Vladimir Tismăneanu 9012:Thomas J. McCormick 9007:Jack F. Matlock Jr. 8907:Robert Hugh Ferrell 8770:Crusade for Freedom 8567:Illiberal democracy 8451:Ho Chi Minh Thought 8254:Eisenhower Doctrine 8107:Peaceful Revolution 8102:Romanian Revolution 8082:Revolutions of 1989 8067:1988 Polish strikes 7977:Operation INFEKTION 7972:1987 Lieyu massacre 7877:Eritrean Civil Wars 7860:Peruvian Revolution 7810:1979 Herat uprising 7800:Sino-Vietnamese War 7765:Uganda–Tanzania War 7745:Egyptian–Libyan War 7712:Third Indochina War 7707:Sino-Albanian split 7697:Ethiopian Civil War 7597:Eritrean Civil Wars 7537:Ping-pong diplomacy 7510:Cambodian Civil War 7336:Korean DMZ Conflict 7321:Cultural Revolution 7291:Dominican Civil War 7269:Tlatelolco massacre 7055:1959 Mosul uprising 7045:1958 Lebanon crisis 6772:Al-Wathbah uprising 6695:First Indochina War 6665:Iran crisis of 1946 5774:Automobile industry 5360:Carolingian dynasty 5294:History of the Huns 5168:10 May 2019 at the 5158:Library of Congress 4991:East Germany portal 4947:Pritchard, Gareth. 4861:Smith, Gordon, ed, 4386:, August 17th, 1976 3699:Naimark, Norman M. 2854:(August 1970), the 2814:Inner German border 2795:Chancellor Adenauer 2724:Allied Kommandatura 2522:as Chancellor in a 2428:Warschauer Kniefall 2223:freedom of movement 2140:Franz Josef Strauss 2127:Franz Josef Strauss 1823: 1462:supplies. When the 1444:, liberated Allied 1413:Operation Paperclip 944:Free City of Danzig 618:Early Modern period 605:Eastward settlement 263:Division of Germany 257:Peaceful Revolution 120:on 3 October 1990. 44: 39:Bilateral relations 9251:Russian Revolution 9047:Mary Elise Sarotte 9032:William B. Pickett 8957:Patrick J. Hearden 8937:Gabriel Gorodetsky 8932:Timothy Garton Ash 8917:Anneli Ute Gabanyi 8512:Ethnic nationalism 8264:Hallstein Doctrine 8148:Yemeni unification 7937:1985 Geneva Summit 7902:Casamance conflict 7805:New Jewel Movement 7790:Iranian Revolution 7775:Chadian–Libyan War 7722:Cambodian conflict 7702:Lebanese Civil War 7692:Western Sahara War 7667:June 1976 protests 7662:Cambodian genocide 7427:17 July Revolution 7381:Nigerian Civil War 7296:Rhodesian Bush War 7281:Colombian conflict 7224:Ramadan Revolution 6963:Bandung Conference 6839:Operation Valuable 6720:Partition of India 5844:Telecommunications 5525:History of Prussia 5441:Revolution of 1918 5436:War guilt question 5355:Carolingian Empire 5324:Sack of Rome (410) 5233:History of Germany 5148:National Socialism 5092:Raiganj University 5063:maintained by the 4892:Germany, 1945–1990 4718:(Macmillan, 1967). 4679:ACLS E-book online 4383:The New York Times 3728:. Harper Collins. 3542:on 14 October 2007 3395:on 1 November 2007 3250:(September 1944). 2807:Hallstein Doctrine 2791: 2781:Hallstein Doctrine 2728:West Berlin Senate 2694: 2656: 2459: 2451: 2394:The New York Times 2358: 2315: 2237: 1983: 1925: 1821: 1815: 1760: 1721:Reichstag building 1694:occupation statute 1667: 1450:concentration camp 1437: 1429: 1419:Nutritional levels 1297:Secretary of State 1270:Potsdam Conference 1176:Potsdam Conference 1094: 1014: 976:Potsdam Conference 898:History portal 884:Germany portal 635:Kingdom of Prussia 595:Kingdom of Germany 567:Barbarian kingdoms 352:Southern Carinthia 293:Potsdam Conference 289: 160:disputed territory 106:Berlin Declaration 42: 9282: 9281: 9269:List of conflicts 9117:Rudolph Winnacker 9062:Giles Scott-Smith 9037:Ronald E. Powaski 8992:Melvyn P. Leffler 8922:John Lewis Gaddis 8897:Robert D. English 8862:Warren H. Carroll 8852:Michael Beschloss 8821:Nuclear arms race 8802: 8801: 8708:Neues Deutschland 8610: 8609: 8592:White nationalism 8562:Liberal democracy 8299:Ulbricht Doctrine 8289:Brezhnev Doctrine 8097:Velvet Revolution 7841:Soviet–Afghan War 7657:Angolan Civil War 7454:Goulash Communism 7311:ASEAN Declaration 7264:Mexican Dirty War 7162:Annexation of Goa 7113:1960 U-2 incident 7087:Sino-Soviet split 7065:Laotian Civil War 6905:Bricker Amendment 6885:Mau Mau rebellion 6829:Malayan Emergency 6817:Chinese Civil War 6777:Tito–Stalin split 6631:Division of Korea 6455: 6454: 6193: 6192: 6146: 6145: 5877: 5876: 5791:Chemical Triangle 5751: 5750: 5738:Political parties 5686:Foreign relations 5623: 5622: 5550: 5549: 5461:Allied occupation 5365:Holy Roman Empire 5137:978-81-269-1938-3 5117:978-81-269-1747-1 5111:(ISSN 0972-6373; 4731:978-1-108-34119-6 4710:978-0-06-054036-4 4669:978-0-631-16788-4 4657:978-0-631-16787-7 4598:Jean Edward Smith 4588:Jean Edward Smith 4578:Jean Edward Smith 4568:Jean Edward Smith 4440:on 8 October 2008 4269:Exorcising Hitler 4248:978-3-406-63661-5 4042:Missing or empty 3898:978-0-385-49799-2 3753:. pp. 205–7. 3678:Harper's Magazine 3447:(18 March 1947). 2982:, 1958, pp. 35–36 2980:Kohlhammer Verlag 2886:to West Germany. 2864:Transit Agreement 2803:exclusive mandate 2650:with East German 2574:Hans-Jochen Vogel 2461:Finance Minister 2418:, December 1970, 2397: 2392:Helmuth Kohl for 2266:Karl-Heinz Kurras 2169:Bohdan Stashynsky 2047:Theodor W. Adorno 2017:Plötzensee Prison 1890: 1889: 1811:Volkswagen Beetle 1778:countries in the 1750:Konrad Adenauer, 1737:Holy Roman Empire 1725:Bundesversammlung 1713:Frankfurt am Main 1680:(Basic Law), the 1628:Wirtschaftswunder 1579:Baden-Württemberg 1560:Saar Protectorate 1554:Saar Protectorate 1540:States in Germany 1522:collective trauma 1442:displaced persons 1305:Saar Protectorate 1114:international law 1035:Atlantic Alliance 995:Zgoda labour camp 948:Tehran Conference 935: 934: 866: 865: 760: 759: 600:Holy Roman Empire 477:Holy Roman Empire 282:Saar Protectorate 231:Under Chancellor 210:social democratic 94: 93: 16:(Redirected from 9372: 9355:1990s in Germany 9350:1980s in Germany 9345:1970s in Germany 9340:1960s in Germany 9335:1950s in Germany 9330:1940s in Germany 9027:David S. Painter 8952:John Earl Haynes 8882:Nicholas J. Cull 8867:Adrian Cioroianu 8847:Thomas A. Bailey 8794:Voice of America 8685: 8684: 8597:White separatism 8577:Social democracy 8572:Guided democracy 8552:Authoritarianism 8502:Ultranationalism 8492:Anti-imperialism 8419:Marxism–Leninism 8332: 8331: 8319:Kinmen Agreement 8284:Johnson Doctrine 8269:Kennedy Doctrine 8185:Frozen conflicts 8168:1991 August Coup 8057:Afghan Civil War 7952:Reykjavík Summit 7947:Somali Rebellion 7887:Ugandan Bush War 7865:Gdańsk Agreement 7386:Protests of 1968 7366:War of Attrition 7075:Cuban Revolution 7011:We will bury you 6978:Cyprus Emergency 6958:Kashmir Princess 6948:Jebel Akhdar War 6797:Western betrayal 6482: 6475: 6468: 6459: 6458: 6427: 6232: 6231: 6220: 6213: 6206: 6197: 6196: 6173: 6166: 6159: 6123:Prussian virtues 5888: 5887: 5796:Economic history 5762: 5761: 5656: 5634: 5633: 5585:Cities and towns 5561: 5560: 5541:Baden Revolution 5345:Treaty of Verdun 5314:Marcomannic Wars 5269:Migration Period 5264:Germanic peoples 5248:Military history 5223: 5222: 5199: 5192: 5185: 5176: 5175: 5069: 5007: 5002: 5001: 5000: 4993: 4988: 4987: 4986: 4961:Steiner, André. 4926:Fulbrook, Mary. 4915: 4887: 4885: 4841: 4795: 4749:Jähner, Harald. 4557:Fulbrook, Mary. 4546: 4545: 4543: 4541: 4531: 4525: 4524: 4494: 4488: 4487: 4479: 4464: 4463: 4456: 4450: 4449: 4447: 4445: 4426: 4420: 4419: 4418:. 20 April 2013. 4408: 4402: 4401: 4393: 4387: 4375: 4369: 4368: 4366: 4364: 4348: 4342: 4341: 4329: 4320: 4319: 4317: 4315: 4300: 4289: 4288: 4272: 4262: 4253: 4252: 4234: 4228: 4227: 4219: 4213: 4212: 4199: 4174: 4173: 4167: 4157: 4148: 4147: 4115: 4052: 4051: 4045: 4040: 4038: 4030: 4023: 4008: 4007: 3995: 3989: 3988: 3965:Yale Law Journal 3962: 3953: 3947: 3946: 3944: 3942: 3927: 3921: 3920: 3909: 3903: 3902: 3882: 3876: 3875: 3857: 3851: 3850: 3848: 3846: 3834: 3828: 3827: 3799: 3793: 3792: 3774: 3755: 3754: 3746: 3740: 3739: 3727: 3714: 3705: 3704: 3696: 3690: 3689: 3687: 3685: 3668: 3662: 3661: 3655: 3653: 3633: 3627: 3626: 3598: 3592: 3591: 3589: 3587: 3576: 3570: 3569: 3561: 3552: 3551: 3549: 3547: 3528: 3522: 3521: 3519: 3512: 3503: 3494: 3493: 3486: 3479: 3473: 3463: 3457: 3456: 3455:on 3 March 2016. 3441: 3435: 3434: 3432: 3430: 3411: 3405: 3404: 3402: 3400: 3379: 3373: 3372: 3366: 3356: 3350: 3349: 3321: 3310: 3309: 3303: 3293: 3287: 3286: 3278: 3272: 3271: 3265: 3263: 3244: 3238: 3237: 3209: 3203: 3202: 3192: 3186: 3185: 3175: 3169: 3168: 3166: 3164: 3148: 3142: 3141: 3131: 3125: 3124: 3098: 3092: 3091: 3070: 3064: 3063: 3061: 3059: 3045: 3039: 3038: 3036: 3034: 3019: 3013: 3012: 3002: 2996: 2989: 2983: 2973: 2967: 2966: 2958: 2952: 2951: 2941: 2922: 2918: 2856:Treaty of Warsaw 2852:Treaty of Moscow 2692: 2691: 2436:Günter Guillaume 2416:Warsaw Agreement 2412:Moscow Agreement 2388: 2377:our Constitution 2363:Red Army Faction 2295: 2257:student movement 2235:, student leader 2148:Frederick Taylor 2074:Nuremberg trials 1933:restitution laws 1917:Walter Hallstein 1824: 1820: 1699:In 1949 the new 1630:) following the 1487:Yalta Conference 1468:State Department 1353:", the American 1187:Great Depression 965:Munich Agreement 952:Oder-Neisse line 927: 920: 913: 900: 896: 895: 894: 886: 882: 881: 880: 792: 775: 774: 708: 707: 678: 562:Migration Period 557:Germanic peoples 552:Urnfield culture 420: 410: 392: 391: 313:Oder-Neisse line 305:occupation zones 278:Oder-Neisse line 221:Marxist–Leninist 179:prisoners of war 137:communist Poland 82: 81: 71: 70: 52: 45: 41: 21: 9380: 9379: 9375: 9374: 9373: 9371: 9370: 9369: 9285: 9284: 9283: 9278: 9255: 9246:Second Cold War 9204: 9132: 9126: 9102:Odd Arne Westad 9092:Patrick Vaughan 9077:Athan Theoharis 9057:Ellen Schrecker 9042:Yakov M. Rabkin 9017:Timothy Naftali 8962:Tvrtko Jakovina 8947:Jussi Hanhimäki 8830: 8808: 8798: 8776:Paix et Liberté 8751: 8695:Active measures 8676: 8606: 8587:White supremacy 8547:Totalitarianism 8475: 8400: 8323: 8309:Reagan Doctrine 8304:Carter Doctrine 8244:Truman Doctrine 8232: 8179: 8111: 8006:Soviet reaction 7917:Ndogboyosoi War 7824: 7795:Saur Revolution 7622:1973 oil crisis 7587:Munich massacre 7495:Alcora Exercise 7490:Black September 7468: 7214:Sino-Indian War 7108:Simba rebellion 7091: 6935:Capture of the 6843: 6782:Berlin Blockade 6715:May 1947 crises 6705:Truman Doctrine 6670:Greek Civil War 6659:Blacklist Forty 6626:Gouzenko Affair 6613:Cursed soldiers 6565:Morgenthau Plan 6553: 6491: 6486: 6456: 6451: 6428: 6419: 6236: 6226: 6224: 6194: 6189: 6176: 6169: 6162: 6155: 6142: 6006: 5957:Life expectancy 5873: 5747: 5718:Law enforcement 5654: 5619: 5546: 5513: 5492: 5476:Divided Germany 5446:Weimar Republic 5374: 5340:Frankish Empire 5328: 5252: 5218: 5212: 5203: 5170:Wayback Machine 5067: 5055:Wayback Machine 5043:Wayback Machine 5031:Wayback Machine 5003: 4998: 4996: 4989: 4984: 4982: 4979: 4923: 4912: 4890:Weber, Jurgen. 4883: 4698:Bessel, Richard 4637: 4635:Further reading 4549: 4539: 4537: 4533: 4532: 4528: 4513: 4495: 4491: 4480: 4467: 4458: 4457: 4453: 4443: 4441: 4428: 4427: 4423: 4416:www.thelocal.de 4410: 4409: 4405: 4394: 4390: 4376: 4372: 4362: 4360: 4349: 4345: 4330: 4323: 4313: 4311: 4310:. National Post 4306:(4 June 2005). 4304:Fulford, Robert 4301: 4292: 4285: 4263: 4256: 4249: 4235: 4231: 4220: 4216: 4200: 4177: 4158: 4151: 4116: 4055: 4043: 4041: 4032: 4031: 4025: 4024: 4011: 3996: 3992: 3960: 3954: 3950: 3940: 3938: 3929: 3928: 3924: 3919:. 2 March 2015. 3911: 3910: 3906: 3899: 3883: 3879: 3872: 3858: 3854: 3844: 3842: 3835: 3831: 3800: 3796: 3789: 3775: 3758: 3747: 3743: 3736: 3718:Bessel, Richard 3715: 3708: 3697: 3693: 3683: 3681: 3669: 3665: 3651: 3649: 3634: 3630: 3599: 3595: 3585: 3583: 3578: 3577: 3573: 3562: 3555: 3545: 3543: 3530: 3529: 3525: 3520:on 14 May 2008. 3517: 3510: 3504: 3497: 3488: 3481: 3464: 3460: 3445:Hoover, Herbert 3442: 3438: 3428: 3426: 3413: 3412: 3408: 3398: 3396: 3381: 3380: 3376: 3357: 3353: 3322: 3313: 3294: 3290: 3279: 3275: 3261: 3259: 3245: 3241: 3210: 3206: 3193: 3189: 3176: 3172: 3162: 3160: 3159:on 11 June 2007 3149: 3145: 3132: 3128: 3113: 3099: 3095: 3088: 3071: 3067: 3057: 3055: 3047: 3046: 3042: 3032: 3030: 3020: 3016: 3003: 2999: 2990: 2986: 2974: 2970: 2959: 2955: 2942: 2935: 2931: 2926: 2925: 2919: 2915: 2910: 2898: 2892: 2783: 2775:Main articles: 2773: 2707: 2673: 2592: 2586: 2414:, August 1970, 2398: 2371: 2297:Germany called 2293: 2211:grand coalition 2135:Rudolf Augstein 2105: 1796:Brussels Treaty 1752:Adolf Heusinger 1705:Konrad Adenauer 1686:Konrad Adenauer 1664:Konrad Adenauer 1657: 1651: 1556: 1544:Main articles: 1542: 1530:Miriam Gebhardt 1506: 1500: 1483: 1477: 1421: 1396: 1390: 1374:Western Germany 1370:Berlin Blockade 1347: 1339:Main articles: 1337: 1328: 1300:James F. Byrnes 1262: 1245:Konrad Adenauer 1234:Harry S. Truman 1224:, and Generals 1207:James F. Byrnes 1201:September 1946 1153:Morgenthau Plan 1149: 1147:Morgenthau Plan 1143: 1086: 1080: 1075: 1023:Konrad Adenauer 931: 892: 890: 889: 878: 876: 875: 868: 867: 849: 828: 795: 772: 762: 761: 732:Weimar Republic 705: 695: 694: 681: 650: 640: 639: 620: 610: 609: 585: 577: 576: 572:Frankish Empire 547:Únětice culture 537: 529: 528: 473:Historic states 428: 408: 401: 390: 384: 336:Alsace-Lorraine 270: 265: 233:Konrad Adenauer 135:was annexed by 83: 79: 72: 68: 40: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9378: 9368: 9367: 9362: 9357: 9352: 9347: 9342: 9337: 9332: 9327: 9322: 9317: 9312: 9307: 9302: 9297: 9280: 9279: 9277: 9276: 9271: 9266: 9260: 9257: 9256: 9254: 9253: 9248: 9243: 9238: 9233: 9228: 9223: 9218: 9212: 9210: 9206: 9205: 9203: 9202: 9197: 9192: 9187: 9182: 9177: 9172: 9167: 9162: 9157: 9152: 9147: 9142: 9136: 9134: 9128: 9127: 9125: 9124: 9119: 9114: 9109: 9104: 9099: 9094: 9089: 9084: 9079: 9074: 9072:Timothy Snyder 9069: 9064: 9059: 9054: 9049: 9044: 9039: 9034: 9029: 9024: 9019: 9014: 9009: 9004: 9002:Vojtech Mastny 8999: 8997:Geir Lundestad 8994: 8989: 8987:Walter Laqueur 8984: 8982:Walter LaFeber 8979: 8974: 8969: 8964: 8959: 8954: 8949: 8944: 8939: 8934: 8929: 8924: 8919: 8914: 8912:André Fontaine 8909: 8904: 8899: 8894: 8889: 8884: 8879: 8874: 8869: 8864: 8859: 8854: 8849: 8844: 8842:Gar Alperovitz 8838: 8836: 8832: 8831: 8829: 8828: 8823: 8818: 8812: 8810: 8804: 8803: 8800: 8799: 8797: 8796: 8791: 8785: 8784: 8779: 8772: 8767: 8759: 8757: 8753: 8752: 8750: 8749: 8742: 8737: 8730: 8723: 8718: 8711: 8704: 8697: 8691: 8689: 8682: 8678: 8677: 8675: 8674: 8669: 8664: 8659: 8654: 8649: 8644: 8639: 8634: 8629: 8624: 8618: 8616: 8612: 8611: 8608: 8607: 8605: 8604: 8599: 8594: 8589: 8584: 8582:Third-Worldism 8579: 8574: 8569: 8564: 8559: 8554: 8549: 8544: 8539: 8534: 8529: 8524: 8519: 8514: 8509: 8504: 8499: 8494: 8489: 8483: 8481: 8477: 8476: 8474: 8473: 8468: 8463: 8458: 8453: 8448: 8441: 8436: 8431: 8426: 8421: 8416: 8410: 8408: 8402: 8401: 8399: 8398: 8393: 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7719: 7714: 7709: 7704: 7699: 7694: 7689: 7684: 7679: 7677:Oromo conflict 7674: 7669: 7664: 7659: 7654: 7649: 7644: 7639: 7634: 7629: 7624: 7619: 7617:Yom Kippur War 7614: 7609: 7604: 7599: 7594: 7589: 7584: 7579: 7574: 7569: 7564: 7559: 7554: 7549: 7544: 7539: 7534: 7527: 7522: 7517: 7512: 7507: 7502: 7497: 7492: 7487: 7482: 7476: 7474: 7470: 7469: 7467: 7466: 7461: 7456: 7451: 7446: 7441: 7440: 7439: 7429: 7424: 7419: 7414: 7409: 7400: 7395: 7394: 7393: 7383: 7378: 7373: 7368: 7363: 7358: 7353: 7348: 7343: 7338: 7333: 7328: 7323: 7318: 7313: 7308: 7303: 7298: 7293: 7288: 7283: 7278: 7273: 7272: 7271: 7261: 7256: 7251: 7249:Aden Emergency 7246: 7241: 7236: 7231: 7226: 7221: 7216: 7211: 7206: 7201: 7200: 7199: 7194: 7189: 7179: 7174: 7169: 7167:Papua conflict 7164: 7159: 7154: 7149: 7148: 7147: 7137: 7136: 7135: 7125: 7120: 7115: 7110: 7105: 7099: 7097: 7093: 7092: 7090: 7089: 7084: 7083: 7082: 7072: 7070:Kitchen Debate 7067: 7062: 7057: 7052: 7047: 7042: 7037: 7032: 7030:Sputnik crisis 7027: 7022: 7014: 7007: 7002: 7000:Polish October 6997: 6992: 6987: 6980: 6975: 6970: 6965: 6960: 6955: 6950: 6945: 6940: 6932: 6927: 6922: 6917: 6912: 6907: 6902: 6900:Pact of Madrid 6897: 6892: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6872: 6867: 6862: 6857: 6855:Bamboo Curtain 6851: 6849: 6845: 6844: 6842: 6841: 6836: 6831: 6826: 6825: 6824: 6814: 6809: 6804: 6799: 6794: 6789: 6784: 6779: 6774: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6749: 6748: 6747: 6742: 6737: 6727: 6722: 6717: 6712: 6707: 6702: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6677: 6672: 6667: 6662: 6654: 6646: 6638: 6633: 6628: 6623: 6615: 6610: 6609: 6608: 6603: 6595: 6582: 6577: 6572: 6567: 6561: 6559: 6555: 6554: 6552: 6551: 6546: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6521: 6516: 6511: 6504: 6496: 6493: 6492: 6485: 6484: 6477: 6470: 6462: 6453: 6452: 6450: 6449: 6447:United Nations 6444: 6438: 6436: 6430: 6429: 6422: 6420: 6418: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6382: 6377: 6372: 6367: 6362: 6357: 6352: 6347: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6312: 6307: 6302: 6300:Czechoslovakia 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6246: 6244: 6238: 6237: 6223: 6222: 6215: 6208: 6200: 6191: 6190: 6188: 6187: 6182: 6175: 6174: 6167: 6160: 6152: 6151: 6148: 6147: 6144: 6143: 6141: 6140: 6135: 6130: 6125: 6120: 6115: 6110: 6105: 6100: 6095: 6090: 6085: 6080: 6075: 6070: 6065: 6060: 6055: 6054:Cultural icons 6052: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6032: 6027: 6022: 6016: 6014: 6008: 6007: 6005: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5954: 5949: 5944: 5939: 5934: 5933: 5932: 5927: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5891: 5885: 5879: 5878: 5875: 5874: 5872: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5856: 5851: 5846: 5841: 5836: 5834:Stock exchange 5831: 5826: 5818: 5813: 5808: 5803: 5798: 5793: 5788: 5787: 5786: 5776: 5771: 5765: 5759: 5753: 5752: 5749: 5748: 5746: 5745: 5740: 5735: 5730: 5725: 5720: 5715: 5710: 5709: 5708: 5703: 5698: 5688: 5683: 5678: 5673: 5668: 5663: 5658: 5648: 5643: 5637: 5631: 5625: 5624: 5621: 5620: 5618: 5617: 5612: 5607: 5602: 5597: 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Vol. 2. 4465: 4451: 4421: 4403: 4388: 4370: 4343: 4321: 4290: 4283: 4254: 4247: 4229: 4214: 4203:Wette, Wolfram 4175: 4149: 4136:10.1086/244674 4130:(3): 542–572. 4053: 4009: 3990: 3977:10.2307/793562 3948: 3922: 3904: 3897: 3877: 3870: 3852: 3829: 3816:10.1086/244883 3810:(3): 487–520. 3794: 3787: 3756: 3741: 3734: 3706: 3703:. p. 206. 3691: 3663: 3648:on 9 July 2006 3636:Stern, Susan. 3628: 3593: 3571: 3553: 3523: 3495: 3458: 3436: 3406: 3374: 3351: 3338:10.2307/443604 3332:(2): 517–534. 3311: 3288: 3285:. p. 233. 3273: 3239: 3204: 3187: 3170: 3143: 3126: 3111: 3093: 3086: 3074:Beevor, Antony 3065: 3040: 3014: 2997: 2984: 2968: 2953: 2932: 2930: 2927: 2924: 2923: 2912: 2911: 2909: 2906: 2891: 2888: 2884:official visit 2880:Erich Honecker 2872:United Nations 2772: 2769: 2709:Shortly after 2706: 2703: 2672: 2669: 2660:National Front 2652:Young Pioneers 2620:(Länderkammer) 2588:Main article: 2585: 2582: 2578:Erich Honecker 2463:Helmut Schmidt 2387: 2370: 2367: 2262:Benno Ohnesorg 2219:emergency acts 2198:replaced with 2191:New York Times 2157:Spiegel affair 2110:Heinrich Lübke 2104: 2101: 2066:denazification 1921:Treaty of Rome 1888: 1887: 1884: 1881: 1878: 1875: 1872: 1869: 1866: 1863: 1860: 1856: 1855: 1852: 1849: 1846: 1843: 1840: 1837: 1834: 1831: 1828: 1650: 1647: 1609:Central Europe 1541: 1538: 1509:Norman Naimark 1502:Main article: 1499: 1496: 1476: 1473: 1420: 1417: 1389: 1386: 1336: 1333: 1327: 1324: 1291:In the speech 1261: 1258: 1145:Main article: 1142: 1139: 1098:denazification 1084:Denazification 1082:Main article: 1079: 1078:Denazification 1076: 1074: 1071: 1039:European Union 933: 932: 930: 929: 922: 915: 907: 904: 903: 902: 901: 887: 870: 869: 864: 863: 860: 858:Modern history 854: 853: 850: 848: 847: 842: 836: 833: 832: 829: 827: 826: 813: 810: 809: 806: 800: 799: 798:1945–1949/1952 796: 794: 793: 784: 778: 773: 768: 767: 764: 763: 758: 757: 754: 748: 747: 744: 738: 737: 734: 728: 727: 724: 718: 717: 714: 706: 701: 700: 697: 696: 693: 692: 687: 682: 680: 679: 670: 664: 662: 657: 651: 646: 645: 642: 641: 638: 637: 632: 627: 621: 616: 615: 612: 611: 608: 607: 602: 597: 592: 586: 583: 582: 579: 578: 575: 574: 569: 564: 559: 554: 549: 544: 538: 535: 534: 531: 530: 527: 526: 480: 470: 465: 460: 455: 450: 445: 440: 438:Historiography 435: 429: 426: 425: 422: 421: 413: 412: 403: 402: 395: 383: 380: 348:Upper Carniola 269: 266: 264: 261: 229: 228: 213: 175:Eastern Europe 123:Following the 92: 91: 88: 87: 76: 64: 63: 61: 58: 57: 54: 53: 38: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9377: 9366: 9363: 9361: 9358: 9356: 9353: 9351: 9348: 9346: 9343: 9341: 9338: 9336: 9333: 9331: 9328: 9326: 9323: 9321: 9318: 9316: 9313: 9311: 9308: 9306: 9303: 9301: 9298: 9296: 9293: 9292: 9290: 9275: 9272: 9270: 9267: 9265: 9262: 9261: 9258: 9252: 9249: 9247: 9244: 9242: 9239: 9237: 9236:War on terror 9234: 9232: 9229: 9227: 9224: 9222: 9219: 9217: 9214: 9213: 9211: 9207: 9201: 9198: 9196: 9193: 9191: 9188: 9186: 9183: 9181: 9178: 9176: 9173: 9171: 9168: 9166: 9163: 9161: 9158: 9156: 9153: 9151: 9148: 9146: 9143: 9141: 9138: 9137: 9135: 9131:Espionage and 9129: 9123: 9120: 9118: 9115: 9113: 9110: 9108: 9105: 9103: 9100: 9098: 9095: 9093: 9090: 9088: 9085: 9083: 9082:Andrew Thorpe 9080: 9078: 9075: 9073: 9070: 9068: 9065: 9063: 9060: 9058: 9055: 9053: 9050: 9048: 9045: 9043: 9040: 9038: 9035: 9033: 9030: 9028: 9025: 9023: 9020: 9018: 9015: 9013: 9010: 9008: 9005: 9003: 9000: 8998: 8995: 8993: 8990: 8988: 8985: 8983: 8980: 8978: 8977:Gabriel Kolko 8975: 8973: 8970: 8968: 8965: 8963: 8960: 8958: 8955: 8953: 8950: 8948: 8945: 8943: 8942:Fred Halliday 8940: 8938: 8935: 8933: 8930: 8928: 8927:Lloyd Gardner 8925: 8923: 8920: 8918: 8915: 8913: 8910: 8908: 8905: 8903: 8900: 8898: 8895: 8893: 8890: 8888: 8887:Norman Davies 8885: 8883: 8880: 8878: 8875: 8873: 8872:John Costello 8870: 8868: 8865: 8863: 8860: 8858: 8855: 8853: 8850: 8848: 8845: 8843: 8840: 8839: 8837: 8833: 8827: 8824: 8822: 8819: 8817: 8814: 8813: 8811: 8807:Technological 8805: 8795: 8792: 8790: 8787: 8786: 8783: 8780: 8778: 8777: 8773: 8771: 8768: 8766: 8765: 8761: 8760: 8758: 8754: 8748: 8747: 8743: 8741: 8738: 8736: 8735: 8731: 8729: 8728: 8724: 8722: 8719: 8717: 8716: 8712: 8710: 8709: 8705: 8703: 8702: 8698: 8696: 8693: 8692: 8690: 8688:Pro-communist 8686: 8683: 8679: 8673: 8670: 8668: 8665: 8663: 8660: 8658: 8655: 8653: 8650: 8648: 8645: 8643: 8640: 8638: 8635: 8633: 8630: 8628: 8625: 8623: 8620: 8619: 8617: 8615:Organizations 8613: 8603: 8600: 8598: 8595: 8593: 8590: 8588: 8585: 8583: 8580: 8578: 8575: 8573: 8570: 8568: 8565: 8563: 8560: 8558: 8555: 8553: 8550: 8548: 8545: 8543: 8540: 8538: 8535: 8533: 8530: 8528: 8525: 8523: 8520: 8518: 8515: 8513: 8510: 8508: 8505: 8503: 8500: 8498: 8495: 8493: 8490: 8488: 8485: 8484: 8482: 8478: 8472: 8469: 8467: 8464: 8462: 8459: 8457: 8454: 8452: 8449: 8447: 8446: 8442: 8440: 8437: 8435: 8432: 8430: 8429:Eurocommunism 8427: 8425: 8422: 8420: 8417: 8415: 8412: 8411: 8409: 8407: 8403: 8397: 8394: 8392: 8389: 8387: 8384: 8382: 8379: 8377: 8374: 8372: 8369: 8367: 8364: 8360: 8357: 8356: 8355: 8352: 8350: 8347: 8345: 8342: 8341: 8339: 8337: 8333: 8330: 8326: 8320: 8317: 8315: 8312: 8310: 8307: 8305: 8302: 8300: 8297: 8295: 8292: 8290: 8287: 8285: 8282: 8280: 8277: 8275: 8272: 8270: 8267: 8265: 8262: 8260: 8259:Domino theory 8257: 8255: 8252: 8250: 8247: 8245: 8242: 8241: 8239: 8235: 8229: 8226: 8224: 8221: 8219: 8216: 8214: 8213:South Ossetia 8211: 8209: 8206: 8204: 8201: 8199: 8196: 8194: 8191: 8190: 8188: 8186: 8182: 8176: 8173: 8169: 8166: 8165: 8164: 8161: 8159: 8156: 8154: 8151: 8149: 8146: 8144: 8141: 8139: 8136: 8134: 8131: 8129: 8126: 8124: 8121: 8120: 8118: 8114: 8108: 8105: 8103: 8100: 8098: 8095: 8093: 8090: 8088: 8085: 8083: 8080: 8078: 8075: 8073: 8070: 8068: 8065: 8063: 8060: 8058: 8055: 8053: 8050: 8048: 8045: 8043: 8040: 8038: 8035: 8033: 8030: 8028: 8025: 8023: 8020: 8018: 8015: 8013: 8010: 8007: 8003: 8000: 7998: 7997:8888 Uprising 7995: 7993: 7990: 7988: 7985: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7958: 7955: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7942:Iran–Iraq War 7940: 7938: 7935: 7933: 7930: 7928: 7925: 7923: 7920: 7918: 7915: 7913: 7910: 7908: 7907:Falklands War 7905: 7903: 7900: 7898: 7895: 7893: 7890: 7888: 7885: 7883: 7880: 7878: 7875: 7871: 7868: 7867: 7866: 7863: 7861: 7858: 7856: 7853: 7851: 7847: 7844: 7842: 7839: 7837: 7834: 7833: 7831: 7827: 7821: 7818: 7816: 7813: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7783: 7781: 7778: 7776: 7773: 7771: 7770:NDF Rebellion 7768: 7766: 7763: 7761: 7758: 7756: 7753: 7751: 7750:German Autumn 7748: 7746: 7743: 7741: 7738: 7736: 7733: 7731: 7730: 7725: 7723: 7720: 7718: 7715: 7713: 7710: 7708: 7705: 7703: 7700: 7698: 7695: 7693: 7690: 7688: 7685: 7683: 7680: 7678: 7675: 7673: 7670: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7637:Metapolitefsi 7635: 7633: 7630: 7628: 7625: 7623: 7620: 7618: 7615: 7613: 7610: 7608: 7605: 7603: 7600: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7590: 7588: 7585: 7583: 7580: 7578: 7575: 7573: 7570: 7568: 7565: 7563: 7560: 7558: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7532: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7518: 7516: 7513: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7503: 7501: 7498: 7496: 7493: 7491: 7488: 7486: 7483: 7481: 7478: 7477: 7475: 7471: 7465: 7462: 7460: 7457: 7455: 7452: 7450: 7447: 7445: 7442: 7438: 7435: 7434: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7425: 7423: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7406: 7401: 7399: 7398:Prague Spring 7396: 7392: 7389: 7388: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7376:Al-Wadiah War 7374: 7372: 7369: 7367: 7364: 7362: 7359: 7357: 7354: 7352: 7349: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7341:12-3 incident 7339: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7327: 7324: 7322: 7319: 7317: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7299: 7297: 7294: 7292: 7289: 7287: 7284: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7270: 7267: 7266: 7265: 7262: 7260: 7257: 7255: 7252: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7242: 7240: 7237: 7235: 7232: 7230: 7227: 7225: 7222: 7220: 7217: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7207: 7205: 7202: 7198: 7195: 7193: 7190: 7188: 7185: 7184: 7183: 7180: 7178: 7175: 7173: 7170: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7146: 7143: 7142: 7141: 7138: 7134: 7131: 7130: 7129: 7126: 7124: 7121: 7119: 7116: 7114: 7111: 7109: 7106: 7104: 7101: 7100: 7098: 7094: 7088: 7085: 7081: 7078: 7077: 7076: 7073: 7071: 7068: 7066: 7063: 7061: 7058: 7056: 7053: 7051: 7048: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7036: 7033: 7031: 7028: 7026: 7023: 7021: 7020: 7015: 7012: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6996: 6993: 6991: 6988: 6985: 6981: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6964: 6961: 6959: 6956: 6954: 6951: 6949: 6946: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6938: 6933: 6931: 6928: 6926: 6923: 6921: 6920:Domino theory 6918: 6916: 6915:Petrov Affair 6913: 6911: 6908: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6898: 6896: 6893: 6891: 6888: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6871: 6868: 6866: 6863: 6861: 6858: 6856: 6853: 6852: 6850: 6846: 6840: 6837: 6835: 6832: 6830: 6827: 6823: 6820: 6819: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6792:Madiun Affair 6790: 6788: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6752:Marshall Plan 6750: 6746: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6736: 6733: 6732: 6731: 6728: 6726: 6723: 6721: 6718: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6701: 6698: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6676: 6673: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6660: 6655: 6653: 6652: 6647: 6645: 6644: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6621: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6601: 6596: 6594: 6593: 6588: 6587: 6586: 6583: 6581: 6578: 6576: 6573: 6571: 6568: 6566: 6563: 6562: 6560: 6556: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6510: 6509: 6505: 6503: 6502: 6501:United States 6498: 6497: 6494: 6490: 6483: 6478: 6476: 6471: 6469: 6464: 6463: 6460: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6440: 6439: 6437: 6435: 6431: 6426: 6416: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6395:United States 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6381: 6378: 6376: 6373: 6371: 6368: 6366: 6363: 6361: 6358: 6356: 6353: 6351: 6348: 6346: 6343: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6247: 6245: 6243: 6239: 6235: 6230: 6221: 6216: 6214: 6209: 6207: 6202: 6201: 6198: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6177: 6172: 6168: 6165: 6161: 6158: 6154: 6153: 6149: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6126: 6124: 6121: 6119: 6116: 6114: 6111: 6109: 6106: 6104: 6101: 6099: 6096: 6094: 6091: 6089: 6086: 6084: 6081: 6079: 6076: 6074: 6071: 6069: 6066: 6064: 6061: 6059: 6056: 6053: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6017: 6015: 6013: 6009: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5997:Social issues 5995: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5953: 5950: 5948: 5945: 5943: 5940: 5938: 5935: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5925:Ethnic groups 5923: 5922: 5921: 5918: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5892: 5889: 5886: 5884: 5880: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5845: 5842: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5823: 5819: 5817: 5814: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5785: 5782: 5781: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5766: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5754: 5744: 5741: 5739: 5736: 5734: 5731: 5729: 5726: 5724: 5721: 5719: 5716: 5714: 5711: 5707: 5704: 5702: 5699: 5697: 5694: 5693: 5692: 5689: 5687: 5684: 5682: 5679: 5677: 5674: 5672: 5669: 5667: 5664: 5662: 5659: 5657: 5653: 5649: 5647: 5644: 5642: 5639: 5638: 5635: 5632: 5630: 5626: 5616: 5613: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5603: 5601: 5598: 5596: 5593: 5591: 5588: 5586: 5583: 5579: 5576: 5574: 5571: 5570: 5569: 5566: 5565: 5562: 5559: 5557: 5553: 5542: 5539: 5536: 5533: 5531: 5528: 5526: 5523: 5522: 5520: 5516: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5504:Reunification 5502: 5501: 5499: 5495: 5487: 5484: 5482: 5479: 5478: 5477: 5474: 5472: 5469: 5467: 5464: 5462: 5459: 5457: 5454: 5452: 5449: 5447: 5444: 5442: 5439: 5437: 5434: 5432: 5429: 5427: 5426:German Empire 5424: 5422: 5419: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5407: 5404: 5402: 5399: 5397: 5394: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5384: 5383: 5381: 5377: 5371: 5368: 5366: 5363: 5361: 5358: 5356: 5353: 5351: 5348: 5346: 5343: 5341: 5338: 5337: 5335: 5331: 5325: 5322: 5320: 5317: 5315: 5312: 5310: 5307: 5305: 5302: 5300: 5297: 5295: 5292: 5290: 5287: 5285: 5282: 5280: 5277: 5275: 5272: 5270: 5267: 5265: 5262: 5261: 5259: 5255: 5249: 5246: 5244: 5241: 5239: 5236: 5234: 5231: 5230: 5228: 5224: 5221: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5200: 5195: 5193: 5188: 5186: 5181: 5180: 5177: 5171: 5167: 5164: 5161: 5159: 5155: 5152: 5149: 5145: 5142: 5138: 5134: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5109: 5104: 5100: 5097: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5082: 5080: 5077: 5074: 5071: 5066: 5062: 5059: 5056: 5052: 5049: 5046: 5044: 5040: 5037: 5034: 5032: 5028: 5025: 5022: 5019: 5016: 5014: 5011: 5010: 5006: 4995: 4992: 4981: 4971: 4970:History Today 4967: 4964: 4960: 4957: 4954:Ross, Corey. 4953: 4950: 4946: 4943: 4939: 4936: 4932: 4929: 4925: 4924: 4913: 4911:9780160899188 4907: 4903: 4902: 4896: 4893: 4889: 4882: 4881: 4875: 4872: 4871:0-8223-1266-2 4868: 4864: 4860: 4857: 4853: 4851: 4848:(2 vol 1995) 4847: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4823: 4819: 4814: 4811: 4807: 4806:Naqvi, Fatima 4804: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4789: 4785: 4781: 4776: 4774: 4770: 4766: 4762: 4759: 4755: 4752: 4748: 4746: 4745:0-300-04022-9 4742: 4738: 4734: 4732: 4728: 4724: 4720: 4717: 4713: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4696: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4680: 4676: 4672: 4670: 4666: 4662: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4646: 4643: 4639: 4638: 4629: 4627: 4626:0-7099-0702-8 4623: 4619: 4617: 4616:0-7134-6795-9 4613: 4609: 4606: 4603: 4599: 4596: 4593: 4589: 4586: 4583: 4579: 4576: 4573: 4569: 4566: 4563: 4559: 4556: 4555: 4554: 4553: 4536: 4530: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4512:3-428-10371-8 4508: 4504: 4500: 4493: 4485: 4478: 4476: 4474: 4472: 4470: 4461: 4455: 4439: 4435: 4431: 4425: 4417: 4413: 4407: 4399: 4392: 4385: 4384: 4379: 4374: 4358: 4354: 4347: 4339: 4335: 4328: 4326: 4309: 4305: 4299: 4297: 4295: 4286: 4284:9781596915367 4280: 4276: 4271: 4270: 4261: 4259: 4250: 4244: 4240: 4233: 4225: 4218: 4210: 4209: 4204: 4198: 4196: 4194: 4192: 4190: 4188: 4186: 4184: 4182: 4180: 4171: 4166: 4165: 4156: 4154: 4145: 4141: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4121: 4114: 4112: 4110: 4108: 4106: 4104: 4102: 4100: 4098: 4096: 4094: 4092: 4090: 4088: 4086: 4084: 4082: 4080: 4078: 4076: 4074: 4072: 4070: 4068: 4066: 4064: 4062: 4060: 4058: 4049: 4036: 4028: 4022: 4020: 4018: 4016: 4014: 4005: 4001: 3994: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3959: 3952: 3936: 3932: 3926: 3918: 3914: 3908: 3900: 3894: 3890: 3889: 3881: 3873: 3871:0-674-78405-7 3867: 3863: 3856: 3840: 3833: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3798: 3790: 3788:0-88033-995-0 3784: 3780: 3773: 3771: 3769: 3767: 3765: 3763: 3761: 3752: 3745: 3737: 3735:9780060540364 3731: 3726: 3725: 3719: 3713: 3711: 3702: 3695: 3680: 3679: 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At the 1044:Holocaust 1029:with the 831:1949–1990 808:1944–1950 756:1939–1945 746:1933–1945 736:1918–1933 726:1914–1918 716:1871–1918 491:Empresses 303:military 9274:Timeline 9264:Category 9209:See also 8701:Izvestia 8542:Islamism 8439:Hoxhaism 8314:Rollback 8193:Abkhazia 8133:Gulf War 8037:Glasnost 7407:incident 7177:Sand War 7035:Ifni War 6544:Rio Pact 6489:Cold War 6415:Zanzibar 6355:Pakistan 6340:Mongolia 6305:Ethiopia 6290:DR Congo 6275:Cambodia 6270:Bulgaria 6180:Category 6098:Internet 6083:Language 6073:Folklore 5992:Religion 5967:Pensions 5962:Naturism 5839:Taxation 5723:Lobbying 5696:Intersex 5629:Politics 5238:Timeline 5217:General 5210:articles 5166:Archived 5051:Archived 5039:Archived 5027:Archived 4651:(1992); 4205:(2006), 3720:(2009). 3121:30624400 2882:paid an 2730:and the 2565:Lea Rosh 2006:July 20 1968:Asoziale 1938:Asoziale 1564:Saarland 1517:Red Army 1366:currency 1238:JCS 1067 1230:Marshall 1161:JCS 1067 1126:Cold War 1102:swastika 1037:and the 956:Red Army 824:division 483:Monarchs 443:Military 398:a series 396:Part of 239:and the 208:with an 186:Cold War 139:and the 8764:Amerika 8647:Comecon 8532:Fascism 8522:Zionism 8471:Titoism 8012:Contras 7480:Détente 6757:Comecon 6442:Comecon 6400:Vietnam 6380:Somalia 6375:Romania 6315:Hungary 6310:Grenada 6255:Albania 6157:Outline 6063:Fashion 6050:Cuisine 6012:Culture 5977:Poverty 5920:Germans 5883:Society 5864:Welfare 5849:Tourism 5806:Exports 5779:Banking 5757:Economy 5661:Cabinet 5600:Islands 5595:Geology 5518:Regions 5284:Teutons 5257:Ancient 5219:History 5206:Germany 4865:(1992) 4739:(1989) 4677:(1987) 4663:(1992) 4314:16 June 3306:228–229 3058:18 July 3053:HISTORY 3033:19 July 2921:loans). 2742:of the 2662:was an 2637:Bezirke 2556:Bitburg 2534:of the 2489:by the 2274:tabloid 2099:(FDP). 1923:in 1957 1776:Benelux 1464:Vatican 1409:billion 1382:airlift 1351:Trizone 1266:Silesia 1121:Potsdam 511:Prussia 507:Bavaria 503:Austria 458:Judaism 448:Economy 409:Germany 360:Moravia 356:Bohemia 340:Austria 317:Potsdam 311:on the 291:At the 259:there. 8715:Pravda 8517:Racism 8456:Maoism 8208:Kosovo 7729:Condor 7405:Pueblo 7391:May 68 7019:Gladio 6937:Tuapse 6600:Jungle 6592:Priboi 6370:Poland 6330:Israel 6260:Angola 6185:Portal 6040:Cinema 6020:Anthem 5987:Racism 5801:Energy 5615:Rivers 5573:States 5543:, 1848 5379:Modern 5208: 5144:German 5135: 5115: 4965:(2010) 4958:(2002) 4951:(2004) 4937:(1999) 4930:(1998) 4908: 4869: 4836: 4760:(2008) 4753:(2022) 4743: 4729: 4708: 4693:422440 4691: 4667: 4655: 4624: 4614: 4519: 4509: 4444:30 May 4363:30 May 4281: 4245: 4142: 3985:793562 3983: 3895: 3868: 3845:2 June 3822: 3785: 3732: 3684:28 May 3621: 3586:28 May 3546:28 May 3429:27 May 3399:27 May 3346:443604 3344: 3232: 3163:27 May 3119: 3109: 3084: 2805:. 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