23:
642:
277:
2396:
289:
2408:
719:
follow different sets of measuring units and systems in different parts of the country. Different State governments have tried to standardise this by introducing a suitable metric system through which official transactions take place and official records are kept. But the land dealings are still done in a number of archaic units. It appears that people are satisfied and comfortable with them.'
349:, not including defective weights. They did not find statistically significant differences between weights that were excavated from five different layers, each measuring about 1.5 m in depth. This was evidence that strong control existed for at least a 500-year period. The 13.7-g weight seems to be one of the units used in the Indus valley. The notation was based on the
458:(a cycle of the universe during which all the heavenly bodies return to their original positions) to be 4,320,000,000 years." According to epigraphic evidence, we have references of measurement units such as ā āKulyavapaā, ādronavapaā, āadhavapaā and āPatakaā from Bengal, nivratanaā and ābhumiā from Central India and ānivartana from Western India.
718:
adopted the metric system on 1 October 1958. However, the traditional units still prevail in some areas. Chakrabarti (2007) holds that: 'Yet a few areas have still remained untouched by the metric system. In the land-measuring system in India, possibly one of the most complex and archaic systems, we
386:
inch (1.6 mm). Ian
Whitelaw (2007)āon the subject of a ruler excavated from the Mohenjo-daro siteāwrites that: 'the Mohenjo-Daro ruler is divided into units corresponding to 1.32 inches (33.5 mm) and these are marked out in decimal subdivisions with amazing accuracyāto within 0.005 of
300:
Standard weights and measures were developed by the Indus Valley
Civilization. The centralised weight and measure system served the commercial interest of Indus merchants as smaller weight measures were used to measure luxury goods while larger weights were employed for buying bulkier items, such as
365:
The significance of a binary system of weights is that it allows an indivisible weight (eg. a gold coin or piece of jewelry) to be measured on a balance with the minimum number of weights, while the decimal system of weights and measures allows the minimum number of weights/measures to be used for
495:
The
Arthashastra offers a wealth of evidence for the wide varieties of standardised weights and measures of the time. Officers were appointed to control their use and standardisation. The measurements include those of length, divided into several series, rising from those below the standard
699:
was placed under the control of the Mughal treasury. Mughal surveying parties used standardised bamboo rods with iron joints to clearly record land according to the standard imperial land measures. These records were later used to collect land revenue corresponding to the land holdings.
536:, making roads or city walls. Measurements of capacity were set on different standards, for revenue, trade, payments, or palace purposes: these were applicable for both liquids and solids. Weights, too, were in several series: for precious substances there were three, for
403:. One excavated pan balance from Mohenjo-daro (2600–1900 BCE) was constructed using a cord-pivot type fulcrum, a bronze beam, and two pans. A number of excavated surveying instruments and measuring rods have yielded evidence of early
548:; another series was for weights and general purposes. Weights should be made of iron or of stone from the Mekhala hills. Considerable attention is given to the types of weighing machines employed: one is a balance (
552:) with two pans, for which ten different sizes are recommended for weighing different quantities; and another a sort of steelyard, in two sizes. A steelyard is used as a symbol on the
1411:
722:
Indians in villages continue to use some of the ancient measuring techniques and standards such as palm length, arm length or the owner, tula for gold and mana for weight etc.
2163:
410:
Weights and measures are mentioned throughout the religious and secular works of the Vedic period in India. Some sources that mention various units of measurement are
203:
2443:
677:(1556–1605) enforced practical standardisation in the empire's weight and measure system. The Mughal measurement system measured land in terms of
2411:
2191:
1211:
237:
128:
118:
376:
were in use by the Indus Valley
Civilisation prior to 1500 BCE. Excavations at Lothal (2400 BCE) have yielded one such ruler calibrated to about
143:
1456:
2380:
2375:
1406:
570:
196:
2365:
845:
In the third millennium BCE the Indus measuring system was further developed in the ancient regions of Iran and
Afghanistan -- Iwata, 2254.
387:
an inch. Ancient bricks found throughout the region have dimensions that correspond to these units.' The Indus civilisation constructed
2360:
2098:
1978:
1725:
1450:
30:
452:(half lunar day) for social and religious events. Klostermaier (2003) states that: "Indian astronomers calculated the duration of one
248:(1526–1857) used standard measures to determine land holdings and collect land tax as a part of Mughal land reforms. The formal
2171:
2003:
45:
560:, suggesting their clear mercantile connotation. Equal attention is given to the measurement of time, based on the device named the
2399:
189:
1715:
1535:
477:. Evidence of a complex system of weights and measures existing in use for multiple purposes under the central control of the
2214:
2034:
2029:
1983:
1634:
1624:
1525:
1183:
1158:
1143:
1075:
2279:
2267:
2039:
1609:
1547:
1204:
55:
634:
according to the
Chinese standards. They were of fine quality and could be exchanged in China for 15 silver coins of four-
1973:
1760:
341:, where they were further modified. Shigeo Iwata describes the excavated weights unearthed from the Indus civilisation:
2370:
2344:
2013:
1988:
1841:
1589:
60:
2301:
2226:
1897:
1125:
1110:
1093:
1056:
1030:
1015:
2433:
2286:
1867:
1831:
1740:
1478:
1416:
2334:
2329:
2262:
2107:
1953:
1938:
1892:
1770:
1745:
1730:
1690:
1614:
1197:
138:
50:
568:
of water to flow out of a pot through a hole of the same diameter as that of a wire 4 angulas long, made from 4
2091:
1948:
1933:
1923:
1913:
1851:
1821:
1791:
1755:
1680:
1599:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1557:
1261:
357:
systems. 83% of the weights which were excavated from the above three cities were cubic, and 68% were made of
1943:
1918:
1882:
1846:
1826:
1816:
1801:
1796:
1786:
1695:
1619:
1520:
1251:
1241:
1036:
Chakrabarti, Bhupati (2007), "Fifty years of the metric system in India and its adoption in our daily life",
665:(1526–1857) undertook central agrarian reforms, under which statistical data was compiled by the local
502:, defined as the 'middle joint of the middle finger of a man of average size'; to those above, including the
257:
2242:
2008:
1928:
1887:
1877:
1806:
1710:
1649:
1644:
1604:
1594:
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1579:
1483:
1385:
1380:
1299:
1294:
1256:
1343:
2296:
1836:
1811:
1750:
1700:
1685:
1675:
1639:
1530:
1493:
1462:
1333:
963:
731:
96:
22:
2339:
2252:
1872:
1720:
1654:
1552:
1498:
1488:
1151:
Encyclopaedia of the
History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition)
1136:
Encyclopaedia of the
History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition)
1064:
Encyclopaedia of the
History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition)
586:
state. Beams of steelyard balances have been unearthed from the 8th century CE archaeological sites at
281:
693:. Todar Mal's reforms were resisted by large land holders in India, following which the land of these
2438:
2324:
2319:
2291:
2209:
2181:
2084:
1765:
1304:
587:
309:
and measurement for construction. Uniform units of length were used in the planning of towns such as
221:
177:
2257:
2148:
153:
86:
618:(1413–51) outlines the standardised weight and currency system in place at the port city of
113:
2219:
2176:
1328:
1279:
228:. Since early times the adoption of standard weights and measures has reflected in the country's
165:
244:(322–185 BCE), which also formulated regulations for the usage of this system. Later, the
2274:
2247:
469:āfound in India since the 4th century BCEāhave been excavated from the archaeological sites of
170:
641:
2118:
1220:
1098:
1083:
488:
350:
2153:
2128:
1105:
edited by J. Wentzel Vrede van
Huyssteen, pp. 405–410, Macmillan Reference USA,
249:
103:
8:
1993:
1513:
1444:
598:, an Islamic scholar who undertook one of the first studies of India's traditions in his
306:
271:
229:
148:
2201:
2143:
1508:
1284:
707:
412:
404:
302:
301:
food grains etc. Weights existed in multiples of a standard weight and in categories.
225:
160:
76:
1179:
1154:
1139:
1121:
1106:
1089:
1071:
1052:
1026:
1023:
The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India
1011:
715:
595:
466:
293:
253:
292:
Hindu units almost similar to today's SI units and ritual importanceādisplayed on a
2123:
1540:
431:
108:
81:
2076:
1705:
967:
674:
1008:
The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States
626:, or locally known as "panam", were issued in Cochin and weighed a total of one
461:
2133:
2055:
1629:
1246:
1164:
Sharma, V.L. & Bhardwaj, H.C. (1989), "Weighing Devices in Ancient India",
654:
605:
123:
972:. printed by J. Davis: and sold by Vernor and Hood; and J. Cuthell. p. 78
2427:
1503:
1375:
1315:
1067:
662:
503:
245:
241:
427:
2138:
2060:
1348:
1338:
1323:
579:
483:
454:
338:
330:
233:
1659:
1390:
1289:
1189:
1131:
711:
583:
388:
276:
650:
532:. Various special measurements are mentioned, for instance for digging
518:) of around 180 cm; and above this measurement of longer distance, the
498:
346:
318:
670:
491:
outlines the details of the measurement systems of the Maurya state:
445:
435:
418:
366:
bulk items by allowing repeat measures to be counted on the fingers.
345:
A total of 558 weights were excavated from Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and
322:
314:
288:
695:
646:
474:
470:
462:
Post Maha Janapadas periodāHigh Middle Ages (400 BCE–1200 CE)
133:
1062:
Iwata, Shigeo (2008), "Weights and Measures in the Indus Valley",
606:
Late Middle AgesāRepublic of India (1200 CE–1947 CE onwards)
333:. The weights and measures of the Indus civilisation also reached
2065:
1088:
edited by Stanley Wolpert, pp. 258–266, Thomson Gale,
703:
615:
545:
400:
354:
326:
1735:
1149:
Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (2008), "Maps and Mapmaking in India",
619:
602:, also reflect on the regular usage of the steelyard in India.
557:
541:
528:
478:
396:
392:
334:
310:
240:. A complex system of weights and measures was adopted by the
1153:
edited by Helaine Selin, pp. 1301–1303, Springer,
685:
611:
591:
507:
440:
373:
369:
358:
1081:
Kenoyer, Jonathan Mark (2006), "Indus Valley Civilization",
1138:
edited by Helaine Selin, pp. 317–321, Springer,
537:
533:
926:
924:
883:
881:
1176:
A Measure of All Things: The Story of Man and Measurement
679:
706:
units of measurement were adopted in India as first the
933:
921:
912:
878:
578:
Depiction of equal arm balances is found in the art of
1006:
Allchin, F.R. (1995), "The Mauryan State and Empire",
1101:(2003), "Hinduism, History of Science and Religion",
869:
669:
officials on instructions from then revenue minister
1171:(4): 329–336, Indian National Science Academy.
2106:
305:enabled gauging devices to be effectively used in
989:
987:
962:
280:Indus Valley Civilization weights and measures ā
224:with the earliest surviving samples dated to the
2425:
811:
809:
807:
1044:(3): 390–391, Indian Academy of Sciences.
949:
947:
945:
984:
903:
839:
2381:Council of Scientific and Industrial Research
2092:
1205:
918:See Sharma & Bhardwaj, pages 332 and 336.
890:
804:
689:. The measure of agricultural output was the
197:
2366:National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research
942:
853:
851:
823:
821:
773:
771:
769:
797:
795:
793:
791:
789:
787:
785:
783:
759:
757:
755:
753:
751:
749:
747:
2444:History of science and technology in India
2099:
2085:
1219:
1212:
1198:
1049:Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean
622:. Ma Huan noted that gold coins, known as
204:
190:
860:
848:
818:
766:
649:(reign 1605–1627) weighing his son
780:
744:
640:
287:
275:
218:history of measurement systems in India
2426:
1070:, pp. 2254–2255, Springer,
1025:, State University of New York Press,
830:
596:AbÅ« Rayįø„Än Muįø„ammad ibn Aįø„mad al-BÄ«rÅ«n
2080:
1193:
2407:
1166:Indian Journal of History of Science
1103:Encyclopedia of Science and Religion
481:(322–185 BCE) is found in the
252:is dated to 1 October 1958 when the
13:
2361:Ministry of Science and Technology
1242:International System of Units (SI)
258:International System of Units (SI)
14:
2455:
2406:
2395:
2394:
263:
21:
2108:Science and technology in India
1116:Richards, John F. etc. (1996),
1000:
956:
564:, being the time taken for one
1134:(2008), "Astronomy in India",
1120:, Cambridge University Press,
1051:, Cambridge University Press,
1010:, Cambridge University Press,
673:. As a part of these reforms,
1:
1252:US customary units (USCS/USC)
875:Schwartzberg, 1301–1302
444:(lunar day), vÄra (weekday),
737:
594:. The research conducted by
7:
969:A voyage to the East Indies
964:a S. Bartholomaeo, Paulinus
732:Indian units of measurement
725:
510:, and ending with the rod (
10:
2460:
2172:Inventions and discoveries
939:Sharma & Bhardwaj, 334
930:Sharma & Bhardwaj, 333
887:Sharma & Bhardwaj, 320
282:National Museum, New Delhi
269:
2389:
2353:
2312:
2235:
2200:
2162:
2114:
2048:
2022:
1966:
1906:
1860:
1779:
1668:
1471:
1437:
1430:
1399:
1368:
1361:
1314:
1305:English Engineering Units
1272:
1234:
1227:
1047:Chaudhuri, K. N. (1985),
303:Technical standardisation
222:Indus Valley civilisation
2434:Social history of India
2354:Institutes and programs
1344:Quantum chromodynamical
657:, 1615, Mughal dynasty.
238:metallurgical artifacts
1457:centimetreāgramāsecond
1221:Systems of measurement
1174:Whitelaw, Ian (2007),
1099:Klostermaier, Klaus K.
1021:Baber, Zaheer (1996),
658:
576:
363:
297:
285:
32:History of science and
1979:Biblical and Talmudic
1445:metreākilogramāsecond
1084:Encyclopedia of India
714:gained foothold. The
644:
493:
489:Frank Raymond Allchin
479:Maurya administration
405:cartographic activity
343:
291:
279:
56:Science in Bangladesh
896:See Sarma (2008) in
580:Ajanta cave (No. 17)
438:for calculations of
250:metrication in India
134:Traditional medicine
97:Units of measurement
2215:Research institutes
2187:Measurement systems
909:Klostermaier (2003)
307:angular measurement
272:Hindu units of time
92:Measurement systems
61:Science in Pakistan
36:Indian subcontinent
2345:Technology writers
2297:Telecommunications
1451:metreātonneāsecond
1247:UK imperial system
898:Astronomy in India
708:East India Company
659:
467:Steelyard balances
432:Indian astronomers
426:of the grammarian
413:Satapatha Brahmana
298:
286:
226:3rd millennium BCE
34:technology in the
2421:
2420:
2149:National calendar
2074:
2073:
1962:
1961:
1426:
1425:
1417:Footāpoundāsecond
1357:
1356:
1334:HeavisideāLorentz
1184:978-0-312-37026-8
1159:978-1-4020-4559-2
1144:978-1-4020-4559-2
1118:The Mughal Empire
1076:978-1-4020-4559-2
716:Republic of India
294:logarithmic scale
254:Indian Government
214:
213:
2451:
2439:Systems of units
2410:
2409:
2398:
2397:
2292:Renewable energy
2210:Higher education
2177:Maritime history
2101:
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2077:
1541:Mesures usuelles
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1434:
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993:Chakrabarti, 391
991:
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815:Chakrabarti, 390
813:
802:
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764:
761:
487:. Archaeologist
448:(asterism), and
385:
384:
380:
220:begins in early
206:
199:
192:
166:Maritime history
51:Science in India
37:
25:
18:
17:
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2258:High-speed rail
2231:
2227:Science museums
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419:Apastamba Sutra
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1194:
1188:
1187:
1172:
1162:
1147:
1129:
1114:
1096:
1079:
1060:
1045:
1034:
1019:
1002:
999:
996:
995:
983:
955:
953:Chaudhuri, 223
941:
932:
920:
911:
902:
889:
877:
868:
859:
847:
838:
829:
817:
803:
779:
765:
742:
741:
739:
736:
735:
734:
727:
724:
655:weighing scale
607:
604:
463:
460:
424:Eight Chapters
265:
262:
212:
211:
209:
208:
201:
194:
186:
183:
182:
181:
180:
175:
174:
173:
168:
158:
157:
156:
146:
141:
136:
131:
129:Indian Alchemy
126:
121:
116:
111:
106:
101:
100:
99:
89:
84:
79:
71:
70:
66:
65:
64:
63:
58:
53:
48:
40:
39:
27:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2456:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2431:
2429:
2414:
2413:
2404:
2402:
2401:
2392:
2391:
2388:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2358:
2356:
2352:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2331:
2328:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2317:
2315:
2311:
2303:
2300:
2299:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2281:
2278:
2277:
2276:
2275:Nuclear power
2273:
2269:
2266:
2265:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2248:Biotechnology
2246:
2244:
2241:
2240:
2238:
2234:
2228:
2225:
2221:
2218:
2217:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2207:
2205:
2203:
2199:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2169:
2167:
2165:
2161:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2116:
2113:
2109:
2102:
2097:
2095:
2090:
2088:
2083:
2082:
2079:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2053:
2051:
2047:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2025:
2023:List articles
2021:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1971:
1969:
1965:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1911:
1909:
1907:South America
1905:
1899:
1896:
1894:
1891:
1889:
1886:
1884:
1881:
1879:
1876:
1874:
1871:
1869:
1866:
1865:
1863:
1861:North America
1859:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1842:South African
1840:
1838:
1835:
1833:
1830:
1828:
1825:
1823:
1820:
1818:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1790:
1788:
1785:
1784:
1782:
1778:
1772:
1769:
1767:
1764:
1762:
1759:
1757:
1754:
1752:
1749:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1722:
1719:
1717:
1714:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1673:
1671:
1667:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1606:
1603:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1590:Luxembourgian
1588:
1586:
1583:
1581:
1578:
1576:
1573:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1559:
1556:
1555:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1542:
1539:
1537:
1534:
1533:
1532:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1522:
1519:
1515:
1512:
1510:
1507:
1506:
1505:
1502:
1500:
1497:
1495:
1492:
1490:
1487:
1485:
1482:
1480:
1477:
1476:
1474:
1470:
1464:
1463:gravitational
1461:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1443:
1442:
1440:
1436:
1433:
1429:
1418:
1415:
1413:
1410:
1408:
1405:
1404:
1402:
1398:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1377:
1374:
1373:
1371:
1367:
1364:
1360:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1325:
1322:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1313:
1306:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1296:
1293:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1280:Apothecaries'
1278:
1277:
1275:
1271:
1263:
1260:
1259:
1258:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1248:
1245:
1243:
1240:
1239:
1237:
1233:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1215:
1210:
1208:
1203:
1201:
1196:
1195:
1192:
1185:
1181:
1178:, Macmillan,
1177:
1173:
1170:
1167:
1163:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1148:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1130:
1127:
1126:0-521-56603-7
1123:
1119:
1115:
1112:
1111:0-02-865704-7
1108:
1104:
1100:
1097:
1095:
1094:0-684-31351-0
1091:
1087:
1085:
1080:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1068:Helaine Selin
1065:
1061:
1058:
1057:0-521-28542-9
1054:
1050:
1046:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1032:
1031:0-7914-2919-9
1028:
1024:
1020:
1017:
1016:0-521-37695-5
1013:
1009:
1005:
1004:
990:
988:
971:
970:
965:
959:
950:
948:
946:
936:
927:
925:
915:
906:
899:
893:
884:
882:
872:
863:
854:
852:
842:
833:
824:
822:
812:
810:
808:
798:
796:
794:
792:
790:
788:
786:
784:
774:
772:
770:
760:
758:
756:
754:
752:
750:
748:
743:
733:
730:
729:
723:
720:
717:
713:
712:colonial rule
709:
705:
701:
698:
697:
692:
688:
687:
682:
681:
676:
672:
668:
664:
663:Mughal empire
656:
652:
648:
643:
639:
638:weight each.
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
603:
601:
600:Tahriq-e-Hind
597:
593:
589:
585:
581:
575:
573:
572:
567:
563:
559:
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
530:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
500:
492:
490:
486:
485:
480:
476:
472:
468:
459:
457:
456:
451:
447:
443:
442:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
420:
415:
414:
408:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
375:
371:
367:
362:
360:
356:
352:
348:
342:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
295:
290:
283:
278:
273:
268:
264:Early history
261:
259:
255:
251:
247:
246:Mughal empire
243:
242:Maurya empire
239:
235:
231:
230:architectural
227:
223:
219:
207:
202:
200:
195:
193:
188:
187:
185:
184:
179:
176:
172:
169:
167:
164:
163:
162:
159:
155:
152:
151:
150:
147:
145:
142:
140:
137:
135:
132:
130:
127:
125:
122:
120:
117:
115:
112:
110:
107:
105:
102:
98:
95:
94:
93:
90:
88:
85:
83:
80:
78:
75:
74:
73:
72:
68:
67:
62:
59:
57:
54:
52:
49:
47:
44:
43:
42:
41:
38:
29:
28:
24:
20:
19:
16:
2405:
2393:
2186:
2119:Architecture
2004:Mesopotamian
1998:
1898:Puerto Rican
1295:Astronomical
1175:
1168:
1165:
1150:
1135:
1117:
1102:
1082:
1063:
1048:
1041:
1037:
1022:
1007:
1001:Bibliography
974:. Retrieved
968:
958:
935:
914:
905:
897:
892:
871:
866:Whitelaw, 15
862:
857:Whitelaw, 14
841:
832:
827:Kenoyer, 265
777:Allchin, 217
721:
702:
694:
690:
684:
678:
666:
660:
635:
631:
627:
623:
609:
599:
577:
569:
565:
561:
553:
549:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
497:
494:
484:Arthashastra
482:
465:
453:
449:
439:
423:
417:
411:
409:
389:pan balances
368:
364:
344:
339:Central Asia
331:Mohenjo-daro
299:
267:
256:adopted the
217:
215:
149:Architecture
91:
15:
2154:Engineering
2144:Mathematics
2129:Cartography
1868:Costa Rican
1832:Seychellois
1741:Singaporean
1536:Traditional
1391:Metrication
1329:Geometrized
1285:Avoirdupois
1132:Sarma, K.V.
801:Richard, 84
763:Iwata, 2254
584:Maharashtra
556:coins from
347:Chanhu-daro
139:Agriculture
104:Cartography
77:Mathematics
2428:Categories
2340:Scientists
2280:Technology
2192:Metallurgy
1954:Venezuelan
1939:Paraguayan
1893:Nicaraguan
1771:Vietnamese
1746:Sri Lankan
1731:Philippine
1691:Indonesian
1615:Portuguese
1509:Winchester
1412:Comparison
1362:Background
1300:Electrical
1066:edited by
710:and later
651:Shah Jahan
514:) or bow (
422:, and the
372:made from
319:Kalibangan
270:See also:
171:Navigation
119:Metallurgy
69:By subject
46:Inventions
2325:Inventors
2320:Engineers
2202:Education
2124:Astronomy
1949:Uruguayan
1934:Colombian
1924:Brazilian
1914:Argentine
1852:Tanzanian
1822:Mauritian
1792:Ethiopian
1756:Taiwanese
1726:Pakistani
1706:Mongolian
1681:Cambodian
1600:Norwegian
1570:Icelandic
1565:Hungarian
1558:Byzantine
1514:Exchequer
1262:Hong Kong
836:Baber, 23
738:Citations
696:zamindars
671:Todar Mal
614:merchant
436:paƱchÄnga
315:Surkotada
161:Transport
144:Education
109:Geography
82:Astronomy
2400:Category
2268:Software
2253:Chemical
2182:Military
2035:Obsolete
2030:Humorous
1984:Egyptian
1944:Peruvian
1919:Bolivian
1883:Honduran
1847:Tunisian
1827:Moroccan
1817:Malagasy
1802:Eritrean
1797:Egyptian
1787:Algerian
1716:Nepalese
1696:Japanese
1630:Scottish
1620:Romanian
1521:Estonian
1431:Historic
1407:Overview
1376:Overview
1273:Specific
1086:(vol. 2)
976:25 March
966:(1800).
726:See also
667:quanungo
647:Jahangir
645:Emperor
630:and one
574:of gold.
546:diamonds
526:and the
506:and the
475:Amravati
471:Gandhara
446:naksatra
401:ceramics
391:made of
323:Dolavira
178:Military
114:Printing
87:Calendar
2412:Commons
2236:Sectors
2164:History
2134:Coinage
2066:Modulor
2040:Unusual
2009:Persian
1967:Ancient
1929:Chilean
1888:Mexican
1878:Haitian
1807:Guinean
1711:Myanmar
1650:Swedish
1645:Spanish
1635:Serbian
1625:Russian
1605:Ottoman
1595:Maltese
1585:Latvian
1580:Italian
1526:Finnish
1504:English
1484:Cypriot
1479:Cornish
1386:History
1381:Outline
1316:Natural
1257:Chinese
1235:General
1228:Current
704:British
616:Ma Huan
612:Chinese
582:in the
434:kept a
381:⁄
355:decimal
327:Harappa
154:Bridges
124:Coinage
2313:People
2061:N-body
1999:Indian
1974:Arabic
1837:Somali
1812:Libyan
1780:Africa
1751:Syrian
1701:Korean
1686:Indian
1676:Afghan
1640:Slovak
1610:Polish
1548:German
1531:French
1494:Danish
1472:Europe
1438:Metric
1369:Metric
1349:Stoney
1339:Planck
1324:Atomic
1182:
1157:
1142:
1124:
1109:
1092:
1074:
1055:
1029:
1014:
620:Cochin
588:Sirpur
566:adhaka
562:nalika
558:Taxila
554:negama
544:, and
542:silver
529:yojana
520:goruta
516:dhanus
499:aį¹
gula
428:PÄį¹ini
399:, and
397:bronze
393:copper
370:Rulers
351:binary
335:Persia
329:, and
311:Lothal
236:, and
2139:Logic
2049:Other
2014:Roman
1994:Hindu
1989:Greek
1873:Cuban
1761:Tatar
1721:Omani
1660:Welsh
1655:Swiss
1575:Irish
1553:Greek
1499:Dutch
1489:Czech
1459:(CGS)
1453:(MTS)
1447:(MKS)
1419:(FPS)
1400:UK/US
686:bigha
653:on a
624:fanam
592:Arang
571:masas
534:moats
524:krosa
512:danda
508:cubit
455:kalpa
450:karan
441:tithi
374:Ivory
359:chert
2376:DRDO
2371:ISRO
2243:Auto
1766:Thai
1736:Pegu
1669:Asia
1307:(US)
1290:Troy
1180:ISBN
1155:ISBN
1140:ISBN
1122:ISBN
1107:ISBN
1090:ISBN
1072:ISBN
1053:ISBN
1027:ISBN
1012:ISBN
978:2012
683:and
661:The
610:The
590:and
550:tula
538:gold
504:span
473:and
353:and
337:and
234:folk
216:The
691:man
680:gaz
628:fen
522:or
2430::
2302:4G
2263:IT
1169:24
1042:92
1040:,
986:^
944:^
923:^
880:^
850:^
820:^
806:^
782:^
768:^
746:^
636:li
632:li
540:,
430:.
416:,
407:.
395:,
383:16
325:,
321:,
317:,
313:,
260:.
232:,
2100:e
2093:t
2086:v
1213:e
1206:t
1199:v
1186:.
1161:.
1146:.
1128:.
1113:.
1078:.
1059:.
1033:.
1018:.
980:.
900:.
379:1
361:.
296:.
284:.
205:e
198:t
191:v
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
