2665:(1908) he mentioned Voigt, Lorentz and Einstein. Minkowski himself considered Einstein's theory as a generalization of Lorentz's and credited Einstein for completely stating the relativity of time, but he criticized his predecessors for not fully developing the relativity of space. However, modern historians of science argue that Minkowski's claim for priority was unjustified, because Minkowski (like Wien or Abraham) adhered to the electromagnetic world picture and apparently did not fully understand the difference between Lorentz's electron theory and Einstein's kinematics. In 1908, Einstein and Laub rejected the four-dimensional electrodynamics of Minkowski as overly complicated "learned superfluousness" and published a "more elementary", non-four-dimensional derivation of the basic equations for moving bodies. But it was Minkowski's geometric model that (a) showed that the special relativity is a complete and internally self-consistent theory, (b) added the Lorentz invariant proper time interval (which accounts for the actual readings shown by moving clocks), and (c) served as a basis for further development of relativity. Eventually, Einstein (1912) recognized the importance of Minkowski's geometric spacetime model and used it as the basis for his work on the foundations of
2818:", where he replaced the clocks by persons (Langevin never used the word "twins" but his description contained all other features of the paradox). Langevin solved the paradox by alluding to the fact that one twin accelerates and changes direction, so Langevin could show that the symmetry is broken and the accelerated twin is younger. However, Langevin himself interpreted this as a hint as to the existence of an aether. Although Langevin's explanation is still accepted by some, his conclusions regarding the aether were not generally accepted. Laue (1913) pointed out that any acceleration can be made arbitrarily small in relation to the inertial motion of the twin, and that the real explanation is that one twin is at rest in two different inertial frames during his journey, while the other twin is at rest in a single inertial frame. Laue was also the first to analyze the situation based on Minkowski's spacetime model for special relativity – showing how the world lines of inertially moving bodies maximize the proper time elapsed between two events.
1670:(1904) continued to develop his alternative model (as described above), and while comparing his theory with that of Lorentz, he discovered some important physical interpretations of the Lorentz transformations. He illustrated (like Joseph Larmor in the same year) this transformation by using rods and clocks: If they are at rest in the aether, they indicate the true length and time, and if they are moving, they indicate contracted and dilated values. Like Poincaré, Cohn defined local time as the time that is based on the assumption of isotropic propagation of light. Contrary to Lorentz and Poincaré it was noticed by Cohn, that within Lorentz's theory the separation of "real" and "apparent" coordinates is artificial, because no experiment can distinguish between them. Yet according to Cohn's own theory, the Lorentz transformed quantities would only be valid for optical phenomena, while mechanical clocks would indicate the "real" time.
486:
2299:
theory and based on the data in tables concluded (p. 828) that the agreement with his theory "is seen to come out no less satisfactory than" with
Abraham's theory. A recent reanalysis of the data from Kaufmann (1903) confirms that Lorentz's theory (1904a) does agree substantially better than Abraham's theory when applied to data from Kaufmann (1903). Kaufmann (1905, 1906) presented further results, this time with electrons from cathode rays. They represented, in his opinion, a clear refutation of the relativity principle and the Lorentz-Einstein-Theory, and a confirmation of Abraham's theory. For some years Kaufmann's experiments represented a weighty objection against the relativity principle, although it was criticized by Planck and
2799:
period of clock A is the distance between the mirrors divided by the speed of light. But if the observer looks at clock B, he sees that within that clock the signal traces out a longer, angled path, thus clock B is slower than A. However, for the observer moving alongside B the situation is completely in reverse: Clock B is faster and A is slower. Lorentz (1910–1912) discussed the reciprocity of time dilation and analyzed a clock "paradox", which apparently occurs as a consequence of the reciprocity of time dilation. Lorentz showed that there is no paradox if one considers that in one system only one clock is used, while in the other system two clocks are necessary, and the relativity of simultaneity is fully taken into account.
3189:
2082:
further. Concerning myself, I knew only
Lorentz's important work of 1895 but not Lorentz's later work, nor the consecutive investigations by Poincaré. In this sense my work of 1905 was independent. The new feature of it was the realization of the fact that the bearing of the Lorentz transformation transcended its connection with Maxwell's equations and was concerned with the nature of space and time in general. A further new result was that the "Lorentz invariance" is a general condition for any physical theory. This was for me of particular importance because I had already previously found that Maxwell's theory did not account for the micro-structure of radiation and could therefore have no general validity.
2235:. Einstein considered the equivalency equation to be of paramount importance because it showed that a massive particle possesses an energy, the "rest energy", distinct from its classical kinetic and potential energies. As it was shown above, many authors before Einstein arrived at similar formulas (including a 4/3-factor) for the relation of mass to energy. However, their work was focused on electromagnetic energy which (as we know today) only represents a small part of the entire energy within matter. So it was Einstein who was the first to: (a) ascribe this relation to all forms of energy, and (b) understand the connection of mass–energy equivalence with the relativity principle.
2019: – in a few pages, while prior to 1905 his competitors had devoted years of long, complicated work to arrive at the same mathematical formalism. Before 1905 Lorentz and Poincaré had adopted these same principles, as necessary to achieve their final results, but did not recognize that they were also sufficient in the sense that there was no immediate logical need to assume the existence of a stationary aether in order to arrive at the Lorentz transformations. As Lorentz later said, "Einstein simply postulates what we have deduced". Another reason for Einstein's early rejection of the aether in any form (which he later partially retracted) may have been related to his work on
1844:(1904) seemed to threaten the entire theory of Lorentz, but this problem was quickly solved. However, although in his philosophical writings Poincaré rejected the ideas of absolute space and time, in his physical papers he continued to refer to an (undetectable) aether. He also continued (1900b, 1904, 1906, 1908b) to describe coordinates and phenomena as local/apparent (for moving observers) and true/real (for observers at rest in the aether). So, with a few exceptions, most historians of science argue that Poincaré did not invent what is now called special relativity, although it is admitted that Poincaré anticipated much of Einstein's methods and terminology.
2721:(1911) argued that this derivation is incomplete and needs additional assumptions. Their own calculation was based on the assumptions that: (a) the Lorentz transformation forms a homogeneous linear group, (b) when changing frames, only the sign of the relative speed changes, (c) length contraction solely depends on the relative speed. However, according to Pauli and Miller such models were insufficient to identify the invariant speed in their transformation with the speed of light — for example, Ignatowski was forced to seek recourse in electrodynamics to include the speed of light. So Pauli and others argued that both
2271:"). On the other hand, Einstein himself and many others continued to refer simply to the new method as the "relativity principle". And in an important overview article on the relativity principle (1908a), Einstein described SR as a "union of Lorentz's theory and the relativity principle", including the fundamental assumption that Lorentz's local time can be described as real time. (Yet, Poincaré's contributions were rarely mentioned in the first years after 1905.) All of those expressions, (Lorentz–Einstein theory, relativity principle, relativity theory) were used by different physicists alternately in the next years.
2308:
electrons from cathode rays only showed a qualitative mass increase of moving electrons, but they were not precise enough to distinguish between the models of
Lorentz-Einstein and Abraham. It was not until 1940, when experiments with electrons from cathode rays were repeated with sufficient accuracy for confirming the Lorentz-Einstein formula. However, this problem occurred only with this kind of experiment. The investigations of the fine structure of the hydrogen lines already in 1917 provided a clear confirmation of the Lorentz-Einstein formula and the refutation of Abraham's theory.
2077:. Before Einstein, Poincaré also developed a similar physical interpretation of local time and noticed the connection with signal velocity, but contrary to Einstein he continued to argue that clocks at rest in the stationary aether show the true time, while clocks in inertial motion relative to the aether show only the apparent time. Eventually, near the end of his life in 1953 Einstein described the advantages of his theory over that of Lorentz as follows (although Poincaré had already stated in 1905 that Lorentz invariance is an exact condition for any physical theory):
3136:. This implied that the light being measured would have had a velocity different from that of the original source. He concluded that there was likely as yet no acceptable proof of the second postulate of special relativity. This surprising gap in the experimental record was quickly closed in the ensuing years, by experiments by Fox, and by Alvager et al., which used gamma rays sourced from high energy mesons. The high energy levels of the measured photons, along with very careful accounting for extinction effects, eliminated any significant doubt from their results.
302:. He could not determine any relative motion, so he interpreted the result as a confirmation of the thesis of Stokes. However, Lorentz (1886) showed Michelson's calculations were wrong and that he had overestimated the accuracy of the measurement. This, together with the large margin of error, made the result of Michelson's experiment inconclusive. In addition, Lorentz showed that Stokes' completely dragged aether led to contradictory consequences, and therefore he supported an aether theory similar to Fresnel's. To check Fresnel's theory again, Michelson and
1526:, but the moving observers fail to recognize this because they are unaware of their movement. So, contrary to Lorentz, Poincaré-defined local time can be measured and indicated by clocks. Therefore, in his recommendation of Lorentz for the Nobel Prize in 1902, Poincaré argued that Lorentz had convincingly explained the negative outcome of the aether drift experiments by inventing the "diminished" or "local" time, i.e. a time coordinate in which two events at different places could appear as simultaneous, although they are not simultaneous in reality.
508:
velocity of light is totally independent of the velocity of the source. Lorentz gave no statements about the mechanical nature of the aether and the electromagnetic processes, but, rather, tried to explain the mechanical processes by electromagnetic ones and therefore created an abstract electromagnetic æther. In the framework of his theory, Lorentz calculated, like
Heaviside, the contraction of the electrostatic fields. Lorentz (1895) also introduced what he called the "Theorem of Corresponding States" for terms of first order in
2803:
1703:, which he elaborated in May in a letter to Lorentz). Poincaré used for the first time the term "Lorentz transformation", and he gave the transformations their symmetrical form used to this day. He introduced a non-electrical binding force (the so-called "Poincaré stresses") to ensure the stability of the electrons and to explain length contraction. He also sketched a Lorentz-invariant model of gravitation (including gravitational waves) by extending the validity of Lorentz-invariance to non-electrical forces.
1863:
1553:, Lorentz (1904) was following the suggestion of Poincaré and attempted to create a formulation of electrodynamics, which explains the failure of all known aether drift experiments, i.e. the validity of the relativity principle. He tried to prove the applicability of the Lorentz transformation for all orders, although he did not succeed completely. Like Wien and Abraham, he argued that there exists only electromagnetic mass, not mechanical mass, and derived the correct expression for longitudinal and
2497:
2468:(1910) placed an observer in the middle between two clocks A and B. From this observer a signal is sent to both clocks, and in the frame in which A and B are at rest, they synchronously start to run. But from the perspective of a system in which A and B are moving, clock B is first set in motion, and then comes clock A – so the clocks are not synchronized. Also Einstein (1917) created a model with an observer in the middle between A and B. However, in his description two signals are sent
2452:. Already in 1909–11, Franz Harress (1912) performed an experiment which can be considered as a synthesis of the experiments of Fizeau and Sagnac. He tried to measure the dragging coefficient within glass. Contrary to Fizeau he used a rotating device so he found the same effect as Sagnac. While Harress himself misunderstood the meaning of the result, it was shown by Laue that the theoretical explanation of Harress' experiment is in accordance with the Sagnac effect. Eventually, the
2701:
particle theory. He extended
Minkowski's expressions for electromagnetic processes to all possible forces and thereby clarified the concept of mass–energy equivalence. Laue also showed that non-electrical forces are needed to ensure the proper Lorentz transformation properties, and for the stability of matter – he could show that the "Poincaré stresses" (as mentioned above) are a natural consequence of relativity theory so that the electron can be a closed system.
9787:
2368:(1906) by extending Hasenöhrl's calculation of black-body radiation in a cavity, derived the same expression for the additional mass of a body due to electromagnetic radiation as Hasenöhrl. Hasenöhrl's idea was that the mass of bodies included a contribution from the electromagnetic field, he imagined a body as a cavity containing light. His relationship between mass and energy, like all other pre-Einstein ones, contained incorrect numerical prefactors (see
2991:(1914), that in this model gravitation can be completely described in terms of spacetime curvature. Although Nordström's theory is without contradiction, from Einstein's point of view a fundamental problem persisted: It does not fulfill the important condition of general covariance, as in this theory preferred frames of reference can still be formulated. So contrary to those "scalar theories", Einstein (1911–1915) developed a "tensor theory" (i.e.
1463:. He assumed that two observers who are moving in the aether synchronize their clocks by optical signals. Since they believe themselves to be at rest, they consider only the transmission time of the signals and then cross-reference their observations to examine whether their clocks are synchronous. From the point of view of an observer at rest in the aether, the clocks are not synchronous and indicate the local time
306:(1886) performed a repetition of the Fizeau experiment. Fresnel's dragging coefficient was confirmed very exactly on that occasion, and Michelson was now of the opinion that Fresnel's stationary aether theory was correct. To clarify the situation, Michelson and Morley (1887) repeated Michelson's 1881 experiment, and they substantially increased the accuracy of the measurement. However, this now famous
2995:), which fulfills both the equivalence principle and general covariance. As a consequence, the notion of a complete "special relativistic" theory of gravitation had to be given up, as in general relativity the constancy of light speed (and Lorentz covariance) is only locally valid. The decision between those models was brought about by Einstein, when he was able to exactly derive the
1304:, which included: detailed philosophical discussions on the relativity of space, time, and on the conventionality of distant simultaneity; the conjecture that a violation of the relativity principle can never be detected; the possible non-existence of the aether, together with some arguments supporting the aether; and many remarks on non-Euclidean vs. Euclidean geometry.
2303:(1906). Other physicists working with beta rays from radium, like Alfred Bucherer (1908) and Günther Neumann (1914), following on Bucherer's work and improving on his methods, also examined the velocity-dependence of mass and this time it was thought that the "Lorentz-Einstein theory" and the relativity principle were confirmed, and Abraham's theory disproved.
2971:
Sommerfeld (1910). However, it was shown by
Abraham (1912) that those models belong to the class of "vector theories" of gravitation. The fundamental defect of those theories is that they implicitly contain a negative value for the gravitational energy in the vicinity of matter, which would violate the energy principle. As an alternative, Abraham (1912) and
1635:
electrons, non-electric forces were needed in order to guarantee the stability of matter. However, in
Abraham's theory of the rigid electron, no such forces were needed. Thus the question arose whether the Electromagnetic conception of the world (compatible with Abraham's theory) or the Relativity Principle (compatible with Lorentz's Theory) was correct.
2251:(1905, 1906) was probably the first who referred to Einstein's work. He compared the theories of Lorentz and Einstein and, although he said Einstein's method is to be preferred, he argued that both theories are observationally equivalent. Therefore, he spoke of the relativity principle as the "Lorentz–Einsteinian" basic assumption. Shortly afterwards,
1533:(1903) believed in the validity of the relativity principle within the domain of electrodynamics, but contrary to Poincaré, Bucherer even assumed that this implies the nonexistence of the aether. However, the theory that he created later in 1906 was incorrect and not self-consistent, and the Lorentz transformation was absent within his theory as well.
840:
for
Lorentz (1899), the integration of the speed-dependence of masses recognized by Thomson was especially important. He noticed that the mass not only varied due to speed, but is also dependent on the direction, and he introduced what Abraham later called "longitudinal" and "transverse" mass. (The transverse mass corresponds to what later was called
2069:
relativity makes any reference to an aether unnecessary (at least as to the description of electrodynamics in inertial frames). As he wrote in 1907 and in later papers, the apparent contradiction between those principles can be resolved if it is admitted that
Lorentz's local time is not an auxiliary quantity, but can simply be defined as
717:(1881) recognized that charged bodies are harder to set in motion than uncharged bodies. Electrostatic fields behave as if they add an "electromagnetic mass" to the mechanical mass of the bodies. I.e., according to Thomson, electromagnetic energy corresponds to a certain mass. This was interpreted as some form of self-
288:
2680:(that unifies the subject) had not yet come into widespread use. Cayley's matrix calculus notation was used by Minkowski (1908) in formulating relativistic electrodynamics, even though it was later replaced by Sommerfeld using vector notation. According to a recent source the Lorentz transformations are equivalent to
1073:(1902–1904), who was a supporter of the electromagnetic world view, quickly offered an explanation for Kaufmann's experiments by deriving expressions for the electromagnetic mass. Together with this concept, Abraham introduced (like Poincaré in 1900) the notion of "electromagnetic momentum" which is proportional to
173:. However, a distinction was made between optical and electrodynamical phenomena so it was necessary to create specific aether models for all phenomena. Attempts to unify those models or to create a complete mechanical description of them did not succeed, but after considerable work by many scientists, including
468:). This was in connection with the work of Heaviside (1887), who determined that the electrostatic fields in motion were deformed (Heaviside Ellipsoid), which leads to physically undetermined conditions at the speed of light. However, FitzGerald's idea remained widely unknown and was not discussed before
2934:
Planck, in 1909, compared the implications of the modern relativity principle — he particularly referred to the relativity of time – with the revolution by the
Copernican system. Poincaré made a similar analogy in 1905. An important factor in the adoption of special relativity by physicists
2925:
and others) whether length contraction is "real" or "apparent", and whether there is a difference between the dynamic contraction of Lorentz and the kinematic contraction of Einstein. However, it was rather a dispute over words because, as Einstein said, the kinematic length contraction is "apparent"
2733:
Minkowski in his earlier works in 1907 and 1908 followed Poincaré in representing space and time together in complex form (x,y,z,ict) emphasizing the formal similarity with Euclidean space. He noted that spacetime is in a certain sense a four-dimensional non-Euclidean manifold. Sommerfeld (1910) used
2700:
formulation of the relativistic velocity addition rule, which according to Sommerfeld, removes much of the strangeness of that concept. Other important contributions were made by Laue (1911, 1913), who used the spacetime formalism to create a relativistic theory of deformable bodies and an elementary
2081:
There is no doubt, that the special theory of relativity, if we regard its development in retrospect, was ripe for discovery in 1905. Lorentz had already recognized that the transformations named after him are essential for the analysis of Maxwell's equations, and Poincaré deepened this insight still
1690:
submitted the summary of a work which closed the existing gaps of Lorentz's work. (This short paper contained the results of a more complete work which would be published later, in January 1906.) He showed that Lorentz's equations of electrodynamics were not fully Lorentz-covariant. So he pointed out
1458:
In some other papers (1895, 1900b), Poincaré argued that experiments like that of Michelson and Morley show the impossibility of detecting the absolute motion of matter, i.e., the relative motion of matter in relation to the aether. He called this the "principle of relative motion". In the same year,
839:
is the electromagnetic energy. Heaviside and Searle also recognized that the increase of the mass of a body is not constant and varies with its velocity. Consequently, Searle noted the impossibility of superluminal velocities, because infinite energy would be needed to exceed the speed of light. Also
611:
and the Fizeau experiment as well. However, Lorentz's local time was only an auxiliary mathematical tool to simplify the transformation from one system into another – it was Poincaré in 1900 who recognized that "local time" is actually indicated by moving clocks. Lorentz also recognized that his
2298:
Kaufmann (1903) presented results of his experiments on the charge-to-mass ratio of beta rays from a radium source, showing the dependence of the velocity on mass. He announced that these results confirmed Abraham's theory. However, Lorentz (1904a) reanalyzed results from Kaufmann (1903) against his
2001:
was required, such as the contraction hypothesis, local time, the Poincaré stresses, etc.. This method was criticized by many scholars, since the assumption of a conspiracy of effects which completely prevent the discovery of the aether drift is considered to be very improbable, and it would violate
1066:
decreased with the speed, showing that, assuming the charge constant, the mass of the electron increased with the speed. He also believed that those experiments confirmed the assumption of Wien, that there is no "real" mechanical mass, but only the "apparent" electromagnetic mass, or in other words,
2970:
is many times faster than the speed of light, is not valid within a relativistic theory. That is, in a relativistic theory of gravitation, planetary orbits are stable even when the speed of gravity is equal to that of light. Similar models to that of Poincaré were discussed by Minkowski (1907b) and
2961:
The first attempt to formulate a relativistic theory of gravitation was undertaken by Poincaré (1905). He tried to modify Newton's law of gravitation so that it assumes a Lorentz-covariant form. He noted that there were many possibilities for a relativistic law, and he discussed two of them. It was
2826:
Einstein (1908) tried – as a preliminary in the framework of special relativity – also to include accelerated frames within the relativity principle. In the course of this attempt he recognized that for any single moment of acceleration of a body one can define an inertial reference frame
2307:
A distinction needs to be made between work with beta ray electrons and cathode ray electrons since beta rays from radium have a substantially larger velocities than cathode-ray electrons and so relativistic effects are very substantially easier to detect with beta rays. Kaufmann's experiments with
2006:
as well. Einstein is considered the first who completely dispensed with such auxiliary hypotheses and drew the direct conclusions from the facts stated above: that the relativity principle is correct and the directly observed speed of light is the same in all inertial reference frames. Based on his
272:
dragged by matter (later this view was also shared by Hertz). In this model the aether might be (by analogy with pine pitch) rigid for fast objects and fluid for slower objects. Thus the Earth could move through it fairly freely, but it would be rigid enough to transport light. Fresnel's theory was
83:
restating it precisely for mechanical systems. This can be stated as: as far as the laws of mechanics are concerned, all observers in inertial motion are equally privileged, and no preferred state of motion can be attributed to any particular inertial observer. However, as to electromagnetic theory
2798:
by using two light clocks A and B, traveling with a certain relative velocity to each other. The clocks consist of two plane mirrors parallel to one another and to the line of motion. Between the mirrors a light signal is bouncing, and for the observer resting in the same reference frame as A, the
2068:
had considerable influence on his thinking. He said in 1909 and 1912 that he borrowed that principle from Lorentz's stationary aether (which implies validity of Maxwell's equations and the constancy of light in the aether frame), but he recognized that this principle together with the principle of
1634:
Lorentz's theory was criticized by Abraham, who demonstrated that on one side the theory obeys the relativity principle, and on the other side the electromagnetic origin of all forces is assumed. Abraham showed, that both assumptions were incompatible, because in Lorentz's theory of the contracted
131:
in which, again based on the relativity principle, he independently derived and radically reinterpreted the Lorentz transformations by changing the fundamental definitions of space and time intervals, while abandoning the absolute simultaneity of Galilean kinematics, thus avoiding the need for any
1419:
In the second half of the 19th century, there were many attempts to develop a worldwide clock network synchronized by electrical signals. For that endeavor, the finite propagation speed of light had to be considered, because synchronization signals could travel no faster than the speed of light.
507:
which he separated from the aether, and by replacing the "Maxwell–Hertz" equations by the "Maxwell–Lorentz" equations. In his model, the aether is completely motionless and, contrary to Fresnel's theory, also is not partially dragged by matter. An important consequence of this notion was that the
310:
again yielded a negative result, i.e., no motion of the apparatus through the aether was detected (although the Earth's velocity is 60 km/s different in the northern winter than summer). So the physicists were confronted with two seemingly contradictory experiments: the 1886 experiment as an
225:
and Hertz further developed the theory and introduced modernized versions of Maxwell's equations. The "Maxwell–Hertz" or "Heaviside–Hertz" equations subsequently formed an important basis for the further development of electrodynamics, and Heaviside's notation is still used today. Other important
2888:
Einstein (1907b) discussed the question of whether, in rigid bodies, as well as in all other cases, the velocity of information can exceed the speed of light, and explained that information could be transmitted under these circumstances into the past, thus causality would be violated. Since this
1124:
suggested that part of the mass of a body (which he called apparent mass) can be thought of as radiation bouncing around a cavity. The "apparent mass" of radiation depends on the temperature (because every heated body emits radiation) and is proportional to its energy. Hasenöhrl stated that this
1116:
physical entity. Abraham also noted (like Lorentz in 1899) that this mass also depends on the direction and coined the names "longitudinal" and "transverse" mass. In contrast to Lorentz, he did not incorporate the contraction hypothesis into his theory, and therefore his mass terms differed from
472:
published a summary of the idea in 1892. Also Lorentz (1892b) proposed length contraction independently from FitzGerald in order to explain the Michelson–Morley experiment. For plausibility reasons, Lorentz referred to the analogy of the contraction of electrostatic fields. However, even Lorentz
1706:
Eventually Poincaré (independently of Einstein) finished a substantially extended work of his June paper (the so-called "Palermo paper", received July 23, printed December 14, published January 1906 ). He spoke literally of "the postulate of relativity". He showed that the transformations are a
2831:
that was used by Einstein in the course of that investigation, which expresses the equality of inertial and gravitational mass and the equivalence of accelerated frames and homogeneous gravitational fields, transcended the limits of special relativity and resulted in the formulation of general
2472:
A and B to an observer aboard a moving train. From the perspective of the frame in which A and B are at rest, the signals are sent at the same time and the observer "is hastening towards the beam of light coming from B, whilst he is riding on ahead of the beam of light coming from A. Hence the
1648:
The Principle of Relativity, according to which the laws of physical phenomena must be the same for a stationary observer as for one carried along in a uniform motion of translation, so that we have no means, and can have none, of determining whether or not we are being carried along in such a
1269:
are essentially metaphysical concepts and thus scientifically meaningless, and suggested that only relative motion between material bodies is a useful concept in physics. Mach argued that even effects that according to Newton depend on accelerated motion with respect to absolute space, such as
213:
aetherial medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena. However, Maxwell's theory was unsatisfactory regarding the optics of moving bodies, and while he was able to present a complete mathematical model, he was not able to provide a coherent mechanical description of the aether.
2435:
In 1911 Laue also discussed a situation where on a platform a beam of light is split and the two beams are made to follow a trajectory in opposite directions. On return to the point of entry the light is allowed to exit the platform in such a way that an interference pattern is obtained. Laue
2947:
qualified his position by arguing that one can speak about a relativistic aether, but the "idea of motion" cannot be applied to it. Lorentz and Poincaré had always argued that motion through the aether was undetectable. Einstein used the expression "special theory of relativity" in 1915, to
854:
mass is of electromagnetic origin, which was formulated in the context that all forces of nature are electromagnetic ones (the "Electromagnetic World View"). Wien stated that, if it is assumed that gravitation is an electromagnetic effect too, then there has to be a proportionality between
1568:
At the same time, when Lorentz worked out his theory, Wien (1903) recognized an important consequence of the velocity dependence of mass. He argued that superluminal velocities were impossible, because that would require an infinite amount of energy — the same was already noted by
2290:, and Alfred Bucherer. von Laue, who learned about the theory from Planck, published the first definitive monograph on relativity in 1911. By 1911, Sommerfeld altered his plan to speak about relativity at the Solvay Congress because the theory was already considered well established.
1447:
The simultaneity of two events, or the order of their succession, the equality of two durations, are to be so defined that the enunciation of the natural laws may be as simple as possible. In other words, all these rules, all these definitions are only the fruit of an unconscious
2317:
2057:, where Poincaré presented the Principle of Relativity (which, as has been reported by Einstein's friend Maurice Solovine, was closely studied and discussed by Einstein and his friends over a period of years before the publication of Einstein's 1905 paper), and the writings of
2341:(1908, 1909) by defining mass as the ratio of momentum to velocity. So the older definition of longitudinal and transverse mass, in which mass was defined as the ratio of force to acceleration, became superfluous. Finally, Tolman (1912) interpreted relativistic mass simply as
2770:(1914) employed such methods as well. One historian argues that the non-Euclidean style had little to show "in the way of creative power of discovery", but it offered notational advantages in some cases, particularly in the law of velocity addition. (So in the years before
103:
based on an immobile luminiferous aether (about whose material constitution Lorentz did not speculate), physical length contraction, and a "local time" in which Maxwell's equations retain their form in all inertial frames of reference. Working with Lorentz's aether theory,
3177:, or philosophical reasons. Although there still are critics of relativity outside the scientific mainstream, the overwhelming majority of scientists agree that Special Relativity has been verified in many different ways and there are no inconsistencies within the theory.
2328:
and gave the correct values for the longitudinal and transverse mass by correcting a slight mistake of the expression given by Einstein in 1905. Planck's expressions were in principle equivalent to those used by Lorentz in 1899. Based on the work of Planck, the concept of
1412:
3131:
pointed out that all previous experimental tests of the constancy of the speed of light were conducted using light which had passed through stationary material: glass, air, or the incomplete vacuum of deep space. As a result, all were thus subject to the effects of the
2473:
observer will see the beam of light emitted from B earlier than he will see that emitted from A. Observers who take the railway train as their reference-body must therefore come to the conclusion that the lightning flash B took place earlier than the lightning flash A."
2436:
calculated a displacement of the interference pattern if the platform is in rotation – because the speed of light is independent of the velocity of the source, so one beam has covered less distance than the other beam. An experiment of this kind was performed by
463:
FitzGerald (1889) offered another explanation of the negative result of the Michelson–Morley experiment. Contrary to Voigt, he speculated that the intermolecular forces are possibly of electrical origin so that material bodies would contract in the line of motion
1890:), which served as the axiomatic basis of his theory. To better understand Einstein's step, a summary of the situation before 1905, as it was described above, shall be given (it must be remarked that Einstein was familiar with the 1895 theory of Lorentz, and
2023:. Einstein discovered that light can also be described (at least heuristically) as a kind of particle, so the aether as the medium for electromagnetic "waves" (which was highly important for Lorentz and Poincaré) no longer fitted into his conceptual scheme.
619:(1897, 1900). Larmor was the first to put Lorentz's 1895 transformation into a form algebraically equivalent to the modern Lorentz transformations, however, he stated that his transformations preserved the form of Maxwell's equations only to second order of
4759:
2026:
It's notable that Einstein's paper contains no direct references to other papers. However, many historians of science like Holton, Miller, Stachel, have tried to find out possible influences on Einstein. He stated that his thinking was influenced by the
1557:, which were in agreement with Kaufmann's experiments (even though those experiments were not precise enough to distinguish between the theories of Lorentz and Abraham). And using the electromagnetic momentum, he could explain the negative result of the
2658:, etc.; and most notably he presented a four-dimensional formulation of electrodynamics. Similar to Poincaré he tried to formulate a Lorentz-invariant law of gravity, but that work was subsequently superseded by Einstein's elaborations on gravitation.
2975:(1913) proposed different "scalar theories" of gravitation. While Mie never formulated his theory in a consistent way, Abraham completely gave up the concept of Lorentz-covariance (even locally), and therefore it was irreconcilable with relativity.
2943: – although it was decided by the Nobel committee not to award the prize for special relativity. Only a minority of theoretical physicists such as Abraham, Lorentz, Poincaré, or Langevin still believed in the existence of an aether. Einstein
3115:
in 1938 and by measuring the decay rates of moving particles in 1940. All of those experiments have been repeated several times with increased precision. In addition, that the speed of light is unreachable for massive bodies was measured in many
258:(and subsequently Lorentz). This model (Stationary Aether Theory) supposed that light propagates as a transverse wave and aether is partially dragged with a certain coefficient by matter. Based on this assumption, Fresnel was able to explain the
1903:) Maxwell's electrodynamics, as presented by Lorentz in 1895, was the most successful theory at this time. Here, the speed of light is constant in all directions in the stationary aether and completely independent of the velocity of the source;
3470:
2827:
in which the accelerated body is temporarily at rest. It follows that in accelerated frames defined in this way, the application of the constancy of the speed of light to define simultaneity is restricted to small localities. However, the
2361:
theorem. On that occasion, he noted that the formal mathematical content of Poincaré's paper on the center of mass (1900b) and his own paper were mainly the same, although the physical interpretation was different in light of relativity.
2835:
Nearly simultaneously with Einstein, Minkowski (1908) considered the special case of uniform accelerations within the framework of his spacetime formalism. He recognized that the worldline of such an accelerated body corresponds to a
2202:
1431:
described some important consequences of this process and explained that astronomers, in determining the speed of light, simply assumed that light has a constant speed and that this speed is the same in all directions. Without this
2676:, but at the time special relativity was being developed the field of linear algebra was still in its infancy. There were no textbooks on linear algebra as modern vector space and transformation theory, and the matrix notation of
1270:
rotation, could be described purely with reference to material bodies, and that the inertial effects cited by Newton in support of absolute space might instead be related purely to acceleration with respect to the fixed stars.
5515:
5005:
2432:(1907) who derived the coefficient for terms of all orders by using the colinear case of the relativistic velocity addition law. In addition, Laue's calculation was much simpler than the complicated methods used by Lorentz.
2868:(1912), whereby his formulation is also valid for general relativity. Concerning the further development of the description of accelerated motion in special relativity, the works by Langevin and others for rotating frames (
2207:
for the kinetic energy of an electron. In elaboration of this he published a paper (received September 27, November 1905), in which Einstein showed that when a material body lost energy (either radiation or heat) of amount
687:
for electron orbits. Larmor specified his considerations in 1900 and 1904. Independently of Larmor, Lorentz (1899) extended his transformation for second-order terms and noted a (mathematical) time dilation effect as well.
6647:
5699:
3563:
Bucherer, A. H. (1908), "Messungen an Becquerelstrahlen. Die experimentelle Bestätigung der Lorentz–Einsteinschen Theorie. (Measurements of Becquerel rays. The Experimental Confirmation of the Lorentz–Einstein Theory)",
4807:
1878:. Einstein's paper includes a fundamental description of the kinematics of the rigid body, and it did not require an absolutely stationary space, such as the aether. Einstein identified two fundamental principles, the
2978:
In addition, all of those models violated the equivalence principle, and Einstein argued that it is impossible to formulate a theory which is both Lorentz-covariant and satisfies the equivalence principle. However,
5746:
6438:
6243:
6396:
540:. This theorem states that a moving observer (relative to the aether) in his "fictitious" field makes the same observations as a resting observer in his "real" field. An important part of it was local time
6207:
3745:
399:
92:. According to Maxwell's theory, all optical and electrical phenomena propagate through that medium, which suggested that it should be possible to experimentally determine motion relative to the aether.
1793:
6674:"71 years earlier, this scientist beat Einstein to relativity - Michael Faraday's 1834 law of induction was the key experiment behind the eventual discovery of relativity. Einstein admitted it himself"
4135:"The Hypotheses Relating to the Luminous Aether, and an Experiment which Appears to Demonstrate that the Motion of Bodies Alters the Velocity with which Light Propagates itself in their Interior"
1629:
2632:
2864:. Under those transformations the equations preserve their form for some types of accelerated motions. A general covariant formulation of electrodynamics in Minkowski space was eventually given by
2448:
theories the speed of light is independent of the velocity of the source. This effect can be understood as the electromagnetic counterpart of the mechanics of rotation, for example in analogy to a
1524:
8332:
2444:). While Sagnac himself concluded that his theory confirmed the theory of an aether at rest, Laue's earlier calculation showed that it is compatible with special relativity as well because in
1646:, Poincaré drew some consequences from Lorentz's theory and defined (in modification of Galileo's Relativity Principle and Lorentz's Theorem of Corresponding States) the following principle: "
597:
458:
4310:
5178:
699:, the fixed stars as a reference frame instead. Due to inconsistencies within his theory, like different light speeds in different directions, it was superseded by Lorentz's and Einstein's.
6160:
2774:, the acceptance of the non-Euclidean style was approximately equal to that of the initial spacetime formalism, and it continued to be employed in relativity textbooks of the 20th century.
2983:(1912, 1913) was able to create a model which fulfilled both conditions. This was achieved by making both the gravitational and the inertial mass dependent on the gravitational potential.
1986:
The speed of light in moving media is not composed of the speed of light when the medium is at rest and the velocity of the medium, but is determined by Fresnel's dragging coefficient, by
1830:
1393:
1247:
1185:
789:
7836:
Whittaker, E. T (1953) A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity: Vol 2 The Modern Theories 1900–1926. Chapter II: The Relativity Theory of Poincaré and Lorentz, Nelson, London.
4387:
3292:
3047:
1573:(1893) and Searle (1897). And in June 1904, after he had read Lorentz's 1904 paper, he noticed the same in relation to length contraction, because at superluminal velocities the factor
2064:
Regarding his views on Electrodynamics and the Principle of the Constancy of Light, Einstein stated that Lorentz's theory of 1895 (or the Maxwell–Lorentz electrodynamics) and also the
902:
942:
1110:
2263:, in this formulation. He described Einstein's theory as a "generalization" of Lorentz's theory and, to this "Lorentz–Einstein Theory", he gave the name "relative theory"; while
8624:
4493:
1064:
980:
681:
649:
538:
1356:
695:(1900, 1901) created an alternative electrodynamics in which he, as one of the first, discarded the existence of the aether (at least in the previous form) and would use, like
4978:
4824:
1028:
1004:
837:
813:
3043:
1795:
is invariant. While elaborating his gravitational theory, he said the Lorentz transformation is merely a rotation in four-dimensional space about the origin, by introducing
2661:
In 1907 Minkowski named four predecessors who contributed to the formulation of the relativity principle: Lorentz, Einstein, Poincaré and Planck. And in his famous lecture
1651:" He also specified his clock synchronization method and explained the possibility of a "new method" or "new mechanics", in which no velocity can surpass that of light for
5128:
3051:
6637:
6137:
1403:-dimensional spaces and non-Euclidean geometry, so his philosophical model bears only little resemblance with spacetime physics, as it was later developed by Minkowski.
136:, in which he introduced a 4-dimensional geometric "spacetime" model for Einstein's version of special relativity, paved the way for Einstein's later development of his
3143:. However, no sign of anisotropy of the speed of light has been found even at the 10 level, and some experiments even ruled out Lorentz violations at the 10 level, see
2734:
Minkowski's complex representation to combine non-collinear velocities by spherical geometry and so derive Einstein's addition formula. Subsequent writers, principally
8241:
4272:
3604:
2410:
859:(1900b) found another way of combining the concepts of mass and energy. He recognized that electromagnetic energy behaves like a fictitious fluid with mass density of
4563:
4542:
3591:
2935:
was its development by Poincaré and Minkowski into a spacetime theory. Consequently, by about 1911, most theoretical physicists accepted special relativity. In 1912
1994:
In order to make the principle of relativity as required by Poincaré an exact law of nature in the immobile aether theory of Lorentz, the introduction of a variety
2638:. Using similar methods, Minkowski succeeded in formulating a geometrical interpretation of the Lorentz transformation. He completed, for example, the concept of
4525:
1292:
a reference frame in which a mass point thrown from the same point in three different (non-co-planar) directions follows rectilinear paths each time it is thrown
5204:
Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon; Lorentz, H. A.; Miller, D. C.; Kennedy, R. J.; Hedrick, E. R.; Epstein, P. S. (1928), "Conference on the Michelson–Morley Experiment",
2103:
2905:, in which, due to length contraction, the circumference of a rotating disk is shortened while the radius stays the same. This question was also considered by
2725:
are needed to derive the Lorentz transformation. However, until today, others continued the attempts to derive special relativity without the light postulate.
1971:
The speed of light is not composed of the speed of light in vacuum and the velocity of an aether that would be dragged within or in the vicinity of matter, by
1125:
energy-apparent-mass relation only holds as long as the body radiates, i.e., if the temperature of a body is greater than 0 K. At first he gave the expression
2738:, dispensed with the imaginary time coordinate, and wrote in explicitly non-Euclidean (i.e. Lobachevskian) form reformulating relativity using the concept of
9533:
5941:
5917:
3202:
7412:
2456:(1925, a variation of the Sagnac experiment) indicated the angular velocity of the Earth itself in accordance with special relativity and a resting aether.
1711:
and developed the properties of the Poincaré stresses. He demonstrated in more detail the group characteristics of the transformation, which he called the
2513:
2047:) and the various negative aether drift experiments were important for him to accept that principle — but he denied any significant influence of the
254:
Regarding the relative motion and the mutual influence of matter and aether, there were two theories, neither entirely satisfactory. One was developed by
9031:
2713:(1910) for example used for this purpose (a) the principle of relativity, (b) homogeneity and isotropy of space, and (c) the requirement of reciprocity.
3173:
Some criticized Special Relativity for various reasons, such as lack of empirical evidence, internal inconsistencies, rejection of mathematical physics
1443:
Poincaré also noted that the propagation speed of light can be (and in practice often is) used to define simultaneity between spatially separate events:
116:), used this principle in 1905 to correct Lorentz's preliminary transformation formulas, resulting in an exact set of equations that are now called the
9597:
8352:
4632:
2913:(1910), and von Laue (1911). It was recognized by Laue that the classic concept is not applicable in SR since a "rigid" body possesses infinitely many
1274:(1870) introduced a "Body alpha", which represents some sort of rigid and fixed body for defining inertial motion. Based on the definition of Neumann,
944:) and defined a fictitious electromagnetic momentum as well. However, he arrived at a radiation paradox which was fully explained by Einstein in 1905.
3111:
in 1932, by which the independence of the speed of light from the velocity of the apparatus was confirmed. Time dilation was directly measured in the
9270:
8822:
8400:
9632:
2696:(1910) replaced Minkowski's matrix notation by an elegant vector notation and coined the terms "four vector" and "six vector". He also introduced a
9314:
6683:
5733:
4909:
Lewis, Gilbert N.; Wilson, Edwin B. (1912), "The Space-time Manifold of Relativity. The Non-Euclidean Geometry of Mechanics and Electromagnetics",
9564:
1399:). However, Palagyi's time coordinate is not connected to the speed of light. He also rejected any connection with the existing constructions of
1331:, in which space and time were only two sides of some sort of "spacetime". He used time as an imaginary fourth dimension, which he gave the form
2357:
Einstein (1906) showed that the inertia of energy (mass–energy equivalence) is a necessary and sufficient condition for the conservation of the
1565:
could be explained. Another important step was the postulate that the Lorentz transformation has to be valid for non-electrical forces as well.
311:
apparent confirmation of Fresnel's stationary aether, and the 1887 experiment as an apparent confirmation of Stokes' completely dragged aether.
3107:
were conducted, confirming relativity to even higher precision than the original experiment. Another type of interferometer experiment was the
2897:(1909) in the course of his above-mentioned work concerning accelerated motion, tried to include the concept of rigid bodies into SR. However,
5510:
3085:
2304:
4996:
9348:
9223:
5715:
Planck, Max (1906b), "Die Kaufmannschen Messungen der Ablenkbarkeit der β-Strahlen in ihrer Bedeutung für die Dynamik der Elektronen" [
1282:
do not measure any signs of rotation inertial motion is related to a "Fundamental body" and a "Fundamental Coordinate System". Eventually,
9084:
9236:
5716:
1913:
the validity of the relativity principle as the consequence of the negative results of all aether drift experiments and effects like the
8948:(translated). The proof consists in showing that the Lorentz transformation takes Galilean form when written in Lobachevski coordinates.
3104:
6419:
3139:
Many other tests of special relativity have been conducted, testing possible violations of Lorentz invariance in certain variations of
2914:
298:(1881) tried to measure the relative motion of the Earth and aether (Aether-Wind), as it was expected in Fresnel's theory, by using an
6433:
9297:
3117:
2453:
2420:
As was explained above, already in 1895 Lorentz succeeded in deriving Fresnel's dragging coefficient (to first order of v/c) and the
1643:
612:
theory violated the principle of action and reaction, since the aether acts on matter, but matter cannot act on the immobile aether.
8220:
Interpretationen und Fehlinterpretationen der speziellen und der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie durch Zeitgenossen Albert Einsteins
327:
9607:
9521:
7584:
Varićak (1910) The Theory of Relativity and Lobachevskian geometry, see section §3 "Lorentz–Einstein transformation as translation"
6373:
1561:, in which a charged parallel-plate capacitor moving through the aether should orient itself perpendicular to the motion. Also the
8408:
Kostro, L. (1992), "An outline of the history of Einstein's relativistic ether concept", in Jean Eisenstaedt; Anne J. Kox (eds.),
2856:(1910) showed that Maxwell's equations are invariant under a much wider group of transformation than the Lorentz group, i.e., the
683:. Larmor noticed on that occasion that length contraction was derivable from the model; furthermore, he calculated some manner of
336:
9742:
9668:
9161:
8262:
A Comparison between Lorentz's Ether Theory and Special Relativity in the Light of the Experiments of Trouton and Noble, (thesis)
1718:
1681:
5140:
3354:
3155:
Some claim that Poincaré and Lorentz, not Einstein, are the true discoverers of special relativity. For more see the article on
2984:
2889:
contravenes radically against every experience, superluminal velocities are thought impossible. He added that a dynamics of the
1544:
494:
6316:
3531:
2996:
1576:
9663:
9134:
9067:
9017:
8925:
8907:
8812:
8752:
8734:
8716:
8672:
8633:
8554:
8496:
8417:
8385:
8250:
8227:
8158:
8137:
8103:
8014:
7992:
7971:
7887:
7680:
3740:
3144:
3133:
2551:
5173:
2944:
2709:
There were some attempts to derive the Lorentz transformation without the postulate of the constancy of the speed of light.
9675:
9420:
9387:
4631:
6107:
4012:
9765:
9732:
2040:
1914:
485:
3958:
3896:
3853:
3811:
3769:
2345:
mass of the body. However, many modern textbooks on relativity do not use the concept of relativistic mass anymore, and
9538:
3212:
2939:
recommended both Lorentz (for the mathematical framework) and Einstein (for reducing it to a simple principle) for the
2491:
651:. Lorentz later noted that these transformations did in fact preserve the form of Maxwell's equations to all orders of
3994:
2999:, while the other theories gave erroneous results. In addition, only Einstein's theory gave the correct value for the
1466:
691:
Other physicists besides Lorentz and Larmor also tried to develop a consistent model of electrodynamics. For example,
9435:
9410:
9285:
9275:
9265:
5016:
4653:
4488:
3668:
3207:
3093:
2845:
1562:
725:
is increased by a constant quantity. Thomson's work was continued and perfected by FitzGerald, Heaviside (1888), and
178:
2504:
Poincaré's attempt of a four-dimensional reformulation of the new mechanics was not continued by himself, so it was
9615:
9326:
9216:
6089:
4995:
3108:
2722:
1798:
1361:
1290:
and "inertial time scale" as operational replacements for absolute space and time; he defined "inertial frame" as "
1190:
1128:
732:
8979:
5717:
The Measurements of Kaufmann on the Deflectability of β-Rays in their Importance for the Dynamics of the Electrons
5235:
4957:
Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1892a), "La Théorie electromagnétique de Maxwell et son application aux corps mouvants",
3325:
Alväger, Farley; Kjellmann, Walle (1964), "Test of the second postulate of special relativity in the GeV region",
3188:
2684:. However Varicak (1910) had shown that the standard Lorentz transformation is a translation in hyperbolic space.
543:
404:
9571:
9509:
9343:
9309:
6391:
6155:
6133:"L'éther lumineux démontré par l'effet du vent relatif d'éther dans un interféromètre en rotation uniforme"
4305:
3081:
2662:
2092:
726:
307:
4613:
2840:. This notion was further developed by Born (1909) and Sommerfeld (1910), with Born introducing the expression "
2464:
The first derivations of relativity of simultaneity by synchronization with light signals were also simplified.
221:
in 1887 demonstrated the existence of electromagnetic waves, Maxwell's theory was widely accepted. In addition,
9440:
9338:
4344:"Electromagnetic waves, the propagation of potential, and the electromagnetic effects of a moving charge"
3168:
3097:
3055:
2841:
6673:
862:
84:
and electrodynamics, during the 19th century the wave theory of light as a disturbance of a "light medium" or
9747:
9494:
9447:
2857:
907:
322:
for waves propagating in an incompressible elastic medium and deduced transformation relations that left the
19:
5446:
Michelson, Albert A.; Gale, Henry G. (1925), "The Effect of the Earth's Rotation on the Velocity of Light",
5406:
4673:"On a Dynamical Theory of the Electric and Luminiferous Medium, Part 3, Relations with material media"
3309:
1956:
The speed of light is not composed of the speed of light in vacuum and the velocity of the light source, by
1832:
as a fourth imaginary coordinate (contrary to Palagyi, he included the speed of light), and he already used
1076:
950:(1901–1903) was the first to confirm the velocity dependence of electromagnetic mass by analyzing the ratio
9516:
9489:
9467:
9425:
9321:
9156:
6315:
5836:
3112:
3089:
3059:
2791:
1965:
1558:
1550:
8853:
6424:
Nachrichten von der Königl. Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften und der Georg-Augusts-Universität zu Göttingen
5509:
4672:
2917:. Yet, while Born's definition was not applicable on rigid bodies, it was very useful in describing rigid
9816:
9811:
9790:
9760:
9543:
9504:
9452:
9209:
8365:
5322:
3217:
3156:
3071:
2248:
2224:
2012:
1655:
observers. However, he critically noted that the relativity principle, Newton's action and reaction, the
1287:
947:
603:
and which he introduced independently of Voigt. With the help of this concept, Lorentz could explain the
460:
which later was called "local time". However, Voigt's work was completely ignored by his contemporaries.
8113:
5364:
2926:
for a co-moving observer, but for an observer at rest it is "real" and the consequences are measurable.
1037:
953:
654:
622:
511:
9620:
9482:
9372:
9292:
6586:
6161:
On the proof of the reality of the luminiferous aether by the experiment with a rotating interferometer
5053:
4944:
Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1886), "De l'influence du mouvement de la terre sur les phénomènes lumineux",
2346:
1334:
1312:
6156:"Sur la preuve de la réalité de l'éther lumineux par l'expérience de l'interférographe tournant"
5745:
Planck, Max (1908), "Bemerkungen zum Prinzip der Aktion und Reaktion in der allgemeinen Dynamik" [
4877:
2376:, including the binding forces within matter. He acknowledged the priority of Einstein's 1905 work on
1695:
characteristics of the transformation, and he corrected Lorentz's formulas for the transformations of
1009:
985:
818:
794:
9727:
9696:
9576:
9472:
9367:
8646:
8545:
Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity. Emergence (1905) and early interpretation (1905–1911)
4851:
2783:
1708:
1700:
227:
206:
8787:
8727:
Henri Poincaré : electrons to special relativity: translation of selected papers and discussion
8694:
8471:
2061:, from whom he borrowed the terms "Maxwell–Hertz equations" and "longitudinal and transverse mass".
9826:
9821:
9752:
9625:
9581:
9499:
9477:
9331:
9166:
8505:
Messager, V.; Gilmore, R.; Letellier, C. (2012), "Henri Poincaré and the principle of relativity",
8426:
6432:
5520:
Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse
4935:
The Space-time Manifold of Relativity. The Non-Euclidean Geometry of Mechanics and Electromagnetics
4267:
3244:
Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse
2525:
2372:). Eventually Planck (1907) derived the mass–energy equivalence in general within the framework of
1570:
1460:
1283:
326:
in free space unchanged, and explained the negative result of the Michelson–Morley experiment. The
158:
4633:"Sur l'impossibilité physique de mettre en évidence le mouvement de translation de la Terre"
3993:
3406:
729:(1896, 1897). For the electromagnetic mass they gave — in modern notation — the formula
9658:
9360:
9302:
9280:
7960:
Catoni, Francesco; Boccaletti, Dino; Cannata, Roberto; Catoni, Vincenzo; Zampetti, Paolo (2011).
5072:"Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light"
5015:
3667:
2541:
2016:
1879:
1266:
1258:
76:
72:
5936:
4806:
Laue, Max von (1911b), "Zur Diskussion über den starren Körper in der Relativitätstheorie" [
4722:
4359:"On the Electromagnetic Effects due to the Motion of Electrification through a Dielectric"
9096:
8782:
8605:"Einstein, Nordström and the early demise of scalar, lorentz covariant theories of gravitation"
8466:
6032:
Sechs Vorträge über ausgewählte Gegenstände aus der reinen Mathematik und mathematischen Physik
5885:
3695:
3432:
2940:
2053:
1980:
1892:
1871:
1660:
1424:
1300:
600:
274:
202:
117:
8966:
7687:
6539:
6505:
6178:
5698:
Planck, Max (1906a), "Das Prinzip der Relativität und die Grundgleichungen der Mechanik" [
4388:
On bodies that are to be designated as "rigid" from the standpoint of the relativity principle
4249:
2379:
1121:
473:
admitted that that was not a necessary reason and length contraction consequently remained an
9653:
9648:
9602:
9459:
9258:
9085:"A Short History of the Concept of Relative Simultaneity in the Special Theory of Relativity"
8992:
7573:
6612:
6471:
5912:
5264:
3501:
Brecher, Kenneth (1977), "Is the Speed of Light Independent of the Velocity of the Source?",
2828:
2465:
2274:
Following Planck, other German physicists quickly became interested in relativity, including
1328:
500:
265:
255:
162:
100:
8260:
7432:(Braunschweig: Vieweg, 1911; second edition 1913); later editions published under the title
4612:
4358:
4134:
3530:
3253:
2758:(1913) showed how parallel transport in non-Euclidean space provides the kinematic basis of
1941:
with the following consequences for the speed of light and the theories known at that time:
1187:
for the apparent mass; however, Abraham and Hasenöhrl himself in 1905 changed the result to
9253:
9122:
8876:
8837:
8774:
8576:
8514:
8304:
8206:
8083:
8032:
7933:
6552:
6518:
6484:
6450:
6255:
6219:
6132:
6098:
5953:
5817:
5664:
5622:
5574:
5489:
5455:
5419:
5377:
5335:
5277:
5213:
4771:
4735:
4685:
4575:
4467:
4433:
4399:
4322:
4284:
4229:
4197:
4168:
4097:
4027:
3973:
3946:
3911:
3868:
3826:
3784:
3757:
3708:
3631:
3544:
3510:
3482:
3369:
3334:
3266:
3121:
3016:
2963:
2786:
as a direct consequence of time dilation. And in fact, that effect was measured in 1938 by
2747:
2424:
by using the electromagnetic theory and the concept of local time. After first attempts by
2334:
1656:
708:
108:, having earlier proposed the "relativity principle" as a general law of nature (including
9191:
9051:
A History of the theories of aether and electricity; Vol. 2: The modern theories 1900–1926
6084:
5652:
5610:
4511:
4217:
4159:
Fox, J.G. (1962), "Experimental Evidence for the Second Postulate of Special Relativity",
3739:
3287:
2197:{\displaystyle E_{kin}=mc^{2}\left({\frac {1}{\sqrt {1-{\frac {v^{2}}{c^{2}}}}}}-1\right)}
8:
9706:
9195:
9152:
8953:
8867:(1982), "Einstein and Michelson: the Context of Discovery and Context of Justification",
6317:"On the Electric and Magnetic Effects produced by the Motion of Electrified Bodies"
6120:
5476:
5172:
5096:
4977:
Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1892b), "De relatieve beweging van de aarde en den aether" [
3449:
2877:
2853:
2710:
2692:
Minkowski's spacetime formalism was quickly accepted and further developed. For example,
2681:
2635:
2537:
2508:(1907), who worked out the consequences of that notion (other contributions were made by
1945:
The speed of light is not composed of the speed of light in vacuum and the velocity of a
1934:
1841:
1692:
1551:
Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light
604:
295:
259:
235:
231:
182:
170:
89:
85:
32:
9126:
8880:
8841:
8778:
8580:
8518:
8430:
8308:
8210:
8087:
8036:
7937:
7900:
6556:
6522:
6488:
6454:
6390:
6304:
6259:
6223:
6102:
6073:
5957:
5874:
5668:
5626:
5599:
5578:
5493:
5459:
5423:
5405:
5381:
5339:
5281:
5217:
5161:
5103:
4967:
4796:
4775:
4760:
The Entrainment of Light by Moving Bodies in Accordance with the Principle of Relativity
4739:
4689:
4579:
4471:
4437:
4403:
4384:"Über den vom Standpunkt des Relativitätsprinzips aus als starr zu bezeichnenden Körper"
4343:
4326:
4304:
4288:
4233:
4201:
4172:
4101:
4056:
4031:
3977:
3950:
3915:
3872:
3830:
3788:
3761:
3712:
3635:
3548:
3514:
3486:
3373:
3338:
3270:
3120:. Therefore, knowledge of those relativistic effects is required in the construction of
2980:
2922:
2735:
2051:
experiment: the Michelson–Morley experiment. Other likely influences include Poincaré's
1436:, it would be impossible to infer the speed of light from astronomical observations, as
9701:
9382:
9232:
9112:
9006:
8682:
8592:
8543:
8530:
8454:
8320:
8196:
8056:
8003:
7949:
7923:
7876:
6041:
5979:
5764:
5561:
5435:
5393:
5351:
5310:
5293:
5162:
The theory of electrons and its applications to the phenomena of light and radiant heat
5157:
The theory of electrons and its applications to the phenomena of light and radiant heat
4926:
4898:
4595:
4487:
4121:
4043:
3884:
3721:
3655:
3385:
3000:
2992:
2767:
2666:
2655:
2509:
2373:
2365:
2260:
465:
137:
128:
44:
9185:
8604:
8128:(1989), "The Swiss Years: Writings, 1900–1909", in Stachel, John; et al. (eds.),
4998:
Versuch einer Theorie der electrischen und optischen Erscheinungen in bewegten Körpern
4934:
4671:
3076:
Important early experiments confirming special relativity as mentioned above were the
2844:". He noted that uniform acceleration can be used as an approximation for any form of
9772:
9691:
9377:
9355:
9245:
9130:
9063:
9013:
8921:
8903:
8808:
8748:
8730:
8712:
8668:
8629:
8550:
8534:
8492:
8413:
8394:
8381:
8246:
8223:
8154:
8133:
8099:
8048:
8010:
7988:
7967:
7912:"The origins of length contraction: I. The FitzGerald–Lorentz deformation hypothesis"
7883:
7676:
6138:
The demonstration of the luminiferous aether by an interferometer in uniform rotation
5983:
5686:
5551:
5511:"Die Grundgleichungen für die elektromagnetischen Vorgänge in bewegten Körpern"
5439:
5397:
5355:
5321:
5297:
4113:
4047:
3888:
3854:"Das Prinzip von der Erhaltung der Schwerpunktsbewegung und die Trägheit der Energie"
3845:
3647:
3393:
3389:
3346:
3077:
3012:
2902:
2865:
2759:
2693:
2643:
2545:
2505:
2449:
2421:
2338:
2330:
2300:
2275:
2065:
1995:
1924:
1275:
1257:
Some scientists and philosophers of science were critical of Newton's definitions of
1112:. But unlike the fictitious quantities introduced by Poincaré, he considered it as a
841:
474:
281:
133:
56:
8993:"Breaking in the 4-vectors: The four-dimensional movement in gravitation, 1905–1910"
8762:
8596:
8564:
8324:
8283:
8270:
8168:
8060:
7911:
7863:
5974:
5897:
5363:
5115:
4125:
4084:
3659:
3618:
2516:(1908)). This was based on the work of many mathematicians of the 19th century like
2255:(1906a) was the first who publicly defended the theory and interested his students,
1687:
1428:
1295:
856:
132:
reference to a luminiferous aether in classical electrodynamics. Subsequent work of
105:
40:
9711:
8884:
8845:
8792:
8584:
8522:
8476:
8373:
8344:
8312:
8091:
8040:
7953:
7941:
7858:
6560:
6526:
6492:
6458:
6355:
6329:
6308:
6287:
6263:
6227:
6191:
6124:
6077:
6007:
5969:
5961:
5905:, vol. 1, Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company, pp. 604–622
5878:
5851:
5672:
5638:
5630:
5603:
5582:
5497:
5463:
5427:
5385:
5343:
5314:
5285:
5221:
5190:
5165:
5107:
4971:
4938:
4918:
4890:
4864:
4800:
4779:
4743:
4693:
4583:
4475:
4441:
4407:
4371:
4330:
4292:
4237:
4218:"Über die Transformation der Raum-Zeitkoordinaten von ruhenden auf bewegte Systeme"
4205:
4176:
4147:
4105:
4035:
3981:
3919:
3876:
3834:
3803:
3792:
3681:
3639:
3552:
3518:
3490:
3419:
3377:
3342:
3274:
2967:
2873:
2869:
2751:
2533:
2003:
1396:
1324:
303:
278:
222:
186:
18:"History of relativity" redirects here. For the history of general relativity, see
9049:
Whittaker, Edmund Taylor (1953), "The relativity theory of Poincaré and Lorentz",
9042:
A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity Vol. 1: The classical theories
8271:"From classical to relativistic mechanics: Electromagnetic models of the electron"
7846:
6638:"Relativity Wasn't Einstein's Miracle; It Was Waiting In Plain Sight For 71 Years"
6506:"Über die Differentialgleichungen der Elektrodynamik für bewegte Körper. II"
4876:
4109:
9104:
9026:
8704:
8526:
8377:
8295:
Katzir, Shaul (2005), "Poincaré's Relativistic Physics: Its Origins and Nature",
8125:
7982:
7961:
7670:
6472:"Über die Differentialgleichungen der Elektrodynamik für bewegte Körper. I"
6414:
5562:"Theorie der stationären Strahlung in einem gleichförmig bewegten Hohlraum"
5117:
Das Relativitätsprinzip. Drei Vorlesungen gehalten in Teylers Stiftung zu Haarlem
4850:
4188:
Filippas, T.A.; Fox, J.G. (1964), "Velocity of Gamma Rays from a Moving Source",
3577:
Cohn, Emil (1901), "Über die Gleichungen der Electrodynamik für bewegte Körper",
3471:
The Theory of the Rigid Electron in the Kinematics of the Principle of Relativity
3140:
2906:
2787:
2487:
2264:
2074:
2020:
1946:
1554:
1530:
239:
174:
166:
141:
124:
109:
96:
80:
48:
36:
9201:
8796:
8364:
7419:, Birkhaüser Verlag, Basel, 1999 1422–6944/99/020184–31. Retrieved 6 April 2019.
6154:
6026:
4070:
3995:"The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation"
3931:
3522:
2044:
1862:
1316:
855:
electromagnetic energy, inertial mass and gravitational mass. In the same paper
850:(1900) assumed (following the works of Thomson, Heaviside, and Searle) that the
88:
was widely accepted, the theory reaching its most developed form in the work of
9737:
9399:
8642:
8565:"Einstein's Investigations of Galilean Covariant Electrodynamics prior to 1905"
5738:
Sitzungsberichte der Königlich-Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin
5017:"Simplified Theory of Electrical and Optical Phenomena in Moving Systems"
4823:
Laue, Max von (1911c), "Über einen Versuch zur Optik der bewegten Körper" [
3669:"The principle of Relativity in Electrodynamics and an Extension Thereof"
3643:
3194:
3032:
3024:
3020:
2988:
2898:
2728:
2673:
2437:
2358:
2287:
1696:
608:
331:
319:
315:
299:
218:
8849:
8588:
8316:
6434:"Über die Möglichkeit einer elektromagnetischen Begründung der Mechanik"
6359:
6333:
6291:
6195:
5431:
5389:
5347:
4868:
4756:"Die Mitführung des Lichtes durch bewegte Körper nach dem Relativitätsprinzip"
4375:
4209:
4151:
3423:
3405:
3042:
Many other domains have since been reformulated with relativistic treatments:
2755:
2496:
9805:
9181:
9177:
9173:
8236:
8146:
8023:
Darrigol, Olivier (2004), "The Mystery of the Einstein–Poincaré Connection",
6564:
6530:
6496:
6462:
6368:
6267:
6231:
5835:
5676:
5643:
5634:
5586:
5501:
4968:
La Théorie electromagnétique de Maxwell et son application aux corps mouvants
4783:
4747:
4649:
4587:
4479:
4445:
4411:
4334:
4296:
4241:
4039:
3985:
3923:
3880:
3839:
3797:
3685:
3556:
3494:
3278:
2921:
of bodies. In connection to the Ehrenfest paradox, it was also discussed (by
2910:
2861:
2849:
2811:
2795:
2718:
2714:
2677:
2517:
2441:
1712:
714:
684:
616:
323:
243:
8888:
8480:
8348:
8095:
4454:
4420:
8895:
8864:
8619:
8440:
8052:
6669:
6633:
5818:"Les relations entre la physique expérimentale et la physique mathématique"
5525:
5289:
5203:
5035:
4698:
4524:
Kaufmann, Walter (1902), "Die elektromagnetische Masse des Elektrons" [
4117:
4013:"Relativität und Gravitation. Erwiderung auf eine Bemerkung von M. Abraham"
3694:
3651:
3467:"Die Theorie des starren Körpers in der Kinematik des Relativitätsprinzips"
2936:
2815:
2697:
2529:
2440:
in 1913, who actually measured a displacement of the interference pattern (
2429:
2279:
2267:
changed Planck's nomenclature into the now common "theory of relativity" ("
2256:
1271:
847:
469:
287:
68:
8187:
Goenner, Hubert (2008), "On the history of geometrization of space-time",
6538:
6504:
6177:
5534:
4614:"The Relations of Physics of Electrons to Other Branches of Science"
4266:
3932:"Über das Relativitätsprinzip und die aus demselben gezogenen Folgerungen"
2097:
Already in §10 of his paper on electrodynamics, Einstein used the formula
1437:
8984:
Albert Einstein, Chief Engineer of the Universe: 100 Authors for Einstein
8360:
6470:
5935:
5263:
4596:"Ueber die wissenschaftliche Fassung des Galileischen Beharrungsgesetzes"
3027:
showed in 1928 that quantum fields could be made to be relativistic, and
2771:
2763:
2743:
2651:
2646:
for the depiction of spacetime; he was the first to use expressions like
2639:
2521:
2058:
2011:
obtained by his predecessors – and in addition the formulas for the
1837:
1833:
1320:
1070:
1031:
190:
113:
9117:
8068:
5516:
The Fundamental Equations for Electromagnetic Processes in Moving Bodies
5006:
Attempt of a Theory of Electrical and Optical Phenomena in Moving Bodies
4930:
4902:
4357:
4133:
3252:
1870:
On September 26, 1905 (received June 30), Albert Einstein published his
31:
consists of many theoretical results and empirical findings obtained by
6342:
5965:
5244:
5195:
5071:
4721:
4455:"Über die Grundgleichungen der Elektrodynamik für bewegte Körper"
4421:"Über die Grundgleichungen der Elektrodynamik für ruhende Körper"
3609:
Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften
3596:
Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften
3532:"Über den Einfluß der Erdbewegung auf die Intensität des Lichtes"
3381:
3036:
3028:
2972:
2890:
2802:
2647:
2425:
2252:
2036:
2032:
2028:
1663:
are not fully established and are even threatened by some experiments.
1406:
1262:
718:
696:
198:
52:
8954:"Minkowski, mathematicians, and the mathematical theory of relativity"
7945:
7928:
5911:
5700:
The Principle of Relativity and the Fundamental Equations of Mechanics
5407:"On the Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether"
5097:
Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon; Einstein, Albert; Minkowski, Hermann (1913),
4180:
3286:
3238:
2412:, but Planck judged his own approach as more general than Einstein's.
721:
of the electromagnetic field. He also noticed that the mass of a body
95:
The failure of any experiment to detect motion through the aether led
6678:
5653:"Zur Theorie der Gravitation vom Standpunkt des Relativitätsprinzips"
5403:
5361:
4922:
4894:
4808:
On the Discussion Concerning Rigid Bodies in the Theory of Relativity
4547:
Sitzungsberichte der Königlich Preußische Akademie der Wissenschaften
3741:"Gleichförmige Rotation starrer Körper und Relativitätstheorie"
3128:
2837:
1667:
1639:
1433:
1308:
1279:
1249:, the same value as for the electromagnetic mass for a body at rest.
692:
194:
6275:
6239:
6203:
5174:"Deux Mémoires de Henri Poincaré sur la Physique Mathématique"
4755:
4559:
4541:
Kaufmann, Walter (1905), "Über die Konstitution des Elektrons" [
4383:
4342:
4055:
3466:
8268:
8044:
7896:
7871:
6392:"Über die nichteuklidische Interpretation der Relativtheorie"
5903:
Congress of arts and science, universal exposition, St. Louis, 1904
5763:
5467:
5323:"The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether"
5226:
4874:
4306:"Zur Theorie der Strahlung in bewegten Körpern. Berichtigung"
3812:"Ist die Trägheit eines Körpers von seinem Energieinhalt abhängig?"
3720:
2894:
2739:
2325:
2283:
504:
8412:, vol. 3, Boston-Basel-Berlin: Birkhäuser, pp. 260–280,
8201:
6585:
For many other experiments on light constancy and relativity, see
6121:
Optical Geometry of Motion: A New View of the Theory of Relativity
6116:
Optical Geometry of Motion: A New View of the Theory of Relativity
5445:
5365:"Influence of Motion of the Medium on the Velocity of Light"
4489:"Einige allgemeine Bemerkungen über das Relativitätsprinzip"
4083:
3959:"Über die elektromagnetischen Grundgleichungen für bewegte Körper"
3897:"Über die vom Relativitätsprinzip geforderte Trägheit der Energie"
2704:
2428:(1907) to create a relativistic "optics of moving bodies", it was
9008:
Masters of Theory: Cambridge and the Rise of Mathematical Physics
5803:
5747:
Notes on the Principle of Action and Reaction in General Dynamics
5685:
5077:
Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
5041:
Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
5022:
Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
4908:
4510:
3727:
Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
3701:
Proceedings of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
3603:
Cohn, Emil (1904), "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Systeme II" [
1699:
and current density (which implicitly contained the relativistic
8760:
8363:(1921) , "Über die geometrischen Grundlagen der Lorentzgruppe",
6439:
On the Possibility of an Electromagnetic Foundation of Mechanics
6244:
On the Theory of Relativity II: Four-dimensional Vector Analysis
6175:
5896:
5475:
4878:"The Principle of Relativity, and Non-Newtonian Mechanics"
3617:
3590:
Cohn, Emil (1904), "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Systeme I" [
1953:. This contradicts the theory of the (nearly) stationary aether.
8938:[The Theory of Relativity and Lobachevskian Geometry],
8918:
Einstein's generation. The origins of the relativity revolution
8625:
Subtle is the Lord: The Science and the Life of Albert Einstein
6642:
6413:
6397:
On the Non-Euclidean Interpretation of the Theory of Relativity
5992:
5890:, London and Newcastle-on-Tyne: The Walter Scott publishing Co.
5787:
Poincaré, Henri (1895), "A propos de la Théorie de M. Larmor",
4852:"A revision of the Fundamental Laws of Matter and Energy"
4708:
3355:"Il calorico raggiante e il secondo principio di termodynamica"
3324:
8330:
7675:(illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 203.
6909:
6907:
6208:
On the Theory of Relativity I: Four-dimensional Vector Algebra
6040:
5858:
Poincaré, Henri (1901a), "Sur les principes de la mécanique",
5560:
147:
7959:
5783:
Preface partly reprinted in "Science and Hypothesis", Ch. 12.
3746:
Uniform Rotation of Rigid Bodies and the Theory of Relativity
2316:
8281:
4215:
4069:
3956:
3407:"The Transformation of the Electrodynamical Equations"
2794:). And Lewis and Tolman (1909) described the reciprocity of
2729:
Non-euclidean formulations without imaginary time coordinate
394:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {1/{\sqrt {1-{v^{2}}/{c^{2}}}}}}
8935:
7778:
7776:
6904:
6204:"Zur Relativitätstheorie I: Vierdimensionale Vektoralgebra"
5114:
5054:"Weiterbildung der Maxwellschen Theorie. Elektronentheorie"
1788:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {x^{2}+y^{2}+z^{2}-c^{2}t^{2}}}
1411:
8242:
Thematic Origins of Scientific Thought: Kepler to Einstein
6131:
6006:
4081:
3035:
for electrons, and in so doing predicted the existence of
2762:
twelve years before its experimental discovery by Thomas;
1896:
by Poincaré, but possibly not their papers of 1904–1905):
9082:
8936:"Die Relativtheorie und die Lobatschefskijsche Geometrie"
8176:
Preprint, Max-Planck Institut für Wissenschaftsgeschichte
7984:
Pseudo-Riemannian Geometry, δ-invariants and Applications
7905:, London & New York: Pergamon Press, pp. 189–206
6367:
5842:
Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles
5797:
Reprinted in Poincaré, Oeuvres, tome IX, pp. 395–413
4959:
Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles
4946:
Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles
3696:"A proof of the constancy of the velocity of light"
3579:
Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles
9048:
9039:
9025:
8504:
7773:
6888:
6886:
6179:"On the Steady Motion of an Electrified Ellipsoid"
5837:"La théorie de Lorentz et le principe de réaction"
5732:
Planck, Max (1907), "Zur Dynamik bewegter Systeme" [
5104:
Das Relativitätsprinzip. Eine Sammlung von Abhandlungen.
5068:
5051:
4956:
4911:
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
4883:
Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
4453:
4419:
2293:
1624:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {\sqrt {1-{v^{2}}/{c^{2}}}}}
205:. He first proposed that light was in fact undulations (
152:
8807:, Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp. 99–117 und 255–273,
8333:"Intimations Of Relativity: Relativity Before Einstein"
7384:
7382:
7256:
7254:
6959:
6957:
6955:
6025:
5308:, vol. 2, London: Macmillan & Co., p. 391
5265:"A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field"
5170:
5154:
5126:
5112:
5099:
Das Relativitätsprinzip. Eine Sammlung von Abhandlungen
5087:
5034:
5032:
5013:
4993:
4943:
4311:
On the Theory of Radiation in Moving Bodies. Correction
4187:
3015:
was one of the major motivations in the development of
2627:{\displaystyle x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-x_{4}^{2}}
1459:
he interpreted Lorentz's local time as the result of a
1327:(1895). In 1901 a philosophical model was developed by
284:, which measured the speed of light in moving liquids.
8956:, in H. Goenner; J. Renn; J. Ritter; T. Sauer (eds.),
8709:
Personal Knowledge: Towards a Post-Critical Philosophy
8132:, vol. 2, Princeton: Princeton University Press,
6273:
6085:"Recherches critiques sur l'Électrodynamique Générale"
5533:
3615:
2672:
Today special relativity is seen as an application of
1802:
1722:
1673:
1580:
1470:
1365:
1338:
1194:
1132:
1080:
1041:
1013:
989:
957:
911:
866:
822:
798:
736:
658:
626:
547:
515:
408:
401:
for the y- and z-coordinates, and a new time variable
340:
8802:
8489:
Kinematics: the lost origins of Einstein's relativity
8486:
8432:
Die geschichtliche Entwicklung des Bewegungsbegriffes
6883:
6587:
What is the experimental basis of special relativity?
6540:"Erwiderung auf die Kritik des Hrn. M. Abraham"
6339:
4638:
Comptes Rendus des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences
4268:"Zur Theorie der Strahlung in bewegten Körpern"
3454:
Comptes Rendus des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences
3437:
Comptes Rendus des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences
3293:
The Fundamental Hypotheses of the Theory of Electrons
3203:
Timeline of special relativity and the speed of light
2901:(1909) showed that Born's concept lead the so-called
2883:
2782:
Einstein (1907a) proposed a method for detecting the
2687:
2554:
2382:
2106:
1909:) The inability to find an absolute state of motion,
1801:
1721:
1579:
1469:
1364:
1337:
1193:
1131:
1120:
Based on the preceding work on electromagnetic mass,
1079:
1067:
the mass of all bodies is of electromagnetic origin.
1040:
1012:
988:
956:
910:
865:
821:
797:
735:
657:
625:
546:
514:
407:
339:
7629:
Goettingen lecture 1907, see comments in Walter 1999
7411:
Brush, Stephen G., "Early Reception of Relativity",
7379:
7251:
6952:
6401:
Jahresbericht der Deutschen Mathematiker-Vereinigung
6313:
5860:
Bibliothèque du Congrès International de Philosophie
5600:
Ueber die Principien der Galilei–Newtonschen Theorie
5595:
Ueber die Principien der Galilei–Newtonschen Theorie
5319:
5303:
5261:
5179:
Two Papers of Henri Poincaré on Mathematical Physics
4302:
4264:
3665:
3184:
2987:
was remarkable because it was shown by Einstein and
2893:
must be created in the framework of SR. Eventually,
1440:did based on observations of the moons of Jupiter.
1407:
Light constancy and the principle of relative motion
9032:
A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity
8967:"The non-Euclidean style of Minkowskian relativity"
8767:
Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics
8151:
Einstein's Clocks, Poincaré's Maps: Empires of Time
7516:
7514:
6341:
5558:
5070:
2929:
2754:(1912) introduced a vector notation for spacetime;
2415:
1857:
1682:
History of Lorentz transformations § Poincare3
165:(1816), it was believed that light propagates as a
9005:
8986:, vol. 3, Berlin: Wiley-VCH, pp. 162–165
8763:"The turning point for Einstein's annus mirabilis"
8542:
8002:
7875:
6297:
6237:
6201:
6053:Poincaré, Henri (1912), "L'hypothèse des quanta",
5830:. Reprinted in "Science and Hypothesis", Ch. 9–10.
5531:
5507:
5473:
3237:
2626:
2404:
2196:
1824:
1787:
1623:
1545:History of Lorentz transformations § Lorentz2
1518:
1387:
1350:
1241:
1179:
1104:
1058:
1022:
998:
974:
936:
896:
831:
807:
783:
675:
643:
591:
532:
495:History of Lorentz transformations § Lorentz1
452:
393:
9231:
9198:, explanations of Einstein's thought experiments
9150:
8999:, vol. 3, Berlin: Springer, pp. 193–252
8964:
8951:
8933:
8742:
8540:
8275:Interactions: Mathematics, Physics and Philosophy
8166:
8066:
8022:
8000:
6388:
6365:
6034:, Leipzig und Berlin: B.G.Teubner, pp. 41–47
5864:. Reprinted in "Science and Hypothesis", Ch. 6–7.
5809:The Foundations of Science (The Value of Science)
5765:"General Dynamics. Principle of Relativity"
5704:Verhandlungen Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft
5683:
5650:
4848:
4508:
4485:
4355:
4340:
3809:
3767:
3722:"On the constancy of the velocity of light"
3718:
3692:
3450:"La cinématique dans la théorie de la relativité"
3288:"Die Grundhypothesen der Elektronentheorie"
2777:
2311:
9803:
8990:
8977:
8703:
8452:
8217:
8124:
7909:
7511:
7312:
7310:
5909:
5867:
5857:
5833:
5815:
5608:
5404:Michelson, Albert A.; Morley, Edward W. (1887),
5362:Michelson, Albert A.; Morley, Edward W. (1886),
4557:
4540:
4523:
4494:Some General Remarks on the Relativity Principle
4451:
4417:
4381:
4247:
4067:
4010:
3991:
3929:
3894:
3851:
3500:
2007:axiomatic approach, Einstein was able to derive
1519:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {t'=t-{vx}/{c^{2}}}}
1461:synchronization procedure based on light signals
1278:(1883) argued that in a coordinate system where
480:
314:A possible solution to the problem was shown by
9003:
8915:
8641:
8602:
8562:
8285:The Optics and Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies
8258:
8186:
8120:, Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
8111:
7844:
7669:Hawley, John F.; Holcomb, Katherine A. (2005).
6916:
6876:
6874:
6411:
6152:
6129:
6113:
6066:
6052:
6038:
6023:
6004:
5998:The foundations of science (Science and Method)
5989:
5933:
5894:
5883:
5822:Revue Générale des Sciences Pures et Appliquées
5800:
5786:
5776:
5270:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
4979:The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Aether
4678:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
4053:
3737:
3562:
3528:
3433:"La théorie de la relativité et la cinématique"
3352:
2705:Lorentz transformation without second postulate
1319:, and by some authors in the 19th century like
1307:There were also some attempts to use time as a
226:contributions to Maxwell's theory were made by
8745:Relativity: Special, General, and Cosmological
8724:
8651:Encyclopädie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften
8269:Janssen, Michel; Mecklenburg, Matthew (2007),
8235:
8145:
7226:
7224:
6855:
6853:
6851:
6572:
6536:
6502:
6468:
6240:"Zur Relativitätstheorie II: Vierdimensionale"
5898:"The Principles of Mathematical Physics"
5058:Encyclopädie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften
4875:Lewis, Gilbert N.; Tolman, Richard C. (1909),
4825:On an Experiment on the Optics of Moving Bodie
4822:
4805:
4789:
4705:
4669:
4629:
4610:
3674:Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society
3412:Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society
3403:
9217:
9103:
9035:(1. ed.), Dublin: Longman, Green and Co.
8980:"Henri Poincaré and the theory of relativity"
8894:
8863:
8618:
8399:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of April 2024 (
8294:
7668:
7307:
6430:
5802:
5611:"Die träge Masse schnell bewegter Elektronen"
5592:
4839:
4753:
4593:
2459:
1825:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {ct{\sqrt {-1}}}}
1388:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {i={\sqrt {-1}}}}
1242:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {m=(4/3)E/c^{2}}}
1180:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {m=(8/3)E/c^{2}}}
784:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {m=(4/3)E/c^{2}}}
8410:Studies in the history of general relativity
8359:
7407:
7405:
7403:
7300:
7298:
6871:
6841:
6839:
6626:
6602:Principia, Corollary 5 to the Laws of Motion
6082:
5946:Rendiconti del Circolo Matematico di Palermo
5781:, vol. 1, Paris: G. Carré & C. Naud
5714:
5697:
5550:Various English translations on Wikisource:
4085:"The Ether and the Earth's Atmosphere"
3447:
3430:
3307:
3284:
3254:"Prinzipien der Dynamik des Elektrons"
3250:
3235:
1286:(1885) was the first to coin the expression
713:During his development of Maxwell's Theory,
592:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {t'=t-vx/c^{2}}}
453:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {t'=t-vx/c^{2}}}
9111:, Moscow: Nauka, pp. physics/0408077,
9060:Einstein's Revolution: A Study in Heuristic
9057:
8971:The Symbolic Universe: Geometry and Physics
8761:Rynasiewicz, Robert; Renn, Jürgen. (2006),
8729:, Cham: Springer International Publishing,
7221:
6848:
6000:, New York: Science Press, pp. 486–522
5991:
5811:, New York: Science Press, pp. 222–234
5761:
5744:
5731:
5233:
4719:
4707:
4273:On the Theory of Radiation in Moving Bodies
3605:On the Electrodynamics of Moving Systems II
2876:and others for uniform accelerated frames (
2634:and its invariance was defined in terms of
148:Aether and electrodynamics of moving bodies
43:and others. It culminated in the theory of
9224:
9210:
9062:, Chicago: Open Court Publishing Company,
8973:, Oxford University Press, pp. 91–127
8612:The Genesis of General Relativity (Vol. 1)
8407:
8273:, in V. F. Hendricks; et al. (eds.),
7646:
7644:
7089:Galison (2002), Ch. 4 – Etherial Time
6662:
6305:Die physikalischen Grundlagen der Mechanik
6300:Die physikalischen Grundlagen der Mechanik
4619:International Congress of Arts and Science
4131:
4058:Relativity: The Special and General Theory
3939:Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik
3602:
3592:On the Electrodynamics of Moving Systems I
3589:
3576:
3314:Jahrbuch der Radioaktivität und Elektronik
2086:
2039:. Regarding the Relativity Principle, the
1252:
9116:
8960:, vol. 7, Birkhäuser, pp. 45–86
8786:
8662:
8470:
8447:, Braunschweig: Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn
8331:Keswani, G. H.; Kilmister, C. W. (1983),
8200:
8069:"The Genesis of the theory of relativity"
7927:
7895:
7870:
7862:
7400:
7372:
7370:
7295:
6836:
6176:Searle, George Frederick Charles (1897),
5973:
5642:
5225:
5194:
4697:
4158:
3838:
3796:
3464:
3118:tests of relativistic energy and momentum
2369:
1979:. This contradicts the hypothesis of the
1836:. He wrote that the discovery of magneto-
268:, who stated in 1845 that the aether was
9012:, Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
8920:, Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
7550:
7548:
7546:
7544:
7342:
7340:
7160:
7158:
4976:
4648:
4526:The Electromagnetic Mass of the Electron
3065:
3011:The need to put together relativity and
2951:
2948:distinguish it from general relativity.
2814:in 1911 with what was later called the "
2801:
2495:
2481:
2349:is considered as an invariant quantity.
2324:Planck (1906a) defined the relativistic
2315:
1861:
1410:
1298:published a collection of essays titled
897:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {m=E/c^{2}}}
484:
286:
249:
9162:MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive
8820:
8282:Janssen, Michel; Stachel, John (2008),
8130:The Collected Papers of Albert Einstein
8118:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
8005:Electrodynamics from Ampére to Einstein
7641:
7288:
7286:
7284:
6802:
6800:
5311:A Treatise on electricity and magnetism
5306:A Treatise on electricity and magnetism
4216:Frank, Philipp; Rothe, Hermann (1910),
3957:Einstein, Albert; Laub, Jakob (1908b),
3006:
2962:shown by Poincaré that the argument of
1536:
937:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {E=mc^{2}}}
702:
499:Lorentz (1892a) set the foundations of
185:(1864) developed an accurate theory of
9804:
8455:"A Note on Relativity Before Einstein"
8277:, Dordrecht: Springer, pp. 65–134
7367:
6668:
6632:
6415:"Ueber das Doppler'sche Princip"
5937:"Sur la dynamique de l'électron"
5913:"Sur la dynamique de l'électron"
5304:Maxwell, James Clerk (1873), "§ 792",
2846:acceleration within special relativity
2093:Mass–energy equivalence § History
1644:The Principles of Mathematical Physics
1105:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {E/c^{2}}}
9205:
8628:, New York: Oxford University Press,
8569:Archive for History of Exact Sciences
8425:
8367:Gesammelte Mathematische Abhandlungen
8222:, Basel – Boston – Bonn: Birkhäuser,
7541:
7337:
7319:
7155:
6027:"The New Mechanics (Göttingen)"
6008:"La Mécanique nouvelle (Lille)"
5772:, New York: Columbia University Press
5770:Eight lectures on theoretical physics
5090:Lecture on theoretical physics, Vol.3
5036:"Considerations on Gravitation"
4723:"Zur Optik der bewegten Körper"
4560:"Über die Konstitution des Elektrons"
3145:Modern searches for Lorentz violation
3086:Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments
2305:Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments
2294:Kaufmann–Bucherer-Neumann experiments
1917:which only depend on relative motion;
1847:
1715:, and he showed that the combination
264:The other hypothesis was proposed by
153:Aether models and Maxwell's equations
9676:Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era
9109:Henri Poincaré and relativity theory
8614:, Printed in the Netherlands: Kluwer
8439:
7980:
7281:
6797:
6369:"Zum Ehrenfestschen Paradoxon"
6048:, Leipzig & Berlin: B.G. Teubner
5688:Neue Theorie des Raumes und der Zeit
5243:, Leipzig: Brockhaus, archived from
5159:, Leipzig & Berlin: B.G. Teubner
5101:, Leipzig & Berlin: B.G. Teubner
3770:"Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper"
2476:
2243:
1311:. This was done as early as 1754 by
615:A very similar model was created by
7116:Miller (1981), Chap. 1, Footnote 57
6931:Whittaker (1951), 306ff; (1953) 51f
4564:On the Constitution of the Electron
4543:On the Constitution of the Electron
4082:FitzGerald, George Francis (1889),
3619:"The Principle of Relativity"
2810:A similar situation was created by
2540:, formulating concepts such as the
2212:, its mass decreased by the amount
2041:moving magnet and conductor problem
1915:moving magnet and conductor problem
1884:principle of the constancy of light
1674:Poincaré's dynamics of the electron
13:
9083:Bjerknes, Christopher Jon (2002),
8805:Nineteenth-century aether theories
8491:, Johns Hopkins University Press,
6686:from the original on June 28, 2023
6063:Reprinted in Poincaré 1913, Ch. 6.
5779:Théorie mathématique de la lumière
5122:, Leipzig and Berlin: B.G. Teubner
4844:(2 ed.), Braunschweig: Vieweg
4666:(translated by J. B. Sykes, 1973).
4250:"Sur la diffraction de la lumière"
4072:Ether and the Theory of Relativity
3228:
3213:History of Lorentz transformations
3048:relativistic statistical mechanics
2884:Rigid bodies and Ehrenfest paradox
2688:Vector notation and closed systems
2492:History of Lorentz transformations
2352:
2238:
2043:(possibly after reading a book of
1059:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {e/m}}
975:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {e/m}}
676:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {v/c}}
644:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {v/c}}
533:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {v/c}}
189:by deriving a set of equations in
14:
9838:
9144:
9040:Whittaker, Edmund Taylor (1951),
8997:The Genesis of General Relativity
8372:, vol. 1, pp. 533–552,
8114:"Space and Time: Inertial Frames"
6650:from the original on July 3, 2023
6343:"The mass of a moving body"
5734:On the Dynamics of Moving Systems
5237:Die Mechanik in ihrer Entwicklung
5088:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1931) ,
5069:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1904b),
5052:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1904a),
4654:"The evolution of space and time"
3105:Michelson–Morley type experiments
3094:experiments of Rayleigh and Brace
2985:Nordström's theory of gravitation
2454:Michelson–Gale–Pearson experiment
1563:experiments of Rayleigh and Brace
1351:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {it}}
9786:
9785:
9186:Poincaré Contemplates Copernicus
9053:, London: Nelson, pp. 27–77
7963:Geometry of Minkowski Space-Time
7830:
7821:
7812:
7803:
7794:
7785:
7764:
7755:
7746:
7737:
7728:
7719:
7710:
7701:
7692:
7662:
7653:
7632:
7623:
7499:Laue (1921), 25–26 & 204–206
6090:Annales de Chimie et de Physique
5524:(English translation in 1920 by
5171:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1921),
5155:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1916),
5127:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1914),
5113:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1914),
5033:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1900),
5014:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1899),
4994:Lorentz, Hendrik Antoon (1895),
4517:Archiv der Mathematik und Physik
4254:Annales de Chimie et de Physique
3187:
2997:perihelion precession of Mercury
2930:Acceptance of special relativity
2416:Experiments by Fizeau and Sagnac
2269:Einsteinsche Relativitätstheorie
1858:Electrodynamics of moving bodies
1852:
1023:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {m}}
999:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {e}}
832:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {E}}
815:is the electromagnetic mass and
808:{\displaystyle \scriptstyle {m}}
169:within an elastic medium called
127:published his original paper on
123:A little later in the same year
8112:DiSalle, Robert (Summer 2002),
7878:Einstein's Theory of Relativity
7864:10.1090/S0002-9904-1914-02511-X
7672:Foundations of Modern Cosmology
7614:
7605:
7596:
7587:
7578:
7566:
7557:
7532:
7523:
7502:
7493:
7484:
7475:
7466:
7457:
7448:
7439:
7422:
7391:
7358:
7349:
7328:
7272:
7263:
7242:
7233:
7212:
7203:
7194:
7185:
7176:
7167:
7146:
7137:
7128:
7119:
7110:
7101:
7092:
7083:
7074:
7065:
7056:
7047:
7038:
7029:
7020:
7011:
7002:
6993:
6984:
6975:
6966:
6943:
6934:
6925:
6895:
6862:
6827:
6818:
6809:
6788:
6779:
6770:
6761:
6752:
6743:
6734:
6579:
6274:Stokes, George Gabriel (1845),
5942:On the Dynamics of the Electron
5918:On the Dynamics of the Electron
5740:, Erster Halbband (29): 542–570
5477:"Das Relativitätsprinzip"
4512:"Das Relativitätsprinzip"
4351:, vol. 2, pp. 490–499
3616:Comstock, Daniel Frost (1910),
2821:
1638:In a September 1904 lecture in
727:George Frederick Charles Searle
503:, by assuming the existence of
99:, starting in 1892, to develop
62:
8803:Schaffner, Kenneth F. (1972),
8487:Mart́ínez, Alberto A. (2009),
8449:. = 4. Edition of Laue (1911).
6725:
6716:
6707:
6698:
6617:
6605:
6596:
6340:Tolman, Richard Chase (1912),
3666:Cunningham, Ebenezer (1910) ,
3208:Einstein's thought experiments
3169:Criticism of relativity theory
3056:relativistic quantum chemistry
2956:
2858:spherical wave transformations
2778:Time dilation and twin paradox
2312:Relativistic momentum and mass
1216:
1202:
1154:
1140:
758:
744:
1:
9044:(2. ed.), London: Nelson
8711:, Chicago: University Press,
7490:Laue (1921), 25 & 146–148
6913:Janssen/Stachel (2004), 31–32
6785:Janssen/Stachel (2004), 19–20
6776:Janssen/Stachel (2004), 18–19
6314:Thomson, Joseph John (1881),
6071:, New York: Dover Publication
5320:Michelson, Albert A. (1881),
5262:Maxwell, James Clerk (1864),
4303:Hasenöhrl, Friedrich (1905),
4265:Hasenöhrl, Friedrich (1904),
4110:10.1126/science.ns-13.328.390
3310:"Neuere Gravitationstheorien"
3239:"Dynamik des Electrons"
3223:
3162:
2656:Lorentz invariance/covariance
1034:. He found that the value of
599:, which paved the way to the
481:Lorentz's theory of electrons
318:(1887), who investigated the
29:history of special relativity
20:history of general relativity
8527:10.1080/00107514.2012.721300
8435:, Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann
8378:10.1007/978-3-642-51960-4_31
8245:, Harvard University Press,
8116:, in Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
7847:"Time as a fourth dimension"
7688:See also extract of page 203
7413:Why was Relativity Accepted?
7107:Janssen (1995), Ch. 3.3, 3.4
6749:Janssen/Stachel (2004), 4–15
6276:"On the Aberration of Light"
5693:, Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann
5559:Mosengeil, Kurd von (1907),
5532:Minkowski, Hermann (1909) ,
5508:Minkowski, Hermann (1908) ,
5474:Minkowski, Hermann (1915) ,
4983:Zittingsverlag Akad. V. Wet.
4715:, Cambridge University Press
3347:10.1016/0031-9163(64)91095-9
3109:Kennedy–Thorndike experiment
3060:relativistic heat conduction
1874:paper on what is now called
140:and laid the foundations of
138:general theory of relativity
7:
9598:Cosmic microwave background
8797:10.1016/j.shpsb.2005.12.002
8747:, Oxford University Press,
8549:, Reading: Addison–Wesley,
8380:(inactive April 14, 2024),
8009:, Oxford: Clarendon Press,
7916:American Journal of Physics
7563:Walter (1999a), 49 & 71
7218:Holton (1973/1988), 196–206
6573:Notes and secondary sources
6420:On the Principle of Doppler
6298:Streintz, Heinrich (1883),
6238:Sommerfeld, Arnold (1910),
6202:Sommerfeld, Arnold (1910),
5804:"The Measure of Time"
5412:American Journal of Science
5370:American Journal of Science
5328:American Journal of Science
4341:Heaviside, Oliver (1894) ,
4161:American Journal of Physics
3523:10.1103/PhysRevLett.39.1051
3218:Tests of special relativity
3180:
3157:relativity priority dispute
3150:
3082:Michelson–Morley experiment
3072:Tests of special relativity
3044:relativistic thermodynamics
2013:relativistic Doppler effect
1288:inertial frame of reference
308:Michelson–Morley experiment
262:and many optical phenomena.
142:relativistic field theories
101:a theory of electrodynamics
10:
9843:
8965:Walter, Scott A. (1999b),
8952:Walter, Scott A. (1999a),
8934:Varićak, Vladimir (1910),
8821:Shapiro, Irwin I. (1999),
8743:Rindler, Wolfgang (2001),
8541:Miller, Arthur I. (1981),
8169:"Das Problem der Trägheit"
8167:Giulini, Domenico (2001),
8067:Darrigol, Olivier (2005),
8001:Darrigol, Olivier (2000),
7602:Janssen/Mecklenburg (2007)
6722:Janssen/Stachel (2004), 20
6389:Varičak, Vladimir (1912),
6366:Varičak, Vladimir (1911),
6043:Die neue Mechanik (Berlin)
5684:Palagyi, Menyhért (1901),
5651:Nordström, Gunnar (1913),
4849:Lewis, Gilbert N. (1908),
4829:Münchener Sitzungsberichte
4509:Ignatowsky, W. v. (1911).
4486:Ignatowsky, W. v. (1910).
4382:Herglotz, Gustav (1910) ,
4356:Heaviside, Oliver (1889),
3930:Einstein, Albert (1908) ,
3810:Einstein, Albert (1905b),
3768:Einstein, Albert (1905a),
3719:De Sitter, Willem (1913),
3693:De Sitter, Willem (1913),
3644:10.1126/science.31.803.767
3166:
3103:In the 1920s, a series of
3098:Trouton–Rankine experiment
3069:
3052:relativistic hydrodynamics
2485:
2460:Relativity of simultaneity
2347:mass in special relativity
2090:
1679:
1542:
706:
492:
17:
9781:
9720:
9684:
9641:
9590:
9554:
9398:
9244:
8991:Walter, Scott A. (2007),
8978:Walter, Scott A. (2005),
8940:Physikalische Zeitschrift
8869:Astronomische Nachrichten
8850:10.1103/revmodphys.71.s41
8830:Reviews of Modern Physics
8823:"A century of relativity"
8647:"Die Relativitätstheorie"
8610:, in Renn, Jürgen (ed.),
8589:10.1007/s00407-004-0085-6
8453:Macrossan, M. N. (1986),
8317:10.1007/s00016-004-0234-y
8218:Hentschel, Klaus (1990),
8153:, New York: W.W. Norton,
7910:Brown, Harvey R. (2001),
7782:Miller (1981), Ch. 7.4.12
7593:Miller (1981), Ch. 12.5.8
6378:Physikalische Zeitschrift
6360:10.1080/14786440308637231
6334:10.1080/14786448108627008
6292:10.1080/14786444508645215
6196:10.1080/14786449708621072
6067:Poincaré, Henri (1963) ,
6024:Poincaré, Henri (1910) ,
5993:"The New Mechanics"
5990:Poincaré, Henri (1913) ,
5934:Poincaré, Henri (1906) ,
5910:Poincaré, Henri (1905b),
5895:Poincaré, Henri (1906) ,
5872:, Paris: Gauthier-Villars
5868:Poincaré, Henri (1901b),
5834:Poincaré, Henri (1900b),
5816:Poincaré, Henri (1900a),
5801:Poincaré, Henri (1913) ,
5751:Physikalische Zeitschrift
5721:Physikalische Zeitschrift
5609:Neumann, Günther (1914),
5540:Physikalische Zeitschrift
5448:The Astrophysical Journal
5432:10.2475/ajs.s3-34.203.333
5390:10.2475/ajs.s3-31.185.377
5348:10.2475/ajs.s3-22.128.120
5206:The Astrophysical Journal
5009:], Leiden: E.J. Brill
4869:10.1080/14786441108636549
4812:Physikalische Zeitschrift
4558:Kaufmann, Walter (1906),
4530:Physikalische Zeitschrift
4498:Physikalische Zeitschrift
4452:Hertz, Heinrich (1890b),
4418:Hertz, Heinrich (1890a),
4376:10.1080/14786448908628362
4248:Augustin Fresnel (1816),
4210:10.1103/PhysRev.135.B1071
4152:10.1080/14786445108646934
4068:Einstein, Albert (1922),
4011:Einstein, Albert (1912),
4000:Physikalische Zeitschrift
3992:Einstein, Albert (1909),
3895:Einstein, Albert (1907),
3852:Einstein, Albert (1906),
3750:Physikalische Zeitschrift
3566:Physikalische Zeitschrift
3353:Bartoli, Adolfo (1884) ,
3297:Physikalische Zeitschrift
2862:conformal transformations
2784:transverse Doppler effect
2742:previously introduced by
1709:principle of least action
1701:velocity-addition formula
207:electromagnetic radiation
75:, he also adhered to the
9182:Who Invented Relativity?
9167:University of St Andrews
9027:Whittaker, Edmund Taylor
9004:Warwick, Andrew (2003),
8916:Staley, Richard (2009),
8900:Einstein from "B" to "Z"
8603:Norton, John D. (2005),
8563:Norton, John D. (2004),
8259:Janssen, Michel (1995),
7902:Physics in my generation
7845:Archibald, R.C. (1914),
7538:Miller (1981), Ch. 7.4.6
7098:Darrigol (2000), 369–372
6565:10.1002/andp.19043190817
6531:10.1002/andp.18943180403
6497:10.1002/andp.18943180402
6463:10.1002/andp.19013100703
6412:Voigt, Woldemar (1887),
6268:10.1002/andp.19103381402
6232:10.1002/andp.19103370904
6153:Sagnac, Georges (1913),
6130:Sagnac, Georges (1913),
6114:Robb, Alfred A. (1911),
6039:Poincaré, Henri (1911),
6005:Poincaré, Henri (1909),
5975:2027/uiug.30112063899089
5884:Poincaré, Henri (1905),
5777:Poincaré, Henri (1889),
5677:10.1002/andp.19133471303
5635:10.1002/andp.19143502005
5587:10.1002/andp.19073270504
5502:10.1002/andp.19153521505
4784:10.1002/andp.19073281015
4748:10.1002/andp.19073280910
4611:Langevin, Paul (1908) ,
4588:10.1002/andp.19063240303
4480:10.1002/andp.18902771102
4446:10.1002/andp.18902760803
4412:10.1002/andp.19103360208
4335:10.1002/andp.19053210312
4297:10.1002/andp.19043201206
4242:10.1002/andp.19113390502
4054:Einstein Albert (1916),
4040:10.1002/andp.19123431014
3986:10.1002/andp.19083310806
3924:10.1002/andp.19073280713
3881:10.1002/andp.19063250814
3840:10.1002/andp.19053231314
3798:10.1002/andp.19053221004
3738:Ehrenfest, Paul (1909),
3611:, 1904/2 (43): 1404–1416
3598:, 1904/2 (40): 1294–1303
3557:10.1002/andp.19033160604
3529:Bucherer, A. H. (1903),
3495:10.1002/andp.19093351102
3404:Bateman, Harry (1910) ,
3279:10.1002/andp.19023150105
3113:Ives–Stilwell experiment
3090:Trouton–Noble experiment
2792:Ives–Stilwell experiment
2526:William Kingdon Clifford
2405:{\displaystyle E=mc^{2}}
1559:Trouton–Noble experiment
9733:Chandrasekhar–Eddington
9659:Golden age of cosmology
9591:On specific discoveries
9539:Lorentz transformations
8889:10.1002/asna.2103030110
8725:Popp, Bruce D. (2020),
8445:Die Relativitätstheorie
8096:10.1007/3-7643-7436-5_1
7981:Chen, Bang-yen (2011),
7572:Catoni, et al. (2011),
7434:Die Relatititätstheorie
7430:Das Relatititätsprinzip
7334:Rynasiewicz/Renn (2006)
7209:Messager, et al. (2012)
7182:Whittaker (1953), 27–77
7053:Hentschel (1990), 153f.
6940:Janssen (1995), Ch. 3.4
6892:Janssen (1995), Ch. 3.1
6845:Janssen (1995), Ch. 3.3
6767:Whittaker (1951), 386ff
6731:Whittaker (1951), 107ff
6713:Whittaker (1951), 319ff
6704:Whittaker (1951), 240ff
6623:Whittaker (1951), 128ff
6537:Wien, Wilhelm (1904b),
6503:Wien, Wilhelm (1904a),
6469:Wien, Wilhelm (1904a),
6302:, Leipzig: B.G. Teubner
5597:, Leipzig: B.G. Teubner
5139:: 28–59, archived from
4842:Das Relativitätsprinzip
4797:Das Relativitätsprinzip
4792:Das Relativitätsprinzip
4790:Laue, Max von (1911a),
4706:Larmor, Joseph (1900),
4670:Larmor, Joseph (1897),
4630:Langevin, Paul (1905),
3503:Physical Review Letters
3424:10.1112/plms/s2-8.1.223
3327:Physical Review Letters
2225:mass–energy equivalence
2223:This led to the famous
2087:Mass–energy equivalence
2017:relativistic aberration
1964:. This contradicts the
1880:principle of relativity
1313:Jean le Rond d'Alembert
1267:absolute time and space
1259:absolute space and time
1253:Absolute space and time
118:Lorentz transformations
77:principle of relativity
73:absolute time and space
51:and subsequent work of
9664:Medieval Islamic world
9407:Computational physics
9349:Variational principles
9276:Electrical engineering
9192:All in Einstein's Head
8902:, Boston: Birkhäuser,
7882:, Dover Publications,
7851:Bull. Amer. Math. Soc.
7698:Miller (1981), 257–264
7659:Miller (1981), 245–253
7620:Miller (1981), 218–219
7481:Miller (1981), 359–367
7463:Miller (1981), 329–330
7388:Miller (1981), 334–352
7269:Katzir (2005), 286–288
7260:Darrigol (2005), 15–18
7248:Hentschel (1990), 3–13
7173:Miller (1981), 216–217
7152:Katzir (2005), 280–288
7134:Katzir (2005), 275–277
7080:Darrigol (2005), 10–11
7071:Katzir (2005), 272–275
6990:Miller (1981), 359–360
6963:Darrigol (2005), 18–21
6949:Miller (1981), 46, 103
6794:Miller (1981), 114–115
6758:Whittaker (1951), 390f
6740:Whittaker (1951), 386f
6431:Wien, Wilhelm (1900),
6374:On Ehrenfest's Paradox
6348:Philosophical Magazine
6322:Philosophical Magazine
6280:Philosophical Magazine
6184:Philosophical Magazine
6118:, Cambridge: W. Heffer
5887:Science and Hypothesis
5875:Électricité et optique
5870:Électricité et optique
5789:L'Éclairage électrique
5593:Neumann, Carl (1870),
5290:10.1098/rstl.1865.0008
4857:Philosophical Magazine
4840:Laue, Max von (1913),
4794:, Braunschweig: Vieweg
4754:Laue, Max von (1907),
4699:10.1098/rsta.1897.0020
4600:Philosophische Studien
4594:Lange, Ludwig (1885),
4519:. 17, 18: 1–24, 17–40.
4364:Philosophical Magazine
4140:Philosophical Magazine
3686:10.1112/plms/s2-8.1.77
2966:, who argued that the
2941:Nobel Prize in Physics
2807:
2628:
2548:in which the interval
2501:
2406:
2321:
2198:
2084:
2073:and is connected with
2054:Science and Hypothesis
1893:Science and Hypothesis
1867:
1826:
1789:
1661:conservation of energy
1625:
1520:
1456:
1416:
1389:
1352:
1301:Science and Hypothesis
1243:
1181:
1106:
1060:
1024:
1000:
976:
938:
898:
833:
809:
785:
677:
645:
601:Lorentz transformation
593:
534:
490:
489:Hendrik Antoon Lorentz
454:
395:
292:
273:preferred because his
157:Following the work of
9654:Golden age of physics
9649:Copernican Revolution
8995:, in Renn, J. (ed.),
8982:, in Renn, J. (ed.),
8481:10.1093/bjps/37.2.232
8349:10.1093/bjps/34.4.343
7761:Pauli (1921), 556–557
7752:Pauli (1921), 690–691
7716:Pauli (1921), 626–628
7611:Pauli (1921), 555–556
7554:Walter (1999b), Ch. 3
7472:Pauli (1921), 634–636
7454:Pauli (1921), 636–637
7325:Janssen (1995), Ch. 4
7191:Zahar (1989), 149–200
7008:Giulini (2001), Ch. 4
6815:Miller (1981), 99–100
6806:Pais (1982), Chap. 6b
6083:Ritz, Walter (1908),
5762:Planck, Max (1915) ,
5535:"Raum und Zeit"
5234:Mach, Ernst (1912) ,
3448:Borel, Émile (1913),
3431:Borel, Émile (1913),
3308:Abraham, Max (1914),
3285:Abraham, Max (1904),
3251:Abraham, Max (1903),
3236:Abraham, Max (1902),
3122:particle accelerators
3066:Experimental evidence
2952:Relativistic theories
2880:) must be mentioned.
2829:equivalence principle
2805:
2629:
2528:, who contributed to
2499:
2482:Minkowski's spacetime
2466:Daniel Frost Comstock
2407:
2319:
2199:
2079:
1866:Albert Einstein, 1921
1865:
1827:
1790:
1680:Further information:
1626:
1543:Further information:
1521:
1445:
1414:
1390:
1353:
1244:
1182:
1107:
1061:
1025:
1001:
977:
939:
899:
834:
810:
786:
678:
646:
594:
535:
501:Lorentz aether theory
493:Further information:
488:
455:
396:
328:Voigt transformations
290:
277:was confirmed by the
266:George Gabriel Stokes
250:Search for the aether
163:Augustin-Jean Fresnel
71:based his physics on
9757:Relativity priority
9612:Subatomic particles
9572:Loop quantum gravity
9561:Quantum information
9510:Quantum field theory
9310:Gravitational theory
9174:Corresponding States
9157:"Special relativity"
9153:Robertson, Edmund F.
9058:Zahar, Elie (1989),
8969:, in J. Gray (ed.),
8665:Theory of Relativity
8507:Contemporary Physics
8189:414. Heraeus-Seminar
7987:, World Scientific,
7707:Pais (2000), 177–183
7364:Miller (1981), 86–92
7355:Darrigol (2004), 624
7239:Pais (1982), 126–128
7164:Walter (2007), Ch. 1
7143:Miller (1981), 79–86
6981:Miller (1981), 61–67
6972:Miller (1981), 47–54
6833:Miller (1981), 27–29
4720:Laub, Jakob (1907),
3399:on December 17, 2008
3017:quantum field theory
3007:Quantum field theory
2964:Pierre-Simon Laplace
2790:and G. R. Stilwell (
2748:Edwin Bidwell Wilson
2682:hyperbolic rotations
2552:
2380:
2370:Electromagnetic mass
2335:Gilbert Newton Lewis
2104:
1981:complete aether drag
1799:
1719:
1657:conservation of mass
1577:
1537:Lorentz's 1904 model
1467:
1453:Henri Poincaré, 1898
1362:
1335:
1191:
1129:
1077:
1038:
1010:
986:
954:
908:
863:
819:
795:
733:
709:Electromagnetic mass
703:Electromagnetic mass
655:
623:
544:
512:
405:
337:
275:dragging coefficient
9721:Scientific disputes
9707:Via Panisperna boys
9608:Gravitational waves
9555:Recent developments
9286:Maxwell's equations
9178:The End of My Latin
9151:O'Connor, John J.;
9127:2004physics...8077L
9099:on December 4, 2008
8881:1982AN....303...47S
8842:1999RvMPS..71...41S
8779:2006SHPMP..37....5R
8663:Pauli, W. (1981) .
8581:2004AHES...59...45N
8519:2012ConPh..53..397M
8459:Br. J. Philos. Sci.
8337:Br. J. Philos. Sci.
8309:2005PhP.....7..268K
8211:2008arXiv0811.4529G
8088:2006eins.book....1D
8037:2004Isis...95..614D
7938:2001AmJPh..69.1044B
7445:Popp (2020), 178-83
7125:Miller (1981), 75ff
7044:Boyce Gibson (1928)
6557:1904AnP...319..635W
6523:1904AnP...318..663W
6489:1904AnP...318..641W
6455:1901AnP...310..501W
6260:1910AnP...338..649S
6224:1910AnP...337..749S
6103:1908AChPh..13..145R
5958:1906RCMP...21..129P
5852:English translation
5669:1913AnP...347..533N
5627:1914AnP...350..529N
5579:1907AnP...327..867V
5494:1915AnP...352..927M
5460:1925ApJ....61..140M
5424:1887AmJS...34..333M
5382:1886AmJS...31..377M
5340:1881AmJS...22..120M
5282:1865RSPT..155..459M
5218:1928ApJ....68..341M
5143:on December 6, 2008
5092:, London: MacMillan
4776:1907AnP...328..989L
4740:1907AnP...328..738L
4690:1897RSPTA.190..205L
4580:1906AnP...324..487K
4472:1890AnP...277..369H
4438:1890AnP...276..577H
4404:1910AnP...336..393H
4327:1905AnP...321..589H
4289:1904AnP...320..344H
4234:1911AnP...339..825F
4202:1964PhRv..135.1071F
4173:1962AmJPh..30..297F
4132:Fizeau, H. (1851).
4102:1889Sci....13..390F
4077:, Methuen & Co.
4032:1912AnP...343.1059E
3978:1908AnP...331..532E
3951:1908JRE.....4..411E
3916:1907AnP...328..371E
3873:1906AnP...325..627E
3846:English translation
3831:1905AnP...323..639E
3804:English translation
3789:1905AnP...322..891E
3762:1909PhyZ...10..918E
3713:1913KNAB...15.1297D
3636:1910Sci....31..767C
3549:1903AnP...316..270B
3515:1977PhRvL..39.1051B
3487:1909AnP...335....1B
3374:1884NCim...15..193B
3339:1964PhL....12..260A
3271:1902AnP...315..105A
3001:deflection of light
2878:Rindler coordinates
2854:Ebenezer Cunningham
2711:Vladimir Ignatowski
2636:hyperbolic geometry
2623:
2605:
2587:
2569:
2542:Cayley–Klein metric
2538:projective geometry
1935:aberration of light
1842:Paul Ulrich Villard
1707:consequence of the
1631:becomes imaginary.
1425:The Measure of Time
1265:(1883) argued that
1122:Friedrich Hasenöhrl
605:aberration of light
296:Albert A. Michelson
260:aberration of light
236:John Henry Poynting
232:Joseph John Thomson
203:Maxwell's equations
183:James Clerk Maxwell
171:luminiferous aether
90:James Clerk Maxwell
86:luminiferous aether
33:Albert A. Michelson
9817:History of physics
9812:Special relativity
9766:General relativity
9761:Special relativity
9702:Oxford Calculators
9529:Special relativity
9448:General relativity
9233:History of physics
8076:Séminaire Poincaré
7650:Walter (1999b), 23
7520:Walter (1999a), 49
7417:Phys. Perspect., 1
6545:Annalen der Physik
6511:Annalen der Physik
6477:Annalen der Physik
6443:Annalen der Physik
6248:Annalen der Physik
6212:Annalen der Physik
6055:Revue Scientifique
6013:Revue Scientifique
5966:10.1007/BF03013466
5657:Annalen der Physik
5615:Annalen der Physik
5567:Annalen der Physik
5482:Annalen der Physik
5196:10.1007/BF02392073
4764:Annalen der Physik
4728:Annalen der Physik
4568:Annalen der Physik
4460:Annalen der Physik
4426:Annalen der Physik
4392:Annalen der Physik
4315:Annalen der Physik
4277:Annalen der Physik
4222:Annalen der Physik
4196:(4B): B1071–1075,
4020:Annalen der Physik
3966:Annalen der Physik
3904:Annalen der Physik
3861:Annalen der Physik
3819:Annalen der Physik
3777:Annalen der Physik
3537:Annalen der Physik
3475:Annalen der Physik
3465:Born, Max (1909),
3382:10.1007/bf02737234
3259:Annalen der Physik
3134:extinction theorem
2993:general relativity
2915:degrees of freedom
2860:, being a form of
2808:
2768:Ludwik Silberstein
2667:general relativity
2624:
2609:
2591:
2573:
2555:
2514:Richard Hargreaves
2510:Roberto Marcolongo
2502:
2402:
2374:special relativity
2366:Kurd von Mosengeil
2322:
2261:Kurd von Mosengeil
2194:
1876:special relativity
1868:
1848:Special relativity
1822:
1821:
1785:
1784:
1621:
1620:
1516:
1515:
1417:
1385:
1384:
1348:
1347:
1239:
1238:
1177:
1176:
1117:those of Lorentz.
1102:
1101:
1056:
1055:
1020:
1019:
1006:is the charge and
996:
995:
972:
971:
934:
933:
894:
893:
829:
828:
805:
804:
781:
780:
673:
672:
641:
640:
589:
588:
530:
529:
491:
466:length contraction
450:
449:
391:
390:
293:
282:experiment in 1851
129:special relativity
45:special relativity
9799:
9798:
9773:Transfermium Wars
9692:Harvard Computers
9517:Subatomic physics
9490:Quantum mechanics
9426:Superconductivity
9417:Condensed matter
9246:Classical physics
9196:Discover magazine
9136:978-5-02-033964-4
9069:978-0-8126-9067-5
9019:978-0-226-87375-6
8927:978-0-226-77057-4
8909:978-0-8176-4143-6
8814:978-0-08-015674-3
8754:978-0-19-850836-6
8736:978-3-030-48038-7
8718:978-0-226-67288-5
8674:978-0-486-64152-2
8667:. Vol. 165.
8635:978-0-19-520438-4
8556:978-0-201-04679-3
8498:978-0-8018-9135-9
8419:978-0-8176-3479-7
8387:978-3-642-51898-0
8355:on March 26, 2009
8252:978-0-674-87747-4
8229:978-3-7643-2438-4
8160:978-0-393-32604-8
8139:978-0-691-08526-5
8105:978-3-7643-7435-8
8016:978-0-19-850594-5
7994:978-9-814-32963-7
7973:978-3-642-17977-8
7946:10.1119/1.1379733
7922:(10): 1044–1054,
7889:978-0-486-60769-6
7734:Pauli (1921), 704
7682:978-0-19-853096-1
7397:Miller (1981), 88
6922:Miller (1981), 46
6672:(June 28, 2023).
6636:(March 1, 2019).
5644:2027/uc1.b2608188
4710:Aether and Matter
4349:Electrical papers
4181:10.1119/1.1941992
4026:(10): 1059–1064,
3509:(17): 1051–1054,
3078:Fizeau experiment
3013:quantum mechanics
2945:later (1918–1920)
2903:Ehrenfest paradox
2866:Friedrich Kottler
2842:hyperbolic motion
2760:Thomas precession
2694:Arnold Sommerfeld
2644:Minkowski diagram
2642:; he created the
2546:hyperboloid model
2506:Hermann Minkowski
2500:Hermann Minkowski
2477:Spacetime physics
2450:Foucault pendulum
2422:Fizeau experiment
2339:Richard C. Tolman
2333:was developed by
2331:relativistic mass
2301:Adolf Bestelmeyer
2276:Arnold Sommerfeld
2244:First assessments
2181:
2180:
2178:
2066:Fizeau experiment
1949:of reference, by
1925:Fizeau experiment
1818:
1686:On June 5, 1905,
1618:
1381:
1276:Heinrich Streintz
842:relativistic mass
475:ad hoc hypothesis
387:
228:George FitzGerald
134:Hermann Minkowski
57:Hermann Minkowski
9834:
9789:
9788:
9712:Women in physics
9464:Nuclear physics
9388:Perpetual motion
9322:Material science
9266:Electromagnetism
9226:
9219:
9212:
9203:
9202:
9169:
9139:
9120:
9100:
9095:, archived from
9072:
9054:
9045:
9036:
9022:
9011:
9000:
8987:
8974:
8961:
8958:Einstein Studies
8947:
8930:
8912:
8891:
8860:
8858:
8852:, archived from
8827:
8817:
8799:
8790:
8757:
8739:
8721:
8705:Polanyi, Michael
8698:
8692:
8688:
8686:
8678:
8658:
8638:
8615:
8609:
8599:
8559:
8548:
8537:
8501:
8483:
8474:
8448:
8436:
8422:
8404:
8398:
8390:
8371:
8356:
8351:, archived from
8327:
8291:
8290:
8278:
8265:
8255:
8232:
8213:
8204:
8183:
8173:
8163:
8142:
8126:Einstein, Albert
8121:
8108:
8073:
8063:
8019:
8008:
7997:
7977:
7956:
7931:
7906:
7892:
7881:
7867:
7866:
7837:
7834:
7828:
7825:
7819:
7816:
7810:
7807:
7801:
7798:
7792:
7789:
7783:
7780:
7771:
7770:Pais (1982), 11a
7768:
7762:
7759:
7753:
7750:
7744:
7741:
7735:
7732:
7726:
7723:
7717:
7714:
7708:
7705:
7699:
7696:
7690:
7686:
7666:
7660:
7657:
7651:
7648:
7639:
7636:
7630:
7627:
7621:
7618:
7612:
7609:
7603:
7600:
7594:
7591:
7585:
7582:
7576:
7570:
7564:
7561:
7555:
7552:
7539:
7536:
7530:
7527:
7521:
7518:
7509:
7506:
7500:
7497:
7491:
7488:
7482:
7479:
7473:
7470:
7464:
7461:
7455:
7452:
7446:
7443:
7437:
7426:
7420:
7409:
7398:
7395:
7389:
7386:
7377:
7376:Born (1956), 193
7374:
7365:
7362:
7356:
7353:
7347:
7344:
7335:
7332:
7326:
7323:
7317:
7314:
7305:
7302:
7293:
7290:
7279:
7278:Whittaker (1951)
7276:
7270:
7267:
7261:
7258:
7249:
7246:
7240:
7237:
7231:
7228:
7219:
7216:
7210:
7207:
7201:
7198:
7192:
7189:
7183:
7180:
7174:
7171:
7165:
7162:
7153:
7150:
7144:
7141:
7135:
7132:
7126:
7123:
7117:
7114:
7108:
7105:
7099:
7096:
7090:
7087:
7081:
7078:
7072:
7069:
7063:
7060:
7054:
7051:
7045:
7042:
7036:
7035:Archibald (1914)
7033:
7027:
7024:
7018:
7015:
7009:
7006:
7000:
6997:
6991:
6988:
6982:
6979:
6973:
6970:
6964:
6961:
6950:
6947:
6941:
6938:
6932:
6929:
6923:
6920:
6914:
6911:
6902:
6901:Macrossan (1986)
6899:
6893:
6890:
6881:
6878:
6869:
6866:
6860:
6857:
6846:
6843:
6834:
6831:
6825:
6822:
6816:
6813:
6807:
6804:
6795:
6792:
6786:
6783:
6777:
6774:
6768:
6765:
6759:
6756:
6750:
6747:
6741:
6738:
6732:
6729:
6723:
6720:
6714:
6711:
6705:
6702:
6696:
6695:
6693:
6691:
6666:
6660:
6659:
6657:
6655:
6630:
6624:
6621:
6615:
6609:
6603:
6600:
6589:
6583:
6567:
6542:
6533:
6508:
6499:
6474:
6465:
6436:
6427:
6417:
6408:
6394:
6385:
6371:
6362:
6354:(135): 375–380,
6345:
6336:
6319:
6309:Internet Archive
6303:
6294:
6270:
6234:
6198:
6190:(269): 329–341,
6181:
6172:
6158:
6149:
6135:
6125:Internet Archive
6119:
6105:
6078:Internet Archive
6072:
6062:
6049:
6047:
6035:
6029:
6020:
6010:
6001:
5995:
5986:
5977:
5939:
5929:
5915:
5906:
5900:
5891:
5879:Internet Archive
5873:
5863:
5849:
5839:
5829:
5812:
5806:
5796:
5782:
5773:
5767:
5758:
5741:
5728:
5711:
5694:
5692:
5680:
5647:
5646:
5604:Internet Archive
5598:
5589:
5564:
5547:
5537:
5523:
5513:
5504:
5479:
5470:
5442:
5418:(203): 333–345,
5409:
5400:
5376:(185): 377–386,
5367:
5358:
5334:(128): 120–129,
5325:
5315:Internet Archive
5309:
5300:
5267:
5258:
5257:
5255:
5250:on July 13, 2011
5249:
5242:
5230:
5229:
5199:
5198:
5183:Acta Mathematica
5176:
5166:Internet Archive
5160:
5151:
5150:
5148:
5129:"La Gravitation"
5123:
5121:
5108:Internet Archive
5102:
5093:
5084:
5074:
5065:
5048:
5038:
5029:
5019:
5010:
5002:
4990:
4972:Internet Archive
4966:
4953:
4939:Internet Archive
4933:
4923:10.2307/20022840
4905:
4895:10.2307/20022495
4880:
4871:
4854:
4845:
4836:
4819:
4801:Internet Archive
4795:
4786:
4750:
4725:
4716:
4714:
4702:
4701:
4675:
4665:
4645:
4635:
4626:
4616:
4607:
4590:
4554:
4537:
4520:
4514:
4505:
4491:
4482:
4457:
4448:
4423:
4414:
4378:
4370:(167): 324–339,
4361:
4352:
4346:
4337:
4308:
4299:
4270:
4261:
4244:
4212:
4184:
4155:
4137:
4128:
4087:
4078:
4076:
4064:
4062:
4050:
4017:
4007:
3997:
3988:
3963:
3953:
3936:
3926:
3901:
3891:
3858:
3843:
3842:
3816:
3801:
3800:
3774:
3764:
3743:
3734:
3724:
3715:
3707:(2): 1297–1298,
3698:
3689:
3671:
3662:
3630:(803): 767–772,
3621:
3612:
3599:
3586:
3573:
3559:
3534:
3525:
3497:
3461:
3444:
3427:
3409:
3400:
3398:
3392:, archived from
3359:
3349:
3321:
3304:
3290:
3281:
3256:
3247:
3241:
3197:
3192:
3191:
2981:Gunnar Nordström
2968:speed of gravity
2923:Vladimir Varićak
2874:Wolfgang Rindler
2870:Born coordinates
2752:Gilbert N. Lewis
2633:
2631:
2630:
2625:
2622:
2617:
2604:
2599:
2586:
2581:
2568:
2563:
2534:invariant theory
2411:
2409:
2408:
2403:
2401:
2400:
2222:
2203:
2201:
2200:
2195:
2193:
2189:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2176:
2167:
2166:
2157:
2149:
2145:
2138:
2137:
2122:
2121:
1831:
1829:
1828:
1823:
1820:
1819:
1811:
1794:
1792:
1791:
1786:
1783:
1782:
1781:
1772:
1771:
1759:
1758:
1746:
1745:
1733:
1732:
1630:
1628:
1627:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1616:
1615:
1605:
1600:
1599:
1598:
1582:
1525:
1523:
1522:
1517:
1514:
1513:
1512:
1511:
1501:
1496:
1479:
1454:
1397:imaginary number
1394:
1392:
1391:
1386:
1383:
1382:
1374:
1357:
1355:
1354:
1349:
1346:
1329:Menyhért Palágyi
1325:The Time Machine
1309:fourth dimension
1248:
1246:
1245:
1240:
1237:
1236:
1235:
1226:
1212:
1186:
1184:
1183:
1178:
1175:
1174:
1173:
1164:
1150:
1111:
1109:
1108:
1103:
1100:
1099:
1098:
1089:
1065:
1063:
1062:
1057:
1054:
1050:
1029:
1027:
1026:
1021:
1018:
1005:
1003:
1002:
997:
994:
981:
979:
978:
973:
970:
966:
943:
941:
940:
935:
932:
931:
930:
903:
901:
900:
895:
892:
891:
890:
881:
838:
836:
835:
830:
827:
814:
812:
811:
806:
803:
790:
788:
787:
782:
779:
778:
777:
768:
754:
682:
680:
679:
674:
671:
667:
650:
648:
647:
642:
639:
635:
598:
596:
595:
590:
587:
586:
585:
576:
556:
539:
537:
536:
531:
528:
524:
459:
457:
456:
451:
448:
447:
446:
437:
417:
400:
398:
397:
392:
389:
388:
386:
385:
384:
374:
369:
368:
367:
351:
349:
304:Edward W. Morley
223:Oliver Heaviside
187:electromagnetism
9842:
9841:
9837:
9836:
9835:
9833:
9832:
9831:
9827:Hendrik Lorentz
9822:Aether theories
9802:
9801:
9800:
9795:
9777:
9748:Joule–von Mayer
9716:
9680:
9637:
9586:
9550:
9441:Big Bang theory
9394:
9293:Fluid mechanics
9240:
9230:
9147:
9142:
9137:
9118:physics/0408077
9070:
9020:
8928:
8910:
8859:on July 6, 2011
8856:
8825:
8815:
8788:10.1.1.524.1969
8755:
8737:
8719:
8690:
8689:
8680:
8679:
8675:
8643:Pauli, Wolfgang
8636:
8607:
8557:
8499:
8472:10.1.1.679.5898
8420:
8392:
8391:
8388:
8297:Phys. Perspect.
8288:
8253:
8230:
8171:
8161:
8140:
8106:
8071:
8017:
7995:
7974:
7890:
7840:
7835:
7831:
7826:
7822:
7817:
7813:
7808:
7804:
7799:
7795:
7791:Pais (1982), 7c
7790:
7786:
7781:
7774:
7769:
7765:
7760:
7756:
7751:
7747:
7742:
7738:
7733:
7729:
7724:
7720:
7715:
7711:
7706:
7702:
7697:
7693:
7683:
7667:
7663:
7658:
7654:
7649:
7642:
7637:
7633:
7628:
7624:
7619:
7615:
7610:
7606:
7601:
7597:
7592:
7588:
7583:
7579:
7571:
7567:
7562:
7558:
7553:
7542:
7537:
7533:
7528:
7524:
7519:
7512:
7508:Bjerknes (2002)
7507:
7503:
7498:
7494:
7489:
7485:
7480:
7476:
7471:
7467:
7462:
7458:
7453:
7449:
7444:
7440:
7427:
7423:
7415:" pp. 192–195,
7410:
7401:
7396:
7392:
7387:
7380:
7375:
7368:
7363:
7359:
7354:
7350:
7345:
7338:
7333:
7329:
7324:
7320:
7316:Jannssen (1995)
7315:
7308:
7303:
7296:
7291:
7282:
7277:
7273:
7268:
7264:
7259:
7252:
7247:
7243:
7238:
7234:
7229:
7222:
7217:
7213:
7208:
7204:
7199:
7195:
7190:
7186:
7181:
7177:
7172:
7168:
7163:
7156:
7151:
7147:
7142:
7138:
7133:
7129:
7124:
7120:
7115:
7111:
7106:
7102:
7097:
7093:
7088:
7084:
7079:
7075:
7070:
7066:
7061:
7057:
7052:
7048:
7043:
7039:
7034:
7030:
7025:
7021:
7016:
7012:
7007:
7003:
6998:
6994:
6989:
6985:
6980:
6976:
6971:
6967:
6962:
6953:
6948:
6944:
6939:
6935:
6930:
6926:
6921:
6917:
6912:
6905:
6900:
6896:
6891:
6884:
6879:
6872:
6867:
6863:
6858:
6849:
6844:
6837:
6832:
6828:
6823:
6819:
6814:
6810:
6805:
6798:
6793:
6789:
6784:
6780:
6775:
6771:
6766:
6762:
6757:
6753:
6748:
6744:
6739:
6735:
6730:
6726:
6721:
6717:
6712:
6708:
6703:
6699:
6689:
6687:
6667:
6663:
6653:
6651:
6631:
6627:
6622:
6618:
6610:
6606:
6601:
6597:
6593:
6592:
6584:
6580:
6575:
6570:
6328:(68): 229–249,
6254:(14): 649–689,
5850:. See also the
5663:(13): 533–554,
5621:(20): 529–579,
5488:(15): 927–938,
5253:
5251:
5247:
5240:
5146:
5144:
4917:(11): 387–507,
4889:(25): 709–726,
4863:(95): 705–717,
4770:(10): 989–990,
4466:(11): 369–399,
4283:(12): 344–370,
4190:Physical Review
4015:
3961:
3934:
3899:
3856:
3844:. See also the
3825:(13): 639–641,
3814:
3783:(10): 891–921,
3772:
3396:
3357:
3231:
3229:Primary sources
3226:
3193:
3186:
3183:
3171:
3165:
3153:
3141:quantum gravity
3074:
3068:
3009:
2959:
2954:
2932:
2907:Gustav Herglotz
2886:
2848:. In addition,
2824:
2788:Herbert E. Ives
2780:
2731:
2707:
2690:
2618:
2613:
2600:
2595:
2582:
2577:
2564:
2559:
2553:
2550:
2549:
2494:
2488:Minkowski space
2486:Main articles:
2484:
2479:
2462:
2418:
2396:
2392:
2381:
2378:
2377:
2355:
2353:Mass and energy
2314:
2296:
2265:Alfred Bucherer
2249:Walter Kaufmann
2246:
2241:
2239:Early reception
2213:
2172:
2168:
2162:
2158:
2156:
2144:
2143:
2139:
2133:
2129:
2111:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2095:
2089:
2075:signal velocity
2021:quantum physics
1966:emission theory
1947:preferred frame
1888:light principle
1872:annus mirabilis
1860:
1855:
1850:
1810:
1803:
1800:
1797:
1796:
1777:
1773:
1767:
1763:
1754:
1750:
1741:
1737:
1728:
1724:
1723:
1720:
1717:
1716:
1684:
1676:
1611:
1607:
1606:
1601:
1594:
1590:
1589:
1581:
1578:
1575:
1574:
1555:transverse mass
1547:
1539:
1531:Alfred Bucherer
1529:Like Poincaré,
1507:
1503:
1502:
1497:
1489:
1472:
1471:
1468:
1465:
1464:
1455:
1452:
1409:
1373:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1359:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1332:
1255:
1231:
1227:
1222:
1208:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1188:
1169:
1165:
1160:
1146:
1133:
1130:
1127:
1126:
1094:
1090:
1085:
1081:
1078:
1075:
1074:
1046:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1035:
1014:
1011:
1008:
1007:
990:
987:
984:
983:
962:
958:
955:
952:
951:
948:Walter Kaufmann
926:
922:
912:
909:
906:
905:
886:
882:
877:
867:
864:
861:
860:
823:
820:
817:
816:
799:
796:
793:
792:
773:
769:
764:
750:
737:
734:
731:
730:
711:
705:
663:
659:
656:
653:
652:
631:
627:
624:
621:
620:
581:
577:
572:
549:
548:
545:
542:
541:
520:
516:
513:
510:
509:
497:
483:
442:
438:
433:
410:
409:
406:
403:
402:
380:
376:
375:
370:
363:
359:
358:
350:
345:
341:
338:
335:
334:
291:A. A. Michelson
263:
252:
240:Hendrik Lorentz
175:Michael Faraday
167:transverse wave
155:
150:
125:Albert Einstein
110:electrodynamics
97:Hendrik Lorentz
81:Galileo Galilei
65:
49:Albert Einstein
37:Hendrik Lorentz
23:
12:
11:
5:
9840:
9830:
9829:
9824:
9819:
9814:
9797:
9796:
9794:
9793:
9782:
9779:
9778:
9776:
9775:
9770:
9769:
9768:
9763:
9755:
9753:Shapley–Curtis
9750:
9745:
9743:Leibniz–Newton
9740:
9738:Galileo affair
9735:
9730:
9724:
9722:
9718:
9717:
9715:
9714:
9709:
9704:
9699:
9694:
9688:
9686:
9682:
9681:
9679:
9678:
9673:
9672:
9671:
9661:
9656:
9651:
9645:
9643:
9639:
9638:
9636:
9635:
9633:Speed of light
9630:
9629:
9628:
9623:
9618:
9610:
9605:
9600:
9594:
9592:
9588:
9587:
9585:
9584:
9579:
9577:Nanotechnology
9574:
9569:
9568:
9567:
9558:
9556:
9552:
9551:
9549:
9548:
9547:
9546:
9541:
9536:
9526:
9525:
9524:
9514:
9513:
9512:
9507:
9502:
9497:
9487:
9486:
9485:
9480:
9475:
9470:
9462:
9457:
9456:
9455:
9445:
9444:
9443:
9438:
9430:
9429:
9428:
9423:
9415:
9414:
9413:
9404:
9402:
9400:Modern physics
9396:
9395:
9393:
9392:
9391:
9390:
9385:
9380:
9375:
9368:Thermodynamics
9365:
9364:
9363:
9353:
9352:
9351:
9346:
9336:
9335:
9334:
9329:
9319:
9318:
9317:
9307:
9306:
9305:
9300:
9290:
9289:
9288:
9283:
9278:
9273:
9263:
9262:
9261:
9250:
9248:
9242:
9241:
9229:
9228:
9221:
9214:
9206:
9200:
9199:
9190:Berger, Andy "
9188:
9170:
9146:
9145:External links
9143:
9141:
9140:
9135:
9101:
9077:Non mainstream
9074:
9073:
9068:
9055:
9046:
9037:
9023:
9018:
9001:
8988:
8975:
8962:
8949:
8931:
8926:
8913:
8908:
8892:
8861:
8836:(2): S41–S53,
8818:
8813:
8800:
8758:
8753:
8740:
8735:
8722:
8717:
8701:
8700:
8699:
8691:|journal=
8673:
8639:
8634:
8616:
8600:
8560:
8555:
8538:
8513:(5): 397–415,
8502:
8497:
8484:
8465:(2): 232–234,
8450:
8437:
8423:
8418:
8405:
8386:
8357:
8343:(4): 343–354,
8328:
8303:(3): 268–292,
8292:
8279:
8266:
8256:
8251:
8237:Holton, Gerald
8233:
8228:
8215:
8184:
8182:: 11–12, 25–26
8164:
8159:
8147:Galison, Peter
8143:
8138:
8122:
8109:
8104:
8064:
8045:10.1086/430652
8031:(4): 614–626,
8020:
8015:
7998:
7993:
7978:
7972:
7957:
7907:
7893:
7888:
7868:
7857:(8): 409–412,
7841:
7839:
7838:
7829:
7827:Shapiro (1999)
7820:
7811:
7802:
7793:
7784:
7772:
7763:
7754:
7745:
7743:Rindler (2001)
7736:
7727:
7725:Warwick (2003)
7718:
7709:
7700:
7691:
7681:
7661:
7652:
7640:
7638:Walter (1999b)
7631:
7622:
7613:
7604:
7595:
7586:
7577:
7565:
7556:
7540:
7531:
7522:
7510:
7501:
7492:
7483:
7474:
7465:
7456:
7447:
7438:
7421:
7399:
7390:
7378:
7366:
7357:
7348:
7346:Stachel (1982)
7336:
7327:
7318:
7306:
7294:
7280:
7271:
7262:
7250:
7241:
7232:
7220:
7211:
7202:
7200:Logunov (2004)
7193:
7184:
7175:
7166:
7154:
7145:
7136:
7127:
7118:
7109:
7100:
7091:
7082:
7073:
7064:
7062:Galison (2003)
7055:
7046:
7037:
7028:
7026:Goenner (2008)
7019:
7017:DiSalle (2002)
7010:
7001:
6992:
6983:
6974:
6965:
6951:
6942:
6933:
6924:
6915:
6903:
6894:
6882:
6880:Galison (2002)
6870:
6861:
6847:
6835:
6826:
6817:
6808:
6796:
6787:
6778:
6769:
6760:
6751:
6742:
6733:
6724:
6715:
6706:
6697:
6661:
6625:
6616:
6604:
6594:
6591:
6590:
6577:
6576:
6574:
6571:
6569:
6568:
6551:(8): 635–637,
6534:
6517:(4): 663–668,
6500:
6483:(4): 641–662,
6466:
6449:(7): 501–513,
6428:
6409:
6386:
6363:
6337:
6311:
6295:
6271:
6235:
6218:(9): 749–776,
6199:
6173:
6165:Comptes Rendus
6150:
6142:Comptes Rendus
6127:
6111:
6106:, see English
6080:
6064:
6050:
6036:
6021:
6002:
5987:
5931:
5922:Comptes Rendus
5907:
5892:
5881:
5865:
5855:
5831:
5813:
5798:
5784:
5774:
5759:
5742:
5729:
5712:
5695:
5681:
5648:
5606:
5590:
5573:(5): 867–904,
5556:
5555:
5554:
5552:Space and Time
5529:
5505:
5471:
5468:10.1086/142879
5443:
5401:
5359:
5317:
5301:
5259:
5231:
5227:10.1086/143148
5201:
5189:(1): 293–308,
5168:
5152:
5124:
5110:
5094:
5085:
5066:
5049:
5030:
5011:
4991:
4974:
4954:
4941:
4906:
4872:
4846:
4837:
4820:
4803:
4787:
4751:
4734:(9): 738–744,
4717:
4703:
4667:
4646:
4627:
4608:
4591:
4574:(3): 487–553,
4555:
4538:
4521:
4506:
4483:
4449:
4432:(8): 577–624,
4415:
4398:(2): 393–415,
4379:
4353:
4338:
4321:(3): 589–592,
4300:
4262:
4245:
4228:(5): 825–855,
4213:
4185:
4167:(1): 297–300,
4156:
4129:
4079:
4065:
4051:
4008:
3989:
3972:(8): 532–540,
3954:
3927:
3910:(7): 371–384,
3892:
3867:(8): 627–633,
3849:
3807:
3765:
3735:
3716:
3690:
3663:
3613:
3600:
3587:
3574:
3560:
3543:(6): 270–283,
3526:
3498:
3462:
3445:
3428:
3418:(1): 223–264,
3401:
3368:(1): 196–202,
3350:
3333:(3): 260–262,
3322:
3305:
3282:
3265:(1): 105–179,
3248:
3232:
3230:
3227:
3225:
3222:
3221:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3199:
3198:
3195:Physics portal
3182:
3179:
3167:Main article:
3164:
3161:
3152:
3149:
3070:Main article:
3067:
3064:
3033:Dirac equation
3025:Wolfgang Pauli
3021:Pascual Jordan
3008:
3005:
3003:near the Sun.
2989:Adriaan Fokker
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2931:
2928:
2899:Paul Ehrenfest
2885:
2882:
2823:
2820:
2779:
2776:
2730:
2727:
2706:
2703:
2689:
2686:
2674:linear algebra
2663:Space and Time
2621:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2585:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2558:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2461:
2458:
2438:Georges Sagnac
2417:
2414:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2388:
2385:
2359:center of mass
2354:
2351:
2313:
2310:
2295:
2292:
2288:Paul Ehrenfest
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2205:
2204:
2192:
2188:
2185:
2175:
2171:
2165:
2161:
2155:
2152:
2148:
2142:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2125:
2120:
2117:
2114:
2110:
2091:Main article:
2088:
2085:
2049:most important
1992:
1991:
1984:
1969:
1954:
1939:
1938:
1928:
1918:
1904:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1817:
1814:
1809:
1806:
1780:
1776:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1731:
1727:
1697:charge density
1688:Henri Poincaré
1675:
1672:
1614:
1610:
1604:
1597:
1593:
1588:
1585:
1538:
1535:
1510:
1506:
1500:
1495:
1492:
1488:
1485:
1482:
1478:
1475:
1450:
1429:Henri Poincaré
1415:Henri Poincaré
1408:
1405:
1380:
1377:
1372:
1369:
1345:
1342:
1296:Henri Poincaré
1254:
1251:
1234:
1230:
1225:
1221:
1218:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1198:
1172:
1168:
1163:
1159:
1156:
1153:
1149:
1145:
1142:
1139:
1136:
1097:
1093:
1088:
1084:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1017:
993:
969:
965:
961:
929:
925:
921:
918:
915:
889:
885:
880:
876:
873:
870:
857:Henri Poincaré
826:
802:
776:
772:
767:
763:
760:
757:
753:
749:
746:
743:
740:
707:Main article:
704:
701:
670:
666:
662:
638:
634:
630:
609:Doppler effect
584:
580:
575:
571:
568:
565:
562:
559:
555:
552:
527:
523:
519:
482:
479:
445:
441:
436:
432:
429:
426:
423:
420:
416:
413:
383:
379:
373:
366:
362:
357:
354:
348:
344:
332:Lorentz factor
320:Doppler effect
316:Woldemar Voigt
300:interferometer
251:
248:
219:Heinrich Hertz
154:
151:
149:
146:
106:Henri Poincaré
64:
61:
41:Henri Poincaré
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9839:
9828:
9825:
9823:
9820:
9818:
9815:
9813:
9810:
9809:
9807:
9792:
9784:
9783:
9780:
9774:
9771:
9767:
9764:
9762:
9759:
9758:
9756:
9754:
9751:
9749:
9746:
9744:
9741:
9739:
9736:
9734:
9731:
9729:
9728:Bohr–Einstein
9726:
9725:
9723:
9719:
9713:
9710:
9708:
9705:
9703:
9700:
9698:
9695:
9693:
9690:
9689:
9687:
9683:
9677:
9674:
9670:
9667:
9666:
9665:
9662:
9660:
9657:
9655:
9652:
9650:
9647:
9646:
9644:
9640:
9634:
9631:
9627:
9624:
9622:
9619:
9617:
9614:
9613:
9611:
9609:
9606:
9604:
9601:
9599:
9596:
9595:
9593:
9589:
9583:
9582:String theory
9580:
9578:
9575:
9573:
9570:
9566:
9563:
9562:
9560:
9559:
9557:
9553:
9545:
9542:
9540:
9537:
9535:
9532:
9531:
9530:
9527:
9523:
9520:
9519:
9518:
9515:
9511:
9508:
9506:
9503:
9501:
9498:
9496:
9493:
9492:
9491:
9488:
9484:
9481:
9479:
9476:
9474:
9471:
9469:
9466:
9465:
9463:
9461:
9458:
9454:
9451:
9450:
9449:
9446:
9442:
9439:
9437:
9434:
9433:
9431:
9427:
9424:
9422:
9419:
9418:
9416:
9412:
9409:
9408:
9406:
9405:
9403:
9401:
9397:
9389:
9386:
9384:
9381:
9379:
9376:
9374:
9371:
9370:
9369:
9366:
9362:
9359:
9358:
9357:
9354:
9350:
9347:
9345:
9342:
9341:
9340:
9337:
9333:
9332:Metamaterials
9330:
9328:
9325:
9324:
9323:
9320:
9316:
9313:
9312:
9311:
9308:
9304:
9301:
9299:
9296:
9295:
9294:
9291:
9287:
9284:
9282:
9279:
9277:
9274:
9272:
9269:
9268:
9267:
9264:
9260:
9257:
9256:
9255:
9252:
9251:
9249:
9247:
9243:
9238:
9234:
9227:
9222:
9220:
9215:
9213:
9208:
9207:
9204:
9197:
9194:" June 2016,
9193:
9189:
9187:
9183:
9179:
9175:
9171:
9168:
9164:
9163:
9158:
9154:
9149:
9148:
9138:
9132:
9128:
9124:
9119:
9114:
9110:
9106:
9105:Logunov, A.A.
9102:
9098:
9094:
9090:
9086:
9081:
9080:
9079:
9078:
9071:
9065:
9061:
9056:
9052:
9047:
9043:
9038:
9034:
9033:
9028:
9024:
9021:
9015:
9010:
9009:
9002:
8998:
8994:
8989:
8985:
8981:
8976:
8972:
8968:
8963:
8959:
8955:
8950:
8945:
8941:
8937:
8932:
8929:
8923:
8919:
8914:
8911:
8905:
8901:
8897:
8896:Stachel, John
8893:
8890:
8886:
8882:
8878:
8874:
8870:
8866:
8865:Stachel, John
8862:
8855:
8851:
8847:
8843:
8839:
8835:
8831:
8824:
8819:
8816:
8810:
8806:
8801:
8798:
8794:
8789:
8784:
8780:
8776:
8772:
8768:
8764:
8759:
8756:
8750:
8746:
8741:
8738:
8732:
8728:
8723:
8720:
8714:
8710:
8706:
8702:
8696:
8684:
8676:
8670:
8666:
8660:
8659:
8656:
8652:
8648:
8644:
8640:
8637:
8631:
8627:
8626:
8621:
8620:Pais, Abraham
8617:
8613:
8606:
8601:
8598:
8594:
8590:
8586:
8582:
8578:
8575:(1): 45–105,
8574:
8570:
8566:
8561:
8558:
8552:
8547:
8546:
8539:
8536:
8532:
8528:
8524:
8520:
8516:
8512:
8508:
8503:
8500:
8494:
8490:
8485:
8482:
8478:
8473:
8468:
8464:
8460:
8456:
8451:
8446:
8442:
8441:Laue, Max von
8438:
8434:
8433:
8428:
8427:Lange, Ludwig
8424:
8421:
8415:
8411:
8406:
8402:
8396:
8389:
8383:
8379:
8375:
8370:
8368:
8362:
8358:
8354:
8350:
8346:
8342:
8338:
8334:
8329:
8326:
8322:
8318:
8314:
8310:
8306:
8302:
8298:
8293:
8287:
8286:
8280:
8276:
8272:
8267:
8264:
8263:
8257:
8254:
8248:
8244:
8243:
8238:
8234:
8231:
8225:
8221:
8216:
8212:
8208:
8203:
8198:
8194:
8190:
8185:
8181:
8177:
8170:
8165:
8162:
8156:
8152:
8148:
8144:
8141:
8135:
8131:
8127:
8123:
8119:
8115:
8110:
8107:
8101:
8097:
8093:
8089:
8085:
8081:
8077:
8070:
8065:
8062:
8058:
8054:
8050:
8046:
8042:
8038:
8034:
8030:
8026:
8021:
8018:
8012:
8007:
8006:
7999:
7996:
7990:
7986:
7985:
7979:
7975:
7969:
7965:
7964:
7958:
7955:
7951:
7947:
7943:
7939:
7935:
7930:
7929:gr-qc/0104032
7925:
7921:
7917:
7913:
7908:
7904:
7903:
7898:
7894:
7891:
7885:
7880:
7879:
7873:
7869:
7865:
7860:
7856:
7852:
7848:
7843:
7842:
7833:
7824:
7818:Walter (2007)
7815:
7809:Norton (2005)
7806:
7800:Kostro (1992)
7797:
7788:
7779:
7777:
7767:
7758:
7749:
7740:
7731:
7722:
7713:
7704:
7695:
7689:
7684:
7678:
7674:
7673:
7665:
7656:
7647:
7645:
7635:
7626:
7617:
7608:
7599:
7590:
7581:
7575:
7569:
7560:
7551:
7549:
7547:
7545:
7535:
7526:
7517:
7515:
7505:
7496:
7487:
7478:
7469:
7460:
7451:
7442:
7435:
7431:
7425:
7418:
7414:
7408:
7406:
7404:
7394:
7385:
7383:
7373:
7371:
7361:
7352:
7343:
7341:
7331:
7322:
7313:
7311:
7301:
7299:
7292:Holton (1988)
7289:
7287:
7285:
7275:
7266:
7257:
7255:
7245:
7236:
7230:Miller (1981)
7227:
7225:
7215:
7206:
7197:
7188:
7179:
7170:
7161:
7159:
7149:
7140:
7131:
7122:
7113:
7104:
7095:
7086:
7077:
7068:
7059:
7050:
7041:
7032:
7023:
7014:
7005:
6996:
6987:
6978:
6969:
6960:
6958:
6956:
6946:
6937:
6928:
6919:
6910:
6908:
6898:
6889:
6887:
6877:
6875:
6865:
6859:Miller (1982)
6856:
6854:
6852:
6842:
6840:
6830:
6821:
6812:
6803:
6801:
6791:
6782:
6773:
6764:
6755:
6746:
6737:
6728:
6719:
6710:
6701:
6685:
6681:
6680:
6675:
6671:
6670:Siegel, Ethan
6665:
6649:
6645:
6644:
6639:
6635:
6634:Siegel, Ethan
6629:
6620:
6614:
6611:Chen (2011),
6608:
6599:
6595:
6588:
6582:
6578:
6566:
6562:
6558:
6554:
6550:
6546:
6541:
6535:
6532:
6528:
6524:
6520:
6516:
6512:
6507:
6501:
6498:
6494:
6490:
6486:
6482:
6478:
6473:
6467:
6464:
6460:
6456:
6452:
6448:
6444:
6440:
6435:
6429:
6425:
6421:
6416:
6410:
6406:
6402:
6398:
6393:
6387:
6383:
6379:
6375:
6370:
6364:
6361:
6357:
6353:
6349:
6344:
6338:
6335:
6331:
6327:
6323:
6318:
6312:
6310:
6307: at the
6306:
6301:
6296:
6293:
6289:
6286:(177): 9–15,
6285:
6281:
6277:
6272:
6269:
6265:
6261:
6257:
6253:
6249:
6245:
6241:
6236:
6233:
6229:
6225:
6221:
6217:
6213:
6209:
6205:
6200:
6197:
6193:
6189:
6185:
6180:
6174:
6170:
6166:
6162:
6157:
6151:
6147:
6143:
6139:
6134:
6128:
6126:
6123: at the
6122:
6117:
6112:
6109:
6104:
6100:
6096:
6092:
6091:
6086:
6081:
6079:
6076: at the
6075:
6070:
6065:
6060:
6056:
6051:
6046:
6044:
6037:
6033:
6028:
6022:
6018:
6014:
6009:
6003:
5999:
5994:
5988:
5985:
5981:
5976:
5971:
5967:
5963:
5959:
5955:
5951:
5947:
5943:
5938:
5932:
5927:
5923:
5919:
5914:
5908:
5904:
5899:
5893:
5889:
5888:
5882:
5880:
5877: at the
5876:
5871:
5866:
5861:
5856:
5853:
5847:
5843:
5838:
5832:
5827:
5823:
5819:
5814:
5810:
5805:
5799:
5794:
5790:
5785:
5780:
5775:
5771:
5766:
5760:
5757:(23): 828–830
5756:
5752:
5748:
5743:
5739:
5735:
5730:
5726:
5722:
5718:
5713:
5709:
5705:
5701:
5696:
5691:
5689:
5682:
5678:
5674:
5670:
5666:
5662:
5658:
5654:
5649:
5645:
5640:
5636:
5632:
5628:
5624:
5620:
5616:
5612:
5607:
5605:
5602: at the
5601:
5596:
5591:
5588:
5584:
5580:
5576:
5572:
5568:
5563:
5557:
5553:
5549:
5548:
5545:
5541:
5536:
5530:
5527:
5521:
5517:
5512:
5506:
5503:
5499:
5495:
5491:
5487:
5483:
5478:
5472:
5469:
5465:
5461:
5457:
5453:
5449:
5444:
5441:
5437:
5433:
5429:
5425:
5421:
5417:
5413:
5408:
5402:
5399:
5395:
5391:
5387:
5383:
5379:
5375:
5371:
5366:
5360:
5357:
5353:
5349:
5345:
5341:
5337:
5333:
5329:
5324:
5318:
5316:
5313: at the
5312:
5307:
5302:
5299:
5295:
5291:
5287:
5283:
5279:
5275:
5271:
5266:
5260:
5246:
5239:
5238:
5232:
5228:
5223:
5219:
5215:
5211:
5207:
5202:
5197:
5192:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5175:
5169:
5167:
5164: at the
5163:
5158:
5153:
5142:
5138:
5134:
5130:
5125:
5120:
5118:
5111:
5109:
5106: at the
5105:
5100:
5095:
5091:
5086:
5082:
5078:
5073:
5067:
5063:
5059:
5055:
5050:
5046:
5042:
5037:
5031:
5027:
5023:
5018:
5012:
5008:
5007:
5001:
4999:
4992:
4988:
4984:
4980:
4975:
4973:
4970: at the
4969:
4964:
4960:
4955:
4951:
4947:
4942:
4940:
4937: at the
4936:
4932:
4928:
4924:
4920:
4916:
4912:
4907:
4904:
4900:
4896:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4879:
4873:
4870:
4866:
4862:
4858:
4853:
4847:
4843:
4838:
4834:
4830:
4826:
4821:
4817:
4813:
4809:
4804:
4802:
4799: at the
4798:
4793:
4788:
4785:
4781:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4765:
4761:
4757:
4752:
4749:
4745:
4741:
4737:
4733:
4729:
4724:
4718:
4713:
4711:
4704:
4700:
4695:
4691:
4687:
4683:
4679:
4674:
4668:
4663:
4659:
4655:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4634:
4628:
4624:
4620:
4615:
4609:
4605:
4601:
4597:
4592:
4589:
4585:
4581:
4577:
4573:
4569:
4565:
4561:
4556:
4552:
4548:
4544:
4539:
4535:
4531:
4527:
4522:
4518:
4513:
4507:
4503:
4499:
4495:
4490:
4484:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4469:
4465:
4461:
4456:
4450:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4422:
4416:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4380:
4377:
4373:
4369:
4365:
4360:
4354:
4350:
4345:
4339:
4336:
4332:
4328:
4324:
4320:
4316:
4312:
4307:
4301:
4298:
4294:
4290:
4286:
4282:
4278:
4274:
4269:
4263:
4259:
4255:
4251:
4246:
4243:
4239:
4235:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4219:
4214:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4199:
4195:
4191:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4157:
4153:
4149:
4145:
4141:
4136:
4130:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4091:
4086:
4080:
4075:
4073:
4066:
4061:
4059:
4052:
4049:
4045:
4041:
4037:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4014:
4009:
4006:(22): 817–825
4005:
4001:
3996:
3990:
3987:
3983:
3979:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3960:
3955:
3952:
3948:
3944:
3940:
3933:
3928:
3925:
3921:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3905:
3898:
3893:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3874:
3870:
3866:
3862:
3855:
3850:
3847:
3841:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3813:
3808:
3805:
3799:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3771:
3766:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3751:
3747:
3742:
3736:
3732:
3728:
3723:
3717:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3702:
3697:
3691:
3687:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3670:
3664:
3661:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3620:
3614:
3610:
3606:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3588:
3584:
3580:
3575:
3572:(22): 755–762
3571:
3567:
3561:
3558:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3533:
3527:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3499:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3468:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3429:
3425:
3421:
3417:
3413:
3408:
3402:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3363:
3362:Nuovo Cimento
3356:
3351:
3348:
3344:
3340:
3336:
3332:
3328:
3323:
3320:(4): 470–520.
3319:
3315:
3311:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3289:
3283:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3255:
3249:
3245:
3240:
3234:
3233:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3200:
3196:
3190:
3185:
3178:
3176:
3170:
3160:
3158:
3148:
3146:
3142:
3137:
3135:
3130:
3125:
3123:
3119:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3101:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3073:
3063:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3040:
3038:
3034:
3031:produced the
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3004:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2976:
2974:
2969:
2965:
2949:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2927:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2911:Fritz Noether
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2881:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2850:Harry Bateman
2847:
2843:
2839:
2833:
2830:
2819:
2817:
2813:
2812:Paul Langevin
2804:
2800:
2797:
2796:time dilation
2793:
2789:
2785:
2775:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2726:
2724:
2720:
2719:Hermann Rothe
2716:
2715:Philipp Frank
2712:
2702:
2699:
2698:trigonometric
2695:
2685:
2683:
2679:
2678:Arthur Cayley
2675:
2670:
2668:
2664:
2659:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2619:
2614:
2610:
2606:
2601:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2583:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2556:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2518:Arthur Cayley
2515:
2511:
2507:
2498:
2493:
2489:
2474:
2471:
2467:
2457:
2455:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2442:Sagnac effect
2439:
2433:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2413:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2386:
2383:
2375:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2360:
2350:
2348:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2327:
2318:
2309:
2306:
2302:
2291:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2272:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2250:
2236:
2234:
2231: =
2230:
2226:
2220:
2216:
2211:
2190:
2186:
2183:
2173:
2169:
2163:
2159:
2153:
2150:
2146:
2140:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2123:
2118:
2115:
2112:
2108:
2100:
2099:
2098:
2094:
2083:
2078:
2076:
2072:
2067:
2062:
2060:
2056:
2055:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2031:philosophers
2030:
2024:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2005:
2004:Occam's razor
2000:
1998:
1989:
1985:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1943:
1942:
1936:
1932:
1929:
1926:
1922:
1919:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1898:
1897:
1895:
1894:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1864:
1853:Einstein 1905
1845:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1815:
1812:
1807:
1804:
1778:
1774:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1729:
1725:
1714:
1713:Lorentz group
1710:
1704:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1689:
1683:
1678:
1671:
1669:
1664:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1650:
1645:
1641:
1636:
1632:
1612:
1608:
1602:
1595:
1591:
1586:
1583:
1572:
1566:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1549:In his paper
1546:
1541:
1534:
1532:
1527:
1508:
1504:
1498:
1493:
1490:
1486:
1483:
1480:
1476:
1473:
1462:
1449:
1444:
1441:
1439:
1435:
1430:
1426:
1423:In his paper
1421:
1413:
1404:
1402:
1398:
1378:
1375:
1370:
1367:
1343:
1340:
1330:
1326:
1323:in his novel
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1305:
1303:
1302:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1250:
1232:
1228:
1223:
1219:
1213:
1209:
1205:
1199:
1196:
1170:
1166:
1161:
1157:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1137:
1134:
1123:
1118:
1115:
1095:
1091:
1086:
1082:
1072:
1068:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1033:
1030:the mass) of
1015:
991:
967:
963:
959:
949:
945:
927:
923:
919:
916:
913:
887:
883:
878:
874:
871:
868:
858:
853:
849:
845:
843:
824:
800:
774:
770:
765:
761:
755:
751:
747:
741:
738:
728:
724:
720:
716:
715:J. J. Thomson
710:
700:
698:
694:
689:
686:
685:time dilation
668:
664:
660:
636:
632:
628:
618:
617:Joseph Larmor
613:
610:
606:
602:
582:
578:
573:
569:
566:
563:
560:
557:
553:
550:
525:
521:
517:
506:
502:
496:
487:
478:
476:
471:
467:
461:
443:
439:
434:
430:
427:
424:
421:
418:
414:
411:
381:
377:
371:
364:
360:
355:
352:
346:
342:
333:
329:
325:
324:wave equation
321:
317:
312:
309:
305:
301:
297:
289:
285:
283:
280:
276:
271:
267:
261:
257:
247:
245:
244:Joseph Larmor
241:
237:
233:
229:
224:
220:
215:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
145:
143:
139:
135:
130:
126:
121:
119:
115:
111:
107:
102:
98:
93:
91:
87:
82:
78:
74:
70:
60:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
25:
21:
16:
9697:The Martians
9528:
9361:Spectroscopy
9303:Aerodynamics
9281:Field theory
9160:
9108:
9097:the original
9092:
9088:
9076:
9075:
9059:
9050:
9041:
9030:
9007:
8996:
8983:
8970:
8957:
8943:
8939:
8917:
8899:
8875:(1): 47–53,
8872:
8868:
8854:the original
8833:
8829:
8804:
8770:
8766:
8744:
8726:
8708:
8664:
8661:In English:
8657:(2): 539–776
8654:
8650:
8623:
8611:
8572:
8568:
8544:
8510:
8506:
8488:
8462:
8458:
8444:
8431:
8409:
8366:
8361:Klein, Felix
8353:the original
8340:
8336:
8300:
8296:
8284:
8274:
8261:
8240:
8219:
8192:
8188:
8179:
8175:
8150:
8129:
8117:
8079:
8075:
8028:
8024:
8004:
7983:
7966:. Springer.
7962:
7919:
7915:
7901:
7877:
7854:
7850:
7832:
7823:
7814:
7805:
7796:
7787:
7766:
7757:
7748:
7739:
7730:
7721:
7712:
7703:
7694:
7671:
7664:
7655:
7634:
7625:
7616:
7607:
7598:
7589:
7580:
7568:
7559:
7534:
7529:Klein (1910)
7525:
7504:
7495:
7486:
7477:
7468:
7459:
7450:
7441:
7433:
7429:
7424:
7416:
7393:
7360:
7351:
7330:
7321:
7274:
7265:
7244:
7235:
7214:
7205:
7196:
7187:
7178:
7169:
7148:
7139:
7130:
7121:
7112:
7103:
7094:
7085:
7076:
7067:
7058:
7049:
7040:
7031:
7022:
7013:
7004:
6999:Lange (1886)
6995:
6986:
6977:
6968:
6945:
6936:
6927:
6918:
6897:
6868:Zahar (1989)
6864:
6829:
6824:Brown (2001)
6820:
6811:
6790:
6781:
6772:
6763:
6754:
6745:
6736:
6727:
6718:
6709:
6700:
6688:. Retrieved
6677:
6664:
6652:. Retrieved
6641:
6628:
6619:
6607:
6598:
6581:
6548:
6544:
6514:
6510:
6480:
6476:
6446:
6442:
6423:
6404:
6400:
6381:
6377:
6351:
6347:
6325:
6321:
6299:
6283:
6279:
6251:
6247:
6215:
6211:
6187:
6183:
6168:
6164:
6145:
6141:
6115:
6094:
6088:
6068:
6058:
6054:
6042:
6031:
6016:
6012:
5997:
5949:
5945:
5925:
5921:
5902:
5886:
5869:
5859:
5845:
5841:
5825:
5821:
5808:
5792:
5788:
5778:
5769:
5754:
5750:
5737:
5724:
5720:
5707:
5703:
5687:
5660:
5656:
5618:
5614:
5594:
5570:
5566:
5543:
5539:
5526:Meghnad Saha
5519:
5485:
5481:
5451:
5447:
5415:
5411:
5373:
5369:
5331:
5327:
5305:
5273:
5269:
5252:, retrieved
5245:the original
5236:
5209:
5205:
5186:
5182:
5156:
5145:, retrieved
5141:the original
5136:
5132:
5116:
5098:
5089:
5080:
5076:
5064:(2): 145–288
5061:
5057:
5044:
5040:
5025:
5021:
5004:
4997:
4986:
4982:
4962:
4958:
4949:
4945:
4914:
4910:
4886:
4882:
4860:
4856:
4841:
4832:
4828:
4815:
4811:
4791:
4767:
4763:
4731:
4727:
4709:
4681:
4677:
4661:
4657:
4650:Langevin, P.
4641:
4637:
4622:
4618:
4603:
4599:
4571:
4567:
4550:
4546:
4533:
4529:
4516:
4501:
4497:
4463:
4459:
4429:
4425:
4395:
4391:
4367:
4363:
4348:
4318:
4314:
4280:
4276:
4257:
4253:
4225:
4221:
4193:
4189:
4164:
4160:
4143:
4139:
4096:(328): 390,
4093:
4089:
4071:
4057:
4023:
4019:
4003:
3999:
3969:
3965:
3942:
3938:
3907:
3903:
3864:
3860:
3822:
3818:
3802:. See also:
3780:
3776:
3753:
3749:
3733:(1): 395–396
3730:
3726:
3704:
3700:
3680:(1): 77–98,
3677:
3673:
3627:
3623:
3608:
3595:
3582:
3578:
3569:
3565:
3540:
3536:
3506:
3502:
3481:(11): 1–56,
3478:
3474:
3457:
3453:
3440:
3436:
3415:
3411:
3394:the original
3365:
3361:
3330:
3326:
3317:
3313:
3300:
3296:
3262:
3258:
3243:
3174:
3172:
3154:
3138:
3126:
3102:
3075:
3041:
3010:
2977:
2960:
2937:Wilhelm Wien
2933:
2918:
2887:
2834:
2832:relativity.
2825:
2822:Acceleration
2816:twin paradox
2809:
2806:Max von Laue
2781:
2732:
2708:
2691:
2671:
2660:
2640:four vectors
2530:group theory
2503:
2469:
2463:
2445:
2434:
2430:Max von Laue
2419:
2364:
2356:
2342:
2323:
2297:
2280:Wilhelm Wien
2273:
2268:
2257:Max von Laue
2247:
2232:
2228:
2218:
2214:
2209:
2206:
2096:
2080:
2070:
2063:
2052:
2048:
2045:August Föppl
2025:
2008:
1996:
1993:
1987:
1976:
1972:
1961:
1957:
1950:
1940:
1930:
1920:
1910:
1906:
1900:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1875:
1869:
1838:cathode rays
1834:four-vectors
1705:
1685:
1677:
1665:
1652:
1647:
1637:
1633:
1567:
1548:
1540:
1528:
1457:
1448:opportunism.
1446:
1442:
1422:
1418:
1400:
1317:Encyclopédie
1306:
1299:
1294:". In 1902,
1291:
1284:Ludwig Lange
1272:Carl Neumann
1256:
1119:
1113:
1069:
1032:cathode rays
946:
851:
848:Wilhelm Wien
846:
722:
712:
690:
614:
498:
470:Oliver Lodge
462:
330:include the
313:
294:
269:
253:
216:
210:
159:Thomas Young
156:
122:
94:
69:Isaac Newton
66:
63:Introduction
59:and others.
47:proposed by
28:
26:
24:
15:
9621:Higgs boson
9172:Mathpages:
8773:(1): 5–35,
7304:Pais (1982)
6171:: 1410–1413
6108:translation
6097:: 145–275,
6074:Last Essays
6069:Last Essays
5952:: 129–176,
5928:: 1504–1508
5828:: 1163–1175
5454:: 140–145,
5276:: 459–512,
5212:: 345–351,
4684:: 205–300,
4644:: 1171–1173
4536:(1b): 54–56
4146:: 568–573.
4063:, Springery
3945:: 411–462,
2957:Gravitation
2772:World War I
2766:(1910) and
2764:Felix Klein
2756:Émile Borel
2744:Alfred Robb
2652:proper time
2522:Felix Klein
2512:(1906) and
2059:Max Abraham
2009:all results
1321:H. G. Wells
1071:Max Abraham
191:electricity
179:Lord Kelvin
161:(1804) and
114:gravitation
9806:Categories
9642:By periods
9460:Geophysics
9432:Cosmology
7428:Max Laue,
6426:(2): 41–51
4504:: 972–976.
3224:References
3163:Criticisms
3096:, and the
3037:antimatter
3029:Paul Dirac
2973:Gustav Mie
2891:rigid body
2872:), and by
2723:postulates
2648:world line
2426:Jakob Laub
2320:Max Planck
2253:Max Planck
2037:Ernst Mach
2033:David Hume
2029:empiricist
1999:hypotheses
1659:, and the
1280:gyroscopes
1263:Ernst Mach
719:inductance
697:Ernst Mach
199:inductance
53:Max Planck
9685:By groups
9669:Astronomy
9505:Molecules
9339:Mechanics
9254:Astronomy
8946:: 287–293
8783:CiteSeerX
8693:ignored (
8683:cite book
8535:120504430
8467:CiteSeerX
8202:0811.4529
7897:Born, Max
7872:Born, Max
6679:Big Think
6407:: 103–127
6148:: 708–710
6061:: 225–232
6019:: 170–177
5984:120211823
5862:: 457–494
5848:: 252–278
5727:: 753–761
5710:: 136–141
5440:124333204
5398:131116577
5356:130423116
5298:186207827
5083:: 809–831
5047:: 559–574
5028:: 427–442
4965:: 363–552
4952:: 103–176
4835:: 405–412
4625:: 121–156
4606:: 266–297
4553:: 949–956
4260:: 239–281
4048:120162895
3889:120361282
3585:: 516–523
3460:: 703–705
3443:: 215–218
3390:121845138
3303:: 576–579
3129:J. G. Fox
2838:hyperbola
2607:−
2227:formula:
2184:−
2154:−
1813:−
1761:−
1668:Emil Cohn
1640:St. Louis
1587:−
1487:−
1438:Ole Rømer
1434:postulate
1376:−
723:in motion
693:Emil Cohn
564:−
505:electrons
425:−
356:−
209:) in the
195:magnetism
67:Although
9791:Category
9616:timeline
9603:Graphene
9565:timeline
9534:timeline
9522:timeline
9495:timeline
9436:timeline
9421:timeline
9411:timeline
9373:timeline
9344:timeline
9327:timeline
9315:timeline
9298:timeline
9271:timeline
9259:timeline
9237:timeline
9107:(2004),
9089:Episteme
9029:(1910),
8898:(2002),
8707:(1974),
8645:(1921),
8622:(1982),
8597:17459755
8443:(1921),
8429:(1886),
8395:citation
8325:14751280
8239:(1988),
8195:(2008),
8149:(2003),
8082:: 1–22,
8061:26997100
8053:16011297
7899:(1956),
7874:(1964),
6684:Archived
6648:Archived
5522:: 53–111
5254:March 4,
5147:March 4,
5133:Scientia
4931:20022840
4903:20022495
4658:Scientia
4652:(1911),
4126:43610293
4118:17819387
3660:33246058
3652:17758464
3181:See also
3151:Priority
3127:In 1962
2909:(1910),
2895:Max Born
2746:(1911);
2740:rapidity
2326:momentum
2284:Max Born
1882:and the
1477:′
1451:—
1427:(1898),
791:, where
554:′
415:′
201:, named
9626:Neutron
9483:Weapons
9468:Fission
9383:Entropy
9123:Bibcode
8877:Bibcode
8838:Bibcode
8775:Bibcode
8577:Bibcode
8515:Bibcode
8305:Bibcode
8207:Bibcode
8084:Bibcode
8033:Bibcode
7954:2945585
7934:Bibcode
7574:Page 18
6690:July 3,
6654:July 3,
6613:Page 92
6553:Bibcode
6519:Bibcode
6485:Bibcode
6451:Bibcode
6441:],
6422:],
6399:],
6376:],
6256:Bibcode
6246:],
6220:Bibcode
6210:],
6163:],
6140:],
6099:Bibcode
5954:Bibcode
5944:],
5920:],
5749:],
5736:],
5719:],
5702:],
5665:Bibcode
5623:Bibcode
5575:Bibcode
5546:: 75–88
5518:],
5490:Bibcode
5456:Bibcode
5420:Bibcode
5378:Bibcode
5336:Bibcode
5278:Bibcode
5214:Bibcode
5181:],
4989:: 74–79
4981:],
4827:],
4818:: 85–87
4810:],
4772:Bibcode
4762:],
4736:Bibcode
4686:Bibcode
4664:: 31–54
4576:Bibcode
4566:],
4545:],
4528:],
4496:].
4468:Bibcode
4434:Bibcode
4400:Bibcode
4390:],
4323:Bibcode
4313:],
4285:Bibcode
4275:],
4230:Bibcode
4198:Bibcode
4169:Bibcode
4098:Bibcode
4090:Science
4028:Bibcode
3974:Bibcode
3947:Bibcode
3912:Bibcode
3869:Bibcode
3827:Bibcode
3785:Bibcode
3758:Bibcode
3756:: 918,
3748:],
3709:Bibcode
3632:Bibcode
3624:Science
3607:],
3594:],
3545:Bibcode
3511:Bibcode
3483:Bibcode
3473:],
3370:Bibcode
3335:Bibcode
3295:],
3267:Bibcode
3246:: 20–41
3062:, etc.
2919:motions
2736:Varićak
2544:or the
1649:motion.
1571:Thomson
1395:, i.e.
1358:(where
1315:in the
982:(where
256:Fresnel
9473:Fusion
9378:Energy
9356:Optics
9133:
9066:
9016:
8924:
8906:
8811:
8785:
8751:
8733:
8715:
8671:
8632:
8595:
8553:
8533:
8495:
8469:
8416:
8384:
8369:
8323:
8249:
8226:
8157:
8136:
8102:
8059:
8051:
8013:
7991:
7970:
7952:
7886:
7679:
6643:Forbes
6045:
5982:
5795:: 5–14
5690:
5438:
5396:
5354:
5296:
5119:
5000:
4929:
4901:
4712:
4124:
4116:
4074:
4060:
4046:
3887:
3658:
3650:
3388:
3175:per se
3092:, the
3088:, the
3084:, the
3080:, the
1997:ad hoc
1975:, and
1933:) The
1923:) The
1642:named
852:entire
607:, the
279:Fizeau
242:, and
217:After
9544:tests
9500:Atoms
9478:Power
9453:tests
9113:arXiv
8857:(PDF)
8826:(PDF)
8608:(PDF)
8593:S2CID
8531:S2CID
8321:S2CID
8289:(PDF)
8197:arXiv
8172:(PDF)
8072:(PDF)
8057:S2CID
7950:S2CID
7924:arXiv
6437:[
6418:[
6395:[
6384:: 169
6372:[
6324:, 5,
6242:[
6206:[
6186:, 5,
6159:[
6136:[
5980:S2CID
5940:[
5916:[
5514:[
5436:S2CID
5394:S2CID
5352:S2CID
5294:S2CID
5248:(PDF)
5241:(PDF)
5177:[
5003:[
4927:JSTOR
4899:JSTOR
4758:[
4562:[
4492:[
4386:[
4366:, 5,
4309:[
4271:[
4122:S2CID
4044:S2CID
4016:(PDF)
3962:(PDF)
3935:(PDF)
3900:(PDF)
3885:S2CID
3857:(PDF)
3815:(PDF)
3773:(PDF)
3744:[
3656:S2CID
3469:[
3397:(PDF)
3386:S2CID
3358:(PDF)
3291:[
2524:, or
1693:group
1666:Also
270:fully
9131:ISBN
9064:ISBN
9014:ISBN
8922:ISBN
8904:ISBN
8809:ISBN
8749:ISBN
8731:ISBN
8713:ISBN
8695:help
8669:ISBN
8630:ISBN
8551:ISBN
8493:ISBN
8414:ISBN
8401:link
8382:ISBN
8247:ISBN
8224:ISBN
8155:ISBN
8134:ISBN
8100:ISBN
8049:PMID
8025:Isis
8011:ISBN
7989:ISBN
7968:ISBN
7884:ISBN
7677:ISBN
6692:2023
6656:2023
5256:2009
5149:2009
4833:1911
4114:PMID
3648:PMID
3023:and
2852:and
2750:and
2717:and
2536:and
2490:and
2470:from
2446:both
2337:and
2259:and
2071:time
2035:and
2015:and
1973:a, c
1960:and
1911:i.e.
1691:the
1114:real
904:(or
211:same
197:and
177:and
112:and
27:The
8885:doi
8873:303
8846:doi
8793:doi
8585:doi
8523:doi
8477:doi
8374:doi
8345:doi
8313:doi
8193:414
8180:190
8092:doi
8041:doi
7942:doi
7859:doi
6561:doi
6549:319
6527:doi
6515:318
6493:doi
6481:318
6459:doi
6447:310
6356:doi
6330:doi
6288:doi
6264:doi
6252:338
6228:doi
6216:337
6192:doi
6169:157
6146:157
5970:hdl
5962:doi
5926:140
5673:doi
5661:347
5639:hdl
5631:doi
5619:350
5583:doi
5571:327
5498:doi
5486:352
5464:doi
5428:doi
5386:doi
5344:doi
5286:doi
5274:155
5222:doi
5191:doi
4919:doi
4891:doi
4865:doi
4780:doi
4768:328
4744:doi
4732:328
4694:doi
4682:190
4642:140
4584:doi
4572:324
4476:doi
4464:277
4442:doi
4430:276
4408:doi
4396:336
4372:doi
4331:doi
4319:321
4293:doi
4281:320
4238:doi
4226:339
4206:doi
4194:135
4177:doi
4148:doi
4106:doi
4036:doi
3982:doi
3970:331
3920:doi
3908:328
3877:doi
3865:325
3835:doi
3823:323
3793:doi
3781:322
3682:doi
3640:doi
3553:doi
3541:316
3519:doi
3491:doi
3479:335
3458:157
3441:156
3420:doi
3378:doi
3343:doi
3275:doi
3263:315
2343:the
1840:by
1653:all
844:.)
79:of
9808::
9184:,
9180:,
9176:,
9165:,
9159:,
9155:,
9129:,
9121:,
9091:,
9087:,
8944:11
8942:,
8883:,
8871:,
8844:,
8834:71
8832:,
8828:,
8791:,
8781:,
8771:31
8769:,
8765:,
8687::
8685:}}
8681:{{
8653:,
8649:,
8591:,
8583:,
8573:59
8571:,
8567:,
8529:,
8521:,
8511:53
8509:,
8475:,
8463:37
8461:,
8457:,
8397:}}
8393:{{
8341:34
8339:,
8335:,
8319:,
8311:,
8299:,
8205:,
8191:,
8178:,
8174:,
8098:,
8090:,
8078:,
8074:,
8055:,
8047:,
8039:,
8029:95
8027:,
7948:,
7940:,
7932:,
7920:69
7918:,
7914:,
7855:20
7853:,
7849:,
7775:^
7643:^
7543:^
7513:^
7402:^
7381:^
7369:^
7339:^
7309:^
7297:^
7283:^
7253:^
7223:^
7157:^
6954:^
6906:^
6885:^
6873:^
6850:^
6838:^
6799:^
6682:.
6676:.
6646:.
6640:.
6559:,
6547:,
6543:,
6525:,
6513:,
6509:,
6491:,
6479:,
6475:,
6457:,
6445:,
6405:21
6403:,
6382:12
6380:,
6352:23
6350:,
6346:,
6326:11
6320:,
6284:27
6282:,
6278:,
6262:,
6250:,
6226:,
6214:,
6188:44
6182:,
6167:,
6144:,
6095:13
6093:,
6087:,
6059:17
6057:,
6030:,
6017:47
6015:,
6011:,
5996:,
5978:,
5968:,
5960:,
5950:21
5948:,
5924:,
5901:,
5844:,
5840:,
5826:11
5824:,
5820:,
5807:,
5791:,
5768:,
5753:,
5723:,
5706:,
5671:,
5659:,
5655:,
5637:,
5629:,
5617:,
5613:,
5581:,
5569:,
5565:,
5544:10
5542:,
5538:,
5528:).
5496:,
5484:,
5480:,
5462:,
5452:61
5450:,
5434:,
5426:,
5416:34
5414:,
5410:,
5392:,
5384:,
5374:31
5372:,
5368:,
5350:,
5342:,
5332:22
5330:,
5326:,
5292:,
5284:,
5272:,
5268:,
5220:,
5210:68
5208:,
5187:38
5185:,
5137:16
5135:,
5131:,
5079:,
5075:,
5060:,
5056:,
5043:,
5039:,
5024:,
5020:,
4985:,
4963:25
4961:,
4950:21
4948:,
4925:,
4915:48
4913:,
4897:,
4887:44
4885:,
4881:,
4861:16
4859:,
4855:,
4831:,
4816:12
4814:,
4778:,
4766:,
4742:,
4730:,
4726:,
4692:,
4680:,
4676:,
4660:,
4656:,
4640:,
4636:,
4621:,
4617:,
4602:,
4598:,
4582:,
4570:,
4551:45
4549:,
4532:,
4515:.
4502:11
4500:.
4474:,
4462:,
4458:,
4440:,
4428:,
4424:,
4406:,
4394:,
4368:27
4362:,
4347:,
4329:,
4317:,
4291:,
4279:,
4256:,
4252:,
4236:,
4224:,
4220:,
4204:,
4192:,
4175:,
4165:30
4163:,
4142:.
4138:.
4120:,
4112:,
4104:,
4094:13
4092:,
4088:,
4042:,
4034:,
4024:38
4022:,
4018:,
4004:10
4002:,
3998:,
3980:,
3968:,
3964:,
3941:,
3937:,
3918:,
3906:,
3902:,
3883:,
3875:,
3863:,
3859:,
3833:,
3821:,
3817:,
3791:,
3779:,
3775:,
3754:10
3752:,
3731:16
3729:,
3725:,
3705:15
3703:,
3699:,
3676:,
3672:,
3654:,
3646:,
3638:,
3628:31
3626:,
3622:,
3581:,
3568:,
3551:,
3539:,
3535:,
3517:,
3507:39
3505:,
3489:,
3477:,
3456:,
3452:,
3439:,
3435:,
3414:,
3410:,
3384:,
3376:,
3366:15
3364:,
3360:,
3341:,
3331:12
3329:,
3318:11
3316:,
3312:,
3299:,
3273:,
3261:,
3257:,
3242:,
3159:.
3147:.
3124:.
3100:.
3058:,
3054:,
3050:,
3046:,
3039:.
3019:.
2669:.
2654:,
2650:,
2532:,
2520:,
2286:,
2282:,
2278:,
2233:mc
1261:.
477:.
246:.
238:,
234:,
230:,
193:,
181:,
144:.
120:.
55:,
39:,
35:,
9239:)
9235:(
9225:e
9218:t
9211:v
9125::
9115::
9093:6
8887::
8879::
8848::
8840::
8795::
8777::
8697:)
8677:.
8655:5
8587::
8579::
8525::
8517::
8479::
8403:)
8376::
8347::
8315::
8307::
8301:7
8214:.
8209::
8199::
8094::
8086::
8080:1
8043::
8035::
7976:.
7944::
7936::
7926::
7861::
7685:.
7436:.
6694:.
6658:.
6563::
6555::
6529::
6521::
6495::
6487::
6461::
6453::
6358::
6332::
6290::
6266::
6258::
6230::
6222::
6194::
6110:.
6101::
5972::
5964::
5956::
5930:.
5854:.
5846:5
5793:5
5755:9
5725:7
5708:8
5679:.
5675::
5667::
5641::
5633::
5625::
5585::
5577::
5500::
5492::
5466::
5458::
5430::
5422::
5388::
5380::
5346::
5338::
5288::
5280::
5224::
5216::
5200:;
5193::
5081:6
5062:5
5045:2
5026:1
4987:1
4921::
4893::
4867::
4782::
4774::
4746::
4738::
4696::
4688::
4662:X
4623:7
4604:2
4586::
4578::
4534:4
4478::
4470::
4444::
4436::
4410::
4402::
4374::
4333::
4325::
4295::
4287::
4258:1
4240::
4232::
4208::
4200::
4183:.
4179::
4171::
4154:.
4150::
4144:2
4108::
4100::
4038::
4030::
3984::
3976::
3949::
3943:4
3922::
3914::
3879::
3871::
3848:.
3837::
3829::
3806:.
3795::
3787::
3760::
3711::
3688:.
3684::
3678:8
3642::
3634::
3583:5
3570:9
3555::
3547::
3521::
3513::
3493::
3485::
3426:.
3422::
3416:8
3380::
3372::
3345::
3337::
3301:5
3277::
3269::
2620:2
2615:4
2611:x
2602:2
2597:3
2593:x
2589:+
2584:2
2579:2
2575:x
2571:+
2566:2
2561:1
2557:x
2398:2
2394:c
2390:m
2387:=
2384:E
2229:E
2221:.
2219:c
2217:/
2215:E
2210:E
2191:)
2187:1
2174:2
2170:c
2164:2
2160:v
2151:1
2147:1
2141:(
2135:2
2131:c
2127:m
2124:=
2119:n
2116:i
2113:k
2109:E
1990:.
1988:c
1983:.
1977:d
1968:.
1962:c
1958:a
1951:b
1937:;
1931:d
1927:;
1921:c
1907:b
1901:a
1886:(
1816:1
1808:t
1805:c
1779:2
1775:t
1769:2
1765:c
1756:2
1752:z
1748:+
1743:2
1739:y
1735:+
1730:2
1726:x
1613:2
1609:c
1603:/
1596:2
1592:v
1584:1
1509:2
1505:c
1499:/
1494:x
1491:v
1484:t
1481:=
1474:t
1401:n
1379:1
1371:=
1368:i
1344:t
1341:i
1233:2
1229:c
1224:/
1220:E
1217:)
1214:3
1210:/
1206:4
1203:(
1200:=
1197:m
1171:2
1167:c
1162:/
1158:E
1155:)
1152:3
1148:/
1144:8
1141:(
1138:=
1135:m
1096:2
1092:c
1087:/
1083:E
1052:m
1048:/
1044:e
1016:m
992:e
968:m
964:/
960:e
928:2
924:c
920:m
917:=
914:E
888:2
884:c
879:/
875:E
872:=
869:m
825:E
801:m
775:2
771:c
766:/
762:E
759:)
756:3
752:/
748:4
745:(
742:=
739:m
669:c
665:/
661:v
637:c
633:/
629:v
583:2
579:c
574:/
570:x
567:v
561:t
558:=
551:t
526:c
522:/
518:v
464:(
444:2
440:c
435:/
431:x
428:v
422:t
419:=
412:t
382:2
378:c
372:/
365:2
361:v
353:1
347:/
343:1
22:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.