History of the Jews in Latvia

3438:). In its spiritual life there was thus a synthesis of Jewish tradition and secular culture. From the socio-economic point of view the Jews of Latvia did not form one group, and there were considerable social differences between them. They engaged in a variety of occupations and professions: there were large, medium, and small merchants, industrialists, and different categories of craftsmen, workers, salesmen, clerks, teachers, and members of the liberal professions such as physicians, lawyers, and engineers. All these factors—economic and spiritual—were practically reflected in public life: in the national Jewish sphere and in the general political life of the state. The Jewish population was also represented in the Latvian parliament. In the 4639:. The synagogue is located in the Bolderāja neighborhood and is the only active synagogue in the city, the first since the end of World War II. The city's rabbi is Rabbi Shimon Kotnovsky-Liak, whose family originally came from Rēzekne, Latvia. He himself is a native of the country. After his studies and military service in the IDF in 2006, he was sent on missions to Jewish communities in the United States and Russia and has been primarily active in Latvia and Europe since 2018. Rabbi Kotnovsky-Liak is a member of the Conference of European Rabbis and the Eastern European representative in Latvia. His mentors are 3988:, on the night of June 13–14, 1941, thousands of Latvian Jews were deported along with Latvians. Of all the ethnic groups so deported, Jews suffered proportionately more than any other, and were deported to especially harsh conditions. Records have been preserved of the deportations of 1,212 Jewish Latvian citizens (12.5% of those deported to the far reaches of the USSR) but the actual number of Jews deported was certainly larger, on the order of 5,000 to 6,000 during the first Soviet occupation. 3248: 2532: 3365:. However, the Jewish banks and cooperative societies were discriminated against in the sphere of public credit and the state bank was in practice closed to them. These societies nevertheless functioned on sound foundations. Their initial capital was relatively larger than that of the non-Jewish cooperative societies. In 1931 over 15,000 members were organized within the Jewisherion societies. Jews were particularly active in the following branches of industry: timber, 3401:, the overwhelming majority of them in medium and small trade. About 29% of the Jewish population was occupied in industry and about 7% in the liberal professions. There were no Jews in the governmental administration. The economic situation of the majority of Latvia’s Jews became difficult. Large numbers were ousted from their economic position and lost their livelihood as a result of government policy and most of them were thrust into small trade, peddling, and 2977: 5796: 4344: 4235: 2882: 44: 5782: 5987: 4330:. Of the total, 30,267 Jews (5/6) lived in Riga. The others lived in Daugavpils and other towns. According to private estimates, the Jews of Latvia in 1970 numbered about 50,000. The overwhelming majority of them lived in Riga, the capital, which became one of the leading centers of national agitation among the Jews of the Soviet Union. Underground religious and Zionist activity resulted in greater suspicion by authorities. 5975: 4303:. Along with the rest of the survivors they eventually settled in new homes, mostly in Israel. In Latvia itself, several hundred Jews had managed to survive. A public demonstration was held in Riga a few days after its liberation, in which sixty or seventy of the surviving Jews participated. Gradually, some of the Jews who had found refuge in the Soviet Union came back. Several thousand Latvian Jews had fought in the 4482:

Between 1968 and 1980, 13,153 Jews, or 35.8% of the Jewish population of Latvia, emigrated to Israel or other Western countries. Another major factor was a high rate of assimilation and intermarriage, and a death rate higher than the birth rate. In 1988–89 the Jewish birth rate was 7.0 per 1,000 and the Jewish mortality rate – 18.3 per 1,000. In 1987, 39.7% of children born of Jewish mothers had non-Jewish fathers.

145: 4502:. This included children and grandchildren who were born in Latvia, as per Latvian law citizenship is not determined by place of birth, but by having an ancestor who is a national or citizen of the state. In public school, the compulsory use of Latvian affected many Jewish students, who spoke Russian as their primary language. As Latvia sought to become a member of the 4138:. After the war, surviving witnesses reported that Cukurs had been present during the ghetto clearance and fired into the mass of Jewish civilians. According to another account Cukurs also participated in the burning of the Riga synagogues. According to Bernard Press in his book The Murder of the Jews in Latvia, Cukurs burned the synagogue on Stabu Street. 3417:, thus removing large numbers of Jews from this branch of trade, without accepting them as salaried workers or providing them with any other kind of employment; the Latvian cooperatives enjoyed wide governmental support and functioned in privileged conditions in comparison to the Jewish enterprises; and Jews had difficulty in obtaining 3473:, Agudas Israel). The number of Jewish delegates in the four parliaments which were elected in Latvia until the coup d’état of 1934 was as follows: six in the first (1922–25), five in the second (1925–28) and the third (1928–31), and three in the fourth (1931–34). Among the long-time deputies were Dubins (Agudas Israel), 3124:, and so only those Jews who could prove that they had lived there legally before the provinces became part of Russia were authorized to reside in the region. Nevertheless, the Jewish population of the Baltic region gradually increased because, from time to time, additional Jews who enjoyed special "privileges", such as 3929:

of May 15, 1934, restrictions were placed on the autonomy of minorities' "cultures and minorities" education as well as education in native language. This was part of a wider move to standardize Latvian usage in schooling and professional and governmental sectors. As a result, Jewish schools continue

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schools, in which Jewish children received a free education, was established. In addition to these, there were also Russian and German schools for Jewish children, chosen in accordance with the language of their families and wishes of their parents. These were, however, later excluded from the Jewish

4404:

On April 7, 1945, the Soviet press published the "Declaration of the Special Government Commission charged with the inquiry into the crimes committed by the German-Fascist aggressors during their occupation of the Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic". This document devotes a chapter to the persecution

4208:

Conditions in this camp, one of the worst in Latvia, led to heavy loss of life among the inmates. The Kaiserwald concentration camp, established in the summer of 1943, contained the Jewish survivors from the ghettos of Riga, Daugavpils, Liepāja, and other places, as well as non-Jews. At the end of

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In 1989, there were 22,900 Jews in Latvia, who comprised some 0.9% of the population. That same year Soviet Union allowed unrestricted Jewish immigration, and 1,588 Jews emigrated from Latvia (1,536 of them from Riga). In 1990, 3,388 Latvian Jews immigrated to Israel (2,837 of them from Riga). In

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on August 11, 1920, repatriates began to return from Russia; these included a considerable number of Jewish refugees. In this time, there were 40,000 Jews in Riga alone. By 1925 the Jewish population had increased to 95,675, the largest number of Jews during the period of Latvia’s existence as an

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The deportations of Jewish civic leaders and rabbis, members of parliament, and the professional and merchant class only a week before Nazi Germany invaded the Baltics left the Jewish community ill-prepared to organize in the face of the invasion and immediately ensuing Holocaust. Those deported

4564:

daubed on the memorial. Articles of antisemitic content appeared in the Latvian fringe nationalist press. The main topics of these articles were the collaboration of Jews with the Communists in the Soviet period, Jews tarnishing Latvia's good name in the West, and Jewish businessmen striving to

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The Jewish population of Latvia declined from 28,300 in 1979 to 22,900 in 1989, when 18,800 of its Jews lived in the capital Riga. Part of this was due to a high rate of emigration to Israel; the Soviet Union allowed limited numbers of Jewish citizens to leave the country for Israel every year.

3304:

before World War I. After the establishment of the republic, a severe crisis overtook the young state. The government had not yet consolidated itself and the country had become impoverished as a result of World War I and the struggle for independence which Latvia had conducted for several years

4631:

The Chabad Rabbi is the emissary of Chabad in Latvia since 1992, Rabbi Mordechai Glazman. He is joined by other rabbis: Rabbi Shneur Kot since 1998 and Rabbi Akiva Kramer since 2016. In September 2021, a Chabad House was inaugurated in the center of Riga on Dzirnavu Street 29, which includes a

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as politically undesirable elements. During the Nazi attack of Latvia a considerable number of Jews also succeeded in fleeing to the interior of the Soviet Union; it is estimated that some 75,000 Latvian Jews fell into Nazi hands. Survivor accounts sometimes describe how, even before the Nazi

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on June 16, 1940. Jewish civic and political leaders began to be arrested in August 1940. The first to be arrested were the Zionist leaders Favid Varhaftig and Mahanud Alperin. The leadership of Betar were deported. In 1941, the Soviets arrested Nuroks, Dubins and other Jewish civic leaders,

3267:

During the World War I in 1914, there were about 190,000 Jews in the territories of Latvia (7.4% of the total population). During the war years, many of them were expelled to the interior of Russia, while others escaped from the war zone. In 1920 the Jews of Latvia numbered 79,644 (5% of the

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continued to operate. Jewish social life did, however, retain its vitality. Owing in part to the restrictions imposed on minorities including Jews, the influence of religion and Zionism increased, motivating some to immigrate to Palestine. This also increased the influence of the banned

5053:, banned Jews from entering Livonia in 1306 (or 1309), which implied that the Jews created competition for German merchants. In the next few centuries, Jews possibly came to Livonia as authorized merchants from other countries and cities, but did not settle in Livonia for a long life. 2967:

Today's Jewish community traces its roots to survivors of the Holocaust, Jews who fled to the USSR's interior to escape the German invasion and later returned, and mostly to Jews newly immigrated to Latvia from the Soviet Union. The Latvian Jewish community today is small but active.

3171:

when the Russian armies retreated from Courland (April 1915), the Russian military authorities expelled thousands of Jews to the provinces of the interior. A considerable number later returned to Latvia as repatriates after the independent republic was established.

4181:, and other German-occupied countries began arriving in Latvia. Some 15,000 "Reich Jews" were settled in several streets of the liquidated "greater Riga ghetto". Many transports were taken straight from the Riga railroad station to execution sites in the 4497:

After the fall of the Soviet Union and Latvian independence in 1991, many Jews who arrived from the Soviet Union were denied automatic Latvian citizenship, as with anyone of any nationality who was not a Latvian citizen, or descendant of one, until the

4318:. It may be assumed that about 10,000 of them were natives, including Jewish refugees who returned to their former residences from the interior of Russia, while the remainder came from other parts of the Soviet Union. About 48% of the Jews declared 4456:

Latvians of varying backgrounds also took part in the persecution and murder of the Jews in the country outside Latvia. At the time of the German retreat in the summer of 1944, many of these collaborators fled to Germany. After the war, as assumed

4196:

The German occupying power in Latvia also kept Jews in "barracks camps", i.e., near their places of forced labor. A considerable number of such camps were located in the Riga area and other localities. Larger concentrations camps included those at

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of Holocaust memorials, in Jelgava and in the Biķernieki Forest, took place in 1993. The delegates of the World Congress of Latvian Jews who came to Biķernieki to commemorate the 46,500 Latvian Jews shot there, were shocked by the sight of

4026:, while their wives and children were sent to Novosibirsk, Krasnoyarsk, and elsewhere. Approximately half died as the consequence of their deportation, some deported more than once—M. Dubins died after being deported a second time in 1956. 3465:). On May 1, 1920, the Constituent Assembly, which was elected by a relatively democratic vote, was convened. It was to function until October 7, 1922, and included nine Jewish delegates who represented all groups in the Jewish population ( 3433:

Latvian Jewry continued the communal and popular traditions of Russian Jewry, of which it formed a part until 1918. On the other hand, it was also influenced by the culture of West European Jewry, being situated within its proximity (i.e.,

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from 1766 onwards, Jewish merchants were allowed to stay in Riga for six months, provided they lived in a particular block of the city. In 1785, the Jews of Sloka were allowed a temporary stay in Riga for a longer period of time.

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of Riga. The main Holocaust memorial in Riga was built in 1993 on the site of the destroyed Grand Choral Synagogue, with another one commemorating the events in Biķernieki (built 2001), the Rumbula massacre (built 2002) and the

4494:, 12,624 Jews and non-Jewish family members of Jews immigrated from Latvia to Israel between 1989 and 2000. Some Latvian Jews also emigrated to other Western countries. Many of these emigrants kept their Latvian citizenship. 3131:

By 1897 the Jewish population had already increased to 26,793 (3.5% of the population), about three-quarters of whom lived in Riga. In Courland there were 22,734 Jews in the middle of the 19th century, while according to the

4469:(IRO), and other relief organizations for Nazi victims, and some of them immigrated to the U.S. and other countries abroad. On the other hand, there were also Latvians who risked their lives in order to save Jews. One such, 4067:. At the end of July 1941 the Germans replaced the military with a civil administration. One of its first acts was the promulgation of a series of anti-Jewish ordinances. A subordinate civil administration composed of local 4213:(in Lithuania) were also taken to Kaiserwald. When the Soviet victories in the summer of 1944 forced a German retreat from the Baltic states, the surviving inmates of the Kaiserwald camp were deported by the Germans to 4848:

in the Holocaust. Latvia's Jewish population after World War II peaked at almost 37,000 in 1970, and afterwards began consistently declining. Latvia's Jewish population significantly declined in the 1990s after the

3321:

before World War I, upon their return from Russia they resumed export of these goods on their own initiative. They also developed a variegated industry, and a considerable part of the import trade, such as that of

3305:(1918–20) against both Germany and the Soviet Union. With the cessation of hostilities, Latvia found itself retarded in both the administrative and economic spheres. Among other difficulties, there was running 3284:), while the natural increase only partly replaced these departures. The largest communities were Riga with 43,672 Jews (11.3% of the total) in 1935, Daugavpils with 11,106 (25%), and Liepāja with 7,379 (13%). 3362: 3334:, was concentrated in their hands. However, once the Jews had made their contribution, the authorities began to force them out of their economic positions and to deprive them of their sources of livelihood. 2960:

World War II ended the prominence of the Jewish community. Under Stalin, Jews, who formed only 5% of the population, constituted 12% of the deportees. 80% of Latvia's Jewish population was murdered in

3979:

After first extracting Latvian agreement under duress—Stalin personally threatened the Latvian foreign minister, in Moscow, during negotiations—to the stationing of Soviet troops on Latvian soil, the

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While striving toward independence the Latvian national movement sought to make common cause with the Jews in the republic. July 4 was established in Latvia as a memorial day for the victims of the

2957:. The Jewish community flourished. Jewish parents had the right to send their children to schools using Hebrew as the language of instruction, as part of a significant network of minority schools. 3954:) being removed from the Jewish curriculum. Notably, Dubnow was among the Jews who fled from Germany to Latvia for safety in 1938. (Latvia continued to take in refugees until the fall of 1938.) 5331: 3128:

graduates, those engaged in "useful" professions, etc., received authorization to settle there. In the middle of the 19th century, there were about 9,000 Jews in the province of Livonia.

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which was formed during the first year of Latvian independence and existed until April 1920, there were also representatives of the national minorities, including seven Jews, among them

4628:

The old synagogue (Peitav Shul) in the Old Town of Riga is active regularly, and today, the rabbi of the synagogue is Rabbi Eliyahu Kramer. This synagogue belongs to the Litvak stream.

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excesses at the hands of the Latvian activists, although there is some disagreement amongst Jewish historians as to the extent of this phenomenon. Latvian-American Holocaust historian

6040: 4433:, his assistant; Sauer, commandant of the Kaiserwald concentration camp; and several dozen other Nazi criminals involved in the destruction of Latvian Jewry. On January 26, 1946, the 3866:; this coincided with the bill on the cultural autonomy of the minorities. In the Ministry of Education, there were special departments for the minorities. The engineer Jacob Landau ( 6524: 2999:

in the second half of the 16th century, when the lands of Latvia became the subject to Denmark, Poland and Lithuania, Jews began to arrive in the territory of Latvia. First was the

6494: 4525: 4014:, 1st and 3rd Saeima deputy and head of the Bund Noijs Maizels, as well as other Jewish members of parliament. Men were separated from their families and sent to labor camps at 6116: 4153:

were destroyed and 400 Jews were killed. According to Stahlecker's report, the number of Jews killed in mass executions by Einsatzgruppe A by the end of October 1941 in Riga,

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at the end of 1941. He and six others were sentenced to death by hanging; the sentence was carried out in Riga on February 3, 1946. Other trials were held in the postwar

1165: 5412:

and These Names Accuse (Latvian National Foundation, Stockholm) both estimate that 5,000 Jews were deported in the first Soviet mass deportation of June 13–14, 1941.

4119:, whose unit operated on the northern Russian front and in the occupied Baltic republics. His account covers the period from the end of June up to October 15, 1941. 3050:

In the Eastern part of Latvia, Latgale, Jews came from Ukraine, Belarus and Poland in the 17th and 18th centuries, of whom most belonged to the Polish culture of

4314:

According to the population census taken in the Soviet Union in 1959, there were 36,592 Jews (17,096 men and 19,496 women; 1.75% of the total population) in the

3993: 1743: 1398: 1093: 6861: 3309:. Jews made a large contribution to the rebuilding of the state from the ruins of the war and its consequences. Having much experience in the export of the 6151: 5964: 5568: 4107:("task forces") played a leading role in the destruction of Latvian Jews, according to information given in their own reports, especially in the report of 1285: 2493: 4405:

and murder of Jews. The declaration lists Nazis held responsible for the crimes committed in Latvia under German occupation. They include Lohse, the

257: 5911: 5687: 1280: 4205:(Mežaparks). The Salaspils concentration camp, set up at the end of 1941, contained thousands of people, including many Latvian and foreign Jews. 4004: 3984:

Zionists, conservatives, and right wing socialists. Their arrest orders were approved by S. Shustin. When the Soviets executed the first round of

7075: 5916: 5765: 4573: 4490:, and Latvia regained its independence. Immigration continued throughout the 1990s, causing a decline in the Jewish population. According to the 1528: 6279: 5844: 5105: 4365: 4256: 2946:(1700–1721), which decimated Latvia's population. The Jewish community reestablished itself in the 18th century, mainly through an influx from 6209: 4430: 4087: 3443: 1782: 3906:

schools according to their parents’ wishes. There were also government pedagogic institutes for teachers in Hebrew and Yiddish, courses for

4103:" period at all in most parts of Latvia, when Latvian activists could have engaged in the persecution of Jews on their own initiative. The 3879:

department because, by decision of the Ministry of Education, only the Hebrew and Yiddish schools were included within the scope of Jewish

3346: 4506:, its citizenship requirements were gradually relaxed in the 1990s, allowing for its postwar residents to apply for Latvian citizenship. 3963: 2910: 767: 730: 4453:, but altogether only a small number of Germans and Latvians who had taken part in the murder of Latvian Jewry were brought to justice. 6557: 5625: 5600: 3509: 5937: 4082:'s attack on the Soviet Union, 14,000 citizens of Latvia, including several thousand Jews, were deported by the Soviet authorities to 3341:, in practice the economic policy of the government was intended to restrict their activities. This was also reflected in the area of 6416: 6229: 6055: 5712: 3457:, later chairman of the Jewish National Democratic Party), who acted as Minister of Labor (1919–21), anong other high positions, and 3047:. In 1793, the Jews in Jelgava expressed their gratitude to Duke Peter von Biron for the protection of Jews and religious tolerance. 1706: 5377: 6254: 6144: 5957: 5405: 1729: 5639: 5476: 6426: 5886: 5814: 4295:

About 1,000 Latvian Jews survived their internment in concentration camps; most of them refused repatriation and remained in the

1079: 4635:

In late August 2018, the "Beit Yisrael" synagogue was inaugurated in the residential area of Jūrmala at the home of businessman

4568:

In the early 2000s, after a decade of mass emigration, around 9,000 Jews remained in Latvia, mostly in Riga, where an Ohr Avner

6514: 6466: 6341: 6336: 2834: 2486: 1656: 1591: 1473: 777: 5891: 5542: 4051:

Latvia was occupied by the Germans during the first weeks of the German-Soviet war in July 1941. It became part of the new

3930:

to operate while secular Yiddish schools were closed. This resulted in the works of eminent Jewish authors such as the poet

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of Riga and the provincial towns. The decline in their status was due to three principal causes: the government assumed the

6471: 6301: 5849: 5809: 4963: 4046: 3578: 3470: 3236: 3058:(self-government). In the 17th and 18th centuries, Jews were not permitted to stay in Riga or Vidzeme. During the reign of 3027:

had a benevolent attitude toward the Jews. A great role in the modernization of Courland was achieved by finance assistant

2824: 2766: 1215: 4169:(Dvinsk) totaled 30,025, and by the end of December 1941, 35,238 Latvian Jews had been killed; 2,500 Jews remained in the 3337:

Although, in theory, there were no discriminatory laws against the Jews in democratic Latvia and they enjoyed equality of

3019:'s (1610–1681) economic reforms. Attempts of the conservative landowners to banish the Jews failed. In 18th century, Duke 6476: 6137: 5950: 4499: 3980: 3545: 3536: 3527: 3518: 2819: 1483: 1300: 1290: 530: 6401: 5046: 4658:. Around three-quarters of the Jews are Latvian citizens, which is a high percentage for an ethnic minority in Latvia. 4466: 4304: 1879: 1829: 1794: 1488: 1353: 1220: 4193:(in Lithuania) were brought to Riga and some of them participated in the underground organization in the Riga ghetto. 7033: 6371: 6331: 6311: 6291: 6194: 5881: 4924: 4391: 4282: 2839: 2804: 2479: 1571: 1533: 1508: 1428: 1413: 1260: 1200: 1155: 5896: 5876: 4373: 4264: 3152:

penetrated early to the Livonia and Courland communities but assimilation did not make the same headway there as in

6504: 6306: 5824: 5373:

Leo Dribins, Armands Gūtmanis, Marģers Vestermanis. "The Jewish Community of Latvia: History, Tragedy, Rebirth" at

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was appointed its commissioner general, with headquarters in Riga, the seat of the Reich Commissioner for Ostland,

3345:. The Jews of Latvia developed a ramified network of loan banks for the granting of credit with the support of the 3145: 3000: 2728: 1864: 1846: 1752: 1646: 1498: 1493: 1418: 1383: 1250: 3035:, doctors and teachers of Jewish extraction came to Courland. They brought the idea of emancipation of the Jews - 3015:. The Jews were entrusted with the offices of tax-collectors, money-changers and merchants. They facilitated Duke 7096: 6509: 6456: 6431: 6386: 6381: 6356: 6214: 4487: 3350: 2903: 2382: 2281: 1836: 1819: 1772: 1671: 1581: 1518: 1468: 1448: 1443: 1363: 1337: 1312: 1190: 1180: 1170: 1150: 1145: 3011:

after 1570. In the 17th century large numbers of Jews arrived in the Duchy of Courland that was a vassal of the

7005: 6927: 6638: 6550: 6421: 6411: 6361: 6321: 6274: 6269: 6259: 6244: 6239: 6234: 6219: 6204: 6199: 6189: 6184: 6179: 6174: 6026: 6011: 5819: 4369: 4260: 3164: 2642: 1855: 1841: 1809: 1789: 1757: 1701: 1676: 1651: 1631: 1621: 1606: 1601: 1596: 1576: 1566: 1561: 1538: 1453: 1438: 1358: 1317: 1270: 1265: 1185: 1130: 5304: 3926: 3224: 2814: 6932: 6519: 6461: 6406: 6396: 6376: 6366: 6351: 6346: 6326: 6264: 6249: 6224: 6160: 6093: 6070: 6016: 5834: 4586: 4202: 3863: 3439: 3137: 2859: 2276: 1814: 1799: 1762: 1724: 1696: 1686: 1681: 1666: 1661: 1626: 1611: 1586: 1552: 1523: 1423: 1408: 1332: 1322: 1240: 1210: 1135: 1121: 4173:

and 950 in the Daugavpils ghetto. At the end of 1941 and the beginning of 1942, Jews deported from Germany,

3136:, some 51,072 Jews (7.6% of the population) lived there. The Jews of Courland formed a special group within 6942: 6436: 6391: 6316: 6286: 4071:

elements was also established, to which Latvian general councillors were appointed. Their nominal head was

3232: 3133: 1884: 1804: 1767: 1691: 1636: 1503: 1478: 1403: 1378: 1368: 1307: 1230: 1225: 1205: 1195: 1175: 1160: 1053: 757: 521: 516: 5492: 7015: 6060: 5839: 5001: 4991: 4214: 4030: 2870: 2809: 1874: 1869: 1824: 1777: 1463: 1433: 1393: 1388: 1245: 551: 5691: 6846: 6602: 5854: 5050: 4308: 4052: 2896: 2511: 2348: 2193: 1901: 1295: 491: 481: 217: 6543: 5152: 3117: 2462: 2155: 2006: 1947: 838: 5665: 5393:

Swain, Geoff, Between Stalin and Hitler: class war and race war on the Dvina. RoutledgeCurzon, 2004.

5109: 6901: 6622: 6597: 6592: 4491: 4438: 4354: 4245: 4142: 3998: 2165: 2145: 1255: 735: 276: 6820: 6730: 6617: 6612: 6607: 6566: 6006: 5906: 5829: 4358: 4296: 4249: 4112: 4060: 3012: 2844: 2829: 2710: 2627: 2622: 2306: 2296: 2261: 2140: 2130: 1913: 1084: 1026: 860: 539: 496: 211: 6785: 4486:

1991, the number of immigrants to Israel from Riga was 1,087. That same year, the Soviet Union

4056: 3556: 3462: 3020: 2751: 2733: 2425: 2160: 2074: 1140: 692: 311: 281: 6725: 6643: 6050: 5070: 4821: 3276:

Between 1925 and 1935 over 6,000 Jews left Latvia (the overwhelming majority of them for the

2657: 2652: 2316: 2311: 2256: 2044: 959: 687: 674: 569: 286: 5593: 6995: 6109: 4971: 4636: 3640: 2756: 2700: 2387: 2339: 2079: 1937: 750: 615: 604: 562: 6663: 2953:

Under an independent Latvia, Jews formed political parties and participated as members of

8: 7049: 6851: 6815: 6780: 6760: 6755: 5374: 4644: 4042: 4019: 3931: 3277: 3059: 2799: 2761: 2718: 2556: 2440: 2135: 813: 680: 583: 576: 506: 394: 269: 6810: 5730: 5402: 4473:, helped to save several dozen Jews of the Riga ghetto by providing them with hideouts. 4029:

It is estimated that of the 2,100,000 Jews who came under Soviet control as a result of

3268:

population). After the signing of the peace treaty between the Latvian Republic and the

5942: 5643: 5473: 5228: 4422: 4406: 3887: 3501:

Seats won by Jewish political parties in elections during the first Republic of Latvia

3141: 3121: 3090: 2943: 2849: 2723: 2690: 2291: 2241: 2188: 2183: 2097: 1967: 1235: 1064: 823: 743: 597: 163: 6765: 5177: 6979: 6922: 6800: 6745: 6653: 6648: 5736: 5619: 4948: 4850: 4458: 4434: 4410: 4096: 3895: 3891: 3836: 3679: 3478: 3421:. In addition to the above, the Jewish population was subjected to a heavy burden of 3293: 3212: 3109: 2520: 2435: 2377: 2357: 2174: 1734: 1373: 833: 704: 634: 511: 424: 291: 4033:

dividing Eastern Europe, about 1,900,000 were deported to Siberia and central Asia.

4009: 3957:

All political parties and organizations were also abolished. Of Jewish groups, only

3216: 3040: 6906: 6795: 6790: 6689: 6658: 6080: 5859: 5760: 5279: 5202: 5018: 4870: 4651: 4640: 4577: 4446: 4327: 4323: 4182: 4131: 4068: 3985: 3947: 3935: 3919: 3832: 3828: 3824: 3474: 3418: 3342: 3184: 2789: 2695: 2637: 2405: 2286: 2246: 2210: 1908: 1458: 969: 725: 629: 544: 434: 226: 80: 76: 6874: 5543:"Liepāja Municipality, the Šķēde Dunes : Holocaust Memorial Places in Latvia" 3120:

into Russia as a province in 1795. Both these provinces were situated outside the

6958: 6879: 6735: 6684: 5864: 5480: 5409: 5381: 4617:

restored as museums. One of the largest memorials outside Riga is located at the

4135: 4116: 3915: 3281: 3093: 3051: 3024: 2705: 2574: 2367: 2326: 2321: 2301: 2223: 2217: 2150: 2102: 1942: 1923: 1074: 803: 715: 698: 242: 128: 120: 84: 72: 55: 6963: 6129: 5085:

https://www.pmlp.gov.lv/sites/pmlp/files/media_file/isvn_latvija_pec_ttb_vpd.pdf

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also operated a day school, as well as a kindergarten. An active synagogue, the

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In 2023, a mass grave of dozens of Jews slain by Nazis in 1941 was detected in

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Significant portions of this article were reproduced, with permission of the

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Before World War II, Latvia had almost 100,000 Jews. Most Latvian Jews were

4650:

The population in the 2021 census rose from 6,454 to 8,094. This included 4

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R. O. G. Urch. Latvia: Country and People. London, Allen & Unwin. 1938.

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administration began persecuting the Latvian Jews, they had suffered from

3159:

Courland Jewry developed a specific character, combining features of both

3039:, with them. Jews also took part in the building of the Duke's palaces in 6937: 6720: 6699: 4858: 4598: 4552: 4533: 4450: 4426: 4315: 4170: 4134:

on November 30, 1941. One of the most notorious members of the group was

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which prevailed in this region, and on the other by that of neighboring

7000: 6750: 4866: 4854: 4602: 4166: 4150: 3914:, a popular Jewish music academy, evening schools for working youth, a 3757: 3490: 3256: 3220: 3204: 3196: 3192: 3125: 3113: 3079: 2589: 2561: 2088: 1102: 1031: 989: 818: 798: 357: 264: 184: 5921: 4622: 4610: 4606: 4597:) Cemetery, is located on the city's eastern side in Lizuma Street in 4594: 4581: 4158: 2981: 2976: 7070: 5569:"82 years after Nazi massacre, mass Jewish grave uncovered in Latvia" 5013: 4865:

to Israel and the United States (specifically, to the U.S. states of

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was held in Riga. It was attended by delegates from Israel, the US,

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as their language, while only a few hundred described themselves as

4234: 2991:

had no connections with the Jews and their entrance was banned into

2950:, and came to play a principal role in the economic life of Latvia. 2632: 1004: 5308: 5307:. The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot. Archived from 4845: 4557: 4311:(43rd Guard) and 304th, and many were killed or wounded in battle. 4162: 3880: 3862:

On December 8, 1919, the general bill on schools was passed by the

3466: 3410: 3398: 3331: 3297: 3149: 3105: 3075: 3036: 2794: 2420: 2030: 1962: 793: 301: 252: 3497:(Bund). The last two were not reelected to the fourth parliament. 3361:, etc., were established and organized within a central body, the 5986: 5938:

Dvinsk (Daugavpils) and Vishki (Višķi) records, from 1867 to 1905

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Synagogue is still in operation, with a new synagogue opened in

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The Holocaust in Latvia & Latvia's Jews Yesterday and Today

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Swain, G. Between Stalin and Hitler. Routledge, New York. 2004.

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Jewish parliamentary representatives, first Republic of Latvia

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Aaron Levi Lipman (served until 1741), upon whose request many

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forests near Riga, and elsewhere. In 1942 about 800 Jews from

5713:

YIVO | Population and Migration: Population since World War I

4614: 4462: 4414: 4300: 3966:, while the Jewish intelligentsia gravitated toward Zionism. 3422: 3394: 3318: 3251:

Ethnic composition of Latvia from 1863 to 1935. The towns of

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The Holocaust in Latvia, 1941–1944 : The Missing Center

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with approximately 12,000 pupils and 742 teachers, eighteen

3242: 144: 4647:. He holds a dual degree in political science and Judaism. 4417:) for Ostland; Drechsler, Commissioner General for Latvia; 3898:

with 300 pupils and thirty-seven teachers. Pupils attended

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with approximately 2,000 pupils and 286 teachers, and four

3405:

in various goods at the second-hand clothes markets in the

3390: 3370: 3327: 3097: 3067: 2926: 171: 112: 3054:. A large part of their community life was managed by the 5926: 5517: 4445:, among them Jeckeln, one of the men responsible for the 4126:

played a leading role in the atrocities committed in the

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milling. About one half of the Jews of Latvia engaged in

5972: 3003:, where there formed a Jewish community near modern day 4537: 4108: 5106:"Kurzeme's and Zemgale's Jews - Latvijas Universitāte" 3485:

in Israel after the country was established in 1948),

3215:

was short-lived. On May 15, 1934, the prime minister,

5332:"Noslepkavoto ebreju piemiņai (2) | Druva - AlisePAC" 3199:(Zemgale) and Livonia (Vidzeme), and the independent 2934:

dates back to the first Jewish colony established in

5777: 5715:. Yivoencyclopedia.org. Retrieved on April 14, 2013. 5474:

LATVIA'S JEWISH COMMUNITY: HISTORY, TRAGEDY, REVIVAL

2035: 2016: 439: 5922:

Official Encyclopaedia Judaica, 2nd Edition website

4632:synagogue, a community center, and a kosher store. 4322:as their mother tongue. The others mainly declared 4221:, and from there were sent to various other camps. 3870:) headed the Jewish department. A broad network of 4516:Many Jewish organizations operate in the country. 6159: 4593:(built 2005). The main Jewish cemetery, the New ( 7088: 5642:. Demoscope.ru. January 15, 2013. Archived from 4982:Supplement to the Monthly Bulletin of Statistics 3974: 3179:, in which most of the population was Latvian, 5845:Military history of Latvia during World War II 5680: 5586: 3140:. On the one hand they were influenced by the 6551: 6145: 5958: 4225:German retreat and Soviet re-occupation, 1944 4141:At the instigation of the Einsatzgruppe, the 3235:of the nation. His government inclined to be 3203:was established (November 1918). At first, a 3195:(Dvinsk), were joined to Courland (Kurzeme), 3078:, the two principalities on the coast of the 2904: 2487: 5435:Latvians and Jews Between Germany and Russia 5423:Latvians and Jews Between Germany and Russia 3428: 3363:Alliance of Cooperative Societies for Credit 3347:American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee 3211:spirit prevailed in the young state but the 6565: 5766:YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe 5369: 5367: 5365: 5363: 5361: 5359: 5357: 5355: 5353: 4372:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 4263:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 3992:included Constitutional Convention members 3263:in particular had large Jewish populations. 731:History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire 6558: 6544: 6152: 6138: 5965: 5951: 5658: 5632: 5469: 5467: 5334:[To the Memory of Murdered Jews]. 4668: 2911: 2897: 2494: 2480: 5518:"The Jewish community of Jūrmala, Latvia" 5387: 5297: 4861:to other countries, especially they made 4476: 4392:Learn how and when to remove this message 4283:Learn how and when to remove this message 3292:Jews already played an important role in 3243:Jewish population in the Latvian Republic 5350: 5100: 5098: 5096: 5094: 5092: 4519: 4209:September 1943 Jews from the liquidated 3857: 3353:(JCA). Cooperative credit societies for 3246: 2975: 143: 7006:Extraordinary (Soviet) State Commission 5912:The Holocaust in German-Occupied Latvia 5815:History of the Jews during World War II 5464: 5375:the Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs 5138: 5136: 5027: 5008:Mezhdunarodnaia Evreiskaia Gazeta (MEG) 3886:In 1933 there were ninety-eight Jewish 7089: 5624:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 5427: 4687: 4037:German occupation of Latvia, 1941–1944 3778: 3756: 3736: 3716: 3694: 3639: 3619: 3599: 3577: 3555: 6539: 6133: 5946: 5089: 7076:Occupation of Latvia by Nazi Germany 6989:War crimes investigations and trials 5850:Occupation of Latvia by Nazi Germany 5810:General Jewish Labour Bund in Latvia 5728: 5226: 5133: 4964:The Destruction of the European Jews 4816:The Jewish population data includes 4674:Historical Latvian Jewish population 4370:adding citations to reliable sources 4337: 4333: 4261:adding citations to reliable sources 4228: 4047:Occupation of Latvia by Nazi Germany 3191:), including the large community of 2767:The First Latvian National Awakening 36:Regions with significant populations 5666:"Ethnicities in Latvia. Statistics" 5329: 5153:"COURLAND - JewishEncyclopedia.com" 5124: 4919:Die Vernichtung der Juden Lettlands 4500:Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940 3175:Three districts of the province of 3082:which were incorporated within the 3066:Essentially the nucleus of Latvian 13: 5722: 5606:from the original on March 3, 2016 5566: 5047:Grand Master of the Teutonic Order 4682: 4467:International Refugee Organization 3918:, and cultural clubs. There was a 3280:which was soon to be declared the 2971: 14: 7108: 7034:Roberts Seduls and Johanna Sedule 6835:Nazi occupation and organizations 5870: 5690:. Data.csb.gov.lv. Archived from 4925:Jewish Central Information Office 4912:Perakim be-Toledot Yahadut Latvia 4891:Geschikhte fun di Yidn in Letland 4836:(all per the 1959 Soviet census). 4441:began a trial of a group of Nazi 4075:, a former Latvian army general. 2840:Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic 2805:Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic 522:Historical population comparisons 6056:Latvian people of Jewish descent 5985: 5973: 5825:History of the Jews in Lithuania 5794: 5780: 5421:Dov Levin, quoted in Gordon, F. 4342: 4233: 4078:In mid-June 1941, on the eve of 3922:reflecting a variety of trends. 3851:Jewish social-democratic "Bund" 3665:Jewish National Democratic Party 3287: 2880: 2729:Duchy of Courland and Semigallia 2530: 1166:Democratic Republic of the Congo 1080:Historical population by country 42: 5932:JewishGEN Vishki Shtetl website 5706: 5560: 5535: 5510: 5485: 5452: 5439: 5415: 5396: 5323: 5272: 5247: 5203:"Courland, by Herman Rosenthal" 5108:. April 3, 2012. Archived from 4929:From Germany to the Riga Ghetto 4876: 4524:On June 11–17, 1993, the First 3969: 3351:Jewish Colonization Association 6928:Jungfernhof concentration camp 6639:Burning of the Riga synagogues 6161:History of the Jews in Europe 6027:Burning of the Riga synagogues 6012:Jungfernhof concentration camp 5934:(not active, January 24, 2021) 5820:History of the Jews in Estonia 5384:, retrieved December 22, 2010. 5305:"The Jewish Community of Riga" 5220: 5195: 5170: 5145: 5078: 5039: 4998:Antisemitism World Report 1995 4988:Antisemitism World Report 1994 4526:World Congress of Latvian Jews 4305:Soviet army’s Latvian division 4149:against the Jews in Riga. All 3717:Jewish Progressive Association 2643:Livonian Brothers of the Sword 1: 6933:Kaiserwald concentration camp 6094:Great Choral Synagogue (Riga) 6017:Kaiserwald concentration camp 6002:History of the Jews in Latvia 5835:Kaiserwald concentration camp 5640:"Приложение Демоскопа Weekly" 5567:II, Dylan (August 24, 2023). 5060: 4832:(or Central Asian Jews), and 4587:Kaiserwald concentration camp 4565:control the Latvian economy. 2938:in 1571. Jews contributed to 2860:2008 Latvian financial crisis 737:Christianity and Judaism 6943:Salaspils concentration camp 5882:Leģenda, kas nāk no Jelgavas 5259:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org 4097:Andrew (Andrievs) Ezergailis 4055:, officially designated as " 4053:Reichskommissariat "Ostland" 3975:Soviet occupation, 1940–1941 3134:1897 Imperial Russian Census 27: 7: 7016:Righteous Among the Nations 6588:Related articles by country 5840:Latvian resistance movement 5773: 5408:September 21, 2011, at the 5002:Institute of Jewish Affairs 4992:Institute of Jewish Affairs 4601:. Elsewhere in Latvia, the 4215:Stutthof concentration camp 3981:Soviet Union invaded Latvia 3779:United List of Zemgale Jews 3231:. Ulmanis was proclaimed a 2855:Restoration of Independence 2036: 2017: 1744:Latin America and Caribbean 440: 10: 7113: 6847:Reichskommissariat Ostland 5981:Jews and Judaism in Latvia 5927:Vishki, a shtetl in Latvia 5855:Reichskommissariat Ostland 5157:www.jewishencyclopedia.com 5051:Siegfried von Feuchtwangen 4122:Nevertheless, the Latvian 4099:argues that there was no " 4040: 3864:People's Council of Latvia 3825:Mordehajs (Morduhs) Dubins 3678: 3664: 3644: 3487:Matitjahu Maksis Lazersons 3440:People's Council of Latvia 3070:was formed by the Jews of 2349:Jewish political movements 2046:Conversion to Judaism 7058: 7042: 7014: 6988: 6972: 6951: 6915: 6860: 6834: 6708: 6672: 6631: 6573: 6485: 6447: 6167: 6105: 6069: 6039: 5994: 5749:"Courland Research Group" 5479:October 30, 2014, at the 5458:Andrew Ezergailis (1996) 5380:October 30, 2014, at the 4803: 4700:— 4645:Rabbi Pinchas Goldschmidt 4572:school was in operation. 4461:, they received aid from 4299:in Germany, Austria, and 4111:-Brigadeführer (General) 3820: 3650: 3647: 3505: 3429:Public and political life 3108:, formerly an autonomous 3086:during the 18th century. 2942:'s development until the 2835:1944 Soviet re-occupation 752:Hinduism and Judaism 111: 106: 99: 94: 71: 66: 40: 35: 26: 6902:Latvian Auxiliary Police 5573:European Jewish Congress 5445:Unger, L. and Jelen, C. 5178:"Latvia (Pages 358-368)" 5032: 4439:Baltic Military District 4143:Latvian Auxiliary Police 4130:in conjunction with the 3986:mass Baltic deportations 3833:Mordehajs Markuss Nuroks 3481:, later a member of the 2815:1934 Latvian coup d'état 578:Temple in Jerusalem 271:Bar and bat mitzvah 6821:Franz Walter Stahlecker 6731:Otto-Heinrich Drechsler 6680:Jewish people of Latvia 6567:The Holocaust in Latvia 6061:Latvia–Israel relations 5830:Jews in Latvia (museum) 5069:, from the forthcoming 4943:Algemeyne Entsiklopedie 4853:when many Latvian Jews 4669:Historical demographics 4297:Displaced Persons camps 4061:Otto-Heinrich Drechsler 4031:Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact 2845:Popular Front of Latvia 2830:The Holocaust in Latvia 2628:Principality of Koknese 2623:Principality of Jersika 540:Twelve Tribes of Israel 54:8,094 (2021, including 7097:Jewish Latvian history 6210:Bosnia and Herzegovina 5902:Saviours and the Saved 5493:"Daugavpils Synagogue" 4477:Developments 1970–1991 4057:Generalbezirk Lettland 3951: 3939: 3600:Jewish Democratic Bloc 3469:, National Democrats, 3264: 3188: 3021:Ernst Johann von Biron 2984: 2820:1940 Soviet occupation 2752:Governorate of Livonia 2734:Couronian colonization 156: 5729:Bobe, Mendel (1971). 5227:Bobe, Mendel (1971). 5071:Encyclopaedia Judaica 4824:in Soviet censuses), 4641:Rabbi Uri Amos Cherki 4520:In independent Latvia 3940:Haims Nahmans Bjaliks 3858:Culture and education 3696:Jewish People's Party 3250: 3227:and Latvia became an 2979: 2658:Bishopric of Courland 2653:Archbishopric of Riga 1286:São Tomé and Príncipe 1281:Republic of the Congo 675:Second Temple Judaism 546:Kingdom of Judah 517:Modern historiography 147: 107:Related ethnic groups 6996:Einsatzgruppen trial 6786:Hans-Adolf Prützmann 6111:List of Latvian Jews 5694:on December 19, 2012 5547:memorialplaces.lu.lv 5284:yivoencyclopedia.org 5229:"The Jews in Latvia" 5028:Notes and references 5021:, Latvia and Estonia 4972:Sergio Della Pergola 4366:improve this section 4257:improve this section 3645:Histadruth-Hacionith 3641:Jewish National Bloc 3620:Jewish Economic Bloc 2980:Former synagogue in 2757:Courland Governorate 2711:Polish–Swedish Wars 2701:Inflanty Voivodeship 2388:World Agudath Israel 1529:United Arab Emirates 616:Second Temple period 606:Babylonian captivity 87:(historically), and 7050:Bikernieki Memorial 6852:Rollkommando Hamann 6816:Rudolf Joachim Seck 6781:Friedrich Panzinger 6761:Ernst Kaltenbrunner 6448:States with limited 5892:Remembering Rumbula 5646:on October 12, 2013 5336:cesis.biblioteka.lv 4675: 4413:, chief of police ( 4115:, the commander of 4086:and other parts of 4043:Holocaust in Latvia 3932:Hayim Nahman Bialik 3927:Ulmanis coup d’état 3802: 3502: 3278:Mandatory Palestine 3273:independent state. 3096:, with the city of 2810:War of Independence 2800:United Baltic Duchy 2762:Vitebsk Governorate 2719:Second Northern War 2680:Early modern period 2557:Corded Ware culture 681:Hellenistic Judaism 259:Land of Israel 218:Principles of faith 23: 6118:List of synagogues 5732:The Jews in Latvia 5497:VISITDAUGAVPILS.LV 5073:, Second Edition. 4953:The Final Solution 4884:Di Yidn in Letland 4673: 4580:, operates in the 4407:Reich Commissioner 3910:teachers, popular 3896:vocational schools 3888:elementary schools 3800: 3500: 3265: 3122:Pale of Settlement 2985: 2850:Singing Revolution 2746:National Awakening 2724:Great Northern War 2691:Kingdom of Livonia 2242:Jewish Koine Greek 1784:Dominican Republic 1065:Judaism by country 744:Jews and Christmas 599:Assyrian captivity 157: 21: 7084: 7083: 6980:Sonderaktion 1005 6923:Daugavpils Ghetto 6916:Ghettos and camps 6801:Martin Sandberger 6746:Friedrich Jeckeln 6533: 6532: 6127: 6126: 5887:Liepaja Holocaust 5668:. Roots-saknes.lv 5330:Balodis, Gunārs. 5233:www.jewishgen.org 5207:www.jewishgen.org 5182:www.jewishgen.org 4949:Gerald Reitlinger 4851:fall of Communism 4842: 4841: 4637:Emanuel Grinshpun 4459:Displaced Persons 4435:military tribunal 4411:Friedrich Jeckeln 4402: 4401: 4394: 4334:War crimes trials 4293: 4292: 4285: 3892:secondary schools 3855: 3854: 3837:Ruvins Vitenbergs 3798: 3797: 3213:democratic regime 3001:Duchy of Courland 2995:. Only after the 2921: 2920: 2887:Latvia portal 2795:German occupation 2714: 2713:(1600–1629) 2504: 2503: 2453: 2452: 2201: 2200: 1948:Reconstructionist 1892: 1891: 1044: 1043: 851: 850: 688:Jewish–Roman wars 636:Hasmonean dynasty 552:Kingdom of Israel 456: 455: 142: 141: 7104: 7059:Related articles 6907:Schutzmannschaft 6893: 6871: 6811:Walther Schröder 6796:Alfred Rosenberg 6791:Eduard Roschmann 6690:Joseph Carlebach 6644:Dünamünde Action 6589: 6579: 6560: 6553: 6546: 6537: 6536: 6486:Dependencies and 6427:Northern Ireland 6168:Sovereign states 6154: 6147: 6140: 6131: 6130: 6119: 6112: 6081:Peitav Synagogue 6073: 6043: 5989: 5982: 5977: 5967: 5960: 5953: 5944: 5943: 5804: 5799: 5798: 5797: 5790: 5785: 5784: 5783: 5756: 5744: 5716: 5710: 5704: 5703: 5701: 5699: 5684: 5678: 5677: 5675: 5673: 5662: 5656: 5655: 5653: 5651: 5636: 5630: 5629: 5623: 5615: 5613: 5611: 5605: 5598: 5590: 5584: 5583: 5581: 5579: 5564: 5558: 5557: 5555: 5553: 5539: 5533: 5532: 5530: 5528: 5514: 5508: 5507: 5505: 5503: 5489: 5483: 5471: 5462: 5456: 5450: 5443: 5437: 5431: 5425: 5419: 5413: 5400: 5394: 5391: 5385: 5371: 5348: 5347: 5345: 5343: 5327: 5321: 5320: 5318: 5316: 5311:on June 24, 2018 5301: 5295: 5294: 5292: 5290: 5276: 5270: 5269: 5267: 5265: 5251: 5245: 5244: 5242: 5240: 5224: 5218: 5217: 5215: 5213: 5199: 5193: 5192: 5190: 5188: 5174: 5168: 5167: 5165: 5163: 5149: 5143: 5140: 5131: 5128: 5122: 5121: 5119: 5117: 5112:on April 3, 2012 5102: 5087: 5082: 5054: 5043: 5019:Pinkas Hakehilot 4936:The Untold Story 4934:Isaac Levinson, 4903:Yahadut Latvia, 4900:1918–1933 (1933) 4882:M. Schatz-Anin, 4689: 4684: 4676: 4672: 4609:and the ones in 4578:Peitav Synagogue 4447:Rumbula massacre 4397: 4390: 4386: 4383: 4377: 4346: 4338: 4328:Latvian-speaking 4288: 4281: 4277: 4274: 4268: 4237: 4229: 4132:Rumbula massacre 4069:collaborationist 4013: 4002: 3994:Īzaks Rabinovičs 3964:Social Democrats 3942:) and historian 3829:Maksis Lazersons 3803: 3799: 3503: 3499: 3475:Mordehajs Nuroks 3459:Mordehajs Dubins 3452: 3201:Latvian Republic 3146:Lithuanian Jewry 2913: 2906: 2899: 2885: 2884: 2883: 2790:Latvian Riflemen 2712: 2696:Duchy of Livonia 2638:Livonian Crusade 2534: 2524: 2506: 2505: 2496: 2489: 2482: 2345: 2344: 2226: 2047: 2041: 2022: 1986: 1985: 1933: 1880:New Zealand 1832: 1795:El Salvador 1785: 1717:Northern America 1709: 1303: 1059: 1058: 970:Crimean Karaites 866: 865: 844: 842: 763: 761: 753: 747: 738: 726:Rabbinic Judaism 707: 701: 695: 683: 671: 637: 630:Maccabean Revolt 607: 600: 594: 586: 579: 573: 565: 547: 471: 470: 445: 340: 339: 272: 260: 159: 158: 152:(dark green) in 148:The location of 48: 46: 45: 24: 20: 7112: 7111: 7107: 7106: 7105: 7103: 7102: 7101: 7087: 7086: 7085: 7080: 7054: 7038: 7010: 6984: 6968: 6959:Generalplan Ost 6947: 6911: 6891: 6880:Herberts Cukurs 6869: 6856: 6830: 6766:Wolfgang Kügler 6736:Erich Ehrlinger 6704: 6668: 6664:Liepāja (Šķēde) 6627: 6587: 6577: 6569: 6564: 6534: 6529: 6487: 6481: 6467:Northern Cyprus 6449: 6443: 6342:North Macedonia 6163: 6158: 6128: 6123: 6117: 6110: 6101: 6071: 6065: 6041: 6035: 5990: 5980: 5971: 5873: 5865:Sorella Epstein 5800: 5795: 5793: 5786: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5747: 5725: 5723:Further reading 5720: 5719: 5711: 5707: 5697: 5695: 5686: 5685: 5681: 5671: 5669: 5664: 5663: 5659: 5649: 5647: 5638: 5637: 5633: 5617: 5616: 5609: 5607: 5603: 5596: 5594:"Archived copy" 5592: 5591: 5587: 5577: 5575: 5565: 5561: 5551: 5549: 5541: 5540: 5536: 5526: 5524: 5516: 5515: 5511: 5501: 5499: 5491: 5490: 5486: 5481:Wayback Machine 5472: 5465: 5457: 5453: 5444: 5440: 5432: 5428: 5420: 5416: 5410:Wayback Machine 5401: 5397: 5392: 5388: 5382:Wayback Machine 5372: 5351: 5341: 5339: 5328: 5324: 5314: 5312: 5303: 5302: 5298: 5288: 5286: 5280:"YIVO | Latvia" 5278: 5277: 5273: 5263: 5261: 5253: 5252: 5248: 5238: 5236: 5225: 5221: 5211: 5209: 5201: 5200: 5196: 5186: 5184: 5176: 5175: 5171: 5161: 5159: 5151: 5150: 5146: 5141: 5134: 5129: 5125: 5115: 5113: 5104: 5103: 5090: 5083: 5079: 5063: 5058: 5057: 5044: 5040: 5035: 5030: 4970:U. Schmelz and 4879: 4805: 4671: 4522: 4479: 4423:security police 4421:, chief of the 4398: 4387: 4381: 4378: 4363: 4347: 4336: 4289: 4278: 4272: 4269: 4254: 4238: 4227: 4136:Herberts Cukurs 4117:Einsatzgruppe A 4049: 4041:Main articles: 4039: 4007: 3996: 3977: 3972: 3916:Yiddish theater 3860: 3809:Representatives 3550: 3547: 3541: 3538: 3532: 3529: 3523: 3520: 3514: 3511: 3446: 3431: 3290: 3282:State of Israel 3245: 3094:Swedish Livonia 3025:Peter von Biron 3023:and his father 2974: 2972:General history 2925:history of the 2917: 2881: 2879: 2865: 2864: 2825:Nazi occupation 2785: 2777: 2776: 2747: 2739: 2738: 2706:Swedish Livonia 2681: 2673: 2672: 2618: 2610: 2609: 2542: 2522: 2515: 2500: 2455: 2454: 2342: 2332: 2331: 2322:Judeo-Malayalam 2302:Judaeo-Georgian 2222: 2213: 2203: 2202: 2103:Yiddish theatre 2045: 1983: 1973: 1972: 1931: 1904: 1894: 1893: 1830: 1783: 1707: 1301: 1085:Genetic studies 1056: 1046: 1045: 863: 853: 852: 840: 839: 759: 758: 751: 741: 736: 718:and Middle Ages 716:Rabbinic period 703: 697: 690: 678: 649: 635: 605: 598: 589: 581: 577: 568: 563:in Judaism 560: 545: 468: 458: 457: 337: 327: 326: 270: 258: 203: 129:Lithuanian Jews 121:Belarusian Jews 43: 41: 31: 29: 28:Latvijas ebreji 19: 12: 11: 5: 7110: 7100: 7099: 7082: 7081: 7079: 7078: 7073: 7068: 7062: 7060: 7056: 7055: 7053: 7052: 7046: 7044: 7040: 7039: 7037: 7036: 7031: 7029:Paul Schiemann 7026: 7020: 7018: 7012: 7011: 7009: 7008: 7003: 6998: 6992: 6990: 6986: 6985: 6983: 6982: 6976: 6974: 6970: 6969: 6967: 6966: 6961: 6955: 6953: 6949: 6948: 6946: 6945: 6940: 6935: 6930: 6925: 6919: 6917: 6913: 6912: 6910: 6909: 6904: 6899: 6897:Arajs Kommando 6894: 6888: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6872: 6866: 6864: 6858: 6857: 6855: 6854: 6849: 6844: 6842:Einsatzgruppen 6838: 6836: 6832: 6831: 6829: 6828: 6826:Eduard Strauch 6823: 6818: 6813: 6808: 6803: 6798: 6793: 6788: 6783: 6778: 6773: 6768: 6763: 6758: 6756:Konrāds Kalējs 6753: 6748: 6743: 6738: 6733: 6728: 6726:Fritz Dietrich 6723: 6718: 6712: 6710: 6706: 6705: 6703: 6702: 6697: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6676: 6674: 6670: 6669: 6667: 6666: 6661: 6656: 6651: 6646: 6641: 6635: 6633: 6629: 6628: 6626: 6625: 6620: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6574: 6571: 6570: 6563: 6562: 6555: 6548: 6540: 6531: 6530: 6528: 6527: 6522: 6517: 6512: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6491: 6489: 6488:other entities 6483: 6482: 6480: 6479: 6474: 6469: 6464: 6459: 6453: 6451: 6445: 6444: 6442: 6441: 6440: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6424: 6417:United Kingdom 6414: 6409: 6404: 6399: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6329: 6324: 6319: 6314: 6309: 6304: 6299: 6294: 6289: 6284: 6282: 6277: 6272: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6252: 6247: 6242: 6237: 6232: 6230:Czech Republic 6227: 6222: 6217: 6212: 6207: 6202: 6197: 6192: 6187: 6182: 6177: 6171: 6169: 6165: 6164: 6157: 6156: 6149: 6142: 6134: 6125: 6124: 6122: 6121: 6114: 6106: 6103: 6102: 6100: 6099: 6098: 6097: 6084: 6083: 6077: 6075: 6067: 6066: 6064: 6063: 6058: 6053: 6047: 6045: 6037: 6036: 6034: 6033: 6032: 6031: 6030: 6029: 6024: 6022:Salaspils camp 6019: 6014: 5998: 5996: 5992: 5991: 5970: 5969: 5962: 5955: 5947: 5941: 5940: 5935: 5929: 5924: 5919: 5914: 5909: 5904: 5899: 5894: 5889: 5884: 5879: 5872: 5871:External links 5869: 5868: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5817: 5812: 5806: 5805: 5791: 5788:Judaism portal 5775: 5772: 5771: 5770: 5757: 5745: 5724: 5721: 5718: 5717: 5705: 5679: 5657: 5631: 5585: 5559: 5534: 5509: 5484: 5463: 5451: 5438: 5426: 5414: 5395: 5386: 5349: 5322: 5296: 5271: 5246: 5219: 5194: 5169: 5144: 5132: 5123: 5088: 5076: 5075: 5062: 5059: 5056: 5055: 5037: 5036: 5034: 5031: 5029: 5026: 5025: 5024: 5011: 5005: 4995: 4985: 4979: 4968: 4956: 4946: 4939: 4932: 4922: 4915: 4908: 4905:Sefer Zikkaron 4901: 4898:15 Yor Letland 4894: 4889:L. Ovchinski, 4887: 4878: 4875: 4840: 4839: 4838: 4837: 4814: 4812: 4810: 4808: 4801: 4800: 4797: 4794: 4790: 4789: 4786: 4783: 4779: 4778: 4775: 4772: 4768: 4767: 4764: 4761: 4757: 4756: 4753: 4750: 4746: 4745: 4742: 4739: 4735: 4734: 4731: 4728: 4724: 4723: 4720: 4717: 4713: 4712: 4709: 4706: 4702: 4701: 4698: 4695: 4691: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4670: 4667: 4521: 4518: 4504:European Union 4478: 4475: 4400: 4399: 4382:September 2008 4350: 4348: 4341: 4335: 4332: 4291: 4290: 4241: 4239: 4232: 4226: 4223: 4179:Czechoslovakia 4165:(Wolmar), and 4145:carried out a 4124:Arajs Kommando 4105:Einsatzgruppen 4073:Oskars Dankers 4038: 4035: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3968: 3952:Šimons Dubnovs 3859: 3856: 3853: 3852: 3849: 3843: 3842: 3839: 3822: 3818: 3817: 3810: 3807: 3796: 3795: 3792: 3789: 3786: 3783: 3780: 3776: 3775: 3772: 3769: 3766: 3763: 3760: 3754: 3753: 3750: 3747: 3744: 3741: 3738: 3734: 3733: 3730: 3727: 3724: 3721: 3718: 3714: 3713: 3710: 3707: 3704: 3701: 3698: 3692: 3691: 3688: 3685: 3682: 3676: 3675: 3672: 3669: 3666: 3662: 3661: 3658: 3655: 3652: 3649: 3646: 3643: 3637: 3636: 3633: 3630: 3627: 3624: 3621: 3617: 3616: 3613: 3610: 3607: 3604: 3601: 3597: 3596: 3593: 3590: 3587: 3584: 3581: 3575: 3574: 3571: 3568: 3565: 3562: 3559: 3553: 3552: 3543: 3534: 3525: 3516: 3507: 3430: 3427: 3289: 3286: 3244: 3241: 3217:Kārlis Ulmanis 3154:Western Europe 3142:German culture 3084:Russian Empire 3013:King of Poland 2989:Latvian tribes 2973: 2970: 2919: 2918: 2916: 2915: 2908: 2901: 2893: 2890: 2889: 2876: 2875: 2867: 2866: 2863: 2862: 2857: 2852: 2847: 2842: 2837: 2832: 2827: 2822: 2817: 2812: 2807: 2802: 2797: 2792: 2786: 2783: 2782: 2779: 2778: 2775: 2774: 2769: 2764: 2759: 2754: 2748: 2745: 2744: 2741: 2740: 2737: 2736: 2731: 2726: 2721: 2716: 2708: 2703: 2698: 2693: 2688: 2682: 2679: 2678: 2675: 2674: 2671: 2670: 2668:Baltic Germans 2665: 2660: 2655: 2650: 2648:Livonian Order 2645: 2640: 2635: 2630: 2625: 2619: 2616: 2615: 2612: 2611: 2608: 2607: 2602: 2597: 2592: 2587: 2582: 2568: 2559: 2554: 2549: 2543: 2541:Ancient Latvia 2540: 2539: 2536: 2535: 2527: 2526: 2517: 2516: 2509: 2502: 2501: 2499: 2498: 2491: 2484: 2476: 2473: 2472: 2471: 2470: 2465: 2457: 2456: 2451: 2450: 2449: 2448: 2443: 2438: 2433: 2428: 2423: 2418: 2413: 2408: 2400: 2399: 2393: 2392: 2391: 2390: 2385: 2383:Territorialism 2380: 2375: 2370: 2365: 2360: 2352: 2351: 2343: 2338: 2337: 2334: 2333: 2330: 2329: 2324: 2319: 2314: 2309: 2304: 2299: 2294: 2289: 2284: 2279: 2274: 2269: 2267:Judaeo-Spanish 2264: 2262:Judaeo-Iranian 2259: 2254: 2249: 2244: 2239: 2234: 2229: 2228: 2227: 2214: 2209: 2208: 2205: 2204: 2199: 2198: 2197: 2196: 2191: 2186: 2178: 2177: 2171: 2170: 2169: 2168: 2163: 2158: 2153: 2148: 2143: 2138: 2133: 2125: 2124: 2118: 2117: 2116: 2115: 2110: 2105: 2100: 2092: 2091: 2085: 2084: 2083: 2082: 2077: 2069: 2068: 2062: 2061: 2060: 2059: 2054: 2049: 2042: 2033: 2028: 2023: 2014: 2009: 2004: 1999: 1991: 1990: 1984: 1979: 1978: 1975: 1974: 1971: 1970: 1965: 1960: 1955: 1950: 1945: 1940: 1935: 1928: 1927: 1926: 1921: 1916: 1905: 1900: 1899: 1896: 1895: 1890: 1889: 1888: 1887: 1882: 1877: 1872: 1867: 1859: 1858: 1852: 1851: 1850: 1849: 1844: 1839: 1834: 1827: 1822: 1817: 1812: 1807: 1802: 1797: 1792: 1787: 1780: 1775: 1770: 1765: 1760: 1755: 1747: 1746: 1740: 1739: 1738: 1737: 1732: 1727: 1719: 1718: 1714: 1713: 1712: 1711: 1708:United Kingdom 1704: 1699: 1694: 1689: 1684: 1679: 1674: 1669: 1664: 1659: 1654: 1649: 1644: 1639: 1634: 1629: 1624: 1619: 1614: 1609: 1604: 1599: 1594: 1589: 1584: 1579: 1574: 1569: 1564: 1556: 1555: 1549: 1548: 1547: 1546: 1541: 1536: 1531: 1526: 1521: 1516: 1511: 1506: 1501: 1496: 1491: 1486: 1481: 1476: 1471: 1466: 1461: 1456: 1451: 1446: 1441: 1436: 1431: 1426: 1421: 1416: 1411: 1406: 1401: 1396: 1391: 1386: 1381: 1376: 1371: 1366: 1361: 1356: 1348: 1347: 1343: 1342: 1341: 1340: 1335: 1330: 1320: 1315: 1310: 1305: 1298: 1293: 1288: 1283: 1278: 1268: 1263: 1258: 1253: 1248: 1243: 1238: 1233: 1228: 1223: 1218: 1213: 1208: 1203: 1198: 1193: 1188: 1183: 1178: 1173: 1168: 1163: 1158: 1153: 1148: 1143: 1141:Bilad-el-Sudan 1138: 1133: 1125: 1124: 1118: 1117: 1116: 1115: 1110: 1105: 1097: 1096: 1094:Land of Israel 1090: 1089: 1088: 1087: 1082: 1077: 1072: 1067: 1057: 1052: 1051: 1048: 1047: 1042: 1041: 1040: 1039: 1034: 1029: 1024: 1023: 1022: 1017: 1012: 1007: 1002: 992: 987: 982: 977: 972: 967: 962: 954: 953: 952:Related groups 949: 948: 947: 946: 941: 936: 931: 926: 921: 916: 911: 906: 901: 896: 891: 886: 885: 884: 879: 864: 859: 858: 855: 854: 849: 848: 847: 846: 836: 831: 826: 821: 816: 811: 809:Jewish atheism 806: 801: 796: 788: 787: 783: 782: 781: 780: 775: 770: 765: 760:Islamic–Jewish 755: 748: 733: 728: 720: 719: 712: 711: 710: 709: 685: 672: 644: 639: 632: 627: 625:Yehud Medinata 619: 618: 612: 611: 610: 609: 602: 595: 587: 574: 566: 554: 549: 542: 534: 533: 531:Ancient Israel 527: 526: 525: 524: 519: 514: 509: 504: 499: 494: 489: 487:Land of Israel 484: 476: 475: 469: 464: 463: 460: 459: 454: 453: 452: 451: 446: 442:Shulchan Aruch 437: 432: 427: 422: 414: 413: 412: 411: 406: 398: 397: 391: 390: 389: 388: 383: 375: 374: 368: 367: 366: 365: 360: 355: 347: 346: 338: 333: 332: 329: 328: 325: 324: 319: 314: 309: 304: 299: 294: 289: 284: 279: 274: 267: 262: 255: 250: 245: 240: 235: 230: 220: 215: 208:God in Judaism 204: 199: 198: 195: 194: 193: 192: 187: 179: 178: 168: 167: 140: 139: 117:Ashkenazi Jews 109: 108: 104: 103: 97: 96: 92: 91: 69: 68: 64: 63: 52: 38: 37: 33: 32: 17: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7109: 7098: 7095: 7094: 7092: 7077: 7074: 7072: 7069: 7067: 7066:The Holocaust 7064: 7063: 7061: 7057: 7051: 7048: 7047: 7045: 7041: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7025: 7022: 7021: 7019: 7017: 7013: 7007: 7004: 7002: 6999: 6997: 6994: 6993: 6991: 6987: 6981: 6978: 6977: 6975: 6971: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6956: 6954: 6952:Documentation 6950: 6944: 6941: 6939: 6936: 6934: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6920: 6918: 6914: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6892:Organizations 6890: 6889: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6875:Viktors Arājs 6873: 6868: 6867: 6865: 6863: 6862:Collaborators 6859: 6853: 6850: 6848: 6845: 6843: 6840: 6839: 6837: 6833: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6804: 6802: 6799: 6797: 6794: 6792: 6789: 6787: 6784: 6782: 6779: 6777: 6776:Hinrich Lohse 6774: 6772: 6769: 6767: 6764: 6762: 6759: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6747: 6744: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6716:Alois Brunner 6714: 6713: 6711: 6707: 6701: 6698: 6696: 6693: 6691: 6688: 6686: 6683: 6681: 6678: 6677: 6675: 6671: 6665: 6662: 6660: 6657: 6655: 6652: 6650: 6647: 6645: 6642: 6640: 6637: 6636: 6634: 6630: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6586: 6584: 6583:The Holocaust 6581: 6576: 6575: 6572: 6568: 6561: 6556: 6554: 6549: 6547: 6542: 6541: 6538: 6526: 6523: 6521: 6518: 6516: 6513: 6511: 6508: 6506: 6503: 6501: 6500:Faroe Islands 6498: 6496: 6493: 6492: 6490: 6484: 6478: 6475: 6473: 6472:South Ossetia 6470: 6468: 6465: 6463: 6460: 6458: 6455: 6454: 6452: 6446: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6419: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6400: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6335: 6333: 6330: 6328: 6325: 6323: 6320: 6318: 6315: 6313: 6310: 6308: 6305: 6303: 6302:Liechtenstein 6300: 6298: 6295: 6293: 6290: 6288: 6285: 6283: 6281: 6278: 6276: 6273: 6271: 6268: 6266: 6263: 6261: 6258: 6256: 6253: 6251: 6248: 6246: 6243: 6241: 6238: 6236: 6233: 6231: 6228: 6226: 6223: 6221: 6218: 6216: 6213: 6211: 6208: 6206: 6203: 6201: 6198: 6196: 6193: 6191: 6188: 6186: 6183: 6181: 6178: 6176: 6173: 6172: 6170: 6166: 6162: 6155: 6150: 6148: 6143: 6141: 6136: 6135: 6132: 6120: 6115: 6113: 6108: 6107: 6104: 6096: 6095: 6091: 6090: 6089: 6086: 6085: 6082: 6079: 6078: 6076: 6074: 6068: 6062: 6059: 6057: 6054: 6052: 6049: 6048: 6046: 6044: 6038: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6013: 6010: 6009: 6008: 6007:The Holocaust 6005: 6004: 6003: 6000: 5999: 5997: 5993: 5988: 5983: 5976: 5968: 5963: 5961: 5956: 5954: 5949: 5948: 5945: 5939: 5936: 5933: 5930: 5928: 5925: 5923: 5920: 5918: 5915: 5913: 5910: 5908: 5905: 5903: 5900: 5898: 5895: 5893: 5890: 5888: 5885: 5883: 5880: 5878: 5875: 5874: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5807: 5803: 5802:Latvia portal 5792: 5789: 5778: 5768: 5767: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5750: 5746: 5742: 5738: 5734: 5733: 5727: 5726: 5714: 5709: 5693: 5689: 5683: 5667: 5661: 5645: 5641: 5635: 5627: 5621: 5602: 5595: 5589: 5574: 5570: 5563: 5548: 5544: 5538: 5523: 5519: 5513: 5498: 5494: 5488: 5482: 5478: 5475: 5470: 5468: 5461: 5455: 5449:, Paris, 1985 5448: 5442: 5436: 5430: 5424: 5418: 5411: 5407: 5404: 5403:jewishgen.org 5399: 5390: 5383: 5379: 5376: 5370: 5368: 5366: 5364: 5362: 5360: 5358: 5356: 5354: 5337: 5333: 5326: 5310: 5306: 5300: 5289:September 29, 5285: 5281: 5275: 5260: 5256: 5250: 5234: 5230: 5223: 5208: 5204: 5198: 5183: 5179: 5173: 5158: 5154: 5148: 5139: 5137: 5127: 5111: 5107: 5101: 5099: 5097: 5095: 5093: 5086: 5081: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5068: 5052: 5048: 5042: 5038: 5022: 5020: 5015: 5012: 5009: 5006: 5003: 4999: 4996: 4993: 4989: 4986: 4983: 4980: 4977: 4973: 4969: 4966: 4965: 4960: 4957: 4954: 4950: 4947: 4944: 4940: 4937: 4933: 4930: 4926: 4923: 4920: 4917:M. Kaufmann, 4916: 4913: 4909: 4906: 4902: 4899: 4895: 4892: 4888: 4885: 4881: 4880: 4874: 4872: 4868: 4864: 4860: 4856: 4852: 4847: 4835: 4831: 4830:Bukharan Jews 4827: 4826:Georgian Jews 4823: 4820:(recorded as 4819: 4818:Mountain Jews 4815: 4813: 4811: 4809: 4807: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4795: 4792: 4791: 4787: 4784: 4781: 4780: 4776: 4773: 4770: 4769: 4765: 4762: 4759: 4758: 4754: 4751: 4748: 4747: 4743: 4740: 4737: 4736: 4732: 4729: 4726: 4725: 4721: 4718: 4715: 4714: 4710: 4707: 4704: 4703: 4699: 4696: 4693: 4692: 4686: 4681: 4678: 4677: 4666: 4664: 4659: 4657: 4653: 4648: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4633: 4629: 4626: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4592: 4591:Sarkandaugava 4588: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4574:Ohel Menachem 4571: 4566: 4563: 4560:and the word 4559: 4554: 4549: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4517: 4514: 4512: 4507: 4505: 4501: 4495: 4493: 4492:Jewish Agency 4489: 4483: 4474: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4454: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4443:war criminals 4440: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4409:for Ostland; 4408: 4396: 4393: 4385: 4375: 4371: 4367: 4361: 4360: 4356: 4351:This section 4349: 4345: 4340: 4339: 4331: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4312: 4310: 4306: 4302: 4298: 4287: 4284: 4276: 4273:February 2009 4266: 4262: 4258: 4252: 4251: 4247: 4242:This section 4240: 4236: 4231: 4230: 4222: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4206: 4204: 4200: 4194: 4192: 4191:Kaunas Ghetto 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4172: 4168: 4164: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4139: 4137: 4133: 4129: 4125: 4120: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4076: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4065:Hinrich Lohse 4062: 4058: 4054: 4048: 4044: 4034: 4032: 4027: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4011: 4006: 4000: 3995: 3989: 3987: 3982: 3967: 3965: 3960: 3959:Agudat Israel 3955: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3889: 3884: 3882: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3868:Jakobs Landau 3865: 3850: 3848: 3847:Noijs Maizels 3845: 3844: 3840: 3838: 3834: 3830: 3826: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3808: 3805: 3804: 3793: 3790: 3787: 3784: 3781: 3777: 3773: 3770: 3767: 3764: 3761: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3748: 3745: 3742: 3739: 3737:Jews of Ludza 3735: 3731: 3728: 3725: 3722: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3708: 3705: 3702: 3699: 3697: 3693: 3689: 3686: 3683: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3670: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3656: 3653: 3642: 3638: 3634: 3631: 3628: 3625: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3611: 3608: 3605: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3591: 3588: 3585: 3582: 3580: 3576: 3572: 3569: 3566: 3563: 3560: 3558: 3557:Agudas Israel 3554: 3549: 3544: 3540: 3535: 3531: 3526: 3522: 3517: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3498: 3496: 3495:Noijs Maizels 3492: 3488: 3484: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3463:Agudas Israel 3460: 3456: 3450: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3426: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3400: 3396: 3392: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3372: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3340: 3335: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3311:raw materials 3308: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3288:Economic life 3285: 3283: 3279: 3274: 3271: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3249: 3240: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3178: 3173: 3170: 3166: 3162: 3161:East European 3157: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3138:Russian Jewry 3135: 3129: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3112:under Polish 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3092: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3064: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3048: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2990: 2983: 2978: 2969: 2965: 2963: 2962:the Holocaust 2958: 2956: 2951: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2937: 2933: 2932: 2928: 2914: 2909: 2907: 2902: 2900: 2895: 2894: 2892: 2891: 2888: 2878: 2877: 2874: 2873: 2869: 2868: 2861: 2858: 2856: 2853: 2851: 2848: 2846: 2843: 2841: 2838: 2836: 2833: 2831: 2828: 2826: 2823: 2821: 2818: 2816: 2813: 2811: 2808: 2806: 2803: 2801: 2798: 2796: 2793: 2791: 2788: 2787: 2784:Modern Latvia 2781: 2780: 2773: 2770: 2768: 2765: 2763: 2760: 2758: 2755: 2753: 2750: 2749: 2743: 2742: 2735: 2732: 2730: 2727: 2725: 2722: 2720: 2717: 2715: 2709: 2707: 2704: 2702: 2699: 2697: 2694: 2692: 2689: 2687: 2684: 2683: 2677: 2676: 2669: 2666: 2664: 2663:Terra Mariana 2661: 2659: 2656: 2654: 2651: 2649: 2646: 2644: 2641: 2639: 2636: 2634: 2631: 2629: 2626: 2624: 2621: 2620: 2614: 2613: 2606: 2603: 2601: 2598: 2596: 2593: 2591: 2588: 2586: 2583: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2569: 2567: 2563: 2560: 2558: 2555: 2553: 2552:Narva culture 2550: 2548: 2547:Kunda culture 2545: 2544: 2538: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2528: 2525: 2519: 2518: 2513: 2508: 2507: 2497: 2492: 2490: 2485: 2483: 2478: 2477: 2475: 2474: 2469: 2466: 2464: 2461: 2460: 2459: 2458: 2447: 2444: 2442: 2439: 2437: 2434: 2432: 2429: 2427: 2424: 2422: 2419: 2417: 2414: 2412: 2409: 2407: 2404: 2403: 2402: 2401: 2398: 2395: 2394: 2389: 2386: 2384: 2381: 2379: 2376: 2374: 2371: 2369: 2366: 2364: 2361: 2359: 2356: 2355: 2354: 2353: 2350: 2347: 2346: 2341: 2336: 2335: 2328: 2325: 2323: 2320: 2318: 2315: 2313: 2310: 2308: 2307:Judeo-Aramaic 2305: 2303: 2300: 2298: 2297:Judeo-Italian 2295: 2293: 2290: 2288: 2285: 2283: 2280: 2278: 2277:Ghardaïa Sign 2275: 2273: 2270: 2268: 2265: 2263: 2260: 2258: 2255: 2253: 2250: 2248: 2245: 2243: 2240: 2238: 2235: 2233: 2230: 2225: 2221: 2220: 2219: 2216: 2215: 2212: 2207: 2206: 2195: 2192: 2190: 2187: 2185: 2182: 2181: 2180: 2179: 2176: 2173: 2172: 2167: 2164: 2162: 2159: 2157: 2154: 2152: 2149: 2147: 2144: 2142: 2139: 2137: 2134: 2132: 2129: 2128: 2127: 2126: 2123: 2120: 2119: 2114: 2111: 2109: 2106: 2104: 2101: 2099: 2096: 2095: 2094: 2093: 2090: 2087: 2086: 2081: 2078: 2076: 2073: 2072: 2071: 2070: 2067: 2064: 2063: 2058: 2055: 2053: 2050: 2048: 2043: 2040: 2039: 2034: 2032: 2029: 2027: 2024: 2021: 2020: 2015: 2013: 2010: 2008: 2005: 2003: 2000: 1998: 1995: 1994: 1993: 1992: 1988: 1987: 1982: 1977: 1976: 1969: 1966: 1964: 1961: 1959: 1956: 1954: 1951: 1949: 1946: 1944: 1941: 1939: 1936: 1934: 1929: 1925: 1922: 1920: 1917: 1915: 1912: 1911: 1910: 1907: 1906: 1903: 1902:Denominations 1898: 1897: 1886: 1883: 1881: 1878: 1876: 1873: 1871: 1868: 1866: 1863: 1862: 1861: 1860: 1857: 1854: 1853: 1848: 1845: 1843: 1840: 1838: 1835: 1833: 1828: 1826: 1823: 1821: 1818: 1816: 1813: 1811: 1808: 1806: 1803: 1801: 1798: 1796: 1793: 1791: 1788: 1786: 1781: 1779: 1776: 1774: 1771: 1769: 1766: 1764: 1761: 1759: 1756: 1754: 1751: 1750: 1749: 1748: 1745: 1742: 1741: 1736: 1733: 1731: 1730:United States 1728: 1726: 1723: 1722: 1721: 1720: 1716: 1715: 1710: 1705: 1703: 1700: 1698: 1695: 1693: 1690: 1688: 1685: 1683: 1680: 1678: 1675: 1673: 1670: 1668: 1665: 1663: 1660: 1658: 1655: 1653: 1650: 1648: 1645: 1643: 1640: 1638: 1635: 1633: 1630: 1628: 1625: 1623: 1620: 1618: 1615: 1613: 1610: 1608: 1605: 1603: 1600: 1598: 1595: 1593: 1590: 1588: 1585: 1583: 1580: 1578: 1575: 1573: 1570: 1568: 1565: 1563: 1560: 1559: 1558: 1557: 1554: 1551: 1550: 1545: 1542: 1540: 1537: 1535: 1532: 1530: 1527: 1525: 1522: 1520: 1517: 1515: 1512: 1510: 1507: 1505: 1502: 1500: 1497: 1495: 1492: 1490: 1487: 1485: 1482: 1480: 1477: 1475: 1472: 1470: 1467: 1465: 1462: 1460: 1457: 1455: 1452: 1450: 1447: 1445: 1442: 1440: 1437: 1435: 1432: 1430: 1427: 1425: 1422: 1420: 1417: 1415: 1412: 1410: 1407: 1405: 1402: 1400: 1397: 1395: 1392: 1390: 1387: 1385: 1382: 1380: 1377: 1375: 1372: 1370: 1367: 1365: 1362: 1360: 1357: 1355: 1352: 1351: 1350: 1349: 1345: 1344: 1339: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1328: 1324: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1314: 1311: 1309: 1306: 1304: 1299: 1297: 1294: 1292: 1289: 1287: 1284: 1282: 1279: 1276: 1272: 1269: 1267: 1264: 1262: 1259: 1257: 1254: 1252: 1249: 1247: 1244: 1242: 1239: 1237: 1234: 1232: 1229: 1227: 1224: 1222: 1219: 1217: 1216:Guinea-Bissau 1214: 1212: 1209: 1207: 1204: 1202: 1199: 1197: 1194: 1192: 1189: 1187: 1184: 1182: 1179: 1177: 1174: 1172: 1169: 1167: 1164: 1162: 1159: 1157: 1154: 1152: 1149: 1147: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1137: 1134: 1132: 1129: 1128: 1127: 1126: 1123: 1120: 1119: 1114: 1111: 1109: 1106: 1104: 1101: 1100: 1099: 1098: 1095: 1092: 1091: 1086: 1083: 1081: 1078: 1076: 1073: 1071: 1070:Lists of Jews 1068: 1066: 1063: 1062: 1061: 1060: 1055: 1050: 1049: 1038: 1035: 1033: 1030: 1028: 1025: 1021: 1018: 1016: 1013: 1011: 1008: 1006: 1003: 1001: 998: 997: 996: 993: 991: 988: 986: 983: 981: 978: 976: 973: 971: 968: 966: 963: 961: 958: 957: 956: 955: 951: 950: 945: 942: 940: 937: 935: 932: 930: 927: 925: 922: 920: 917: 915: 912: 910: 907: 905: 902: 900: 897: 895: 892: 890: 887: 883: 880: 878: 875: 874: 873: 870: 869: 868: 867: 862: 857: 856: 845: 837: 835: 832: 830: 829:The Holocaust 827: 825: 822: 820: 817: 815: 812: 810: 807: 805: 802: 800: 797: 795: 792: 791: 790: 789: 785: 784: 779: 776: 774: 771: 769: 766: 764: 756: 754: 749: 745: 739: 734: 732: 729: 727: 724: 723: 722: 721: 717: 714: 713: 706: 700: 694: 689: 686: 682: 676: 673: 669: 665: 661: 657: 653: 648: 645: 643: 640: 638: 633: 631: 628: 626: 623: 622: 621: 620: 617: 614: 613: 608: 603: 601: 596: 592: 588: 585: 580: 575: 571: 567: 564: 558: 555: 553: 550: 548: 543: 541: 538: 537: 536: 535: 532: 529: 528: 523: 520: 518: 515: 513: 510: 508: 505: 503: 500: 498: 495: 493: 490: 488: 485: 483: 480: 479: 478: 477: 473: 472: 467: 462: 461: 450: 447: 444: 443: 438: 436: 433: 431: 430:Mishneh Torah 428: 426: 423: 421: 418: 417: 416: 415: 410: 407: 405: 402: 401: 400: 399: 396: 393: 392: 387: 384: 382: 379: 378: 377: 376: 373: 370: 369: 364: 361: 359: 356: 354: 351: 350: 349: 348: 345: 342: 341: 336: 331: 330: 323: 320: 318: 315: 313: 310: 308: 305: 303: 300: 298: 295: 293: 290: 288: 285: 283: 280: 278: 275: 273: 268: 266: 263: 261: 256: 254: 251: 249: 246: 244: 241: 239: 236: 234: 231: 228: 224: 221: 219: 216: 213: 209: 206: 205: 202: 197: 196: 191: 190:Who is a Jew? 188: 186: 183: 182: 181: 180: 177: 173: 170: 169: 165: 161: 160: 155: 151: 146: 138: 134: 133:Estonian Jews 130: 126: 122: 118: 114: 110: 105: 102: 98: 93: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 70: 65: 61: 57: 53: 51: 39: 34: 25: 16: 6964:Jäger Report 6806:Albert Sauer 6771:Rudolf Lange 6709:Perpetrators 6695:Simon Dubnow 6679: 6578:Main article 6477:Transnistria 6296: 6092: 6087: 6051:Latvian Jews 6001: 5984: 5979: 5978: 5764: 5752: 5731: 5708: 5696:. Retrieved 5692:the original 5682: 5670:. Retrieved 5660: 5648:. Retrieved 5644:the original 5634: 5608:. Retrieved 5588: 5576:. Retrieved 5572: 5562: 5550:. Retrieved 5546: 5537: 5525:. Retrieved 5521: 5512: 5500:. Retrieved 5496: 5487: 5459: 5454: 5446: 5441: 5434: 5429: 5422: 5417: 5398: 5389: 5340:. Retrieved 5338:(in Latvian) 5335: 5325: 5313:. Retrieved 5309:the original 5299: 5287:. Retrieved 5283: 5274: 5262:. Retrieved 5258: 5249: 5237:. Retrieved 5232: 5222: 5210:. Retrieved 5206: 5197: 5185:. Retrieved 5181: 5172: 5160:. Retrieved 5156: 5147: 5126: 5114:. Retrieved 5110:the original 5080: 5064: 5041: 5017: 5007: 4997: 4987: 4981: 4975: 4962: 4959:Raul Hilberg 4952: 4942: 4941:J. Gar, in: 4935: 4928: 4918: 4911: 4904: 4897: 4890: 4883: 4877:Bibliography 4843: 4660: 4649: 4634: 4630: 4627: 4567: 4561: 4553:desecrations 4550: 4542:South Africa 4523: 4515: 4508: 4496: 4484: 4480: 4455: 4419:Rudolf Lange 4403: 4388: 4379: 4364:Please help 4352: 4313: 4294: 4279: 4270: 4255:Please help 4243: 4211:Vilna Ghetto 4207: 4195: 4140: 4121: 4077: 4050: 4028: 3990: 3978: 3970:World War II 3958: 3956: 3944:Simon Dubnow 3924: 3920:Jewish press 3912:universities 3908:kindergarten 3885: 3867: 3861: 3813: 3454: 3436:East Prussia 3432: 3389:(especially 3387:canned foods 3336: 3291: 3275: 3270:Soviet Union 3266: 3219:, dissolved 3174: 3165:German Jewry 3158: 3130: 3065: 3060:Catherine II 3055: 3049: 2997:Livonian War 2987:The ancient 2986: 2966: 2959: 2952: 2944:Northern War 2924: 2922: 2871: 2686:Livonian War 2605:Semigallians 2571:Baltic Finns 2446:Post-Zionism 2317:Judeo-Berber 2312:Judeo-Arabic 2272:Judeo-Gascon 2019:Pidyon haben 1938:Conservative 1641: 1484:Saudi Arabia 1302:South Africa 1291:Sierra Leone 1113:Israeli Jews 1027:Mosaic Arabs 980:Kaifeng Jews 841:Arab–Israeli 814:Emancipation 693:Great Revolt 502:Anti-Judaism 497:Antisemitism 492:Name "Judea" 287:Baal teshuva 125:Russian Jews 22:Latvian Jews 18:Ethnic group 15: 7024:Jānis Lipke 6973:Concealment 6938:Riga Ghetto 6885:Kārlis Lobe 6870:Individuals 6721:Rudolf Batz 6700:Else Hirsch 6654:Pogulianski 6515:Isle of Man 6450:recognition 6402:Switzerland 6337:Netherlands 5897:Riga Ghetto 5877:Jewish Riga 5578:January 30, 5433:Gordon, F. 4984:, 2, (1995) 4896:I. Morein, 4536:, Germany, 4534:Switzerland 4471:Jānis Lipke 4465:, from the 4451:Latvian SSR 4431:Max Gymnich 4427:Kurt Krause 4316:Latvian SSR 4171:Riga Ghetto 4128:Riga Ghetto 4101:interregnum 4093:antisemitic 4088:Soviet Asia 4018:(in Perm), 4008: [ 4005:Īzaks Berss 3997: [ 3510:Constituent 3447: [ 3444:Pauls Mincs 3415:grain trade 3225:coup d'état 3209:progressive 3169:World War I 2772:New Current 2617:Middle Ages 2521:History of 2441:Revisionist 2431:Neo-Zionism 2038:Zeved habat 1831:Puerto Rico 1657:Netherlands 1489:South Korea 1474:Philippines 1354:Afghanistan 1221:Ivory Coast 995:Crypto-Jews 960:Bnei Anusim 939:Bene Israel 904:Beta Israel 861:Communities 768:Middle Ages 507:Persecution 282:Bereavement 137:Polish Jews 30:יהדות לטביה 7001:Riga Trial 6751:Heinz Jost 6741:Karl Jäger 6372:San Marino 6332:Montenegro 6312:Luxembourg 6292:Kazakhstan 6195:Azerbaijan 6072:Synagogues 5917:The Savers 5688:"Database" 5061:References 5000:, London: 4990:, London: 4927:, London, 4867:California 4603:Daugavpils 4203:Kaiserwald 4187:Biķernieki 4167:Daugavpils 4151:synagogues 4113:Stahlecker 3925:After the 3812:Fraction ( 3758:Ceire Cion 3491:Ceire Cion 3455:Paul Mintz 3257:Daugavpils 3221:parliament 3197:Semigallia 3193:Daugavpils 3126:university 3114:suzerainty 3080:Baltic Sea 2955:parliament 2872:Chronology 2590:Latgalians 2562:Amber Road 2426:Maximalism 2378:Secularism 2358:Autonomism 2175:Literature 1968:Humanistic 1572:Azerbaijan 1534:Uzbekistan 1509:Tajikistan 1429:Kyrgyzstan 1414:Kazakhstan 1261:Mozambique 1236:Madagascar 1156:Cape Verde 1108:New Yishuv 1103:Old Yishuv 1054:Population 1032:Subbotniks 990:Samaritans 929:Romanyotim 872:Ashkenazim 819:Old Yishuv 799:Sabbateans 786:Modern era 778:Golden Age 705:Bar Kokhba 425:Beit Yosef 292:Philosophy 7071:The Mover 7043:Memorials 6603:Lithuania 6505:Gibraltar 6307:Lithuania 5753:JewishGen 5698:April 14, 5672:April 14, 5650:April 14, 5610:April 14, 5552:April 21, 5527:April 21, 5502:April 21, 5447:U Express 5342:April 21, 5264:March 21, 5239:March 21, 5212:March 21, 5187:March 21, 5162:March 21, 5116:March 21, 5067:publisher 5014:Dov Levin 5004:, 163–164 4994:, 141–142 4910:M. Bobe, 4834:Krymchaks 4656:Krymchaks 4621:Dunes in 4562:Judenfrei 4558:swastikas 4546:Australia 4511:Holocaust 4488:collapsed 4353:does not 4244:does not 4199:Salaspils 4161:(Libau), 4157:(Mitau), 4016:Solikamsk 3900:religious 3403:bartering 3359:tradesmen 3355:craftsmen 3307:inflation 3233:president 3229:autocracy 3181:Latgallia 3167:. During 3104:in 1721. 3091:conquered 3033:craftsmen 3029:court Jew 2600:Selonians 2595:Curonians 2575:Livonians 2436:Religious 2292:Zarphatic 2282:Bukharian 2252:Judeo-Tat 2237:Yeshivish 2211:Languages 2166:Sephardic 2156:Israelite 2146:Ethiopian 2136:Ashkenazi 2075:Religious 1865:Australia 1847:Venezuela 1753:Argentina 1735:Greenland 1647:Lithuania 1499:Sri Lanka 1494:Singapore 1419:Kurdistan 1384:Indonesia 1374:Hong Kong 1327:Abayudaya 1251:Mauritius 985:Igbo Jews 975:Krymchaks 894:Sephardim 762:relations 656:Sadducees 652:Pharisees 642:Sanhedrin 557:Jerusalem 317:Synagogue 185:Etymology 67:Languages 60:Krymchaks 7091:Category 6525:Svalbard 6510:Guernsey 6457:Abkhazia 6432:Scotland 6387:Slovenia 6382:Slovakia 6357:Portugal 6215:Bulgaria 5774:See also 5741:77953642 5620:cite web 5601:Archived 5522:Jewrmala 5477:Archived 5406:Archived 5378:Archived 5315:June 24, 4978:, (1995) 4871:New York 4846:murdered 4804:Source: 4582:Old City 4163:Valmiera 3881:autonomy 3814:frakcija 3680:Mizrachi 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6673:Victims 6659:Rumbula 6649:Jelgava 6623:Ukraine 6598:Estonia 6593:Belarus 6422:England 6412:Ukraine 6362:Romania 6322:Moldova 6280:Ireland 6275:Iceland 6270:Hungary 6260:Germany 6255:Georgia 6245:Finland 6240:Estonia 6235:Denmark 6220:Croatia 6205:Belgium 6200:Belarus 6190:Austria 6185:Armenia 6180:Andorra 6175:Albania 5995:History 5860:Rumbula 5769:. 2010. 5755:. 2011. 5016:(ed.), 4663:Liepaja 4623:Liepāja 4611:Rēzekne 4607:Jūrmala 4595:Šmerlis 4538:Britain 4437:of the 4374:removed 4359:sources 4324:Russian 4320:Yiddish 4265:removed 4250:sources 4183:Rumbula 4175:Austria 4159:Liepāja 4155:Jelgava 4084:Siberia 4024:Vorkuta 3948:Latvian 3936:Latvian 3904:secular 3876:Yiddish 3841:Jewish 3515:(1920) 3493:), and 3483:Knesset 3413:of the 3407:suburbs 3393:), and 3375:tobacco 3367:matches 3302:banking 3253:Rezekne 3237:neutral 3205:liberal 3189:Latgale 3185:Latvian 3177:Vitebsk 3118:annexed 3100:, from 3072:Livonia 3052:Yiddish 3045:Jelgava 3041:Rundāle 3009:Aizpute 3005:Piltene 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Knowledge

History of the Jews in Latvia

Index