History of the Jews in Spain

5005:

were prohibited from practising medicine, surgery, or chemistry (pharmacy) and from dealing in bread, wine, flour, meat, etc. They might not engage in handicrafts or trades of any kind, nor might they fill public offices, or act as money-brokers or agents. They were not allowed to hire Catholic servants, farmhands, lamplighters, or gravediggers; nor might they eat, drink, or bathe with Catholics, or hold intimate conversation (have sexual relations) with them, or visit them, or give them presents. Catholic women, married or unmarried, were forbidden to enter the Judería either by day or by night. The Jews were allowed no self-jurisdiction whatever, nor might they, without royal permission, levy taxes for communal purposes; they might not assume the title of "Don", carry arms, or trim beard or hair. Jewish women were required to wear plain, long mantles of coarse material reaching to the feet; and it was strictly forbidden for Jews to wear garments made of better material. On pain of loss of property and even of slavery, they were forbidden to leave the country, and any grandee or knight who protected or sheltered a fugitive Jew was punished with a fine of 150,000 maravedís for the first offense. These laws, which were rigidly enforced, any violation of them being punished with a fine of 300–2,000 maravedís and flagellation, were calculated to compel the Jews to embrace Catholicism.

5406: 4643:, to inflict upon Jews the penalties of death, mutilation, expulsion, or excommunication; but in civil proceedings they were still permitted to choose their own judges. In consequence of an accusation that the Jewish prayers contained clauses cursing the Catholics, the king ordered that within two months, on pain of a fine of 3,000 maravedís, they should remove from their prayer-books the objectionable passages. Whoever caused the conversion to Judaism of a Moor or of any one confessing another faith, or performed the rite of circumcision upon him, became a slave and the property of the treasury. The Jews no longer dared show themselves in public without the badge, and in consequence of the ever-growing hatred toward them they were no longer sure of life or limb; they were attacked and robbed and murdered in the public streets, and at length the king found it necessary to impose a fine of 6,000 maravedís on any town in which a Jew was found murdered. Against his desire, John was obliged in 1385 to issue an order prohibiting the employment of Jews as financial agents or tax-farmers to the king, queen, infantes, or grandees. To this was added the resolution adopted by the 3148:, a prominent Jewish figure in the 15th century and one of the king's trusted courtiers who witnessed the 1492 expulsion of Jews, informs his readers that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship to Spain by a certain Phiros, a confederate of the king of Babylon in laying siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Greek by birth, but had been given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to a certain Espan, the nephew of King Heracles, who also ruled over a kingdom in Spain. This Heracles later renounced his throne because of his preference for his native country in Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country's name España (Spain) derives. The Jewish exiles transported there by the said Phiros were descended by lineage from Judah, Benjamin, Shimon and Levi, and were, according to Abrabanel, settled in two districts in southern Spain: one, 5163: 4756:; 300 Jews were killed, and 800 found refuge in the fort, from which, with the permission of the governor of the island, and under cover of night, they sailed to North Africa; many submitted to baptism. Three days later, on Saturday, August 5, a riot began in Barcelona. On the first day, 100 Jews were killed, while several hundred found refuge in the new fort; on the following day the mob invaded the Juderia and began pillaging. The authorities did all in their power to protect the Jews, but the mob attacked them and freed those of its leaders who had been imprisoned. On Aug. 8 the citadel was stormed, and more than 300 Jews were murdered, among the slain being the only son of 5175: 4617:, or chief tax-collector, was Joseph Pichon of Seville. The clergy, whose power became greater and greater under the reign of the fratricide, stirred the anti-Jewish prejudices of the masses into clamorous assertion at the Cortes of Toro in 1371. It was demanded that the Jews should be kept far from the palaces of the grandees, should not be allowed to hold public office, should live apart from the Catholics, should not wear costly garments nor ride on mules, should wear the badge, and should not be allowed to bear Catholic names. The king granted the two last-named demands, as well as a request made by the Cortes of 5151: 4455: 4193:, who assumed the title of Emperor of Leon, Toledo, and Santiago, curtailed in the beginning of his reign the rights and liberties which his father had granted the Jews. He ordered that neither a Jew nor a convert might exercise legal authority over Catholics, and he held the Jews responsible for the collection of the royal taxes. Soon, however, he became more friendly, confirming the Jews in all their former privileges and even granting them additional ones, by which they were placed on equality with Catholics. Considerable influence with the king was enjoyed by 2780:, addressed the interactions between Christians and Jews, which were relatively common at the time, with some Christians even admiring Jewish practices. To mitigate Jewish influence on Christian society, the council enacted several edicts aimed at reinforcing separation between the two groups. Canon 16 prohibited intermarriage between Christians and Jews, Canon 78 imposed penalties on Christians committing adultery with Jewish women, Canon 48 forbade Jews from blessing Christian crops, and Canon 50 prohibited shared meals between Christians and Jews. 4474: 3992:

Christian leaders, who were increasingly emerging victorious during the later Reconquista. The Jews' knowledge of the language and the culture of the enemy, their skills as diplomats and professionals and their desire for relief from intolerable conditions rendered their services of great value to the Christians during the Reconquista, the very same reasons that they had proved useful to the Arabs in the early stages of the Muslim invasion. The necessity of having conquerors settle in reclaimed territories also outweighed the prejudices of

5187: 5220: 4704:, March 15, according to the source the arrest and public whipping of two of the mob-leaders. If that date had been Ash Wednesday, Easter would have fallen on 30 April, which is impossible in western Christianity. The fanatical mob, still further exasperated thereby, murdered and robbed several Jews and threatened the Guzmáns with death. In vain did the regency issue prompt orders; Ferrand Martínez continued unhindered his inflammatory appeals to the rabble to kill the Jews or baptize them. On June 6 the mob attacked the 3335:. The canons referred to forcibly converted Jews as "baptized Jews" or simply as "Jews," but never as "Christians". It was decided that if professed Christian were determined to be a practising Jew, their children were to be taken away to be raised in monasteries or trusted Christian households. The council further directed that all who had reverted to Judaism during the reign of Swintila had to return to Christianity. The trend toward intolerance continued with the ascent of 5009: 4148:, issued and confirmed by him in 1076, he not only granted the Jews full equality with Catholics, but he even accorded them the rights enjoyed by the nobility. To show their gratitude to the king for the rights granted them, the Jews willingly placed themselves at his and the country's service. Alfonso's army contained 40,000 Jews, who were distinguished from the other combatants by their black-and-yellow turbans; for the sake of this Jewish contingent the 5268:, the grand inquisitor, who dashed into the royal presence and, throwing a crucifix down before the king and queen, asked whether, like Judas, they would betray their Lord for money. Torquemada was reputedly of converso ancestry, and the confessor of Isabella, Espina, was previously a Rabin. Whatever the truth of this story, there were no signs of relaxation shown by the court, and the Jews of Spain made preparations for exile. In some cases, as at 4311:

or use the same bath; neither might a Catholic partake of wine which had been prepared by a Jew. The Jews might not employ Catholic nurses or servants, and Catholics might use only medicinal remedies which had been prepared by competent Catholic apothecaries. Every Jew should wear the badge, though the king reserved to himself the right to exempt anyone from this obligation; any Jew apprehended without the badge was liable to a fine of ten gold

4264: 5041:, or to give them away; neither might they dispose of meat which they were prohibited from eating. They might have no intercourse (sex) with Catholics, nor might they disinherit their baptized children. They should wear the badge at all times, and thrice a year all Jews over twelve, of both sexes, were required to listen to a Catholic sermon. (the bull is reprinted, from a manuscript in the archives of the cathedral in Toledo, by Rios ). 4966:, where they were well treated by the Moors, and though shortly before his death he inflicted a fine of 24,000 doubloons on the city of Córdoba because of a riot that had taken place there (1406), during which the Jews had been plundered and many of them murdered, he prohibited the Jews from attiring themselves in the same manner as other Spaniards, and he insisted strictly on the wearing of the badge by those who had not been baptized. 4402: 4021: 4007:. As conditions became more oppressive in the areas under Muslim rule during the 12th and the 13th centuries, Jews again looked to an outside culture for relief. Christian leaders of reconquered cities granted them extensive autonomy, and Jewish scholarship recovered and developed as communities grew in size and importance (Assis, p. 18). However, the Reconquista Jews never reached the same heights as had those of the Golden Age. 2991: 2693:(218–202 BC). It is likely that these communities originated several generations earlier in the aftermath of the conquest of Judea, and possible that they originated much earlier. It is within the realm of possibility that they went there under the Romans as free men to take advantage of its rich resources and build enterprises there. These early arrivals would have been joined by those who had been enslaved by the Romans under 5837: 5209: 5363:, whose numbers, as has been shown, had been increased by no less than 50,000 during the period of the expulsion to a possible total of 300,000. For three centuries after the expulsion, Spanish Conversos were subject to suspicion by the Spanish Inquisition, which executed over 3000 people in the 1570–1700 period on charges of heresy (including Judaism). They were also subject to more general discriminatory laws known as " 5339: 3857: 19: 5851: 5574:, saved thousands of Ashkenazim in Hungary by granting them Spanish citizenship, placing them in safe houses and teaching them minimal Spanish so they could pretend to be Sephardim, at least to someone who did not know Spanish. The Spanish diplomatic corps was performing a balancing act: Alexy conjectures that the number of Jews they took in was limited by how much German hostility they were willing to engender. 5749:, mainly Ashkenazim, escaping from the military junta. With the birth of the European community, Jews from other countries in Europe moved to Spain because of its weather, lifestyle as well as for its cost of living relative to the north of Europe. Some Jews see Spain as an easier life for retirees and for young people. Mazarron has seen its Jewish community grow as well as La Manga, Cartagena and Alicante. 4662: 2530: 4328: 5033:, to read anti-Catholic writing, in particular the work "Macellum" ("Mar Jesu"), to pronounce the names of Jesus, Maria, or the saints, to manufacture communion-cups or other church vessels or accept such as pledges, or to build new synagogues or ornament old ones. Each community might have only one synagogue. Jews were denied all rights of self-jurisdiction, nor might they proceed against 4082: 4197:(Nasi). After the conquest of Calatrava (1147) the king placed Judah in command of the fortress, later making him his court chamberlain. Judah ben Joseph stood in such favor with the king that the latter, at his request, not only admitted into Toledo the Jews who had fled from the persecutions of the Almohades, but even assigned many fugitives dwellings in Flascala (near Toledo), 5825:

be approved applicants needed to take "tests in Spanish language and culture... prove their Sephardic heritage, establish or prove a special connection with Spain, and then pay a designated notary to certify their documents." Most applications came from nationals of countries with high levels of insecurity and violence in Latin America (mainly Mexico, Colombia and Venezuela).

3249: 8902: 3374:, any of their brethren known to have relapsed to Judaism. The council was aware that prior efforts had been frustrated by lack of compliance among authorities on the local level; therefore, anyone, including nobles and clergy, found to have aided Jews in their practice of Judaism was to be punished by seizure of one quarter of their property and excommunication. 3276: 4364:

obtain it only from the Jews, to whom they paid from 20 to 25 percent interest. This business, which, in a manner, the Jews were forced to pursue in order to pay the many taxes imposed upon them as well as to raise the compulsory loans demanded of them by the kings, led to their being employed in special positions, as "almonries", bailiffs, tax collectors.

2857:, who had supposedly died in Spain while collecting tribute. Another legend spoke of a letter allegedly sent by the Jews of Toledo to Judaea in 30 CE, asking to prevent the crucifixion of Jesus. These legends aimed to establish that Jews had settled in Spain well before the Roman period and to absolve them of any responsibility for the death of Jesus, a 3125:, the King Ferdinand and his wife, Isabella, made war with the Ishmaelites who were in Granada and took it, and while they returned they commanded the Jews in all of his kingdoms that in but a short time they were to take leave from the countries , they being Castile, Navarre, Catalonia, Aragón, Granada and Sicily. Then the inhabitants of 3088:(ca. 1250 – 1305) mentions a tradition concerning the first Jewish exiles, saying that the vast majority of the first exiles driven away from the land of Israel during the Babylonian captivity refused to return, for they had seen that the Second Temple would be destroyed like the first. In yet another teaching, passed down later by 4508:. For this reason, the king was called "the heretic" and often "the cruel". Peter, whose education had been neglected, was not quite sixteen years of age when he ascended the throne in 1350. From the commencement of his reign he so surrounded himself with Jews that his enemies in derision spoke of his court as "a Jewish court". 5624:, Franco's chief of security, issued an official order dated May 13, 1941 to all provincial governors requesting a list of all Jews, both local and foreign, present in their districts. After the list of six thousand names was compiled, Romani was appointed Spain's ambassador to Germany, enabling him to deliver it personally to 3956:

of proper Islam. In spite of large-scale forcible conversions, Sephardic culture was not entirely decimated. Members of Lucena's Jewish community, for example, managed to bribe their way out of conversion. As the spirit of Andalusian Islam was absorbed by the Almoravides, policies concerning Jews were relaxed. The poet

4098:, treated the Jews harshly. In their operations against the Moors they did not spare the Jews, destroying their synagogues and killing their teachers and scholars. Only gradually did the rulers come to realize that, surrounded as they were by powerful enemies, they could not afford to turn the Jews against them. 4164:, together with 30,000 men were killed, an anti-Jewish riot broke out in Toledo; many Jews were slain, and their houses and synagogues were burned (1108). Alfonso intended to punish the murderers and incendiaries, but died in June, 1109 before he could carry out his intention. After his death the inhabitants of 5488:, "Laws regulating their admittance were written and mostly ignored." They were mainly from Western Europe, fleeing deportation to concentration camps from occupied France, but also Jews from Eastern Europe, especially Hungary. Trudi Alexy refers to the "absurdity" and "paradox of refugees fleeing the Nazis' 3302:(612–620) embarked on Recared's course with renewed vigour. Sisebut instituted what was to become a recurring phenomenon in European Christian kingdoms, the first edicts requiring the mass conversion of all Jews to Christianity. After his 613 decree that Jews must either convert or be expelled, some fled to 5276:, to the municipality — a precaution not unjustified, as the Jewish cemetery of Seville was later ravaged by the people. The members of the Jewish community of Segovia passed the last three days of their stay in the city in the Jewish cemetery, fasting and wailing over being parted from their dead beloved. 5285:

majority had already converted to Catholicism. This in addition to the indeterminate number who managed to return has led recent academic investigations such as those of Joseph Pérez and Julio Valdeón to offer figures of somewhere between 50,000 and 80,000 practicing Jews expelled from Spanish territory.

4697:, although deprived of his office, continued, in spite of numerous warnings, to incite the public against the Jews, and encourage it to acts of violence. As early as January, 1391, the prominent Jews who were assembled in Madrid received information that riots were threatening in Seville and Córdoba. 4589:

of Palencia, had reached its culminating point, especially in Toledo, which was being besieged by Henry, and in which no less than 8,000 persons died through famine and the hardships of war. This civil conflict did not end until the death of Peter, of whom the victorious brother said, derisively, "Dó

4244:

ravaged Castile with a powerful army and threatened to overrun the whole of Catholic Spain. The Archbishop of Toledo called to crusade to aid Alfonso. In this war against the Moors the king was greatly aided by the wealthy Jews of Toledo, especially by his "almoxarife mayor", the learned and generous

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sect abhorred the liberality of the Islamic culture of al-Andalus, including the position of authority that some dhimmis held over Muslims. In addition to battling the Christians, who were gaining ground, the Almoravides implemented numerous reforms to bring al-Andalus more in line with their notions

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leaders. Rather than having a stifling effect, the disintegration of the caliphate expanded the opportunities to Jewish and other professionals. The services of Jewish scientists, doctors, traders, poets and scholars were generally valued by the Christian as well as Muslim rulers of regional centres,

3843:

In addition to contributions of original work, the Sephardim were active as translators. Greek texts were rendered into Arabic, Arabic into Hebrew, Hebrew and Arabic into Latin and all combinations of vice versa occurred. In translating the great works of Arabic, Hebrew, and Greek into Latin, Iberian

3389:

again called for forced baptism and, for those who disobeyed, seizure of property, corporal punishment, exile, ll and slavery. Jewish children over seven years of age were taken from their parents and similarly dealt with in 694. Erwig also took measures to ensure that Catholic sympathisers would not

5824:

of 1492 would be offered Spanish citizenship, without being required to move to Spain and/or renounce any other citizenship they may have. The law lapsed on October 1, 2019 and by that point the justice ministry claimed to have received 132,226 applications and approved 1,500 applicants. In order to

4621:

in 1379 that Jews should neither carry arms nor sell weapons; but he did not prevent them from holding religious disputations, nor did he deny them the exercise of criminal jurisprudence. The latter prerogative was not taken from them until the reign of John I, Henry's son and successor; he withdrew

4367:

The Jews of Spain formed in themselves a separate political body. They lived almost solely in the Juderias, various enactments being issued from time to time preventing them from living elsewhere. From the time of the Moors they had had their own administration. At the head of the aljamas in Castile

4310:

in April 1250, to the effect that Jews might not build a new synagogue without special permission, also made it illegal for Jews to proselytize, under pain of death and confiscation of property. They might not associate with the Catholics, live under the same roof with them, eat and drink with them,

3642:

matters in general. Arabic came to be the main language of Sephardic science, philosophy and everyday business. From the second half of the 9th century, most Jewish prose, including many non-halakhic religious works, was in Arabic. The thorough adoption of Arabic greatly facilitated the assimilation

3442:

The Eastern Roman Empire sent its navy on numerous occasions in the late 7th century and the early 8th century to try to instill uprisings in the Jewish and Christian Roman populations in Spain and Gaul against their Visigoth and Frankish rulers that was also aimed at halting the expansion of Muslim

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in 711 is uncertain, but since they were openly treated as enemies in the country in which they had resided for generations, it would be no surprise for them to have appealed to the Moors to the south, who were quite tolerant in comparison to the Visigoths, for aid. In any case, the Jews in 694 were

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wrote that he found written in the ancient annals of Spanish history collected by the kings of Spain that the 50,000 Jewish households then residing in the cities throughout Spain were the descendants of men and women who were sent to Spain by the Roman Emperor and who had formerly been subjected to

2729:

decisions, all those that pertained to Jews served to maintain a separation between the two communities. It seems that by this time the presence of Jews was of greater concern to Catholic authorities than the presence of pagans; Canon 16, which prohibited marriage with Jews, was worded more strongly

5796:

In 2014, residents of a village in Spain called Castrillo Matajudios voted to change the name of their town due to risk of confusion resulting from the etymology of the name. "Mata" is a common suffix of placenames in Spain, meaning "forested patch". In this case, it is likely to be a corruption of

5601:

Some historians argue that these facts demonstrate a humane attitude by Franco's regime, while others point out that the regime only permitted Jewish transit through Spain. After the war, Franco's regime was quite hospitable to those who had been responsible for the deportation of the Jews, notably

5004:

The object of this law was to reduce the Jews to poverty and to further humiliate them. They were ordered to live by themselves, in enclosed Juderías, and they were to repair, within eight days after the publication of the order, to the quarters assigned them under penalty of loss of property. They

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it because certain Jews, on the king's coronation-day, by withholding the name of the accused, had obtained his permission to inflict the death-penalty on Joseph Pichon, who stood high in the royal favor; the accusation brought against Pichon included "harboring evil designs, informing, and treason.

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were the most important), both as regards their customs and their language. They owned real estate, and they cultivated their land with their own hands; they filled public offices, and on account of their industry they became wealthy while their knowledge and ability won them respect and influence.

4363:

Even though the Spanish Jews engaged in many branches of human endeavor—agriculture, viticulture, industry, commerce, and the various handicrafts—it was the money business that procured to some of them their wealth and influence. Kings and prelates, noblemen and farmers, all needed money and could

4271:

The Crusaders were hailed with joy in Toledo, but this joy was soon changed to sorrow, as far as the Jews were concerned. The Crusaders began the "holy war" in Toledo (1212) by robbing and killing the Jews, and if the knights had not checked them with armed forces all the Jews in Toledo would have

3999:

The Jews from the Muslim south were not entirely secure in their northward migrations, however. Old prejudices were compounded by newer ones. Suspicions of complicity with Islam were alive, and Jews who immigrated from Muslim territories spoke Arabic. However, many of the newly-arrived Jews of the

5284:

The number of Jews exiled from Spain is subject to controversy, with highly exaggerated figures provided by early observers and historians offering figures which numbered the hundreds of thousands. By the time of the expulsion, little more than 100,000 practicing Jews remained in Spain, since the

4874:

The year 1391 forms a turning-point in the history of the Spanish Jews. The persecution was the immediate forerunner of the Inquisition, which, ninety years later, was introduced as a means of watching heresy and converted Jews. The number of those who had embraced Catholicism, in order to escape

3446:

The Jews of Spain were utterly embittered and alienated by Catholic rule at the time of the Muslim invasion. The Moors were perceived as a liberating force and welcomed by Jews eager to help them to administer the country. In many conquered towns, the Muslims left the garrison in the hands of the

5462:

Prior to the Spanish Civil War and not taking Ceuta and Melilla into account, about 6,000–7,000 Jews lived in Spain, mostly in Barcelona and Madrid. Likewise, by 1936, the Jewish community in Melilla amounted to 6,000, later notably decreasing because of emigration to Venezuela, Israel, mainland

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ordering all Catholic princes to return all fugitive conversos to the Inquisition of Spain. One of the reasons for the increased rigor of the Catholic monarchs was the disappearance of the fear of any united action by Jews and Moors, the kingdom of Granada being at its last gasp. The rulers did,

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on October 9, 1390, and was succeeded by his eleven-year-old son. The council-regent appointed by the king in his testament, consisting of prelates, grandees, and six citizens from Burgos, Toledo, León, Seville, Córdoba, and Murcia, was powerless; every vestige of respect for law and justice had

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was burned down; factories and warehouses were destroyed by the flames. Before the authorities could come to the aid of the defenseless people, every one of them—children, young women, old men—had been ruthlessly slain; 2000 corpses lay in heaps in the streets, in the houses, and in the wrecked

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continued in the north. By the early 12th century, conditions for some Jews in the emerging Christian kingdoms were becoming increasingly favourable. As had happened during the reconstruction of towns after the breakdown of authority under the Umayyads, the services of Jews were employed by the

6649:

According to Don Isaac Abrabanel, in his Commentary at the end of II Kings, this was a city built near Toledo, in Spain. Abrabanel surmises that the name may have been given to it by the Jewish exiles who arrived in Spain, in remembrance of the city Ashqelon in the Land of Israel. The spelling

3100:

was sent by the exiles who have driven away from Jerusalem and who were not with Ezra in Babylon and that Ezra had sent inquiring after them, but they did not wish to go up , replied that since they were destined to go off again into exile a second time, and that the Temple would once again be

2680:

Thus, while there are limited material and literary indications for Jewish contact with Spain from a very early period, more definitive and substantial data begins with the third century. Data from this period suggest a well-established community, whose foundations must have been laid sometime

4953:

and to limit the commercial intercourse between Jews and Catholics; he also reduced by one-half the claims held by Jewish creditors against Catholics. Indeed, the feeble and suffering king, the son of Leonora, who hated the Jews so deeply that she even refused to accept their money, showed no

4556:

Everywhere the Jews remained loyal to King Peter, in whose army they fought bravely; the king showed his good-will toward them on all occasions, and when he called the King of Granada to his assistance he especially requested the latter to protect the Jews. Nevertheless they suffered greatly.

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and his son Badis for thirty years. In addition to his roles as policy director and military leader (as one of only two Jews to command Muslim armies, the other being his son Joseph), Samuel ibn Nagrela was an accomplished poet, and his introduction to the Talmud is standard today. His son

5801:(Castrillo Hill of the Jews). Although a mere anecdote in Spain, where it barely made the national press, this story was widely covered in the English speaking press of the United States, United Kingdom and Israel, often misrepresenting the name of the village as "Camp Kill the Jews". 7828: 3168:

was given to the city by its first Jewish inhabitants, and surmises that the name may have meant טלטול (= wandering), on account of their wandering from Jerusalem. He says, furthermore, that the original name of the city was Pirisvalle, so named by its early pagan inhabitants.

2768:

As citizens of the Roman Empire, the Jews of Hispania engaged in a variety of occupations, including agriculture. Until the adoption of Christianity, Jews had close relations with non-Jewish populations and played an active role in the social and economic life of the province.

3963:

Wars in North Africa with Muslim tribes eventually forced the Almoravides to withdraw their forces from Iberia. As the Christians advanced, Iberian Muslims again appealed to their brethren to the south, this time to those who had displaced the Almoravides in north Africa. The

3203:

appeased him, requesting that he send to him captives made-up of the nobles of Jerusalem, and so he sent a few of them to him, and there were amongst them those who made curtains and who were knowledgeable in the work of silk, and whose name was Baruch, and they remained in

3219:

him, and whom Titus had originally exiled from places in or around Jerusalem. The two Jewish exiles, those sent to Spain after the destruction of the First Temple, and those sent there after the destruction of the Second Temple, joined together and became one community.

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in Jewish sources). Thus, the Sephardim found themselves enriched culturally, intellectually, and religiously by the commingling of diverse Jewish traditions. Contacts with Middle Eastern communities were strengthened, and the influence of the Babylonian academies of

4744:. Most of the Castilian communities suffered from the persecution; nor were the Jews of Aragon, Catalonia, or Majorca spared. On July 9, an outbreak occurred in Valencia. More than 200 persons were killed, and most of the Jews of that city were baptized by the friar 3141:) did not depart from there during the building of the Second Temple, and were not involved in putting to death Christ. Yet, no apology was of any avail to them, neither unto the rest of the Jews, till at length, six hundred-thousand souls had evacuated from there. 2802:, the Jews stockpiled weapons. Severus mobilized Christians, accused Jewish leaders of plotting, and inspected the synagogue's weapons. This led to a riot, with Christians seizing and burning the synagogue. Within a week, all 540 local Jews were converted by force. 5073:

however, promise the Jews of the Moorish kingdom that they could continue to enjoy their existing rights in exchange for aiding the Spaniards to overthrow the Moors. This promise dated February 11, 1490, was repudiated, however, by the decree of expulsion. See the

6639:

William Parkin – 1837 "Festus Avinus says expressly that Cadiz was Tarshish. This agrees perfectly with the statement of Ibn Hankal, who no doubt reports the opinion of the Arabian geographers, that Phoenicia maintained a direct intercourse with Britain in later

4368:

stood the "rab de la corte", or "rab mayor" (court, or chief, rabbi), also called "juez mayor" (chief justice), who was the principal mediator between the state and the aljamas. These court rabbis were men who had rendered services to the state, as, for example,

2717:, the Jews of Spain engaged in a variety of occupations, including agriculture. Until the adoption of Christianity, Jews had close relations with non-Jewish populations, and played an active role in the social and economic life of the province. The edicts of the 3730:

In addition to being a poet himself, Hasdai encouraged and supported the work of other Sephardic writers. Subjects covered the spectrum, encompassing religion, nature, music, politics and pleasure. Hasdai brought a number of men of letters to Córdoba, including

4352:

But this prosperity roused the jealousy of the people and provoked the hatred of the clergy; the Jews had to suffer much through these causes. The kings, especially those of Aragon, regarded the Jews as their property; they spoke of "their" Jews, "their"

3267:

to Catholicism in 587. In their desire to consolidate the realm under the new religion, the Visigoths adopted an aggressive policy concerning the Jews. As the king and the church acted in a single interest, the situation for the Jews deteriorated. At the

2568:," possibly indicating a Jewish presence in biblical times. Two trilingual Jewish inscriptions from Tarragona and Tortosa, dated between the 2nd century BCE and the 6th century CE, further support evidence of early Jewish settlements. A tombstone from 3808:. Some Arabic philosophers followed Jewish ones in their ideas although that phenomenon was somewhat hindered in that, although in Arabic, Jewish philosophical works were usually written with Hebrew characters. Jews were also active in such fields as 5797:"mota" meaning "hill". Confusion arises from the word "mata" also meaning "kill", thus rendering a name that could be interpreted as "kill the jews". The name was changed back to its earlier name which would be less subject to surprise by newcomers 3435:

accused of conspiring with Muslims across the Mediterranean. Jews were declared traitors, including baptised Jews, found their property confiscated and themselves enslaved. The decree exempted only the converts who dwelt in the mountain passes of

5588:

Although Spain effectively undertook more to help Jews escape deportation to the concentration camps than most neutral countries did, there has been debate about Spain's wartime attitude towards refugees. Franco's regime, despite its aversion to

10027: 5068:, and though Ferdinand was the grandson of a Jew, he showed the greatest intolerance to Jews, whether converted or otherwise, commanding all "conversos" to reconcile themselves with the Inquisition by the end of 1484, and obtaining a bull from 3934:

was an anti-Jewish pogrom that took place in Granada when a Muslim mob stormed the royal palace, where Joseph had sought refuge, and crucified him. The instigators then attacked 1500 Jewish families and killed approximately 4,000 Granada Jews.

3543:, as was testified by the influx of Jews from abroad. To Jews throughout the Catholic and Muslim worlds, Iberia was seen as a land of relative tolerance and opportunity. After initial Arab-Berber victories, especially with the establishment of 5628:. Following the defeat of Germany in 1945, the Spanish government attempted to destroy all evidence of cooperation with the Nazis, but this official order survived. A Jewish newspaper cited a report published 22 June 2010 in the Spanish daily 3650:

generally kept Jews out of the political sphere, the first approximately two centuries that preceded the Golden Age were marked by increased activity by Jews in a variety of professions, including medicine, commerce, finance and agriculture.

5248:

The reason given for this action in the preamble of the edict was the relapse of so many conversos owing to the proximity of unconverted Jews, who seduced them from Christianity and kept alive in them the knowledge and practices of Judaism.

5028:

consisting of twelve articles, which, in the main, corresponded with the decree ("Pragmática") issued by Catalina, and which had been placed on the statutes of Aragon by Fernando. By this bull Jews and neophytes were forbidden to study the

2765:, and especially after the defeat of Judea in 70. One account placed the number carried off to Hispania at 80,000. Subsequent immigrations came into the area along both the northern African and southern European sides of the Mediterranean. 3390:

be inclined to aid Jews in their efforts to subvert the council's rulings. Heavy fines awaited any nobles who acted in favour of the Jews, and members of the clergy who were remiss in enforcement were subject to a number of punishments.

5424:

Jews began to interact with Melilla as early as 1862, with a increasing Jewish community in the city throughout the early 20th century that grew upon the arrival of Moroccan Jews spurred on after the events of Taza under Bou Hmara, the

3234:

rule by the early 5th century. Other than in their contempt for Catholics, who reminded them of the Romans, the Visigoths did not generally take much of an interest in the religious creeds within their kingdom. It was only in 506, when

4538:

The more friendly Peter showed himself toward the Jews, and the more he protected them, the more antagonistic became the attitude of his illegitimate half-brother, who, when he invaded Castile in 1360, murdered all the Jews living in

3824:. In addition to training the mind in logical yet abstract and subtle modes of thought, the study of the natural world, as the direct study of the work of the Creator, was ideally a way to better understand and become closer to God. 4605:

an era of suffering and intolerance began for the Castilian Jews, culminating in their expulsion. Prolonged warfare had devastated the land; the people had become accustomed to lawlessness, and the Jews had been reduced to poverty.

4291:, the contemporary ruler of Aragon. The clergy's endeavors against the Jews became more and more pronounced. Spanish Jews of both sexes, like the Jews of France, were compelled to distinguish themselves from Catholics by wearing a 3133:) answered that they were not present at the time when their Christ was put to death. Apparently, it was written upon a large stone in the city's street which some very ancient sovereign inscribed and testified that the Jews of 5538:

and British support. Nonetheless, control of the Spanish border with France relaxed somewhat at this time, and thousands of Jews managed to cross into Spain (many by smugglers' routes). Almost all of them survived the war. The

5503:. Jews claiming Spanish ancestry were provided with Spanish documentation without being required to prove their case and either left for Spain or survived the war with the help of their new legal status in occupied countries. 3527:

maintains that Toledo was "almost completely empty of its inhabitants" not because of Jewish treachery but because "many had fled to Amiara, others to Asturias and some to the mountains" and the city was then fortified by a

5581:, who was himself living under Spanish protection, used forged documents to persuade the Hungarian authorities that he was the new Spanish Ambassador. As such, he continued Spanish protection of Hungarian Jews until the 2813:, life for the early Jews in Hispania and the rest of southern Europe was relatively tolerable. This is due in large measure to the difficulty the Church had in establishing itself in its western frontier. In the west, 3052:

from Tyre might have brought them to Tarshish. Although the notion of Tarshish as Spain is merely based on suggestive material, it leaves open the possibility of a very early Jewish presence in the Iberian peninsula.

4481:

In the beginning of the fourteenth century the position of Jews became precarious throughout Spain as antisemitism increased. Many Jews emigrated from the crowns of Castile and Aragon. It was not until the reigns of

4830:

in 1391, on the 1st day of the lunar month Tammuz (June). From there the violence spread to Córdoba, and by the 17th day of the same lunar month, it had reached Toledo (then called by Jews after its Arabic name,

4359:

There were about 120 Jewish communities in Catholic Spain around 1300, with somewhere around half a million or more Jews, mostly in Castille. Catalonia, Aragón, and Valencia were more sparsely inhabited by Jews.

3777:

Hasdai benefited world Jewry by creating a favourable environment for scholarly pursuits within Iberia but also by using his influence to intervene on behalf of foreign Jews, as is reflected in his letter to the

3840:, although the ethical Jewish rationalism rested on the notion that traditional approaches had not been successful in their treatments of the subject in that they were lacking in rational, scientific arguments. 4715:"At this time Seville is said to have contained 7000 Jewish families. Of the three large synagogues existing in the city two were transformed into churches. In all the towns throughout the archbishopric, as in 5514:

as Spain's foreign minister, Spanish diplomacy became "more sympathetic to Jews", although Franco himself "never said anything" about this. Around that same time, a contingent of Spanish doctors travelling in

4527:, without distinction of age or sex. The mob did not, however, succeed in overrunning the Judería of Toledo proper, which was defended by the Jews and by knights loyal to the King. Following the succession of 9997: 5733:

are produced in this region and exported to Jews around the world. Also there is a new Jewish school in Murcia as a result of the growth in Jewish population immigrating to the Murcia community PolarisWorld.

4356:(Jewish neighborhoods), and in their own interest they protected the Jews against violence, making good use of them in every way possible. The Jews were vassals of the king, the same as Christian commoners. 2709:

in 70. One questionable estimate places the number carried off to Spain at 80,000. Subsequent immigrations came into the area along both the northern African and southern European sides of the Mediterranean.

5786:. Today there is an interest by some Jewish groups working in Spain to encourage the descendants of Conversos to return to Judaism. This has resulted in a limited number of conversions to the Jewish faith. 5597:

conspiracy, does not appear to have shared the rabid anti-Semitic ideology promoted by the Nazis. About 25,000 to 35,000 refugees, mainly Jews, were allowed to transit through Spain to Portugal and beyond.

4114:. In Leon many Jews owned real estate, and engaged in agriculture and viticulture as well as in the handicrafts; and here, as in other towns, they lived on friendly terms with the Christian population. The 3944:. The Granada massacre was one of the earliest signs of a decline in the status of Jews, which resulted largely from the penetration and influence of increasingly-zealous Islamic sects from North Africa. 4944:

After the bloody excesses of 1391 the popular hatred of the Jews continued unabated. The Cortes of Madrid and that of Valladolid (1405) mainly busied themselves with complaints against the Jews, so that

5790: 5037:(accusers). They might hold no public offices, nor might they follow any handicrafts, or act as brokers, matrimonial agents, physicians, apothecaries, or druggists. They were forbidden to bake or sell 4140:

gave to the church of León the taxes paid by the Jews of Castro. Alfonso VI, the conqueror of Toledo (1085), was tolerant and benevolent in his attitude toward the Jews, for which he won the praise of

3109:) and those who are near to them. However, that they might not be thought of as wicked men and those who are lacking in fidelity, may God forbid, they wrote down for them this magnanimous praise, etc. 9363: 7285: 4216:, (who granted the Jews special privileges), and the united kings of Aragon and Navarre. Jews fought in both armies, and after the declaration of peace they were placed in charge of the fortresses. 4125:(1050) therefore found it necessary to revive the old Visigothic law forbidding, under pain of punishment by the Church, Jews and Christians to live together in the same house, or to eat together. 9708: 4504:, the son and successor of Alfonso XI, was relatively favorably disposed toward the Jews, who under him reached the zenith of their influence – often exemplified by the success of his treasurer, 3723:

that interest in Hebrew studies developed and flourished. With Hasdai as its leading patron, Córdoba became the "Mecca of Jewish scholars who could be assured of a hospitable welcome from Jewish

5793:(FCJE) has established agreements with the Spanish government, regulating the status of Jewish clergy, places of worship, teaching, marriages, holidays, tax benefits, and heritage conservation. 5443:(1923–1930) decreed the right to Spanish citizenship to a certain number of Sephardim on December 20, 1924. The condition was that they had enjoyed Spanish protection before while living in the 4000:

north prospered during the late eleventh and early twelfth centuries. The majority of Latin documentation regarding Jews during the period refers to their landed property, fields and vineyards.

7878:

dates start at sunset. 31 July 1492 until sunset was the 7th of Av; from sunset it was the 8th. Presumably the edict took effect at midnight, which was already the 8th, the day before the 9th.

3404:

but kept it up on practising Jews. Economic hardships included increased taxes and the forced sale, at a fixed price, of all property ever acquired from Christians. That effectively ended all

3045:; evidently it represents the westernmost place to which one could sail. One might speculate that commerce conducted by Jewish emissaries, merchants, craftsmen, or other tradesmen among the 10015: 5405: 4760:. The riot raged in Barcelona until Aug. 10, and many Jews (though not 11,000 as claimed by some authorities) were baptized. On the last-named day began the attack upon the Juderia in 4700:

A revolt broke out in Seville in 1391. Juan Alfonso de Guzmán, Count of Niebla and governor of the city, and his relative, the "alguazil mayor" Alvar Pérez de Guzmán, had ordered, on

5053: 10032: 9388: 9358: 3172:

According to Abrabanel, the Jewish exiles that arrived in Spain during the biblical period were later joined by those brought by Titus after the destruction of the Second Temple.

5241:

was issued against the Jews of Spain by Ferdinand and Isabella on 31 March 1492. It ordered all Jews of whatever age to leave the kingdom by the last day of July: one day before

4594:

on March 14, 1369. A few weeks before his death he reproached his physician and astrologer Abraham ibn Zarzal for not having told the truth in prophesying good fortune for him.

4295:

on their clothing; this order was issued to keep them from associating with Catholics, although the reason given was that it was ordered for their own safety. Some Jews such as

4740:

From Córdova the spirit of murder spread to Jaén. A horrible butchery took place in Toledo on June 20. Among the many martyrs were the descendants of the famous Toledan rabbi

3638:, which had been best preserved by Arab scholars. The meticulous regard which the Arabs had for grammar and style also had the effect of stimulating an interest among Jews in 6062: 5481:(1936–1939), synagogues were closed and post-war worship was kept in private homes. Jewish public life resumed in 1947 with the arrival of Jews from Europe and North Africa. 4240:, the defeat was attributed to the king's love-affair with Fermosa, and she and her relatives were murdered in Toledo by the nobility. After the victory at Alarcos the emir 2734:. Canon 48 forbade Jews from blessing Christian crops, and Canon 50 forbade sharing meals with Jews; repeating the command to Hebrew the Bible indicated respect to Gentile. 2466:

and the Christian Iberian kingdoms. Targets of antisemitic mob violence, Jews living in the Christian kingdoms faced persecution throughout the 14th century, leading to the

5300:. From the 13th to the 16th century, at least 15 European countries expelled their Jewish populations. The expulsion of the Jews from Spain was preceded by expulsions from 2677:, convened in the early fourth century, which address proper Christian behaviour with regard to the Jews of Spain, notably forbidding marriage between Jews and Christians. 3272:

in 589, bishops endorsed the Breviary's restrictions on Jews, including prohibitions on intermarriage with Christians, owning Christian slaves, and holding public office.

3068:, France and Spain. He explicitly identified Ṣarfat and Sepharad as France and Spain, respectively. Some scholars think that, in the case of the place-name, Ṣarfat (lit. 9992: 5455:

who had refused to take either Greek or Turkish citizenship. The decree was later used by some Spanish diplomats to save Sephardi Jews from persecution and death during

1040: 6083: 5092:

probably had adverse effects on the development of the Spanish economy. Jews and Non-Catholic Christians reportedly had substantially better numerical skills than the

3192:, rather than from the villages, the towns in the outlying districts ." Elsewhere, he writes about his maternal grandfather's family and how they came to Spain: "When 3532:

of Arabs and Jews (3.24). Although in the cases of some towns, the behaviour of the Jews may have been conducive to Muslim success, it was of limited impact overall.

5371:" background in order to access certain positions of authority. During this period hundreds of conversos escaped to nearby countries such as England, France and the 5056:, two years later, the same law was enforced in Navarre, where they were ordered to be confined to the Juderías at night. The same year saw the establishment of the 4931:, had submitted to baptism. Among those baptized were several wealthy men and scholars who scoffed at their former coreligionists; some even, as Solomon ha-Levi, or 4783:

Several responses bearing on the widespread persecution of Iberian Jewry between the years 1390 and 1391 can be found in contemporary Jewish sources, such as in the

3101:

destroyed, why should we then double our anguish? It is best for us that we remain here in our place and to serve God. Now, I have heard that they are the people of

4954:

feelings of friendship toward them. Though on account of the taxes of which he was thereby deprived he regretted that many Jews had left the country and settled in

4590:

esta el fi de puta Judio, que se llama rey de Castilla?" ("Where is the Jewish son of a bitch, who calls himself king of Castile?") Peter was beheaded by Henry and

3076:

in France, the association with France was made only exegetically because of its similarity in spelling with the name פרנצא (France), by a reversal of its letters.

4875:

death, was very large – over half of Spain's Jews according to Joseph Pérez, 200,000 converts with only 100,000 openly practicing Jews remaining by 1410.; Jews of

3634:), the cultural and intellectual achievements of Arabic culture were opened up to the educated Jew, as was much of the scientific and philosophical speculation of 6349:(18.7.2) — this discrepancy has been resolved by postulating Lugdunum Convenarium, a town in Gaul on the Spanish frontier as the actual site. For discussion, see 9476: 1618: 2518:

The earliest significant Jewish presence in the Iberian Peninsula is generally traced back to the first centuries CE, when the region, known to the Romans as

4644: 1273: 968: 3060:(1160–1235), in his commentary on Obadiah 1:20, Ṣarfat and Sepharad refer to the Jews exiled during the war with Titus and who went as far as the countries 9015: 7282: 4373: 4115: 8673:

Bowers, W. P. "Jewish Communities in Spain in the Time of Paul the Apostle" Journal of Theological Studies Vol. 26 Part 2, October 1975, pp. 395–402.

4381: 4276:(1212), Alfonso victoriously entered Toledo, the Jews went to meet him in triumphal procession. Shortly before his death (Oct., 1214) the king issued the 3804:("The Source of Life"). Thought by many to have been written by a Christian, the work was admired by Christians and studied in monasteries throughout the 1160: 9931: 4110:(974), placed the Jews in many respects on an equality with Catholics; and similar measures were adopted by the Council of Leon (1020), presided over by 4618: 3719:

Abd al-Rahman III's support for Arabic scholasticism had made Iberia the centre of Arabic philological research. It was within that context of cultural

7724:

of Solomon ibn Verga, in which he names the Jewish communities affected by the persecution of 1391. See pages 138 – 140 in PDF (Hebrew); Fritz Kobler,

5436:, their language. There was a Spanish rediscovery of the Jews of Northern Morocco who still conserved this language and practiced old Spanish customs. 4369: 2368: 5061: 4632: 4377: 4228:, Funes, and Murañon. During the reign of Alfonso VIII the Jews gained still greater influence, aided, doubtless, by the king's love of the beautiful 10086: 10048: 8282: 3996:, at least while the Islamic threat was imminent. Thus, as conditions in Islamic Iberia worsened, immigration to Christian principalities increased. 132: 7122: 10060: 5162: 1155: 8522:"522 años después, los sefardíes podrán tener nacionalidad española (522 years later, the Sephardi Jews will be able to have Spanish nationality)" 8422:

Ley 25/1992, de 10 de noviembre, por la que se aprueba el acuerdo de cooperación del Estado con la Federación de Comunidades Israelistas de España

8021: 7639:

counting, i.e. 5,152 and 5,151, owing to the change of the Hebrew year in the Fall of that same year. For English translation, see: Fritz Kobler,

5112:, spillover-effects of these skills were rare because of forced separation and Jewish emigration, which was detrimental for economic development. 3743:, the compiler of the first Hebrew dictionary, which came into wide use among the Jews of Germany and France. Celebrated poets of the era include 9421: 1403: 2628:, redacted around 200 CE, implied that there was a Jewish community in Spain, and that there was communication with the Jewish community in the 9143: 7478: 6409: 7635:, and which history concerns only the year 1391, although the Christian date mentioned here is represented in his account by two dates in the 5174: 9555: 9073: 4569:, who paid homage to his half-brother Henry, robbed the Jews, destroyed their houses and synagogues, and tore their Torah scrolls to pieces. 4419: 4042: 3419:

In 694, at the Council of Toledo, Jews were condemned to slavery by the Visigoths because of a plot to revolt against them encouraged by the

3347:"in advance" any of his successors who did not act in accordance with his anti-Jewish edicts. Again, many converted, but others chose exile. 1657: 10020: 9831: 5540: 3478:

in 711, the lives of the Sephardim changed dramatically. For the most part, the invasion of the Moors was welcomed by the Jews of Iberia.

8435: 6285:, Assen, Netherlands: Van Gorcum & Comp. (1974), p. 169; Bowers, W. P. "Jewish Communities in Spain in the Time of Paul the Apostle" 5760: 5052:

and from their fellow countrymen. At the Cortes of Toledo, in 1480, all Jews were ordered to be separated in special barrios, and at the

3184:

wrote in 1161: "A tradition exists with the community of Granada that they are from the inhabitants of Jerusalem, of the descendants of

642: 605: 7509:, Vilnius 1879, pages 13, 15 and 16 in PDF (Hebrew); On Rabbi Isaac ben Sheshet's own forced conversion, see: Isaac ben Sheshet Perfet, 7408:

Cronicas de los reyes de Castilla Don Pedro, Don Enrique II, Don Juan I, Don Enrique III / 1: Que comprende la cronica del rey Don Pedro

8045:

Celia Prados García: La expulsión de los judíos y el retorno de los sefardíes como nacionales españoles. Un análisis histórico-jurídico

5523:, who was under the impression that they would share his views about the matter; when they came home, they passed the story to Admiral 5447:

and that they applied before December 31, 1930. A similar measure was undertaken by the French government regarding non-Muslims in the

3782:

Princess Helena. In it, he requested protection for the Jews under Byzantine rule, attested to the fair treatment of the Christians of

3092:

in the 16th century, an explicit reference is made to the fact that Jews have lived in Spain since the destruction of the First Temple:

8958: 6124: 9891: 9611: 9280: 9093: 7940: 4748:, whose presence in the city was probably not accidental. The only community remaining in the former kingdom of Valencia was that of 2669:), both, make mention of the Jewish diaspora in Spain (Hispania) and their eventual return. Among these early references are several 1581: 8939:, The Jewish History Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem 8584:

The Mezuzah in the Madonna's Foot: Oral Histories Exploring Five Hundred Years in the Paradoxical Relationship of Spain and the Jews

8553: 8311: 9118: 9008: 5756: 4388:. They were appointed by the kings, no regard being paid to the rabbinical qualifications or religious inclination of those chosen 3968:, who had taken control of much of Islamic Iberia by 1172, far surpassed the Almoravides in fundamentalist outlook and treated the 1604: 3481:

Both Muslim and Catholic sources tell that Jews provided valuable aid to the invaders. Once the city was captured, the defence of

9703: 9454: 9290: 7976:

Líderes de origen judeoconverso en las ciudades castellanas durante la revuelta comunera: su papel al frente de Común de pecheros

3551:

in 755, the native Jewish community was joined by Jews from the rest of Europe, as well as from Arab territories from Morocco to

954: 5060:, the main object of which was to deal with the conversos. Though both monarchs were surrounded by Neo-Catholics, such as Pedro 5024:

The persecution of the Jews was now pursued systematically. In the hope of mass conversions, Benedict on May 11, 1415, issued a

3984:, fled south and east to the more tolerant Muslim lands, and others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms. 2725:, provide evidence of Jews who were integrated enough into the greater community to cause alarm among some: of the council's 80 9750: 9599: 9378: 9330: 9205: 9200: 7926: 5440: 5305: 3582: 2361: 1531: 1466: 1348: 8202: 5621: 5577:

Toward the war's end, Sanz Briz had to flee Budapest, leaving these Jews open to arrest and deportation. An Italian diplomat,

4776:; 75 were slain, and the rest were baptized; the latter transformed their synagogue into a church, in which they worshiped as 2833:

systems of the Roman empire, and for several centuries the Jews enjoyed a degree of peace their brethren to the east did not.

9816: 9459: 8796: 8757: 8723: 8645: 8631: 8603: 8595: 7902: 7811: 7391: 7137: 6961: 6833: 6809: 6521: 6502: 6395: 6371: 6322: 6227: 6045: 5874: 3460: 3448: 652: 5121: 3354:

in 653 again tackled the issue of Jews within the realm. Further measures at the time included the forbidding of all Jewish

2503:. Tracing back to a 1924 decree, there have been initiatives to favour the return of Sephardi Jews to Spain by facilitating 9335: 9165: 8613:(2011). "Presencia e imagen judía en la España contemporánea. Herencia castiza y modernidad". In Schammah Gesser, Silvina; 7256: 5516: 4681: 3208:." Here, Rabbi Abraham ben David refers to the second influx of Jews into Spain, shortly after the destruction of Israel's 1090: 6426:"History of the Christian Church, Volume II: Ante-Nicene Christianity. A.D. 100–325 – Christian Classics Ethereal Library" 4847:, where the slain were estimated at two-hundred and fifty. So, too, many Jews who resided in the neighboring provinces of 2593:

has been interpreted by many as evidence of established Jewish communities in the region during the mid-first century CE.

2397:

in 70 CE. The earliest archaeological evidence of Hebrew presence in Iberia consists of a 2nd-century gravestone found in

9646: 9414: 9340: 9001: 8936: 8768:

Monographs of the Mediaeval Academy of America No. 12: The Jews in the Visigothic and Frankish Kingdoms of Spain and Gaul

7370:(1906) by Morris Jastrow, Jr., J. Frederic McCurdy, Richard Gottheil, Kaufmann Kohler, Francis L. Cohen, Herman Rosenthal 5452: 5264:

for the revocation of the edict. It is said also that Ferdinand hesitated, but was prevented from accepting the offer by

4152:

was not begun until after the Sabbath had passed. The king's favoritism toward the Jews, which became so pronounced that

2649:, states: "Do not fear, O Israel, for I help you from remote lands, and your seed from the land of their captivity, from 1358: 1175: 1165: 405: 4220:(1166–1214), who had succeeded to the throne, entrusted the Jews with guarding Or, Celorigo, and, later, Mayorga, while 3412:

with the Christians of the kingdom or to conduct business with Christians overseas. Egica's measures were upheld by the

9966: 9740: 9265: 6921: 6602: 6140:

The Jewish Virtual Library (as well as the president of the Spanish Jewish community) speak of 40,000-50,000 Jews (see

5805: 1754: 1704: 1669: 1363: 1228: 1095: 8338: 7751:, p. 17. Kamen cites approximate numbers for Valencia (250) and Barcelona (400), but no solid data about Córdoba. 4531:, conditions for Jews seem to have improved somewhat, with John I even making legal exemptions for some Jews, such as 3700:(from 929 onward). The inauguration of the Golden Age is closely identified with the career of his Jewish councillor, 2753:. Any Jews already in Hispania at this time would have been joined by those who had been enslaved by the Romans under 9713: 9587: 9235: 9195: 9175: 9155: 9058: 8101: 7984: 7683: 6195: 6063:"Los 50.000 judíos de España celebran desde hoy la fiesta de Janucá que culminará el día 4 con el encendido de luces" 5986: 5472: 4441: 4068: 3517:, closed the gates of the city before the Catholics and opened them for the Moors. However, unlike de Tuy's account, 3510: 2864:

Several early Jewish writers wrote that their families had lived in Spain since the destruction of the first temple.

2354: 1446: 1408: 1383: 1303: 1288: 1135: 1075: 1030: 9723: 8988: 6031:"La expulsión de los judíos y el retorno de los sefardíes como nacionales españoles. Un análisis histórico-jurídico" 4137: 4050: 3034:'s empire from west to east, Tarshish is listed first (Ezekiel 27.12–14), and in Jonah 1.3 it is the place to which 9667: 9368: 9170: 7760:

According to Gedaliah Ibn Yechia, these disturbances were caused by a malicious report spread about the Jews. See:

7499:, treats mainly on the status of Jews (Anūsim) who were compelled to hide their religion in face of persecution in 6098: 5973: 5746: 5272:, they took steps to prevent the desecration of the graves of their kindred by presenting the cemetery, called the 5186: 5150: 3677: 1739: 1721: 1627: 1521: 1373: 1368: 1293: 1258: 1125: 8178: 5507: 2730:

than canon 15, which prohibited marriage with pagans. Canon 78 threatens those who commit adultery with Jews with

2552:. The vessel bears two Hebrew characters, suggesting Jewish contact with the region, likely through trade between 10081: 9793: 9745: 9733: 9728: 9604: 9560: 9535: 9373: 9320: 9295: 9250: 9245: 9220: 9078: 8421: 6592:, Routledge:London 1931, pp. 22–36. Cf. Cambridge University Library, Taylor-Schecter Collection (T-S Misc.35.38) 5869: 5293: 3631: 2257: 2156: 1711: 1694: 1647: 1546: 1456: 1393: 1343: 1323: 1318: 1238: 1212: 1187: 1065: 1055: 1045: 1025: 1020: 5752:

Moreover, Reform and liberal communities have arisen in cities like Barcelona or Oviedo during the last decade.

4609:

But in spite of his aversion for the Jews, Henry did not dispense with their services. He employed wealthy Jews—

9821: 9772: 9689: 9662: 9565: 9550: 9407: 9285: 9275: 9225: 9185: 9138: 9133: 9123: 9108: 9103: 9098: 9083: 9068: 9063: 9053: 9048: 9043: 9038: 8656: 8453: 5048:

Ferdinand and Isabella ascended their respective thrones, steps were taken to segregate the Jews both from the

4423: 4144:. To estrange the wealthy and industrious Jews from the Moors he offered the former various privileges. In the 4046: 3915:

also acted as vizier but was murdered in the 1066 Granada massacre. There were other Jewish viziers serving in

3316:, like those of later periods, maintained their Jewish identities in secret. During the more tolerant reign of 1730: 1716: 1684: 1664: 1632: 1576: 1551: 1526: 1506: 1496: 1481: 1476: 1471: 1451: 1441: 1436: 1413: 1328: 1313: 1233: 1192: 1145: 1140: 1060: 1005: 5635:

At around the same time, synagogues were opened and the communities could hold a discreet degree of activity.

4993:

At the Catholic preacher Ferrer's request a law consisting of twenty-four clauses, which had been drawn up by

2798:'s relics in Magona, Severus launched a campaign against the local Jews. Fearing violence and inspired by the 9916: 9641: 9636: 9626: 9383: 9325: 9270: 9260: 9240: 9230: 9215: 9210: 9190: 9160: 9128: 9113: 9088: 9024: 7761: 7522: 5884: 4792: 4676:"The execution of Joseph Pichon and the inflammatory speeches and sermons delivered in Seville by Archdeacon 4273: 3960:

continued to write during this time, and several Jews served as diplomats and physicians to the Almoravides.

3114: 2151: 1689: 1674: 1637: 1599: 1571: 1561: 1556: 1541: 1536: 1516: 1501: 1486: 1461: 1427: 1398: 1298: 1283: 1207: 1197: 1115: 1085: 1010: 996: 5499:, Spanish diplomats of the Franco government extended their protection to Eastern European Jews, especially 5492:

to seek asylum in a country where no Jews had been allowed to live openly as Jews for over four centuries."

5402:

Small numbers of Jews started to arrive in Spain in the 19th century, and synagogues were opened in Madrid.

4823:

in the winter of 1391 concerning the events in Spain in the year 1391. The letter is dated 19 October 1391.

9982: 9718: 9672: 9582: 9464: 9300: 9180: 9150: 8884: 8503: 8473: 6628: 5391: 4647:

ordering the complete separation of Jews and Catholics and the prevention of any association between them.

3844:

Jews were instrumental in bringing the fields of science and philosophy, which formed much of the basis of

3431: 3006:, a locale in southern Spain, and suggesting Jewish traders were active in Spain during the Phoenician and 2417: 1759: 1679: 1642: 1511: 1378: 1353: 1278: 1253: 1243: 1182: 1105: 1100: 1080: 1070: 1050: 1035: 928: 632: 396: 391: 8951:

La Inquisición Española: origen, desarrollo, organización, administración, métodos y proceso inquisitorial

7513:(ed. Michael Berenbaum and Fred Skolnik), vol. 10, 2nd ed., Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2007, p. 49. 5638:

On December 29, 1948, the official state bulletin (BOE) published a list of Sefardím family surnames from

5104:-Reading was compulsory. Even when Jews were forced to quit their highly skilled urban occupations, their 4156:

warned him not to permit Jews to rule over Catholics, roused the hatred and envy of the latter. After the

3245:

in which he adopted the laws of the ousted Romans that a Visigothic king concerned himself with the Jews.

9697: 7143: 5603: 5376: 5333: 5137: 4731:, the Jews were robbed and slain. In Córdoba this butchery was repeated in a horrible manner; the entire 3704:(882–942). Originally a court physician, Shaprut's official duties went on to include the supervision of 3556: 3413: 1749: 1744: 1699: 1652: 1338: 1308: 1268: 1263: 1120: 426: 8610: 8521: 7040: 5798: 5125: 3980:. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews emigrated. Some, such as the family of 3684:

as "wretched compiler", tried to convince the other to return to their former religion but to no avail.

3377:

The efforts again proved unsuccessful. The Jewish population remained sufficiently sizable as to prompt

9987: 9948: 8667: 5864: 5530:

Diplomats discussed the possibility of Spain as a route to a containment camp for Jewish refugees near

5074: 4161: 4136:

set aside a part of the Jewish taxes for the use of the Church, and even the not very religious-minded

3196: 2892:“And the exiles of this host of the sons of Israel who are among the Canaanites as far as Ṣarfat (Heb. 2681:

earlier. Some suggest that substantial Jewish immigration probably occurred during the Roman period of

2223: 2068: 1776: 1170: 366: 356: 92: 7301: 6173: 4661: 3518: 3259:

The tides turned even more dramatically following the conversion of the Visigothic royal family under

9926: 9621: 9594: 8298: 5972:

Hinojosa Montalvo, José (2000). "Los judíos en la España medieval: de la tolerancia a la expulsión".

5899: 4237: 4194: 3828:

also became a major centre of Jewish philosophy during Hasdai's time. Following the tradition of the

3386: 2911: 2337: 2030: 1881: 1822: 713: 8915: 8618: 4157: 3654:

By the ninth century, some members of the Sephardic community felt confident enough to take part in

3599:, of course, also made a lasting impact on Sephardic cultural development. General re-evaluation of 3570:

was at its greatest. As a result, until the mid-10th century, much Sephardic scholarship focused on

8734: 5511: 5426: 5256:, who had previously ransomed 480 Jews of Málaga from the Catholic Monarchs by a payment of 20,000 4516: 4284: 4258: 4031: 3351: 3328: 2040: 2020: 1130: 610: 151: 9767: 8355: 8336:

HebreoCollege Murcia empezamos en 2003 como escuela privada en polaris world para 214 familias jud

7888: 7437: 5764: 4165: 9956: 9755: 9656: 8920: 8778: 5383: 4732: 4716: 4412: 4217: 4035: 3539:, life under Muslim rule was one of great opportunity in comparison to that under prior Catholic 3343:

to order that only Catholics could remain in the kingdom, and taking an unusual step further, he

3340: 3269: 2810: 2746: 2553: 2181: 2171: 2136: 2015: 2005: 1788: 959: 901: 735: 414: 371: 86: 4936: 3658:

amongst previously-Jewish "Catholics". Most famous were the heated correspondences sent between

3331:, while taking a stance in opposition to compulsory baptism, convened to address the problem of 2435: 9859: 8270: 8013: 6277:, Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America (1961), p. 16; Salo Wittmayer Baron, 6142: 5909: 5309: 4586: 4120: 3378: 3241: 3156:– a city so-called by the Jewish exiles that had come there; the second, in the country around 2762: 2702: 2300: 2035: 1949: 1015: 567: 186: 156: 7974: 7892: 7243:

Ahmed, M.I. Muslim-Jewish Harmony: A Politically-Contingent Reality. Religions 2022, 13, 535.

5524: 5375:, or converted back to Judaism, thus becoming part of the communities of Western Sephardim or 5265: 4598: 4532: 4213: 4133: 9849: 9826: 9782: 8684: 7670:

Mitre Fernández, Emilio (1994). Secretariado de Publicaciones e Intercambio Editorial (ed.).

7462: 7381: 5889: 5779: 5227: 4728: 4491: 4209: 4168:

fell upon the Jews; many were slain, others were imprisoned, and their houses were pillaged.

3931: 3869: 3667: 2661: 2585: 2565: 2191: 2186: 2131: 1919: 834: 562: 549: 444: 161: 8982: 8950: 8044: 6366:

and Matthew Black (revised English ed.). Edinburgh: T&T Clark. pp. 352 n. 41.

6030: 5245:. They were permitted to take their property provided it was not in gold, silver, or money. 4454: 4145: 3947:

After the fall of Toledo to Christians in 1085, the ruler of Seville sought relief from the

2576:), inscribed with the name of a Jewish girl, Salomonula, dates to the early 3rd century CE. 8955: 8817: 7599: 6671:), end of Part VI which treats on the Resurrection of the Dead, pub. in Basel 1608 (Hebrew) 6119: 4946: 4896: 4688:, in spite of the endeavors of his physician Moses ibn Ẓarẓal to prolong his life, died at 4684:'s confessor, soon raised the hatred of the populace to the highest pitch. The feeble King 4591: 4483: 4221: 3420: 3367: 2579:

One of the earliest references possibly indicating a Jewish presence in Roman-era Spain is

2262: 2214: 1954: 1812: 625: 490: 479: 437: 8234:, October 2006, p. 86–94. The relevant statement about Spain sheltering him is on page 91. 7944: 7833:

The Revista de Historia Económica - Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History

7784: 5129: 5065: 4859:, whereas many died a martyr's death, while others converted in order to save themselves. 4689: 4344: 4111: 3697: 8: 9570: 8972: 8587: 8408: 8315: 7367: 6607: 6115: 5742: 5109: 5057: 4868: 4764:; several Jews were robbed and killed; many sought safety in flight and a few in baptism. 4705: 4602: 4512: 4348: 3912: 3903: 3863: 3752: 3744: 3427: 3222: 3215: 3145: 3046: 3019: 3007: 2935: 2842: 2504: 2315: 2010: 688: 555: 458: 451: 381: 269: 144: 25: 7363: 4694: 4677: 3793:

influenced the lives of non-Jews as well. Most notable of the literary contributions is

2624:

Rabbinic literature from references Spain as a distant land with a Jewish presence. The

8710: 7858: 7472: 6954:

Jews, Visigoths and Muslims in medieval Spain : cooperation and conflict, pp.79–90

6337: 5364: 5301: 5141: 5069: 4998: 4848: 4487: 4149: 3907: 3876:

In the early 11th century, centralised authority based at Córdoba broke down after the

3701: 3523: 3397: 2963: 2783: 2613: 2488: 2166: 2116: 2063: 2058: 1972: 1842: 1110: 939: 698: 618: 472: 38: 9682: 7897:(in Spanish). Cuenca: Ediciones de la Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha. p. 102. 6281:, New York: Columbia University press (1952), p. 170; Safrai, S. and Stern, M., eds., 5571: 5133: 4473: 4095: 3920: 3153: 10053: 9938: 9864: 9544: 8753: 8746: 8627: 8599: 8591: 8097: 7980: 7898: 7862: 7807: 7737: 7691: 7679: 7657: 7628: 7578: 7492: 7387: 7133: 6957: 6367: 6191: 6179: 6041: 5982: 5904: 5478: 5297: 5045: 4835:). From there, the violence spread to Mallorca and by the 1st day of the lunar month 4808: 4788: 4753: 4685: 4562: 4528: 4332: 4315:

or to the infliction of ten stripes. Jews were also forbidden to appear in public on

4288: 4241: 4233: 4225: 4141: 3740: 3732: 3693: 3647: 3189: 2967: 2873: 2674: 2637: 2390: 2310: 2252: 2232: 2049: 1609: 1248: 708: 579: 509: 386: 299: 166: 8696: 6425: 5714:, with a Jewish community of 3,500, has the largest concentration of Jews in Spain. 5219: 3482: 9841: 8893: 8664:

Jews in the Hellenistic World: Josephus, Aristeas, The Sibylline Oracles, Eupolemus

8525: 8210: 8025: 7918: 7848: 7840: 7829:"Numeracy of Religious Minorities in Spain and Portugal During the Inquisition Era" 6916: 6914: 6183: 5772: 5625: 5578: 5387: 5261: 5017: 4741: 4656: 4610: 4577:, and several other communities met with a like fate, and 300 Jewish families from 4501: 4340: 4307: 4229: 4153: 4099: 3779: 3756: 3612: 3590: 3227: 3181: 3089: 3011: 2777: 2690: 2580: 2549: 2475: 2467: 2386: 2280: 2161: 2121: 2085: 1783: 1333: 844: 600: 504: 419: 309: 101: 8676:

Dan, Joseph. "The Epic of a Millennium: Judeo-Spanish Culture's Confrontation" in

5615: 5566:

also managed to be included, as did some non-Jews. The Spanish head of mission in

3205: 3085: 2974:, saying: “The name of our land in which we dwell is called in the sacred tongue, 2607:, son of Herod the Great and tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, was exiled by Emperor 2560:, dating to the 8th–7th century BCE, features an inscription generally considered 2398: 9921: 9854: 9575: 9469: 8962: 8716: 8342: 7875: 7289: 6128: 5914: 5894: 5821: 5693: 5650: 5269: 5253: 5238: 5234: 5213: 5203: 5093: 4908: 4669: 4544: 4466: 3771: 3616: 3548: 3544: 3475: 3344: 3015: 2927: 2919: 2885: 2865: 2814: 2773: 2718: 2633: 2479: 2471: 2463: 2451: 2242: 2201: 2196: 2176: 2098: 2092: 2025: 1977: 1817: 1798: 949: 678: 590: 573: 117: 8993: 8030: 6911: 6351: 5668:

There are currently around 50,000 Spanish Jews, with the largest communities in

3766:

For the only time between Biblical times and the origins of the modern state of

2745:, emigration from Judea into the greater Roman Mediterranean area antedated the 9908: 9879: 9869: 9788: 9439: 9430: 8976: 8911: 7711: 7540: 6715: 6612: 6303: 5842: 5817: 5563: 5489: 5444: 5433: 5347: 4994: 4932: 4820: 4800: 4757: 4745: 4570: 4505: 4385: 3957: 3887: 3760: 3736: 3596: 3332: 3185: 3031: 3027: 2858: 2830: 2629: 2598: 2526:. This presence is supported by both archaeological finds and literary sources. 2382: 2381:

The history of the Jews in the current-day Spanish territory stretches back to

2342: 2141: 1996: 1876: 1855: 1832: 1827: 1805: 1793: 1388: 869: 803: 768: 746: 683: 521: 499: 361: 340: 316: 82: 64: 7844: 7804:

Sages of Spain in the Eye of the Storm: Jewish Scholars of Late Medieval Spain

6750:, Jerusalem 1971, pp. 43–44 (printed in the edition which includes the books, 6187: 4997:, né Solomon haLevi, was issued in January 1412 in the name of the child-king 4826:

According to Don Hasdai Crescas, persecution against Jews began in earnest in

4578: 4515:

and his brother, at the head of a mob, invaded on 7 May 1355 that part of the

4296: 3836:, many of the most notable Jewish philosophers were dedicated to the field of 2942:. Based on a later teaching in the compendium of Jewish oral laws compiled by 2845:. One such legend from the 16th century claimed that a funeral inscription in 10075: 9760: 9677: 9524: 9517: 8906: 8802: 8786:

Samuel Power and Sexuality: The Emergence of Canon Law at the Synod of Elvira

6363: 6099:"El Gobierno aprueba la ley que otorga la doble nacionalidad a los sefardíes" 5879: 5656:

Between 1948, the year Israel was founded, and 2010, 1,747 Spanish Jews made

5611: 5547: 5456: 5451:

who had previously been protected by France. The decree especially addressed

5368: 5242: 4701: 3993: 3977: 3880:

invasion and the ousting of the Umayyads. In its stead arose the independent

3877: 3798: 3748: 3709: 3659: 3635: 3498: 3209: 3161: 3138: 3130: 3106: 3023: 2943: 2934:) in the same verse has been translated by the 1st century rabbinic scholar, 2795: 2737:

Although the spread of Jews into Europe is most commonly associated with the

2722: 2604: 2573: 2500: 2483: 2394: 2290: 2285: 1491: 1418: 944: 793: 788: 783: 773: 751: 703: 465: 304: 209: 171: 122: 8620:

El otro en la España contemporánea / Prácticas, discursos y representaciones

7460: 2540:

Among the early artifacts of likely Jewish origin discovered in Spain is an

9886: 8807:

Cultures in Conflict: Christians, Muslims, and Jews in the Age of Discovery

8499: 8391: 8335: 6616: 6175:

The Economic History of European Jews. Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages

5856: 5783: 5607: 5496: 5485: 5353: 4971: 4904: 4884: 4384:, or chief-tax-farmers, as the last incumbent of the court rabbi's office, 4292: 3513:

to listen to the divine sermon, the Jews acted treacherously, informed the

3502: 3405: 3381:(672–680) to issue limited expulsion orders against them, and the reign of 3359: 3307: 3057: 2907: 2714: 2523: 2447: 2410: 2320: 2146: 1987: 1982: 1940: 1893: 987: 854: 839: 798: 763: 376: 218: 6730:, Jerusalem 1971, p. 51 (printed in the edition which includes the books, 6537:(ed. Salomon Buber), New York 1949, p. 151b, in Comments, note 26 (Hebrew) 9631: 9399: 8741: 8614: 8246:"WWII Document Reveals: General Franco Handed Nazis List of Spanish Jews" 7770:

Jerusalem 1962, p. רסח, in PDF p. 277 (top) (Hebrew); Solomon ibn Verga,

6359: 5653:

that had expelled the Jews were formally rescinded on December 16, 1968.

5594: 5535: 5372: 5081: 4316: 4280:, settling the legal position of the Jews in a manner favorable to them. 4190: 4107: 3988: 3948: 3940: 3845: 3821: 3805: 3794: 3692:

The first period of exceptional prosperity took place under the reign of

3655: 3608: 3563: 3552: 3049: 2841:

Medieval Jewish legends often traced the arrival of Jews in Spain to the

2569: 2427: 2305: 2247: 1912: 818: 813: 808: 778: 9496: 8905: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the 8862:, Vol. 1 ed. R. D. Barnett, New York: Ktav Publishing House, Inc., 1971. 7672:

Los judíos de Castilla en tiempo de Enrique III : el pogrom de 1391

5519:

were fully informed of the Nazi extermination plans by Governor-General

5008: 4939:, became the bitterest enemies and persecutors of their former brethren. 4640: 4312: 4263: 3786:

and indicated that such was contingent on the treatment of Jews abroad.

3408:

activity for the Jews of Spain. Furthermore, Jews were not to engage in

9896: 9616: 9510: 8869:, Vol. 1 ed. R. D. Barnett, New York: Ktav Publishing House Inc., 1971. 8701:

Gampel, Benjamin R. "Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Medieval Iberia:

8626:. Seville: Fundación Tres Culturas del Mediterráneo. pp. 123–160. 7853: 7660:(ed. Dr. M. Wiener), Hannover 1855, pp. 128 – 130, or pp. 138 – 140 in 7636: 7631:(ed. Dr. M. Wiener), Hannover 1855, pp. 128 – 130, or pp. 138 – 140 in 7597: 5768: 5531: 5520: 5025: 4856: 4566: 4558: 4494:(1325), that an improvement set in. In 1328, 5,000 Jews were killed in 4426: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 4339:

The Jews in Spain were citizens of the kingdoms in which they resided (

4303: 4287:, (who permanently united the kingdoms of León and Castile), and under 4254: 4232:(Fermosa) of Toledo, who was Jewish. When the king was defeated at the 3981: 3952: 3464: 3436: 3231: 2994:

Map of Phoenician (red) and Greek colonies (blue) at about 550 BCE

2653:, from Spain, and from their neighbors." From a slightly later period, 2646: 2431: 1963: 977: 906: 864: 693: 673: 232: 139: 59: 8865:

Sassoon, Solomon David, "The Spiritual Heritage of the Sephardim", in

7244: 4981:

The forced conversions also possibly contributed to the resurgence of

4959: 4892: 4773: 4283:

A turning-point in the history of the Jews of Spain was reached under

3223:

Visigoth rule – Repression and forced conversions (5th century to 711)

2434:

stood out particularly during the 10th and the 11th centuries, in the

9489: 8836: 8454:"It's Official: Spanish Town 'Camp Kill the Jews' to Change Its Name" 6492: 6490: 6488: 6356:

The History of the Jewish People in the Age of Jesus Christ: Volume I

5738: 5722:

in the southeast of the country has a growing Jewish community and a

5711: 5669: 5312:, among many others, and succeeded by at least five more expulsions. 4920: 4916: 4844: 4840: 4749: 3924: 3809: 3724: 3720: 3639: 3600: 3567: 3540: 3312: 3236: 3175: 3149: 3003: 2869: 2846: 2826: 2806: 2799: 2754: 2731: 2726: 2694: 2561: 2455: 2443: 2402: 2126: 2111: 1201: 1149: 911: 859: 849: 530: 526: 516: 431: 191: 8554:"132,000 descendants of expelled Jews apply for Spanish citizenship" 8050: 7741: 7719: 7695: 7661: 7632: 7582: 7552: 7548: 7132:. Universidad de Navarra· Iberoamericana· Vervuert. pp. 55–78. 5681: 5432:

Spanish historians started to take an interest in the Sephardim and

4955: 4769: 4540: 4401: 4020: 3712:. It was in his capacity as dignitary that he corresponded with the 3490: 3366:), and all converted Jews had to promise to put to death, either by 3079: 879: 9482: 9448: 8770:, Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Mediaeval Society of America, 1937. 8373: 8245: 7765: 7526: 7504: 6922:"Roman Revolutions and the Rise of Frankish Feudalism and Doctrine" 6298: 5697: 5685: 5677: 5582: 5567: 5555: 5360: 5343: 5321: 5257: 5105: 5097: 5089: 5049: 4982: 4912: 4852: 4772:(August 13). The Jews of this city vainly sought protection in the 4574: 4205:, and other places, where new congregations were soon established. 4202: 4198: 4184: 4180: 3965: 3891: 3813: 3671: 3604: 3514: 3409: 3336: 3324:

returned to Judaism, and a number of the exiles returned to Spain.

3317: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3264: 3200: 3073: 2999: 2990: 2971: 2955: 2850: 2738: 2686: 2682: 2608: 2594: 2534: 2519: 2406: 2295: 1905: 1837: 668: 176: 127: 8729:

Halkin, Abraham. "The Medieval Jewish Attitude toward Hebrew", in

8436:"Jewish group asks French minister to rename Death to Jews hamlet" 6509: 6485: 5208: 5120:

A small number of pre-expulsion synagogues survive, including the

5020:. Girona's Jewish community was lost as a result of the Expulsion. 4888: 4720: 4565:, and many other towns were totally destroyed. The inhabitants of 4327: 4171: 9874: 9503: 8858:

Sarna, Nahum M., "Hebrew and Bible Studies in Medieval Spain" in

8458: 7715: 6823: 6821: 6819: 6799: 6797: 6795: 6385: 6383: 6217: 6215: 6213: 6211: 6209: 6207: 6038:

Actas del I Congreso Internacional sobre Migraciones en Andalucía

6000: 5998: 5953: 5723: 5715: 5689: 5676:

each with around 3,500 members. There are smaller communities in

5590: 5559: 5500: 5418: 5338: 5325: 4975: 4970:

Many of the Jews from Valencia, Catalonia and Aragon thronged to

4963: 4928: 4900: 4880: 4827: 4816: 4777: 4724: 4709: 4582: 4495: 3973: 3916: 3895:

especially as recently-conquered towns were put back into order.

3856: 3833: 3713: 3705: 3681: 3571: 3536: 3529: 3494: 3486: 3371: 3363: 3299: 3280: 3260: 3253: 3069: 2978:, but in the language of the Arabs, the indwellers of the lands, 2954:

is associated with a very faraway place, generally thought of as

2947: 2915: 2879: 2854: 2822: 2791: 2670: 2655: 2642: 2625: 2541: 2459: 2271: 2237: 2106: 1900: 889: 884: 756: 647: 542: 538: 534: 283: 278: 255: 237: 112: 107: 97: 75: 50: 18: 8299:

Jewish Spain : Living, Eating and Praying as a Jew in Spain

7993: 5606:, Commissioner for Jewish Affairs (May 1942 – February 1944) in 4128: 10028:

Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture

8879:

Stillman, Norman, "Aspects of Jewish Life in Islamic Spain" in

5943: 5941: 5727: 5719: 5705: 5673: 5657: 5639: 5551: 5448: 5329: 5038: 5030: 5013: 4924: 4761: 4636: 4524: 4462: 4176: 4094:

Catholic princes, the counts of Castile and the first kings of

3899: 3837: 3829: 3767: 3663: 3627: 3623: 3586: 3578: 3506: 3355: 3039: 2590: 2422: 2393:

possibly traces back to the times after the destruction of the

1931: 1926: 1886: 1871: 982: 874: 294: 260: 246: 181: 8942: 8230:

Nicholas Fraser, "Toujours Vichy: a reckoning with disgrace",

7979:. Centro de Estudios del Camino de Santiago. pp. 71–102. 7123:"La actitud de Cervantes ante sus antepasados judaicos (2005)" 6816: 6792: 6380: 6204: 6010: 5995: 5926: 5755:

Some famous Spaniards of Jewish descent are the businesswomen

3716:, a kingdom that had converted to Judaism in the 8th century. 3501:

were left to a mixed army of Jews and Moors. The Chronicle of

3447:

Jews before they proceeded further north, which initiated the

2617:, Josephus identifies the location of Antipas's banishment as 9798: 7894:

El reinado de los reyes Católicos in: Antisemitismo en España

6554:), p. xxxviii, pub. by Solomon L. Skoss, 1936 Yale University 6084:"Unos 50000 judíos residentes en España reciben el nuevo año" 5730: 5701: 5643: 5414: 5101: 5085: 4950: 4876: 4103: 4003:

In many ways, life had come full circle for the Sephardim of

3882: 3860:

A Jew and a Muslim playing chess in 13th-century al-Andalus.

3817: 3505:

records that when the Catholics left Toledo on Sunday before

3430:

increased. The degree of complicity that the Jews had in the

3393: 3382: 3193: 3035: 2818: 2761:, and dispersed to the extreme west during the period of the 2758: 2750: 2742: 2706: 2701:, and dispersed to the extreme west during the period of the 2698: 2557: 2545: 2529: 2439: 894: 323: 227: 196: 8707:

Convivencia: Jews, Muslims, and Christians in Medieval Spain

7827:

Juif, Dácil; Baten, Joerg; Pérez-Artés, Mari Carmen (2020).

7676:

The Castilian Jews at the time of Henry III: the 1391 pogrom

5938: 3938:

The Golden Age ended before the completion of the Christian

2389:, but the settlement of organised Jewish communities in the 9961: 8775:

Res Publica: Roman Politics and Society according to Cicero

7919:"Map of Jewish expulsions and resettlement areas in Europe" 6346: 6342: 6279:

A Social and Religious History of the Jews: Christian Spain

6131:(2007) American Jewish Committee, accessed 12 October 2009 5771:, founder of the clothing design and manufacturing company 5359:

Henceforth the history of the Jews in Spain is that of the

5100:, which focused strongly on education, for example because 4985:

studies among the Jews of Spain in the early 15th century.

4836: 4613:

and others—as financial councilors and tax-collectors. His

4081: 3646:

Although initially, the often-bloody disputes among Muslim

3303: 3275: 2790:, from the 5th century, recounts the alleged conversion of 2650: 2618: 2589:. Paul's stated intention to travel to Spain to preach the 46: 7531:

Jerusalem 1962, pp. רסז – רסח, in PDF pp. 276–278 (Hebrew)

7383:

Holy Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust

5718:

maintains an old community of Sephardic Jews. The city of

4949:

found it necessary to prohibit the latter from practising

3902:

in the Muslim taifas were the ibn Nagrelas (or Naghrela).

3248: 3010:

eras. In the Bible, Trashish is mentioned in the books of

2776:, an ecclesiastical council held in the Roman province of 6771:), end of II Kings, pp. 680–681, Jerusalem 1955 (Hebrew). 4935:(called also Paul de Santa Maria), and Joshua Lorqui, or 4650: 4245:

Nasi Joseph ben Solomon ibn Shoshan (Al-Hajib ibn Amar).

2884:

The earliest mention of Sepharad is, allegedly, found in

2685:. The province came under Roman control with the fall of 2492:

system) whereas those who continued to practise Judaism (

5737:

The modern Jewish community in Spain consists mainly of

4639:, should be forbidden, under penalty of a fine of 6,000 2510:

An estimated 13,000 to 50,000 Jews live in Spain today.

8872:

Scherman, Rabbi Nosson and Zlotowitz, Rabbi Meir eds.,

8173: 8171: 7575:] (in Hebrew). B’nei Issachar Institute: Jerusalem. 5466: 5224:

The Expulsion of the Jews from Spain (in the year 1492)

5012:

A lane in the old Jewish Quarter, called "El Call", of

2413:, conditions for Jews in Iberia considerably worsened. 2794:'s Jewish population in 418. Following the arrival of 2482:

were forced to convert to Catholicism (thus becoming '

7461:

Don Adolfo de Castro (trans. E D G M Kirwan) (1851).

5546:

Shortly afterward, Spain began giving citizenship to

5409:

Jewish woman in the Jewish quarter of Melilla (1909).

5382:

Conversos played an important leadership role in the

5096:

majority, which might be due to the Jewish religious

4585:. The suffering, according to a contemporary writer, 3886:

principalities under the rule of local Arab, Berber,

3535:

In spite of the restrictions placed upon the Jews as

3426:

After the Visigoths elites adopted the Nicene creed,

8825:

Jewish Remnants in Spain: Wanderings in a Lost World

8814:

Texts and Studies in Jewish History and Literature I

8168: 8062: 7826: 6335:

The place of banishment is identified in Josephus's

6310: 5832: 3585:, were also introduced, in an increased interest in 2985: 2982:, the name of the capital of the kingdom, Córdoba.” 2556:

and the Balearics. Additionally, a signet ring from

1910: 1891: 314: 8874:

History of the Jewish People: The Second Temple Era

8846:

The Sephardi Story: A Celebration of Jewish History

5386:(1520–1522), a popular revolt and civil war in the 3439:, who were necessary for the kingdom's protection. 8745: 8733:, ed. Alexander Altman, Cambridge, Massachusetts: 7718:, published as an appendix to Wiener's edition of 6832:sfn error: no target: CITEREFRutgersBradbury2006 ( 6808:sfn error: no target: CITEREFRutgersBradbury2006 ( 6650:rendered by Abrabanel is אישקלונה. See Abrabanel, 6520:sfn error: no target: CITEREFRutgersBradbury2006 ( 6501:sfn error: no target: CITEREFRutgersBradbury2006 ( 6394:sfn error: no target: CITEREFRutgersBradbury2006 ( 6226:sfn error: no target: CITEREFRutgersBradbury2006 ( 3851: 3789:The intellectual achievements of the Sephardim of 3176:Arrival after the destruction of the Second Temple 2401:. From the late 6th century onward, following the 9023: 8474:"Five Things to Know About Antisemitism in Spain" 7257:"The Treatment of Jews in Arab/Islamic Countries" 6016: 6004: 5971: 5959: 5932: 5816:In 2014 it was announced that the descendants of 5775:, though only the latter is of Sephardic origin. 5646:to which a special protection should be granted. 5288: 4635:of 1380, it was enacted that rabbis, or heads of 4561:, whose Jewish community numbered many scholars, 3310:, while as many as 90,000 converted. Many of the 3080:Arrival after the destruction of the First Temple 2721:, although early examples of priesthood-inspired 10073: 8897:Philadelphia: The John C. Winston Company, 19??. 8848:London: Valentine Mitchell & Co. Ltd., 1991. 8688:, Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House, Ltd., 1971. 8609: 8079: 8077: 8056: 7999: 7598:American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise (2022). 6563:Targum Yonathan ben Uzziel on the Minor Prophets 4815:, as well as in a Letter written to the Jews of 4010: 3972:harshly. Jews and Christians were expelled from 8653:The Jews of Spain: From Settlement to Expulsion 7925:. Florida Center for Instructional Technology. 7887: 7669: 6847: 6845: 6843: 6827: 6803: 6515: 6496: 6389: 6221: 6172:Toch, Michael (2013). "The Iberian Peninsula". 5789:Like other religious communities in Spain, the 5421:into account, about 1,000 Jews lived in Spain. 4322: 3577:Although not as influential, traditions of the 3072:) – which, as noted, was applied to the Jewish 2998:Some legends associated the biblical placename 2611:to Spain in 39 CE. However, in his later work, 2420:in the early 8th century, Jews lived under the 8788:, Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1972. 8748:The Spanish Inquisition: a Historical Revision 8392:"Europe – World Union for Progressive Judaism" 6904: 6902: 6767:Abrabanel's Commentary on the First Prophets ( 5506:Once the tide of war began to turn, and Count 4708:from all sides and killed 4000 Jews; the rest 4498:following the preaching of a mendicant friar. 3454: 3385:(680–687) also seemed vexed by the issue. The 2880:Identification of Spain with biblical Sepharad 9415: 9009: 8876:, Brooklyn: Mesorah Publications, Ltd., 1982. 8855:(Boston Academic Studies Press, 2012) 441 pp. 8183:The International Raoul Wallenberg foundation 8074: 8022:Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia 7806:(in Hebrew). Jerusalem: Bialik. p. 243. 6028: 5975:Los marginados en el mundo medieval y moderno 5947: 4224:the Wise of Navarre placed them in charge of 4129:Toleration and Jewish immigration (1085–1212) 3861: 2829:had more or less disrupted the political and 2362: 23: 9832:Jewish exodus from Arab and Muslim countries 8881:Aspects of Jewish Culture in the Middle Ages 8773:Lacy, W. K. and Wilson, B. W. J. G., trans. 8691:Flesler, Daniela, and Adrián Pérez Melgosa. 8374:"Comunidad Judía del Principado de Asturias" 7432: 7430: 7428: 7426: 7424: 7422: 7420: 7418: 7416: 6840: 6350: 6060: 5811: 5745:. In the 1970s, there was also an influx of 5541:American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee 4855:had been affected, as were also the Jews of 4248: 3230:brought most of the Iberian Peninsula under 2893: 8910: 8709:, ed. Vivian B. Mann, Thomas F. Glick, and 8243: 7678:] (in Spanish). Valladolid University. 6899: 5367:" which required Spaniards to prove their " 4791:(1326–1408), and in the seminal writing of 4049:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 3286:While the policies of the subsequent Kings 606:History of the Jews in the Byzantine Empire 9429: 9422: 9408: 9016: 9002: 8989:In Plain Language: The song of the Marrano 8547: 8545: 8543: 8492: 7477:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 6579:3:2 s.v., אספמיא, Jerusalem 1998 (Hebrew) 6160:Federación de Comunidades Judías de España 5663: 5610:, and to many other former Nazis, such as 5180:Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca, Toledo 3898:Among the most prominent Jews to serve as 2898:), and the exiles of Jerusalem who are in 2474:of 1492, the remaining practising Jews in 2369: 2355: 8827:, Mesa, Arizona, Scribe Publishers, 2003. 8724:The Jewish Publication Society of America 8713:, New York: George Braziller, Inc., 1992. 8646:The Jewish Publication Society of America 8029: 7852: 7566: 7413: 7120: 5791:Federation of Jewish Communities in Spain 5108:advantage persisted. However, during the 5084:and eventual Jewish mass emigration from 4626: 4442:Learn how and when to remove this message 4069:Learn how and when to remove this message 2544:from the first century CE, discovered in 2450:began, and secular poetry was written in 10087:History of the Jews in Europe by country 8705:through the Eyes of Sephardic Jews", in 8414: 7972: 7801: 7747:, Lvov 1846, pp. 41 (end) – 42 in PDF); 7646: 7400: 7230: 7228: 6945: 6321:sfn error: no target: CITEREFGabba1999 ( 6275:A History of the Jews in Christian Spain 5804:In 2020, Spain's parliament adopted the 5404: 5350:in Spain during the times of inquisition 5337: 5218: 5207: 5007: 4660: 4472: 4453: 4326: 4262: 4170: 4089: 4080: 3855: 3396:(687–702), recognising the wrongness of 3274: 3247: 2989: 2966:, minister of trade in the court of the 2902:, will possess the cities of the south.” 2564:, though some scholars interpret it as " 2528: 17: 8983:The Tragic History of the Jews of Spain 8540: 8498: 8442:. Agence France-Presse. 12 August 2014. 7379: 6880: 6878: 6718:, pp. 680–681, Jerusalem 1955 (Hebrew). 6575:, with a commentary by Pinchas Kahati, 6158:) of whom half are affiliated with the 6109: 4752:. On Aug. 2 the wave of murder visited 4376:, or who had been royal physicians, as 4183:story, from the 14th-century Barcelona 3687: 2741:that ensued from the Roman conquest of 2507:on the basis of demonstrated ancestry. 10074: 8356:"Barcelona, Spain Jewish History Tour" 7973:Hernando, Máximo Diago (24 May 2017). 7041:"Hope amid discord in the Middle East" 7038: 6595: 6546:The Hebrew-Arabic Dictionary known as 6283:The Jewish People in the First Century 5441:dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera 5397: 4712:as the only means of escaping death." 4666:Slaughter of Jews in Barcelona in 1391 4651:Massacres and mass conversions of 1391 4511:Soon, however a civil war erupted, as 3350:However, the "problem" continued. The 2836: 9817:History of the Jews under Muslim rule 9403: 8997: 8797:Jewish Publication Society of America 8740: 8551: 7957: 7941:"A Brief Chronology of anti-Semitism" 7748: 7506:Questions and Responsa of Ben Sheshet 7386:. Palgrave Macmillan US. p. 99. 7225: 6316: 6289:Vol. 26 Part 2 (October 1975) p. 395. 6239: 6237: 6097:Calvo, Vera Gutiérrez (6 June 2014). 6096: 5875:History of the Jews under Muslim rule 5741:from Northern Africa, especially the 5534:but it came to naught due to lack of 5197: 4335:, written in fourteenth-century Spain 3461:Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain 3199:, his officer who was appointed over 2914:, identifies Ṣarfat with the city of 2705:, and especially after the defeat of 2486:' who faced discrimination under the 8809:, US: Oxford University Press, 1995. 8068: 8038: 8011: 7774:, Lvov 1846 (p. 76 in PDF) (Hebrew). 7726:Letters of the Jews through the Ages 7666:Letters of the Jews through the Ages 7641:Letters of the Jews through the Ages 6951: 6875: 6171: 5820:who were expelled from Spain by the 5622:José María Finat y Escrivá de Romaní 5467:Spanish Civil War & World War II 5390:against the imperial pretensions of 4550: 4523:; they plundered the warehouses and 4424:adding citations to reliable sources 4395: 4047:adding citations to reliable sources 4014: 3423:and Romans still residing in Spain. 3096:Now, I have heard that this praise, 2788:Letter on the Conversion of the Jews 10016:Caracas Center of Sephardic Studies 8937:Expulsion from Spain and The Anusim 8283:1492 Ban on Jews Is Voided by Spain 7245:https://doi.org/10.3390/rel13060535 5279: 5237:, an edict of expulsion called the 4988: 4851:and Gironda and in the kingdom of 3848:learning, into the rest of Europe. 3603:was prompted by Muslim anti-Jewish 3485:was left in the hands of Jews, and 3469: 2931: 2894: 22:13th-century illustration from the 13: 9967:Sephardim and Oriental Communities 8657:The Hebrew University of Jerusalem 8575: 8312:"European Jewish Congress – Spain" 8273:at the Virtual Jewish History Tour 8014:"La colectividad judía en Melilla" 7929:from the original on Nov 21, 2023. 7923:A Teacher's Guide to the Holocaust 7785:"ALGERIA - JewishEncyclopedia.com" 6654:, p. 680, Jerusalem 1955 (Hebrew). 6234: 5806:Working definition of antisemitism 5510:succeeded Franco's brother-in-law 5122:Synagogue of Santa María la Blanca 14: 10098: 8930: 8914:; et al., eds. (1901–1906). 8839:y orígen de las cuatro parroquias 8695:(Indiana University Press, 2020) 8094:The Mezuzah in the Madonna's Foot 6061:Europa Press (27 November 2013). 5473:Francoist Spain and the Holocaust 4299:, were also allowed to own land. 3906:(993–1056) served Granada's King 2986:Connection with biblical Tarshish 2923: 2749:at the hands of the Romans under 397:Historical population comparisons 8924:. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. 8900: 8883:, ed. Paul E. Szarmach, Albany: 8642:The Jews of Moslem Spain, Vol. 2 8514: 8466: 8446: 8428: 8402: 8384: 8366: 8348: 8329: 8304: 8292: 8276: 8264: 8237: 8224: 8195: 8159: 8147: 8134: 8125: 8116: 8107: 8086: 8005: 7989:– via dialnet.unirioja.es. 7966: 7951: 7933: 7911: 7881: 7869: 7820: 7795: 7777: 7754: 7731: 7704: 7617: 7591: 7560: 7534: 7516: 7485: 7464:The history of the Jews in Spain 7454: 7438:"SPAIN - JewishEncyclopedia.com" 7039:Jebara, Mohamed (Nov 16, 2015). 6708:Commentary on the First Prophets 6652:Commentary on the First Prophets 5849: 5835: 5429:, World War I, and the Rif War. 5185: 5173: 5168:Synagogue of El Tránsito, Toledo 5161: 5149: 4839:it had also reached the Jews of 4400: 4019: 3555:(the latter region was known as 3164:). Abrabanel says that the name 2805:In comparison to Jewish life in 2513: 1041:Democratic Republic of the Congo 955:Historical population by country 10033:Institute for Sephardic Studies 8985:Rabbi Menachem Levine, Aish.com 8693:The Memory Work of Jewish Spain 7373: 7357: 7348: 7339: 7330: 7321: 7312: 7294: 7276: 7267: 7249: 7237: 7216: 7207: 7198: 7189: 7180: 7171: 7162: 7153: 7114: 7105: 7096: 7087: 7078: 7069: 7060: 7051: 7032: 7023: 7014: 7005: 6996: 6987: 6978: 6969: 6936: 6890: 6866: 6854: 6783: 6774: 6761: 6741: 6721: 6700: 6687: 6674: 6657: 6643: 6633: 6621: 6582: 6566: 6557: 6540: 6528: 6476: 6467: 6458: 6449: 6436: 6418: 6402: 6329: 6292: 6267: 6264:Epistle of the Romans, 15.24-28 6258: 6246: 6165: 6134: 6090: 5870:History of the Jews in Portugal 5296:is a well established trend in 5115: 4799:(written ca. 1586), as also in 4411:needs additional citations for 3852:Taifas, Almoravids and Almohads 3632:Talmudic Academies in Babylonia 9822:Antisemitism in the Arab world 9025:History of the Jews in Europe 6697:, p. 271, Venice 1585 (Hebrew) 6684:, p. 15a, Venice 1605 (Hebrew) 6287:Journal of Theological Studies 6076: 6054: 6022: 5965: 5543:operated openly in Barcelona. 5289:European context of expulsions 4490:, and of the young and active 4208:After the brief reign of King 3400:, relaxed the pressure on the 2970:, wrote to Joseph the king of 2659:(Leviticus Rabba § 29.2), and 2454:for the first time. After the 1: 8552:Jones, Sam (2 October 2019). 8478:The American Jewish Committee 7523:Gedaliah ibn Yahya ben Joseph 6029:Prados García, Celia (2011). 5920: 5885:Jewish community of Calatayud 5618:, and other former Fascists. 5508:Francisco Gómez-Jordana Sousa 4793:Gedaliah ibn Yahya ben Joseph 4274:battle of Las Navas de Tolosa 4011:Christian kingdoms (974–1300) 3643:of Jews into Arabic culture. 2632:. A tradition passed down by 2493: 2462:invasions, many Jews fled to 612:Christianity and Judaism 30:depicting Jews playing chess. 9983:American Sephardi Federation 9976:Major communal organizations 8885:State University of New York 8833:Arias, Leopoldo Meruéndano. 8680:Vol. 41, No. 2, Spring 1992. 8360:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org 8244:Ofer Aderet (22 June 2010). 8096:, Simon and Schuster, 1993. 7306:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org 7261:www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org 5392:Holy Roman Emperor Charles V 5315: 4862: 4477:The Spanish kingdoms in 1360 4465:in Toledo, oil on canvas by 4391: 4323:The Jewish community in 1300 4272:been slain. When, after the 4267:The Spanish kingdoms in 1210 4085:The Spanish kingdoms in 1030 2868:(1437–1508) stated that the 2859:charge often leveled at them 2418:Umayyad conquest of Hispania 7: 9698:Western Europe and overseas 8504:"Repatriating Spain's Jews" 8031:10.5944/aldaba.5.1985.19609 7960:History of a Tragedy. p. 17 7668:, London 1952, pp. 272–75; 7567:Ibn Verga, Salomón (1992). 6828:Rutgers & Bradbury 2006 6804:Rutgers & Bradbury 2006 6516:Rutgers & Bradbury 2006 6497:Rutgers & Bradbury 2006 6390:Rutgers & Bradbury 2006 6222:Rutgers & Bradbury 2006 5828: 5604:Louis Darquier de Pellepoix 5377:Spanish and Portuguese Jews 5334:Spanish and Portuguese Jews 5260:, now offered them 600,000 5192:Old main synagogue, Segovia 5138:Old main synagogue, Segovia 4768:"The last town visited was 4102:, Count of Castile, in the 3904:Samuel Ha-Nagid ibn Nagrela 3774:) commanded a Jewish army. 3753:Samuel Ha-Nagid ibn Nagrela 3455:Moorish Spain (711 to 1492) 3414:Sixteenth Council of Toledo 3362:and the observation of the 3339:(636–639). He directed the 1911: 1892: 1619:Latin America and Caribbean 315: 10: 10103: 9988:Sephardi Community Council 8853:The Jew in Medieval Iberia 8731:Biblical and Other Studies 8668:Cambridge University Press 7789:www.jewishencyclopedia.com 7728:, London 1952, pp. 272–75. 7701:, Lvov 1846, p. 76 in PDF. 7652:Letter of Hasdai Crescas, 7643:, London 1952, pp. 272–75. 7600:"Hasdai Ben Judah Crescas" 7588:, Lvov 1846, p. 76 in PDF) 7503:no's. 6, 11, 12 and 14 of 7442:www.jewishencyclopedia.com 7130:Cervantes y las religiones 7121:Eisenberg, Daniel (2008). 6769:Pirush Al Nevi'im Rishonim 6748:Seder Hakabbalah Laharavad 6728:Seder Hakabbalah Laharavad 6712:Pirush Al Nevi'im Rishonim 5470: 5319: 5201: 5075:Catholic Monarchs of Spain 4866: 4654: 4252: 4238:Yusuf Abu Ya'kub al-Mansur 4212:, a war broke out between 3735:, the innovator of Hebrew 3680:. Both men, by using such 3458: 3449:Golden Age of Spanish Jews 3443:Arabs in the Roman world. 3030:; In generally describing 2499:) were expelled, creating 2405:monarchs' conversion from 2224:Jewish political movements 1921:Conversion to Judaism 10041: 10008: 9993:World Sephardi Federation 9975: 9947: 9907: 9840: 9809: 9534: 9438: 9349: 9311: 9031: 8752:. Yale University Press. 8722:, Vol. III Philadelphia: 8611:Álvarez Chillida, Gonzalo 8207:Hitler: Stopped by Franco 7845:10.1017/S021261091900034X 7336:Stillman, pp. 51, 73 6629:Easton's Bible Dictionary 6273:See, e.g., Yitzhak Baer, 6188:10.1163/9789004235397_006 5900:Sephardic law and customs 5812:2014–2019 Citizenship law 5233:Several months after the 4459:At the Feet of the Savior 4331:An illustration from the 4249:Turning point (1212–1300) 4195:Judah ben Joseph ibn Ezra 4146:fuero of Najara Sepulveda 3387:Twelfth Council of Toledo 3117:the Spaniard has written: 2912:David ben Abraham al-Fasi 2640:, quoting second-century 2426:system and progressively 627:Hinduism and Judaism 8890:Whiston, A. M., trans., 8793:The Jews of Ancient Rome 8735:Harvard University Press 8378:www.sefarad-asturias.org 7714:to the congregations of 7410:Madrid (1779). Chap. VII 7380:Michael, Robert (2006). 7354:Ashtor, pp. 250–251 7075:Stillman, pp. 54–55 7029:Halkin, pp. 324–325 6482:Laeuchli, pp. 75–76 6358:. revised and edited by 5799:Castrillo Mota de Judíos 5778:There are rare cases of 5126:Synagogue of El Tránsito 4581:were taken prisoners to 4525:murdered about 1200 Jews 4259:Disputation of Barcelona 3932:Granada massacre of 1066 3626:, as had the Babylonian 3511:Church of Saint Leocadia 3352:Eighth Council of Toledo 3329:Fourth Council of Toledo 3239:(484–507) published his 3197:prevailed over Jerusalem 2946:in 189 CE, known as the 2872:family had lived on the 2747:destruction of Jerusalem 2442:periods. Scientific and 453:Temple in Jerusalem 146:Bar and bat mitzvah 9477:Expulsion from Portugal 8921:The Jewish Encyclopedia 8823:Markman, Sidney David, 8779:Oxford University Press 8203:"Franco & the Jews" 7802:Marciano, Yoel (2019). 7406:López de Ayala, Pedro. 7045:blogs.timesofisrael.com 7011:Sarna, pp. 327–328 7002:Sarna, pp. 325–326 6693:Gedaliah ibn Jechia in 6338:Antiquities of the Jews 6121:World Jewish Population 5743:former Spanish colonies 5664:Modern Jewish community 5384:Revolt of the Comuneros 4601:ascended the throne as 4236:by the Almohades under 4218:Alfonso VIII of Castile 3872:, 13th century. Madrid. 3519:Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada 3341:Sixth Council of Toledo 3320:(621–631), most of the 3298:(610–612) are unknown, 2638:Rabbi Shimon bar Yochai 2614:Antiquities of the Jews 415:Twelve Tribes of Israel 10082:Jewish Spanish history 9074:Bosnia and Herzegovina 8892:The Life and Works of 8165:Alexy, p. 165 et. seq. 7958:Pérez, Joseph (2012). 7943:. 1974. Archived from 7889:Valdeón Baruque, Julio 7767:Shalshelet Ha-Kabbalah 7745:(The Sceptre of Judah) 7699:(The Sceptre of Judah) 7604:Jewish Virtual Library 7586:(The Sceptre of Judah) 7327:Gampel; pp. 20–21 7283:The Forgotten Refugees 7084:Assis, pp. 13, 47 6861:Encyclopaedica Judaica 6695:Shalshelet Ha-Kabbalah 6147:Jewish Virtual Library 6040:. pp. 2119–2126. 6017:Hinojosa Montalvo 2000 6005:Hinojosa Montalvo 2000 5960:Hinojosa Montalvo 2000 5933:Hinojosa Montalvo 2000 5910:Portuguese Inquisition 5865:Israel–Spain relations 5484:In the first years of 5453:Jews from Thessaloniki 5427:1909 Melillan Campaign 5410: 5356: 5352:, an 1892 painting by 5230: 5216: 5021: 4968: 4941: 4766: 4673: 4627:Anti-Jewish enactments 4624: 4547:to robbery and death. 4478: 4470: 4336: 4268: 4187: 4134:Ferdinand I of Castile 4086: 3873: 3862: 3611:, as well as the anti- 3283: 3256: 3242:Breviarium Alaricianum 3143: 3111: 2995: 2926:), the word Sepharad ( 2904: 2853:, a commander of King 2537: 2497: 100,000–200,000 31: 24: 9827:Antisemitism in Islam 9545:Eastern Mediterranean 8967:Encyclopaedia Judaica 8867:The Sephardi Heritage 8685:Encyclopaedia Judaica 8057:Álvarez Chillida 2011 8000:Álvarez Chillida 2011 7557:, pp. 265–266 in PDF) 7528:Shalshelet haQabbalah 7511:Encyclopaedia Judaica 7467:. London. p. 90. 7213:Assis, pp. 13–14 6975:Assis, pp. 44–45 6952:Roth, Norman (1994), 6885:Encyclopaedia Judaica 6680:Moses ben Machir, in 6665:Ha-Nefesh Ha-Ḥakhamah 6535:Pesiqata Derav Kahana 6253:Encyclopaedia Judaica 5890:Antisemitism in Spain 5765:Enrique Múgica Herzog 5471:Further information: 5408: 5341: 5222: 5212:A signed copy of the 5211: 5016:, which includes the 5011: 4942: 4872: 4797:Shalshelet haQabbalah 4738: 4729:Fregenal de la Sierra 4664: 4554: 4543:and exposed those of 4492:Alfonso XI of Castile 4476: 4457: 4330: 4266: 4174: 4166:Carrión de los Condes 4090:Early rule (974–1085) 4084: 3870:Alphonse X of Castile 3859: 3696:(882–955), the first 3278: 3251: 3119: 3094: 2993: 2890: 2825:, and especially the 2662:Pesikta de-Rav Kahana 2586:Epistle to the Romans 2532: 2470:. As a result of the 1161:São Tomé and Príncipe 1156:Republic of the Congo 550:Second Temple Judaism 421:Kingdom of Judah 392:Modern historiography 21: 9932:Sephardi chief rabbi 9909:Religion and culture 9465:Expulsion from Spain 8818:Hebrew Union College 8717:Graetz, Professor H. 8606:, paperback reprint. 8588:Simon & Schuster 8462:. January 10, 2018 . 7623:Printed in the book 7573:The Sceptre of Judah 7168:Mann, pp. 21–22 7111:Stillman, p. 58 7066:Katz, pp. 40–41 6588:Elkan Nathan Adler, 6548:Kitāb Jāmi' Al-Alfāẓ 6086:. 28 September 2011. 5593:and "Judeo-Marxist"- 5413:By 1900, not taking 4937:Gerónimo de Santa Fe 4911:, and especially of 4710:submitted to baptism 4592:Bertrand Du Guesclin 4420:improve this article 4043:improve this section 3688:Caliphate of Córdoba 3668:converted to Judaism 3474:With the victory of 3428:persecutions of Jews 3421:Eastern Roman Empire 3279:Visigothic coinage: 3252:Visigothic coinage: 3038:sought to flee from 2861:in later centuries. 2501:diaspora communities 2263:World Agudath Israel 1404:United Arab Emirates 491:Second Temple period 481:Babylonian captivity 9312:States with limited 8720:History of the Jews 8411:at bechollashon.org 8153:Alexy, p. 154–155, 8059:, pp. 132–133. 8012:Levy, León (1985). 7947:on 26 October 2009. 7762:Gedaliah Ibn Yechia 7368:Jewish Encyclopedia 7222:Raphael, p. 75 7177:Raphael, p. 78 7102:Sassoon, p. 15 7057:Raphael, p. 71 6924:. /www.romanity.org 6608:Jewish Encyclopedia 6518:, pp. 510–511. 6499:, pp. 509–510. 6116:Sergio DellaPergola 5527:, who told Franco. 5525:Luís Carrero Blanco 5512:Ramón Serrano Suñer 5398:1858 to the present 5266:Tomás de Torquemada 5252:It is claimed that 5228:Emilio Sala Francés 5058:Spanish Inquisition 4869:Spanish Inquisition 4645:Council of Palencia 4533:Abraham David Taroç 4513:Henry II of Castile 4214:Fernando II of León 3913:Joseph ibn Naghrela 3864:Libro de los juegos 3745:Solomon ibn Gabirol 3727:and men of means". 3675:Bishop of Córdoba, 3228:Barbarian invasions 3216:Don Isaac Abrabanel 3146:Don Isaac Abrabanel 3115:Gedaliah ibn Jechia 3047:Canaanitic-speaking 2936:Jonathan ben Uzziel 2906:While the medieval 2843:First Temple period 2837:In Jewish tradition 2772:Around 300 CE, the 2713:As citizens of the 2533:Roman provinces of 2505:Spanish citizenship 556:Hellenistic Judaism 134:Land of Israel 93:Principles of faith 26:Libro de los juegos 8961:2013-10-25 at the 8943:Jewish Spain today 8711:Jerrilynn D. Dodds 8697:online book review 8662:Bartlett, John R. 8508:The New York Times 8341:2008-07-09 at the 8301:at Spain Expat.com 8287:The New York Times 8179:"Giorgio Perlasca" 8113:Alexy, p. 164–165. 7288:2011-09-13 at the 7273:Gampel, p. 20 7093:Sarna, p. 327 6993:Sarna, p. 324 6780:Graetz, p. 45 6663:Moses de León, in 6473:Assis at p. 9 6442:Josephus Flavius, 6127:2009-03-26 at the 5948:Prados García 2011 5782:, like the writer 5463:Spain and France. 5411: 5365:limpieza de sangre 5357: 5231: 5217: 5198:Edict of Expulsion 5142:Synagogue of Tomar 5080:The prohibitions, 5070:Pope Innocent VIII 5022: 4999:John II of Castile 4733:Judería de Córdoba 4717:Alcalá de Guadeira 4706:Judería of Seville 4674: 4488:Peter IV of Aragon 4479: 4471: 4374:Abraham Benveniste 4337: 4269: 4188: 4150:Battle of Sagrajas 4116:Council of Coyanza 4087: 3908:Habbus al-Muzaffar 3874: 3868:, commissioned by 3702:Hasdai ibn Shaprut 3630:(the heads of the 3607:and the spread of 3524:De rebus Hispaniae 3284: 3270:Toledo III Council 3257: 3180:Rabbi and scholar 3058:Rabbi David Kimchi 2996: 2964:Hisdai ibn Shaprut 2784:Severus of Minorca 2538: 2522:, was part of the 2489:limpieza de sangre 2117:Jewish Koine Greek 1659:Dominican Republic 940:Judaism by country 619:Jews and Christmas 474:Assyrian captivity 32: 10069: 10068: 9865:Judaeo-Portuguese 9397: 9396: 8956:The Jews in Spain 8860:Sephardi Heritage 8759:978-0-300-07522-9 8640:Ashtor, Eliyahu. 8633:978-84-937041-8-6 8604:978-0-06-060340-3 8596:978-0-671-77816-3 8528:. 9 February 2014 7904:978-84-8427-471-1 7813:978-965-536-266-4 7738:Solomon ibn Verga 7692:Solomon ibn Verga 7658:Solomon ibn Verga 7629:Solomon ibn Verga 7579:Solomon ibn Verga 7493:Isaac ben Sheshet 7393:978-0-230-60198-7 7345:Assis, p. 17 7318:Assis, p. 16 7234:Assis, p. 14 7195:Dan, pp. 7–8 7159:Assis, p. 13 7139:978-84-8489-314-1 6984:Assis, p. 12 6963:978-90-04-09971-5 6956:, Leiden: Brill, 6851:Assis, p. 10 6752:Seder Olam Rabbah 6732:Seder Olam Rabbah 6590:Jewish Travellers 6373:978-0-567-02242-4 6047:978-84-921390-3-3 5962:, pp. 25–26. 5905:Jews of Catalonia 5763:, the politician 5479:Spanish Civil War 5156:Córdoba Synagogue 5130:Córdoba Synagogue 5066:Luis de Santángel 5046:Catholic monarchs 4809:Solomon ibn Verga 4789:Isaac ben Sheshet 4754:Palma, in Majorca 4690:Alcalá de Henares 4551:Massacres of 1366 4529:John I of Castile 4517:Judería of Toledo 4452: 4451: 4444: 4333:Sarajevo Haggadah 4242:Muhammad al-Nasir 4234:Battle of Alarcos 4142:Pope Alexander II 4079: 4078: 4071: 3741:Menahem ben Saruq 3733:Dunash ben Labrat 3698:Caliph of Córdoba 3694:Abd ar-Rahman III 3678:Álvaro of Córdoba 3152:, in the city of 2968:caliph in Córdoba 2876:for 2,000 years. 2874:Iberian Peninsula 2675:Council of Elvira 2391:Iberian Peninsula 2379: 2378: 2328: 2327: 2076: 2075: 1823:Reconstructionist 1767: 1766: 919: 918: 726: 725: 563:Jewish–Roman wars 511:Hasmonean dynasty 427:Kingdom of Israel 331: 330: 10094: 10057: 10024: 10001: 9927:Rite and customs 9900: 9783:Crypto-Sephardim 9424: 9417: 9410: 9401: 9400: 9350:Dependencies and 9291:Northern Ireland 9032:Sovereign states 9018: 9011: 9004: 8995: 8994: 8949: 8925: 8904: 8903: 8894:Flavius Josephus 8851:Ray, Jonathan. 8844:Raphael, Chaim. 8832: 8791:Leon, Harry J., 8763: 8751: 8651:Assis, Yom Tov. 8644:, Philadelphia: 8637: 8625: 8570: 8569: 8567: 8565: 8549: 8538: 8537: 8535: 8533: 8518: 8512: 8511: 8502:(1 April 2014). 8496: 8490: 8489: 8487: 8485: 8470: 8464: 8463: 8450: 8444: 8443: 8432: 8426: 8418: 8412: 8406: 8400: 8399: 8388: 8382: 8381: 8370: 8364: 8363: 8352: 8346: 8333: 8327: 8326: 8324: 8323: 8314:. 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Vol. 56. 6169: 6163: 6157: 6155: 6153: 6138: 6132: 6113: 6107: 6106: 6094: 6088: 6087: 6080: 6074: 6073: 6071: 6069: 6058: 6052: 6051: 6035: 6026: 6020: 6014: 6008: 6002: 5993: 5992: 5980: 5969: 5963: 5957: 5951: 5945: 5936: 5930: 5859: 5854: 5853: 5852: 5845: 5840: 5839: 5838: 5761:Esther Koplowitz 5626:Heinrich Himmler 5579:Giorgio Perlasca 5388:Crown of Castile 5298:European history 5294:Jewish expulsion 5280:Number of exiles 5189: 5177: 5165: 5153: 5018:Girona Synagogue 4989:Anti-Jewish laws 4742:Asher ben Jehiel 4695:Ferrand Martínez 4678:Ferrand Martínez 4657:Massacre of 1391 4611:Samuel Abravanel 4502:Peter of Castile 4463:massacre of Jews 4447: 4440: 4436: 4433: 4427: 4404: 4396: 4370:David ibn Yah.ya 4308:Pope Innocent IV 4154:Pope Gregory VII 4124: 4100:Garcia Fernandez 4074: 4067: 4063: 4060: 4054: 4023: 4015: 3867: 3670:in 838, and the 3591:biblical studies 3470:Moorish conquest 3432:Islamic invasion 3182:Abraham ibn Daud 3090:Moshe ben Machir 3043: 2933: 2897: 2896: 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9033: 9029: 9028: 9021: 9020: 9013: 9006: 8998: 8992: 8991: 8986: 8980: 8977:Judaeo-Spanish 8970: 8953: 8945: 8940: 8932: 8931:External links 8929: 8927: 8926: 8898: 8888: 8877: 8870: 8863: 8856: 8849: 8842: 8835:Los Judíos de 8828: 8821: 8810: 8803:Lewis, Bernard 8800: 8795:Philadelphia: 8789: 8782: 8771: 8764: 8758: 8738: 8727: 8714: 8699: 8689: 8681: 8674: 8671: 8660: 8649: 8638: 8632: 8607: 8582:Alexy, Trudi. 8579: 8577: 8574: 8572: 8571: 8539: 8524:(in Spanish). 8513: 8491: 8465: 8445: 8427: 8413: 8409:Anusim project 8401: 8383: 8365: 8347: 8328: 8303: 8291: 8275: 8263: 8236: 8223: 8194: 8167: 8158: 8146: 8140:Alexy, p. 79, 8133: 8131:Alexy, p. 165. 8124: 8115: 8106: 8085: 8073: 8071:, p. 200. 8061: 8049: 8037: 8004: 8002:, p. 131. 7992: 7985: 7965: 7950: 7932: 7910: 7903: 7880: 7868: 7819: 7812: 7794: 7776: 7772:Shevat Yehudah 7753: 7743:Shevaṭ Yehudah 7730: 7721:Shevaṭ Yehudah 7712:Hasdai Crescas 7703: 7697:Shevaṭ Yehudah 7684: 7654:Shevaṭ Yehudah 7645: 7625:Shevaṭ Yehudah 7616: 7590: 7584:Shevaṭ Yehudah 7569:Sheveṭ Yehudah 7559: 7541:Abraham Zacuto 7533: 7515: 7484: 7453: 7412: 7399: 7392: 7372: 7356: 7347: 7338: 7329: 7320: 7311: 7293: 7275: 7266: 7248: 7236: 7224: 7215: 7206: 7197: 7188: 7179: 7170: 7161: 7152: 7149:on 2016-03-13. 7138: 7113: 7104: 7095: 7086: 7077: 7068: 7059: 7050: 7031: 7022: 7013: 7004: 6995: 6986: 6977: 6968: 6962: 6944: 6942:Stillman, p.53 6935: 6910: 6898: 6889: 6874: 6865: 6863:, p. 221. 6853: 6839: 6830:, p. 513. 6815: 6806:, p. 512. 6791: 6782: 6773: 6760: 6740: 6720: 6699: 6686: 6673: 6656: 6642: 6632: 6620: 6613:Isidore Singer 6594: 6581: 6565: 6556: 6539: 6527: 6508: 6484: 6475: 6466: 6457: 6448: 6435: 6417: 6401: 6392:, p. 509. 6379: 6372: 6328: 6319:, p. 132. 6309: 6304:The Jewish War 6291: 6266: 6257: 6245: 6243:Bowers, p. 396 6233: 6224:, p. 508. 6203: 6196: 6164: 6133: 6108: 6089: 6075: 6053: 6046: 6021: 6009: 5994: 5987: 5981:. p. 26. 5964: 5952: 5937: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5918: 5917: 5912: 5907: 5902: 5897: 5892: 5887: 5882: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5861: 5860: 5846: 5843:Judaism portal 5830: 5827: 5818:Sephardic Jews 5813: 5810: 5747:Argentine Jews 5665: 5662: 5564:Ashkenazi Jews 5490:Final Solution 5468: 5465: 5445:Ottoman Empire 5434:Judaeo-Spanish 5399: 5396: 5317: 5314: 5290: 5287: 5281: 5278: 5202:Main article: 5199: 5196: 5195: 5194: 5191: 5184: 5182: 5179: 5172: 5170: 5167: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5148: 5117: 5114: 4995:Paul of Burgos 4990: 4987: 4933:Paul de Burgos 4867:Main article: 4864: 4861: 4821:Hasdai Crescas 4813:Shevaṭ Yehudah 4801:Abraham Zacuto 4758:Ḥasdai Crescas 4746:Vicente Ferrer 4655:Main article: 4652: 4649: 4628: 4625: 4615:contador mayor 4597:When Henry de 4552: 4549: 4506:Samuel ha-Levi 4450: 4449: 4408: 4406: 4399: 4393: 4390: 4386:Abraham Senior 4324: 4321: 4250: 4247: 4162:Infante Sancho 4130: 4127: 4091: 4088: 4077: 4076: 4027: 4025: 4018: 4012: 4009: 3958:Moses ibn Ezra 3853: 3850: 3761:Moses ibn Ezra 3689: 3686: 3660:Bodo the Frank 3597:Arabic culture 3471: 3468: 3456: 3453: 3398:forced baptism 3345:excommunicated 3333:crypto-Judaism 3224: 3221: 3177: 3174: 3081: 3078: 2987: 2984: 2881: 2878: 2838: 2835: 2831:ecclesiastical 2656:Midrash Rabbah 2634:Rabbi Berekiah 2630:Land of Israel 2600:The Jewish War 2548:, part of the 2515: 2512: 2484:New Christians 2383:Biblical times 2377: 2376: 2374: 2373: 2366: 2359: 2351: 2348: 2347: 2346: 2345: 2340: 2332: 2331: 2326: 2325: 2324: 2323: 2318: 2313: 2308: 2303: 2298: 2293: 2288: 2283: 2275: 2274: 2268: 2267: 2266: 2265: 2260: 2258:Territorialism 2255: 2250: 2245: 2240: 2235: 2227: 2226: 2218: 2213: 2212: 2209: 2208: 2205: 2204: 2199: 2194: 2189: 2184: 2179: 2174: 2169: 2164: 2159: 2154: 2149: 2144: 2142:Judaeo-Spanish 2139: 2137:Judaeo-Iranian 2134: 2129: 2124: 2119: 2114: 2109: 2104: 2103: 2102: 2089: 2084: 2083: 2080: 2079: 2074: 2073: 2072: 2071: 2066: 2061: 2053: 2052: 2046: 2045: 2044: 2043: 2038: 2033: 2028: 2023: 2018: 2013: 2008: 2000: 1999: 1993: 1992: 1991: 1990: 1985: 1980: 1975: 1967: 1966: 1960: 1959: 1958: 1957: 1952: 1944: 1943: 1937: 1936: 1935: 1934: 1929: 1924: 1917: 1908: 1903: 1898: 1889: 1884: 1879: 1874: 1866: 1865: 1859: 1854: 1853: 1850: 1849: 1846: 1845: 1840: 1835: 1830: 1825: 1820: 1815: 1810: 1803: 1802: 1801: 1796: 1791: 1780: 1775: 1774: 1771: 1770: 1765: 1764: 1763: 1762: 1757: 1752: 1747: 1742: 1734: 1733: 1727: 1726: 1725: 1724: 1719: 1714: 1709: 1702: 1697: 1692: 1687: 1682: 1677: 1672: 1667: 1662: 1655: 1650: 1645: 1640: 1635: 1630: 1622: 1621: 1615: 1614: 1613: 1612: 1607: 1602: 1594: 1593: 1589: 1588: 1587: 1586: 1583:United Kingdom 1579: 1574: 1569: 1564: 1559: 1554: 1549: 1544: 1539: 1534: 1529: 1524: 1519: 1514: 1509: 1504: 1499: 1494: 1489: 1484: 1479: 1474: 1469: 1464: 1459: 1454: 1449: 1444: 1439: 1431: 1430: 1424: 1423: 1422: 1421: 1416: 1411: 1406: 1401: 1396: 1391: 1386: 1381: 1376: 1371: 1366: 1361: 1356: 1351: 1346: 1341: 1336: 1331: 1326: 1321: 1316: 1311: 1306: 1301: 1296: 1291: 1286: 1281: 1276: 1271: 1266: 1261: 1256: 1251: 1246: 1241: 1236: 1231: 1223: 1222: 1218: 1217: 1216: 1215: 1210: 1205: 1195: 1190: 1185: 1180: 1173: 1168: 1163: 1158: 1153: 1143: 1138: 1133: 1128: 1123: 1118: 1113: 1108: 1103: 1098: 1093: 1088: 1083: 1078: 1073: 1068: 1063: 1058: 1053: 1048: 1043: 1038: 1033: 1028: 1023: 1018: 1016:Bilad-el-Sudan 1013: 1008: 1000: 999: 993: 992: 991: 990: 985: 980: 972: 971: 969:Land of Israel 965: 964: 963: 962: 957: 952: 947: 942: 932: 927: 926: 923: 922: 917: 916: 915: 914: 909: 904: 899: 898: 897: 892: 887: 882: 877: 867: 862: 857: 852: 847: 842: 837: 829: 828: 827:Related groups 824: 823: 822: 821: 816: 811: 806: 801: 796: 791: 786: 781: 776: 771: 766: 761: 760: 759: 754: 739: 734: 733: 730: 729: 724: 723: 722: 721: 711: 706: 701: 696: 691: 686: 684:Jewish atheism 681: 676: 671: 663: 662: 658: 657: 656: 655: 650: 645: 640: 635:Islamic–Jewish 630: 623: 608: 603: 595: 594: 587: 586: 585: 584: 560: 547: 519: 514: 507: 502: 500:Yehud Medinata 494: 493: 487: 486: 485: 484: 477: 470: 462: 449: 441: 429: 424: 417: 409: 408: 406:Ancient Israel 402: 401: 400: 399: 394: 389: 384: 379: 374: 369: 364: 362:Land of Israel 359: 351: 350: 344: 339: 338: 335: 334: 329: 328: 327: 326: 321: 317:Shulchan Aruch 312: 307: 302: 297: 289: 288: 287: 286: 281: 273: 272: 266: 265: 264: 263: 258: 250: 249: 243: 242: 241: 240: 235: 230: 222: 221: 213: 208: 207: 204: 203: 200: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 169: 164: 159: 154: 149: 142: 137: 130: 125: 120: 115: 110: 105: 95: 90: 83:God in Judaism 79: 74: 73: 70: 69: 68: 67: 62: 54: 53: 43: 42: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10099: 10088: 10085: 10083: 10080: 10079: 10077: 10062: 10059: 10055: 10050: 10047: 10046: 10044: 10040: 10034: 10031: 10029: 10026: 10022: 10017: 10014: 10013: 10011: 10007: 9999: 9994: 9991: 9989: 9986: 9984: 9981: 9980: 9978: 9974: 9968: 9965: 9963: 9960: 9958: 9955: 9954: 9952: 9950: 9946: 9940: 9937: 9933: 9930: 9929: 9928: 9925: 9923: 9920: 9918: 9915: 9914: 9912: 9910: 9906: 9898: 9893: 9890: 9888: 9885: 9881: 9878: 9876: 9873: 9872: 9871: 9868: 9866: 9863: 9861: 9858: 9856: 9853: 9851: 9848: 9847: 9845: 9843: 9839: 9833: 9830: 9828: 9825: 9823: 9820: 9818: 9815: 9814: 9812: 9808: 9800: 9797: 9795: 9794:Belmonte Jews 9792: 9790: 9787: 9786: 9785: 9784: 9780: 9774: 9771: 9770: 9769: 9766: 9762: 9761:Paradesi Jews 9759: 9758: 9757: 9754: 9752: 9749: 9747: 9744: 9742: 9739: 9735: 9734:New Amsterdam 9732: 9730: 9727: 9725: 9722: 9720: 9717: 9716: 9715: 9712: 9710: 9707: 9705: 9702: 9701: 9700: 9699: 9695: 9691: 9688: 9684: 9681: 9680: 9679: 9676: 9674: 9671: 9669: 9666: 9664: 9661: 9660: 9659: 9658: 9654: 9648: 9645: 9643: 9640: 9639: 9638: 9635: 9633: 9630: 9628: 9625: 9623: 9620: 9618: 9615: 9613: 9610: 9606: 9603: 9602: 9601: 9598: 9596: 9593: 9589: 9586: 9585: 9584: 9581: 9577: 9574: 9572: 9569: 9568: 9567: 9564: 9562: 9559: 9557: 9554: 9552: 9549: 9548: 9547: 9546: 9542: 9541: 9539: 9537: 9533: 9527: 9526: 9525:New Christian 9522: 9520: 9519: 9518:Maghrebi Jews 9515: 9513: 9512: 9508: 9506: 9505: 9501: 9499: 9498: 9494: 9492: 9491: 9487: 9485: 9484: 9480: 9478: 9475: 9471: 9468: 9467: 9466: 9463: 9461: 9458: 9456: 9453: 9451: 9450: 9446: 9445: 9443: 9441: 9437: 9432: 9425: 9420: 9418: 9413: 9411: 9406: 9405: 9402: 9390: 9387: 9385: 9382: 9380: 9377: 9375: 9372: 9370: 9367: 9365: 9364:Faroe Islands 9362: 9360: 9357: 9356: 9354: 9348: 9342: 9339: 9337: 9336:South Ossetia 9334: 9332: 9329: 9327: 9324: 9322: 9319: 9318: 9316: 9310: 9302: 9299: 9297: 9294: 9292: 9289: 9287: 9284: 9283: 9282: 9279: 9277: 9274: 9272: 9269: 9267: 9264: 9262: 9259: 9257: 9254: 9252: 9249: 9247: 9244: 9242: 9239: 9237: 9234: 9232: 9229: 9227: 9224: 9222: 9219: 9217: 9214: 9212: 9209: 9207: 9204: 9202: 9199: 9197: 9194: 9192: 9189: 9187: 9184: 9182: 9179: 9177: 9174: 9172: 9169: 9167: 9166:Liechtenstein 9164: 9162: 9159: 9157: 9154: 9152: 9149: 9147: 9145: 9142: 9140: 9137: 9135: 9132: 9130: 9127: 9125: 9122: 9120: 9117: 9115: 9112: 9110: 9107: 9105: 9102: 9100: 9097: 9095: 9092: 9090: 9087: 9085: 9082: 9080: 9077: 9075: 9072: 9070: 9067: 9065: 9062: 9060: 9057: 9055: 9052: 9050: 9047: 9045: 9042: 9040: 9037: 9036: 9034: 9030: 9026: 9019: 9014: 9012: 9007: 9005: 9000: 8999: 8996: 8990: 8987: 8984: 8981: 8978: 8974: 8971: 8968: 8964: 8960: 8957: 8954: 8952: 8946: 8944: 8941: 8938: 8935: 8934: 8923: 8922: 8917: 8913: 8908: 8907:public domain 8899: 8896: 8895: 8889: 8886: 8882: 8878: 8875: 8871: 8868: 8864: 8861: 8857: 8854: 8850: 8847: 8843: 8840: 8838: 8829: 8826: 8822: 8819: 8815: 8812:Mann, Jacob, 8811: 8808: 8804: 8801: 8798: 8794: 8790: 8787: 8783: 8780: 8776: 8772: 8769: 8765: 8761: 8755: 8750: 8749: 8743: 8739: 8736: 8732: 8728: 8725: 8721: 8718: 8715: 8712: 8708: 8704: 8700: 8698: 8694: 8690: 8687: 8686: 8682: 8679: 8675: 8672: 8669: 8666:, Cambridge: 8665: 8661: 8658: 8655:, Jerusalem: 8654: 8650: 8647: 8643: 8639: 8635: 8629: 8622: 8621: 8616: 8612: 8608: 8605: 8601: 8598:, hardcover; 8597: 8593: 8589: 8585: 8581: 8580: 8559: 8555: 8548: 8546: 8544: 8527: 8523: 8517: 8509: 8505: 8501: 8500:Stavans, Ilan 8495: 8479: 8475: 8469: 8461: 8460: 8455: 8449: 8441: 8437: 8431: 8424: 8423: 8417: 8410: 8405: 8397: 8393: 8387: 8379: 8375: 8369: 8361: 8357: 8351: 8344: 8340: 8337: 8332: 8318:on 2006-03-01 8317: 8313: 8307: 8300: 8295: 8289:, 17 Dec 1968 8288: 8284: 8279: 8272: 8267: 8251: 8247: 8240: 8233: 8227: 8213:on 2011-07-11 8212: 8208: 8204: 8198: 8184: 8180: 8174: 8172: 8162: 8156: 8150: 8143: 8137: 8128: 8119: 8110: 8103: 8102:0-671-77816-1 8099: 8095: 8092:Trudi Alexy, 8089: 8083:Alexy, p. 77. 8080: 8078: 8070: 8065: 8058: 8053: 8046: 8041: 8032: 8027: 8023: 8019: 8015: 8008: 8001: 7996: 7988: 7986:9788460846406 7982: 7978: 7977: 7969: 7961: 7954: 7946: 7942: 7936: 7928: 7924: 7920: 7914: 7906: 7900: 7896: 7895: 7890: 7884: 7877: 7872: 7864: 7860: 7855: 7850: 7846: 7842: 7838: 7834: 7830: 7823: 7815: 7809: 7805: 7798: 7790: 7786: 7780: 7773: 7769: 7768: 7763: 7757: 7750: 7746: 7744: 7739: 7734: 7727: 7723: 7722: 7717: 7713: 7707: 7700: 7698: 7693: 7687: 7685:84-7762-449-6 7681: 7677: 7673: 7667: 7663: 7659: 7655: 7649: 7642: 7638: 7634: 7630: 7626: 7620: 7605: 7601: 7594: 7587: 7585: 7580: 7574: 7570: 7563: 7556: 7555: 7554:Sefer Yuḥasin 7550: 7546: 7545:Sefer Yuḥasin 7542: 7537: 7530: 7529: 7524: 7519: 7512: 7508: 7507: 7502: 7498: 7494: 7488: 7480: 7474: 7466: 7465: 7457: 7443: 7439: 7433: 7431: 7429: 7427: 7425: 7423: 7421: 7419: 7417: 7409: 7403: 7395: 7389: 7385: 7384: 7376: 7369: 7365: 7360: 7351: 7342: 7333: 7324: 7315: 7307: 7303: 7297: 7291: 7287: 7284: 7279: 7270: 7262: 7258: 7252: 7246: 7240: 7231: 7229: 7219: 7210: 7201: 7192: 7183: 7174: 7165: 7156: 7145: 7141: 7135: 7131: 7124: 7117: 7108: 7099: 7090: 7081: 7072: 7063: 7054: 7046: 7042: 7035: 7026: 7017: 7008: 6999: 6990: 6981: 6972: 6965: 6959: 6955: 6948: 6939: 6923: 6917: 6915: 6905: 6903: 6893: 6887:, p. 222 6886: 6881: 6879: 6869: 6862: 6857: 6848: 6846: 6844: 6835: 6829: 6824: 6822: 6820: 6811: 6805: 6800: 6798: 6796: 6786: 6777: 6770: 6764: 6757: 6753: 6749: 6744: 6737: 6733: 6729: 6724: 6717: 6714:), end of II 6713: 6709: 6703: 6696: 6690: 6683: 6677: 6670: 6666: 6660: 6653: 6646: 6636: 6630: 6624: 6618: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6604: 6598: 6591: 6585: 6578: 6574: 6569: 6560: 6553: 6549: 6543: 6536: 6531: 6523: 6517: 6512: 6504: 6498: 6493: 6491: 6489: 6479: 6470: 6461: 6452: 6445: 6439: 6431: 6427: 6421: 6413: 6412: 6405: 6397: 6391: 6386: 6384: 6375: 6369: 6365: 6364:Fergus Millar 6361: 6357: 6353: 6348: 6344: 6340: 6339: 6332: 6324: 6318: 6313: 6306: 6305: 6300: 6295: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6270: 6261: 6254: 6249: 6240: 6238: 6229: 6223: 6218: 6216: 6214: 6212: 6210: 6208: 6199: 6197:9789004235397 6193: 6189: 6185: 6181: 6177: 6176: 6168: 6161: 6148: 6144: 6137: 6130: 6126: 6123: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6104: 6100: 6093: 6085: 6079: 6064: 6057: 6049: 6043: 6039: 6032: 6025: 6019:, p. 28. 6018: 6013: 6007:, p. 26. 6006: 6001: 5999: 5990: 5988:84-8108-206-6 5984: 5977: 5976: 5968: 5961: 5956: 5949: 5944: 5942: 5935:, p. 25. 5934: 5929: 5925: 5916: 5913: 5911: 5908: 5906: 5903: 5901: 5898: 5896: 5893: 5891: 5888: 5886: 5883: 5881: 5880:Jacob ibn Jau 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5862: 5858: 5847: 5844: 5833: 5826: 5823: 5819: 5809: 5807: 5802: 5800: 5794: 5792: 5787: 5785: 5781: 5776: 5774: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5753: 5750: 5748: 5744: 5740: 5735: 5732: 5729: 5725: 5721: 5717: 5713: 5709: 5707: 5703: 5699: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5679: 5675: 5671: 5661: 5659: 5654: 5652: 5647: 5645: 5641: 5636: 5633: 5631: 5627: 5623: 5619: 5617: 5616:Léon Degrelle 5613: 5612:Otto Skorzeny 5609: 5605: 5599: 5596: 5592: 5586: 5584: 5580: 5575: 5573: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5549: 5548:Sephardi Jews 5544: 5542: 5537: 5533: 5528: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5513: 5509: 5504: 5502: 5498: 5493: 5491: 5487: 5482: 5480: 5474: 5464: 5460: 5458: 5457:the Holocaust 5454: 5450: 5446: 5442: 5437: 5435: 5430: 5428: 5422: 5420: 5416: 5407: 5403: 5395: 5393: 5389: 5385: 5380: 5378: 5374: 5370: 5369:old Christian 5366: 5362: 5355: 5351: 5349: 5345: 5340: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5313: 5311: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5286: 5277: 5275: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5250: 5246: 5244: 5240: 5236: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5215: 5210: 5205: 5188: 5183: 5176: 5171: 5164: 5159: 5152: 5147: 5146: 5145: 5143: 5139: 5135: 5131: 5127: 5123: 5113: 5111: 5107: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5078: 5076: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5062:de Caballería 5059: 5055: 5051: 5047: 5042: 5040: 5036: 5032: 5027: 5019: 5015: 5010: 5006: 5002: 5000: 4996: 4986: 4984: 4979: 4977: 4973: 4967: 4965: 4961: 4957: 4952: 4948: 4940: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4918: 4914: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4882: 4878: 4870: 4860: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4829: 4824: 4822: 4818: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4805:Sefer Yuḥasin 4802: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4781: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4765: 4763: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4747: 4743: 4737: 4736:synagogues." 4734: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4713: 4711: 4707: 4703: 4702:Ash Wednesday 4698: 4696: 4693:disappeared. 4691: 4687: 4683: 4682:Queen Leonora 4679: 4671: 4667: 4663: 4658: 4648: 4646: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4623: 4620: 4616: 4612: 4607: 4604: 4600: 4595: 4593: 4588: 4584: 4580: 4576: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4548: 4546: 4542: 4536: 4534: 4530: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4514: 4509: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4475: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4446: 4443: 4435: 4425: 4421: 4415: 4414: 4409:This section 4407: 4403: 4398: 4397: 4389: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4378:Meïr Alguadez 4375: 4371: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4355: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4334: 4329: 4320: 4318: 4314: 4309: 4305: 4300: 4298: 4294: 4290: 4286: 4285:Ferdinand III 4281: 4279: 4275: 4265: 4260: 4256: 4246: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4206: 4204: 4200: 4196: 4192: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4173: 4169: 4167: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4126: 4122: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4083: 4073: 4070: 4062: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4038: 4037: 4033: 4028:This section 4026: 4022: 4017: 4016: 4008: 4006: 4001: 3997: 3995: 3994:anti-Semitism 3990: 3985: 3983: 3979: 3978:Islamic Spain 3975: 3971: 3967: 3961: 3959: 3954: 3950: 3945: 3943: 3942: 3936: 3933: 3928: 3926: 3922: 3918: 3914: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3896: 3893: 3889: 3885: 3884: 3879: 3871: 3866: 3865: 3858: 3849: 3847: 3841: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3827: 3823: 3819: 3815: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3787: 3785: 3781: 3775: 3773: 3769: 3764: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3749:Yehuda Halevi 3746: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3728: 3726: 3722: 3717: 3715: 3711: 3710:foreign trade 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3685: 3683: 3679: 3676: 3673: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3656:proselytizing 3652: 3649: 3644: 3641: 3637: 3636:Greek culture 3633: 3629: 3625: 3620: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3575: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3560: 3559: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3542: 3538: 3533: 3531: 3526: 3525: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3509:to go to the 3508: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3492: 3488: 3484: 3479: 3477: 3466: 3462: 3452: 3450: 3444: 3440: 3438: 3433: 3429: 3424: 3422: 3417: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3403: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3388: 3384: 3380: 3375: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3348: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3325: 3323: 3319: 3315: 3314: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3282: 3277: 3273: 3271: 3266: 3262: 3255: 3250: 3246: 3244: 3243: 3238: 3233: 3229: 3220: 3217: 3213: 3211: 3210:Second Temple 3207: 3202: 3198: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3173: 3170: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3142: 3140: 3136: 3132: 3128: 3124: 3118: 3116: 3110: 3108: 3104: 3099: 3093: 3091: 3087: 3086:Moses de León 3077: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3056:According to 3054: 3051: 3048: 3044: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2992: 2983: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2969: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2944:Judah ha-Nasi 2941: 2937: 2929: 2925: 2921: 2917: 2913: 2909: 2908:lexicographer 2903: 2901: 2889: 2887: 2877: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2862: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2834: 2832: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2803: 2801: 2797: 2796:Saint Stephen 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2779: 2775: 2770: 2766: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2752: 2748: 2744: 2740: 2735: 2733: 2728: 2724: 2723:anti-Semitism 2720: 2716: 2711: 2708: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2678: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2667:Rosh Hashanna 2664: 2663: 2658: 2657: 2652: 2648: 2645: 2644: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2622: 2620: 2616: 2615: 2610: 2606: 2605:Herod Antipas 2602: 2601: 2596: 2592: 2588: 2587: 2582: 2577: 2575: 2571: 2567: 2566:paleo-Hebraic 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2536: 2531: 2527: 2525: 2521: 2514:Early history 2511: 2508: 2506: 2502: 2491: 2490: 2485: 2481: 2477: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2446:study of the 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2424: 2419: 2414: 2412: 2408: 2404: 2400: 2396: 2395:Second Temple 2392: 2388: 2385:according to 2384: 2372: 2367: 2365: 2360: 2358: 2353: 2352: 2350: 2349: 2344: 2341: 2339: 2336: 2335: 2334: 2333: 2322: 2319: 2317: 2314: 2312: 2309: 2307: 2304: 2302: 2299: 2297: 2294: 2292: 2289: 2287: 2284: 2282: 2279: 2278: 2277: 2276: 2273: 2270: 2269: 2264: 2261: 2259: 2256: 2254: 2251: 2249: 2246: 2244: 2241: 2239: 2236: 2234: 2231: 2230: 2229: 2228: 2225: 2222: 2221: 2216: 2211: 2210: 2203: 2200: 2198: 2195: 2193: 2190: 2188: 2185: 2183: 2182:Judeo-Aramaic 2180: 2178: 2175: 2173: 2172:Judeo-Italian 2170: 2168: 2165: 2163: 2160: 2158: 2155: 2153: 2152:Ghardaïa Sign 2150: 2148: 2145: 2143: 2140: 2138: 2135: 2133: 2130: 2128: 2125: 2123: 2120: 2118: 2115: 2113: 2110: 2108: 2105: 2100: 2096: 2095: 2094: 2091: 2090: 2087: 2082: 2081: 2070: 2067: 2065: 2062: 2060: 2057: 2056: 2055: 2054: 2051: 2048: 2047: 2042: 2039: 2037: 2034: 2032: 2029: 2027: 2024: 2022: 2019: 2017: 2014: 2012: 2009: 2007: 2004: 2003: 2002: 2001: 1998: 1995: 1994: 1989: 1986: 1984: 1981: 1979: 1976: 1974: 1971: 1970: 1969: 1968: 1965: 1962: 1961: 1956: 1953: 1951: 1948: 1947: 1946: 1945: 1942: 1939: 1938: 1933: 1930: 1928: 1925: 1923: 1918: 1915: 1914: 1909: 1907: 1904: 1902: 1899: 1896: 1895: 1890: 1888: 1885: 1883: 1880: 1878: 1875: 1873: 1870: 1869: 1868: 1867: 1863: 1862: 1857: 1852: 1851: 1844: 1841: 1839: 1836: 1834: 1831: 1829: 1826: 1824: 1821: 1819: 1816: 1814: 1811: 1809: 1804: 1800: 1797: 1795: 1792: 1790: 1787: 1786: 1785: 1782: 1781: 1778: 1777:Denominations 1773: 1772: 1761: 1758: 1756: 1753: 1751: 1748: 1746: 1743: 1741: 1738: 1737: 1736: 1735: 1732: 1729: 1728: 1723: 1720: 1718: 1715: 1713: 1710: 1708: 1703: 1701: 1698: 1696: 1693: 1691: 1688: 1686: 1683: 1681: 1678: 1676: 1673: 1671: 1668: 1666: 1663: 1661: 1656: 1654: 1651: 1649: 1646: 1644: 1641: 1639: 1636: 1634: 1631: 1629: 1626: 1625: 1624: 1623: 1620: 1617: 1616: 1611: 1608: 1606: 1605:United States 1603: 1601: 1598: 1597: 1596: 1595: 1591: 1590: 1585: 1580: 1578: 1575: 1573: 1570: 1568: 1565: 1563: 1560: 1558: 1555: 1553: 1550: 1548: 1545: 1543: 1540: 1538: 1535: 1533: 1530: 1528: 1525: 1523: 1520: 1518: 1515: 1513: 1510: 1508: 1505: 1503: 1500: 1498: 1495: 1493: 1490: 1488: 1485: 1483: 1480: 1478: 1475: 1473: 1470: 1468: 1465: 1463: 1460: 1458: 1455: 1453: 1450: 1448: 1445: 1443: 1440: 1438: 1435: 1434: 1433: 1432: 1429: 1426: 1425: 1420: 1417: 1415: 1412: 1410: 1407: 1405: 1402: 1400: 1397: 1395: 1392: 1390: 1387: 1385: 1382: 1380: 1377: 1375: 1372: 1370: 1367: 1365: 1362: 1360: 1357: 1355: 1352: 1350: 1347: 1345: 1342: 1340: 1337: 1335: 1332: 1330: 1327: 1325: 1322: 1320: 1317: 1315: 1312: 1310: 1307: 1305: 1302: 1300: 1297: 1295: 1292: 1290: 1287: 1285: 1282: 1280: 1277: 1275: 1272: 1270: 1267: 1265: 1262: 1260: 1257: 1255: 1252: 1250: 1247: 1245: 1242: 1240: 1237: 1235: 1232: 1230: 1227: 1226: 1225: 1224: 1220: 1219: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1203: 1199: 1196: 1194: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1184: 1181: 1179: 1174: 1172: 1169: 1167: 1164: 1162: 1159: 1157: 1154: 1151: 1147: 1144: 1142: 1139: 1137: 1134: 1132: 1129: 1127: 1124: 1122: 1119: 1117: 1114: 1112: 1109: 1107: 1104: 1102: 1099: 1097: 1094: 1092: 1091:Guinea-Bissau 1089: 1087: 1084: 1082: 1079: 1077: 1074: 1072: 1069: 1067: 1064: 1062: 1059: 1057: 1054: 1052: 1049: 1047: 1044: 1042: 1039: 1037: 1034: 1032: 1029: 1027: 1024: 1022: 1019: 1017: 1014: 1012: 1009: 1007: 1004: 1003: 1002: 1001: 998: 995: 994: 989: 986: 984: 981: 979: 976: 975: 974: 973: 970: 967: 966: 961: 958: 956: 953: 951: 948: 946: 945:Lists of Jews 943: 941: 938: 937: 936: 935: 930: 925: 924: 913: 910: 908: 905: 903: 900: 896: 893: 891: 888: 886: 883: 881: 878: 876: 873: 872: 871: 868: 866: 863: 861: 858: 856: 853: 851: 848: 846: 843: 841: 838: 836: 833: 832: 831: 830: 826: 825: 820: 817: 815: 812: 810: 807: 805: 802: 800: 797: 795: 792: 790: 787: 785: 782: 780: 777: 775: 772: 770: 767: 765: 762: 758: 755: 753: 750: 749: 748: 745: 744: 743: 742: 737: 732: 731: 720: 712: 710: 707: 705: 704:The Holocaust 702: 700: 697: 695: 692: 690: 687: 685: 682: 680: 677: 675: 672: 670: 667: 666: 665: 664: 660: 659: 654: 651: 649: 646: 644: 641: 639: 631: 629: 624: 620: 614: 609: 607: 604: 602: 599: 598: 597: 596: 592: 589: 588: 581: 575: 569: 564: 561: 557: 551: 548: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 523: 520: 518: 515: 513: 508: 506: 503: 501: 498: 497: 496: 495: 492: 489: 488: 483: 478: 476: 471: 467: 463: 460: 455: 450: 446: 442: 439: 433: 430: 428: 425: 423: 418: 416: 413: 412: 411: 410: 407: 404: 403: 398: 395: 393: 390: 388: 385: 383: 380: 378: 375: 373: 370: 368: 365: 363: 360: 358: 355: 354: 353: 352: 348: 347: 342: 337: 336: 325: 322: 319: 318: 313: 311: 308: 306: 305:Mishneh Torah 303: 301: 298: 296: 293: 292: 291: 290: 285: 282: 280: 277: 276: 275: 274: 271: 268: 267: 262: 259: 257: 254: 253: 252: 251: 248: 245: 244: 239: 236: 234: 231: 229: 226: 225: 224: 223: 220: 217: 216: 211: 206: 205: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 170: 168: 165: 163: 160: 158: 155: 153: 150: 148: 143: 141: 138: 136: 131: 129: 126: 124: 121: 119: 116: 114: 111: 109: 106: 103: 99: 96: 94: 91: 88: 84: 81: 80: 77: 72: 71: 66: 65:Who is a Jew? 63: 61: 58: 57: 56: 55: 52: 48: 45: 44: 40: 36: 35: 28: 27: 20: 16: 9887:Judeo-Gascon 9860:Judeo-Arabic 9850:Judeo-Berber 9781: 9696: 9668:Gibraltarian 9657:North Africa 9655: 9647:Thessalonian 9543: 9523: 9516: 9509: 9502: 9495: 9488: 9481: 9455:Roman Empire 9447: 9341:Transnistria 9255: 8966: 8948:(in Spanish) 8919: 8891: 8887:Press, 1979. 8880: 8873: 8866: 8859: 8852: 8845: 8834: 8831:(in Spanish) 8824: 8820:Press, 1931. 8816:Cincinnati: 8813: 8806: 8792: 8785: 8774: 8767: 8747: 8742:Kamen, Henry 8730: 8719: 8706: 8702: 8692: 8683: 8677: 8663: 8652: 8641: 8619: 8615:Rein, Raanan 8586:, New York: 8583: 8562:. Retrieved 8558:The Guardian 8557: 8530:. Retrieved 8516: 8507: 8494: 8482:. Retrieved 8480:. 4 May 2023 8477: 8468: 8457: 8448: 8440:The Guardian 8439: 8430: 8420: 8416: 8404: 8395: 8386: 8377: 8368: 8359: 8350: 8331: 8320:. Retrieved 8316:the original 8306: 8294: 8286: 8278: 8266: 8254:. Retrieved 8249: 8239: 8231: 8226: 8215:. Retrieved 8211:the original 8206: 8197: 8186:. Retrieved 8182: 8161: 8154: 8149: 8141: 8136: 8127: 8118: 8109: 8093: 8088: 8064: 8052: 8047:(in Spanish) 8040: 8017: 8007: 7995: 7975: 7968: 7959: 7953: 7945:the original 7935: 7922: 7913: 7893: 7883: 7871: 7836: 7832: 7822: 7803: 7797: 7788: 7779: 7771: 7766: 7756: 7749:Kamen (1998) 7742: 7733: 7725: 7720: 7710:Letter from 7706: 7696: 7675: 7671: 7665: 7653: 7648: 7640: 7624: 7619: 7607:. Retrieved 7603: 7593: 7583: 7572: 7568: 7562: 7553: 7544: 7536: 7527: 7518: 7510: 7505: 7500: 7496: 7487: 7463: 7456: 7445:. Retrieved 7441: 7407: 7402: 7382: 7375: 7359: 7350: 7341: 7332: 7323: 7314: 7305: 7296: 7278: 7269: 7260: 7251: 7239: 7218: 7209: 7200: 7191: 7182: 7173: 7164: 7155: 7144:the original 7129: 7116: 7107: 7098: 7089: 7080: 7071: 7062: 7053: 7044: 7034: 7025: 7016: 7007: 6998: 6989: 6980: 6971: 6953: 6947: 6938: 6926:. Retrieved 6892: 6884: 6868: 6860: 6856: 6785: 6776: 6768: 6763: 6755: 6751: 6747: 6743: 6735: 6731: 6727: 6723: 6711: 6707: 6706:Abrabanel's 6702: 6694: 6689: 6682:Seder Ha-Yom 6681: 6676: 6668: 6664: 6659: 6651: 6645: 6635: 6623: 6617:M. Seligsohn 6606: 6597: 6589: 6584: 6576: 6572: 6568: 6559: 6551: 6547: 6542: 6534: 6530: 6511: 6478: 6469: 6460: 6455:Graetz, p.42 6451: 6443: 6438: 6430:www.ccel.org 6429: 6420: 6410: 6404: 6355: 6352:Emil Schürer 6336: 6331: 6312: 6302: 6294: 6286: 6282: 6278: 6274: 6269: 6260: 6252: 6248: 6174: 6167: 6159: 6150:. Retrieved 6146: 6136: 6120: 6111: 6102: 6092: 6078: 6066:. Retrieved 6056: 6037: 6024: 6012: 5974: 5967: 5955: 5928: 5857:Spain portal 5815: 5803: 5795: 5788: 5784:Jon Juaristi 5777: 5754: 5751: 5736: 5710: 5667: 5655: 5648: 5637: 5634: 5629: 5620: 5608:Vichy France 5600: 5587: 5576: 5545: 5529: 5505: 5497:World War II 5494: 5486:World War II 5483: 5476: 5461: 5438: 5431: 5423: 5412: 5401: 5381: 5358: 5354:Moshe Maimon 5342: 5292: 5283: 5273: 5251: 5247: 5232: 5223: 5119: 5116:Architecture 5079: 5043: 5034: 5023: 5003: 4992: 4980: 4972:North Africa 4969: 4943: 4873: 4832: 4825: 4812: 4804: 4796: 4784: 4782: 4767: 4739: 4714: 4699: 4680:, the pious 4675: 4665: 4630: 4614: 4608: 4596: 4587:Samuel Zarza 4555: 4537: 4520: 4510: 4500: 4480: 4458: 4438: 4429: 4418:Please help 4413:verification 4410: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4353: 4338: 4301: 4293:yellow badge 4282: 4277: 4270: 4207: 4189: 4179:reading the 4132: 4093: 4065: 4059:January 2008 4056: 4041:Please help 4029: 4004: 4002: 3998: 3986: 3969: 3962: 3946: 3939: 3937: 3929: 3897: 3881: 3875: 3842: 3825: 3801: 3799:neo-Platonic 3790: 3788: 3783: 3776: 3765: 3729: 3718: 3691: 3674: 3653: 3645: 3640:philological 3622:In adopting 3621: 3615:polemics of 3595: 3576: 3557: 3534: 3522: 3503:Lucas de Tuy 3480: 3473: 3445: 3441: 3425: 3418: 3406:agricultural 3401: 3392: 3376: 3360:circumcision 3349: 3327:In 633, the 3326: 3321: 3311: 3308:North Africa 3285: 3258: 3254:King Recared 3240: 3226: 3214: 3179: 3171: 3165: 3157: 3144: 3134: 3126: 3122: 3120: 3112: 3102: 3098:emet weyaṣiv 3097: 3095: 3084:Spanish Jew 3083: 3065: 3061: 3055: 3008:Carthaginian 2997: 2979: 2975: 2959: 2958:, or Spain. 2951: 2939: 2905: 2899: 2891: 2883: 2863: 2849:belonged to 2840: 2817:such as the 2804: 2787: 2782: 2771: 2767: 2736: 2715:Roman Empire 2712: 2679: 2666: 2660: 2654: 2641: 2623: 2612: 2599: 2584: 2578: 2539: 2524:Roman Empire 2517: 2509: 2487: 2468:1391 pogroms 2448:Hebrew Bible 2444:philological 2421: 2415: 2411:Nicene Creed 2380: 2321:Post-Zionism 2192:Judeo-Berber 2187:Judeo-Arabic 2147:Judeo-Gascon 1894:Pidyon haben 1813:Conservative 1566: 1359:Saudi Arabia 1177:South Africa 1166:Sierra Leone 988:Israeli Jews 902:Mosaic Arabs 855:Kaifeng Jews 716:Arab–Israeli 689:Emancipation 568:Great Revolt 377:Anti-Judaism 372:Antisemitism 367:Name "Judea" 162:Baal teshuva 15: 10052: [ 10019: [ 9996: [ 9895: [ 9617:Palestinian 9379:Isle of Man 9314:recognition 9266:Switzerland 9201:Netherlands 8703:Convivencia 8024:: 199–200. 7854:10016/36127 7839:: 147–184. 7551:1580 (q.v. 7302:"Sephardim" 6758:) (Hebrew). 6577:Baba Bathra 6444:Antiquities 6360:Geza Vermes 6068:12 February 5660:to Israel. 5595:Freemasonry 5554:, Hungary, 5536:Free French 5495:Throughout 5477:During the 5373:Netherlands 5110:inquisition 5082:persecution 4519:called the 4317:Good Friday 4297:Vidal Taroç 4201:, Carrion, 4191:Alfonso VII 4175:Image of a 4119: [ 4108:Castrojeriz 3989:Reconquista 3949:Almoravides 3941:Reconquista 3846:Renaissance 3822:mathematics 3806:Middle Ages 3795:Ibn Gabirol 3662:, a former 3609:rationalism 3581:, known as 3553:Mesopotamia 3358:(including 3290:(601–604), 3113:Similarly, 3064:(Germany), 3050:Phoenicians 2763:Jewish Wars 2316:Revisionist 2306:Neo-Zionism 1913:Zeved habat 1706:Puerto Rico 1532:Netherlands 1364:South Korea 1349:Philippines 1229:Afghanistan 1096:Ivory Coast 870:Crypto-Jews 835:Bnei Anusim 814:Bene Israel 779:Beta Israel 736:Communities 643:Middle Ages 382:Persecution 157:Bereavement 10076:Categories 9600:Macedonian 9588:Alexandria 9536:Dispersion 9511:Megorashim 9490:Degredados 9460:Golden Age 9236:San Marino 9196:Montenegro 9176:Luxembourg 9156:Kazakhstan 9059:Azerbaijan 8784:Laeuchli, 8777:, Oxford: 8322:2009-10-04 8252:. Tel Aviv 8217:2006-07-21 8188:2006-07-21 7637:Anno Mundi 7447:2017-04-15 6738:) (Hebrew) 6573:Mishnayoth 6464:Assis, p.9 6411:Bava Basra 6317:Gabba 1999 6152:12 October 5921:References 5769:Isak Andic 5532:Casablanca 5521:Hans Frank 5243:Tisha B'Av 5026:Papal bull 4857:al-Andalus 4833:Ṭulayṭulah 4672:, c. 1910) 4599:Trastámara 4567:Valladolid 4559:Villadiego 4484:Alfonso IV 4432:March 2016 4306:issued by 4304:papal bull 4255:Nahmanides 4253:See also: 4210:Sancho III 4138:Alfonso VI 4005:al-Andalus 3982:Maimonides 3826:Al-Andalus 3802:Fons Vitae 3791:al-Andalus 3784:al-Andalus 3465:Al-Andalus 3437:Septimania 3232:Visigothic 3212:in 70 CE. 3166:Ṭulayṭulah 3158:Ṭulayṭulah 3135:Ṭulayṭulah 3127:Ṭulayṭulah 3123:anno mundi 3103:Ṭulayṭulah 2689:after the 2647:Rabbi Meir 2572:(formerly 2562:Phoenician 2438:and first 2432:Al-Andalus 2430:. 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