History of the Qing dynasty

2958: 3236: 2242:. Kangxi accordingly assigned generals Sun Sike, Wang Jinbao, and Zhao Liangdong to crush the rebels, since he thought that Han Chinese were superior to Bannermen at battling other Han people. Similarly, in north-western China against Wang Fuchen, the Qing used Han Chinese Green Standard Army soldiers and Han Chinese generals as the primary military forces. This choice was due to the rocky terrain, which favoured infantry troops over cavalry, to the desire to keep Bannermen in reserve, and, again, to the belief that Han troops were better at fighting other Han people. These Han generals achieved victory over the rebels. Also due to the mountainous terrain, Sichuan and southern Shaanxi were retaken by the Green Standard Army in 1680, with Manchus participating only in logistics and provisions. 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers and 150,000 Bannermen served on the Qing side during the war. 213 Han Chinese Banner companies, and 527 companies of Mongol and Manchu Banners were mobilized by the Qing during the revolt. 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers were used against the Three Feudatories besides 200,000 Bannermen. 3383: 1681:

Nurhaci had treated Han in Liaodong differently according to how much grain they had: those with less than 5 to 7 sin were treated badly, while those with more than that amount were rewarded with property. Due to a revolt by Han in Liaodong in 1623, Nurhaci, who previously gave concessions to conquered Han subjects in Liaodong, turned against them and ordered that they no longer be trusted. He enacted discriminatory policies and killings against them, while ordering that Han who assimilated to the Jurchen (in Jilin) before 1619 be treated equally, as Jurchens were, and not like the conquered Han in Liaodong. Hong Taiji recognized that the Manchus needed to attract Han Chinese, explaining to reluctant Manchus why he needed to treat the Ming defector General

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was the real successor of the Kangxi Emperor, and that Yongzheng and his confidant Keduo Long had tampered with the Kangxi's testament on the night when Kangxi died, though there was little evidence for these charges. In fact, his father had trusted him with delicate political issues and discussed state policy with him. When Yongzheng came to power at the age of 45, he felt a sense of urgency about the problems that had accumulated in his father's later years, and he did not need instruction on how to exercise power. In the words of one recent historian, he was "severe, suspicious, and jealous, but extremely capable and resourceful", and in the words of another, he turned out to be an "early modern state-maker of the first order".

2032:– were chosen for their long service, but also to counteract each other's influences. Most important, the four were not closely related to the imperial family and laid no claim to the throne. However, as time passed, through chance and machination, Oboi, the most junior of the four, achieved such political dominance as to be a potential threat. Even though Oboi's loyalty was never an issue, his personal arrogance and political conservatism led him into an escalating conflict with the young emperor. In 1669 Kangxi, through trickery, disarmed and imprisoned Oboi – a significant victory for a fifteen-year-old emperor over a wily politician and experienced commander. 2656: 39: 1492:, so they gained strength by defeating and absorbing Mongols. More importantly, they added Han Chinese to the Eight Banners. The Manchus had to create an entire "Jiu Han jun" (Old Han Army) due to the massive number of Han Chinese soldiers who were absorbed into the Eight Banners by both capture and defection. Ming artillery was responsible for many victories against the Manchus, so the Manchus established an artillery corps made out of Han Chinese soldiers in 1641, and the swelling of Han Chinese numbers in the Eight Banners led in 1642 to all Eight Han Banners being created. Armies of defected Ming Han Chinese conquered southern China for the Qing. 2404:

elites and mounted a campaign to enforce collection of the land tax. The increased revenues were to be used for "money to nourish honesty" among local officials and for local irrigation, schools, roads, and charity. Although these reforms were effective in the north, in the south and lower Yangzi valley, where Kangxi had wooed the elites, there were long established networks of officials and landowners. Yongzheng dispatched experienced Manchu commissioners to penetrate the thickets of falsified land registers and coded account books, but they were met with tricks, passivity, and even violence. The fiscal crisis persisted.

3270:, was an anti-Christian, antimissionary, and antiforeign peasant-based revitalization movement. The Empress Dowager Cixi was pleased when Boxers attacked foreigners who were building railroads, exploiting China's mineral wealth, dividing up the port trading concessions, and converting peasants to an alien religion. In June 1900 the Boxers invaded Beijing and killed 230 foreigners, and tens of thousands of Chinese Christians. The Cixi government was helpless. Diplomats, foreign civilians, soldiers and some Chinese Christians retreated to the legation quarter and held out for 55 days. The world powers formed the ad-hoc 1827:

giving them social and legal privileges in addition to being acculturated to Manchu traditions. Han defectors swelled the ranks of the Eight Banners so greatly that ethnic Manchus became a minority—only 16% in 1648, with Han Bannermen dominating at 75% and Mongol Bannermen making up the rest. Gunpowder weapons like muskets and artillery were wielded by the Chinese Banners. Normally, Han Chinese defector troops were deployed as the vanguard, while Manchu Bannermen acted as reserve forces or in the rear and were used predominantly for quick strikes with maximum impact, so as to minimize ethnic Manchu losses.

3031: 1993: 2920: 1701: 1659: 1834:, and the three Liaodong Han Bannermen officers who played key roles in the conquest of southern China were Shang Kexi, Geng Zhongming, and Kong Youde, who governed southern China autonomously as viceroys for the Qing after the conquest. Han Chinese Bannermen made up the majority of governors in the early Qing, and they governed and administered China after the conquest, stabilizing Qing rule. Han Bannermen dominated the post of governor-general in the time of the Shunzhi and Kangxi Emperors, and also the post of governor, largely excluding ordinary Han civilians from these posts. 1917:

front of the head. One person was executed for refusing to shave the front but he had willingly braided the back of his hair. Later westernized revolutionaries, influenced by western hairstyle began to view the braid as backward and advocated adopting short haired western hairstyles. Han rebels, such as the Taiping, even retained their queue braids but grew hair on the front of the head. The Qing government accordingly viewed shaving the front of the head as the primary sign of loyalty, rather than the braid on the back, which traditional Han did not object to.

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reappointing most Ming officials. Choosing Beijing as the capital had not been a straightforward decision, since no major Chinese dynasty had directly taken over its immediate predecessor's capital. Keeping the Ming capital and bureaucracy intact helped quickly stabilize the regime and sped up the conquest of the rest of the country. Dorgon then drastically reduced the influence of the eunuchs, a major force in the Ming bureaucracy, and directed Manchu women not to

2172:" was a daunting task. The vastness of China's territory meant that there were only enough banner troops to garrison key cities forming the backbone of a defense network that relied heavily on surrendered Ming soldiers. In addition, three surrendered Ming generals were singled out for their contributions to the establishment of the Qing dynasty, ennobled as feudal princes (藩王), and given governorships over vast territories in Southern China. The chief of these was 3138: 2408: 2735: 1545:) from his existing Han troops who cast their own cannons in the European design with the help of defector Chinese metallurgists. One of the defining events of Hong Taiji's reign was the official adoption of the name "Manchu" for the united Jurchen people in November 1635. In 1635, the Manchus' Mongol allies were fully incorporated into a separate Banner hierarchy under direct Manchu command. Hong Taiji conquered the territory north of 3275:

indemnify the Alliance with huge cash penalties spread over decades, and also make many additional concessions. On the one hand, the Boxers have been condemned as a product of uncivilized, irrational, superstitious antiforeignism among the uneducated peasants. On the other, the Boxers are praised as patriotic anti-imperialists. Subsequent reforms laid the foundation for the end of Manchu rule and the establishment of a modern nation.

2341: 3309: 1520:, who emerged as the new Khan after a short political struggle amongst other contenders . Although Hong Taiji was an experienced leader and the commander of two Banners at the time of his succession, his reign did not start well on the military front. The Jurchens suffered yet another defeat in 1627 at the hands of Yuan Chonghuan. This defeat was also in part due to the Ming's newly acquired Portuguese cannons. 1446: 1857: 2643:, who blamed Qing officials, saying "the officials have forced the people to rebel." Officials in other parts of the country were also blamed for corruption, failing to keep the famine relief granaries full, poor maintenance of roads and waterworks, and bureaucratic factionalism. There soon followed uprisings of "new sect" Muslims against local Muslim officials, and Miao tribesmen in southwest China. The 2228: 2636:. As Manchu landlords desired Han Chinese to rent their land and grow grain, most Han Chinese migrants were not evicted. During the eighteenth century Han Chinese farmed 500,000 hectares of privately owned land in Manchuria and 203,583 hectares of lands that were part of courrier stations, noble estates, and Banner lands. In garrisons and towns in Manchuria Han Chinese made up 80% of the population. 1686:

military dependence on banners not under his personal control, it also greatly encouraged other Han Chinese subjects of the Ming dynasty to surrender and accept Jurchen rule when they were defeated militarily. Through these and other measures Hong Taiji was able to centralize power unto the office of the Khan, which in the long run prevented the Jurchen federation from fragmenting after his death.

1780:, located 80 kilometres (50 miles) northeast of Beijing, which defended the capital. Wu Sangui, caught between a rebel army twice his size and an enemy he had fought for years, cast his lot with the foreign but familiar Manchus. Wu Sangui may have been influenced by Li Zicheng's mistreatment of wealthy and cultured officials, including Li's own family; it was said that Li took Wu's concubine 2379:(r. 1735–1796), marked the height of Qing power. During this period, the Qing Empire ruled over 13 million square kilometres (5 million square miles) of territory. Yet, as historian Jonathan Spence puts it, the empire by the end of the Qianlong reign was "like the sun at midday". In the midst of "many glories", he writes, "signs of decay and even collapse were becoming apparent". 2353: 1597:" (Taizu Shilu Tu) in the Qing palace, forbidden from public view because they showed that the Manchu Aisin Gioro family had been ruled by the Ming dynasty and followed many Manchu customs that seemed "uncivilized" to later observers. The Qing also deliberately excluded references and information that showed the Jurchens (Manchus) as subservient to the Ming dynasty, from the 2935:. China's income fell sharply during the wars as vast areas of farmland were destroyed, millions of lives were lost, and countless armies were raised and equipped to fight the rebels. In 1854, Britain tried to re-negotiate the Treaty of Nanjing, inserting clauses allowing British commercial access to Chinese rivers and the creation of a permanent British embassy at Beijing. 1364:. As a vassal of the Ming emperors who officially considered himself a guardian of the Ming border and a local representative of imperial power of the Ming dynasty, Nurhaci embarked on an intertribal feud in 1582 that escalated into a campaign to unify the nearby tribes. By 1616, however, he had sufficiently consolidated Jianzhou so as to be able to proclaim himself 3330:, and nephew to the childless Guangxu Emperor, was appointed successor at the age of two, leaving Zaifeng with the regency. This was followed by the dismissal of General Yuan Shikai from his former positions of power. In April 1911 Zaifeng created a cabinet in which there were two vice-premiers. Nonetheless, this cabinet was also known by contemporaries as the " 1219:, killing roughly 20 to 30 million people, and proved to be a pyrrhic victory at best for the Qing dynasty, as it would collapse less than 50 years after the rebellion. The rebellion resulted in increased sectarian tension and accelerated regionalism, in what would prove to be a foreshadowing of the Warlord Era that would come after the fall of the Qing. 2224:, nearly establishing a divided China. Wu hesitated to go further north, not being able to coordinate strategy with his allies, and Kangxi was able to unify his forces for a counterattack led by a new generation of Manchu generals. By 1681, the Qing government had established control over a ravaged southern China which took several decades to recover. 1803:" on 30 October. The Manchus, who had positioned themselves as political heirs to the Ming emperor by defeating Li Zicheng, completed the symbolic transition by holding a formal funeral for the Chongzhen Emperor. However, conquering the rest of China Proper took another seventeen years of battling Ming loyalists, 3390:

Premier Yuan Shikai and his Beiyang commanders decided that going to war would be unreasonable and costly. Similarly, Sun Yat-sen wanted a republican constitutional reform, for the benefit of China's economy and populace. With permission from Empress Dowager Longyu, Yuan Shikai began negotiating with

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and that he was the brother of Jesus Christ. Slavery, concubinage, arranged marriage, opium smoking, footbinding, judicial torture, and the worship of idols were all banned. However, success led to internal feuds, defections and corruption. In addition, British and French troops, equipped with modern

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Demand in Europe for Chinese goods such as silk, tea, and ceramics could only be met if European companies funneled their limited supplies of silver into China. In the late 1700s, the governments of Britain and France were deeply concerned about the imbalance of trade and the drain of silver. To meet

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hairstyle which was worn by Manchu men, on pain of death. The popular description of the order was: "To keep the hair, you lose the head; To keep your head, you cut the hair." To the Manchus, this policy was a test of loyalty and an aid in distinguishing friend from foe. For the Han Chinese, however,

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leniently. Hong Taiji instead incorporated them into the Jurchen "nation" as full (if not first-class) citizens, obligated to provide military service. By 1648, less than one-sixth of the bannermen were of Manchu ancestry. This change of policy not only increased Hong Taiji's manpower and reduced his

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and rushed in 20,000 troops to the rescue, mostly from Russia, Japan, Britain and the United States. The Boxers and the government forces were more numerous but were very poorly organized and armed. They were quickly defeated, causing the imperial court to flee. The Chinese government was forced to

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allowed an improved food supply as well, so that the total population of China during the 18th century ballooned from 100 million to 300 million people. Soon all available farmland was used up, forcing peasants to work ever-smaller and more intensely worked plots. The Qianlong Emperor once

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China also began suffering from mounting overpopulation during this period. Population growth was stagnant for the first half of the 17th century due to civil wars and epidemics, but prosperity and internal stability gradually reversed this trend. The introduction of new crops from the Americas such

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to silence opposition. The accusation of individuals began with the emperor's own interpretation of the true meaning of the corresponding words. If the emperor decided these were derogatory or cynical towards the dynasty, persecution would begin. Literary inquisition began with isolated cases at the

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The Manchus sent Han Bannermen to fight against Koxinga's Ming loyalists in Fujian. They removed the population from coastal areas in order to deprive Koxinga's Ming loyalists of resources. This led to a misunderstanding that Manchus were "afraid of water". Han Bannermen carried out the fighting and

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Hong Taiji's bureaucracy was staffed with many Han Chinese, including many newly surrendered Ming officials. The Manchus' continued dominance was ensured by an ethnic quota for top bureaucratic appointments. Hong Taiji's reign also saw a fundamental change of policy towards his Han Chinese subjects.

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Despite officially prohibiting Han Chinese settlement on the Manchu and Mongol lands, by the 18th century the Qing decided to settle Han refugees from northern China who were suffering from famine, floods, and drought into Manchuria and Inner Mongolia. Han Chinese then streamed into Manchuria, both

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in the winter of 1722, his fourth son, Prince Yong (雍親王), became the Yongzheng Emperor. In the later years of Kangxi's reign, Yongzheng and his brothers had fought, and there were rumours that he had usurped the throne – most of the rumours held that Yongzheng's brother Yingzhen (Kangxi's 14th son)

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The first seven years of the Shunzhi Emperor's reign were dominated by the regent prince Dorgon. Because of his own political insecurity, Dorgon followed Hong Taiji's example by ruling in the name of the emperor at the expense of rival Manchu princes, many of whom he demoted or imprisoned under one

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The Qing had taken shrewd advantage of Ming civilian government discrimination against the military and encouraged the Ming military to defect by spreading the message that the Manchus valued their skills. Banners made up of Han Chinese who defected before 1644 were classed among the Eight Banners,

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Meanwhile, Hong Taiji set up a rudimentary bureaucratic system based on the Ming model. He established six boards or executive level ministries in 1631 to oversee finance, personnel, rites, military, punishments, and public works. However, these administrative organs had very little role initially,

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Furthermore, the Khorchin proved a useful ally in the war, lending the Jurchens their expertise as cavalry archers. To guarantee this new alliance, Nurhaci initiated a policy of inter-marriages between the Jurchen and Khorchin nobilities, while those who resisted were met with military action. This

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maneuvered himself into power as president of an ineffectual Republic, and forced the abdication of Puyi, the last emperor, in 1912. This brought an end to the Qing dynasty, and over 2,000 years of imperial rule in China. Shikai briefly ruled as a dictator, but proved incapable of ruling all China,

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Select groups of Han Chinese bannermen were mass transferred into Manchu Banners by the Qing, changing their ethnicity from Han Chinese to Manchu. Han Chinese bannermen of Tai Nikan 台尼堪 (watchpost Chinese) and Fusi Nikan 抚顺尼堪 (Fushun Chinese) backgrounds into the Manchu banners in 1740 by order of

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official of his father. Heshen was charged with corruption and abuse of power, stripped of his titles, had his property confiscated, and ordered to commit suicide. Heshen's daughter-in-law, Princess Hexiao, a half-sister of the Jiaqing Emperor, was spared from punishment and given a few properties

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Yongzheng moved rapidly. First, he promoted Confucian orthodoxy and reversed what he saw as his father's laxness by cracking down on unorthodox sects and by decapitating an anti-Manchu writer his father had pardoned. In 1723 he outlawed Christianity and expelled Christian missionaries, though some

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The Qing forces were crushed by Wu from 1673 to 1674. The Qing had the support of the majority of Han Chinese soldiers and Han elite against the Three Feudatories, since they refused to join Wu Sangui in the revolt, while the Eight Banners and Manchu officers fared poorly against Wu Sangui, so the

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Han Chinese did not object to wearing the queue braid on the back of the head, as they traditionally wore all their hair long, but fiercely objected to shaving the forehead, which the Qing government focused on. Han rebels in the first half of the Qing wore the braid but defied orders to shave the

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and massive killing of Han Chinese. It was Han Chinese defectors who carried out massacres against people refusing to wear the queue. Li Chengdong, a Han Chinese general who had served the Ming but surrendered to the Qing, ordered his Han troops to carry out three separate massacres in the city of

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To promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners, or with the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered

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invading China to protect foreign citizens and interests. Cixi sided with the rebels, and was dealt a decisive defeat by the combined forces of the coalition. Cixi's death in 1908 left the country in deep trouble and without an effective leader. The emperor, Puyi, was a toddler, and the control of

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and put relations on a basis of equality. The imperial court viewed trade as of secondary interest, whereas the British saw maritime trade as the key to their economy. The Qianlong Emperor told Macartney "the kings of the myriad nations come by land and sea with all sorts of precious things", and

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lasted for eight years. Wu attempted, ultimately in vain, to fire the embers of south China Ming loyalty by restoring Ming customs but then declared himself emperor of a new dynasty instead of restoring the Ming. At the peak of the rebels' fortunes, they extended their control as far north as the

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aspect of their Manchu identity, which allowed them to appeal to the Mongol, Tibetan and Muslim subjects in the empire, and the Qing had used different ways of legitimization for these subjects, especially for the Mongols. This contradicted traditional Chinese worldview requiring acculturation of

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cabinet for the rest of the dynasty. He shrewdly filled key positions with Manchu and Han Chinese officials who depended on his patronage. When he began to realize that the financial crisis was even greater than he had thought, Yongzheng rejected his father's lenient approach to local landowning

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domains on the plains of Mongolia. Although by this time the once-united Mongol nation had long since fragmented into individual and hostile tribes, these tribes still presented a serious security threat to the Ming borders. Nurhaci's policy towards the Khorchins was to seek their friendship and

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had been walled off as a Manchu homeland. The emperor decreed for the first time that Han Chinese civilians were forbidden to settle. Mongols were forbidden by the Qing from crossing the borders of their banners, even into other Mongol Banners, and from crossing into neidi (the Han Chinese 18

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province and nominated his son as his successor. The young emperor granted his retirement, but denied the heredity of his fief. In reaction, the two other generals decided to petition for their own retirements to test Kangxi's resolve, thinking that he would not risk offending them. The move

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to solidify the diplomatic understanding with Russia. In exchange for territory and trading rights, the Qing would have a free hand dealing with the situation in Mongolia. Yongzheng then turned to that situation, where the Zunghars threatened to re-emerge, and to the southwest, where local

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First, the Manchus had entered "South of the Wall" because Dorgon responded decisively to Wu Sangui's appeal. Then, after capturing Beijing, instead of sacking the city as the rebels had done, Dorgon insisted, over the protests of other Manchu princes, on making it the dynastic capital and

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in 1618. His son, Hong Taiji, who officially proclaimed the Qing dynasty, consolidated the territories that he had inherited control over from Nurhaci and laid the groundwork for the conquest of the Ming dynasty, although he died before this was accomplished. As Ming control disintegrated,

2863:. Amid widespread social unrest and worsening famine, the rebellion not only posed the most serious threat towards Qing rulers, it has also been called the "bloodiest civil war of all time"; during its fourteen-year course from 1850 to 1864 between 20 and 30 million people died. 2616:

provinces) and were given serious punishments if they did in order to keep the Mongols divided against each other to benefit the Qing. Mongol pilgrims wanting to leave their banner's borders for religious reasons such as pilgrimage had to apply for passports to give them permission.

1430:(clan name). The irregularities over Jurchen and Manchu clan origin led the Qing to document and systematize the creation of histories for Manchu clans, including manufacturing an entire legend around the origin of the Aisin Gioro clan by taking mythology from the northeast. 2532:(1795–1806) rebellions, as well as an empty imperial treasury. The Jiaqing Emperor engaged in the pacification of the empire and the quelling of rebellions. He endeavored to bring China back to its 18th-century prosperity and power. However, due in part to large outflows of 1958:. More importantly, Dorgon's symbolic fall from grace also led to the purge of his family and associates at court, thus reverting power back to the person of the emperor. After a promising start, Shunzhi's reign was cut short by his early death in 1661 at the age of 24 from 2624:. It was between 1618 and 1629 when the Han Chinese from Liaodong who later became the Fushun Nikan and Tai Nikan defected to the Jurchens (Manchus). These Han Chinese origin Manchu clans continue to use their original Han surnames and are marked as of Han origin on 1941:

Although his support had been essential to Shunzhi's ascent, Dorgon had centralised so much power in his hands as to become a direct threat to the throne. So much so that upon his death he was bestowed the extraordinary posthumous title of Emperor Yi (Chinese:

2751:, the British East India Company greatly expanded its production in Bengal. Since China's economy was essentially self-sufficient, the country had little need to import goods or raw materials from the Europeans, so the usual way of payment was through silver. The 1954:) was so honored. Two months into Shunzhi's personal rule, however, Dorgon was not only stripped of his titles, but his corpse was disinterred and mutilated. to atone for multiple "crimes", one of which was persecuting to death Shunzhi's agnate eldest brother, 1043:

which preceded it, engaging in large-scale territorial expansion which ended with embarrassing defeat and humiliation to the foreign powers whom they believe to be inferior to them. The Qing dynasty's inability to successfully counter Western and Japanese

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Qing responded with using a massive army of more than 900,000 Han Chinese (non-Banner) instead of the Eight Banners, to fight and crush the Three Feudatories. Wu Sangui's forces were crushed by the Green Standard Army, made out of defected Ming soldiers.

1900:) held that "a person's body and hair, being gifts from one's parents, are not to be damaged". Under the Ming dynasty, adult men did not cut their hair but instead wore it in the form of a top-knot. The order triggered strong resistance to Qing rule in 2298:. The Qing sent the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan in 1683 back to mainland China where they spent the rest of their lives in exile since their lives were spared from execution. Winning Taiwan freed Kangxi's forces for series of battles over 1933:

On 31 December 1650, Dorgon suddenly died during a hunting expedition, marking the official start of the Shunzhi Emperor's personal rule. Because the emperor was only 12 years old at that time, most decisions were made on his behalf by his mother,

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Hong Taiji died suddenly in September 1643. As the Jurchens had traditionally "elected" their leader through a council of nobles, the Qing state did not have a clear succession system. The leading contenders for power were Hong Taiji's oldest son

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However, not all of Dorgon's policies were equally popular or as easy to implement. The controversial July 1645 edict (the "haircutting order") forced adult Han Chinese men to shave the front of their heads and comb the remaining hair into the

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people, which they were not. Early European writers had used the term "Tartar" indiscriminately for all the peoples of Northern Eurasia but in the 17th century Catholic missionary writings established "Tartar" to refer only to the Manchus and

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In October 1795, the 60th year of his reign, the Qianlong Emperor announced his intention to abdicate in favour of Prince Jia. He made this decision because he felt that it was disrespectful for him to rule longer than his grandfather, the

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while the ordinary soldiers who surrendered were often given non-royal Manchu women as wives. Jurchen (Manchu) women married Han Chinese in Liaodong. Manchu Aisin Gioro princesses were also given in marriage to Han Chinese officials' sons.

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was China's first formal treaty with a European power and kept the border peaceful for the better part of two centuries. After Galdan's death, his followers, as adherents to Tibetan Buddhism, attempted to control the choice of the next

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colonists as a base against the Qing. Zheng Keshuang was awarded the title "Duke Haicheng" (海澄公) and was inducted into the Han Chinese Plain Red Banner of the Eight Banners when he moved to Beijing. Several Ming princes had accompanied

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insulted and criticized the Qing hairstyle by referring to the shaven pate as looking like a fly. Koxinga and his men objected when the Qing demanded they shave in exchange for recognizing Koxinga as a feudatory. The Qing demanded that

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was a bloody attack from November 1899 to September, 1901 against foreign influence, especially Christian missionaries and their Chinese converts. It affected the northern provinces around Beijing. The Boxer movement—more exactly the

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includes one statute titled "Prohibitions Concerning Sorcerers and Sorceresses" (禁止師巫邪術). In 1811, a clause was added to it with reference to Christianity. It was modified in 1815 and 1817, settled in its final form in 1839 under the

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However, during the 18th century European empires gradually expanded across the world, as European states developed economies built on maritime trade, colonial extraction, and advances in technology. The dynasty was confronted with

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Xu, Xiaoman; Huang, Yuanmei (2005). "NINE: "Preservting the Bonds of Kin" Genealogy Masters and Genealogy Production in the Jiangzu-Zhejiang Area in the Qing and Republican Periods". In Brokaw, Cynthia J.; Chow, Kai-Wing (eds.).

3170:, took the throne, in violation of the dynastic custom that the new emperor be of the next generation, and another regency began. In the spring of 1881, Ci'an suddenly died, aged only forty-three, leaving Cixi as sole regent. 1407:" and openly renounced the sovereignty of Ming overlordship in order to complete the unification of those Jurchen tribes still allied with the Ming emperor. After a series of successful battles, he relocated his capital from 2954:, which contained clauses deeply insulting to the Chinese, such as a demand that all official Chinese documents be written in English and a proviso granting British warships unlimited access to all navigable Chinese rivers. 2503:"Jiaqing" in February 1796, hence he is historically known as the Jiaqing Emperor. For the next three years however, the Jiaqing Emperor was emperor in name only because decisions were still made by his father, who became a 1970:

killing, casting doubt on the claim that fear of the water led to the coastal evacuation and ban on maritime activities. Even though a poem refers to the soldiers carrying out massacres in Fujian as "barbarians", both Han

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The change of name from Jurchen to Manchu was made to hide the fact that the ancestors of the Manchus, the Jianzhou Jurchens, were ruled by the Chinese. The Qing dynasty carefully hid the original editions of the books of

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to Japan. The terms might have been harsher, but when a Japanese citizen attacked and wounded Li Hongzhang, an international outcry shamed the Japanese into revising them. The original agreement stipulated the cession of

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that ousted several regents for the boy emperor. Between 1861 and 1873, she and Ci'an served as regents, choosing the reign title "Tongzhi" (ruling together). Following the emperor's death in 1875, Cixi's nephew, the

2012:", during which the dynasty reached the zenith of its social, economic and military power. Kangxi's long reign started when he was eight years old upon the untimely demise of his father. To prevent a repeat of 7378: 3358:

as its provisional head. Many provinces soon began "separating" from Qing control. Seeing a desperate situation unfold, the Qing government brought Yuan Shikai back to military power. He took control of his

2016:'s dictatorial monopolizing of power during the regency, the Shunzhi Emperor, on his deathbed, hastily appointed four senior cabinet ministers to govern on behalf of his young son. The four ministers – 2802:. British soldiers, using advanced muskets and artillery, easily outmanoeuvred and outgunned Qing forces in ground battles. The Qing surrender in 1842 marked a decisive, humiliating blow to China. The 2203:

As the years went by, the three feudal lords and their extensive territories became increasingly autonomous. Finally, in 1673, Shang Kexi petitioned Kangxi for permission to retire to his hometown in

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ruler Nurhaci, originally a Ming vassal who officially considered himself a local representative of imperial Ming power, laid the foundation for its emergence through his policies of uniting various

3228:, restructure the school system, and appoint new officials. Opposition from the bureaucracy was immediate and intense. Although she had been involved in the initial reforms, the Empress Dowager 1909:

also held out against about 10,000 Han Chinese Qing troops for 83 days. When the city wall was finally breached on 9 October 1645, the Han Chinese Qing army led by the Han Chinese Ming defector

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This was followed by the creation of the first two Han Banners in 1637 (increasing to eight in 1642). Together these military reforms enabled Hong Taiji to resoundingly defeat Ming forces in a

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Ratification of the treaty in the following year led to a resumption of hostilities. In 1860, with Anglo-French forces marching on Beijing, the emperor and his court fled the capital for the

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is a typical example of Nurhaci's initiatives that eventually became official Qing government policy. During most of the Qing period, the Mongols gave military assistance to the Manchus.

1147:

However, the large size of the Qing empire and its stagnating economy would soon start to take its toll. Corruption began an increasingly widespread issue, as Chinese officials such as

2161:

held significant positions as military weapons experts, mathematicians, cartographers, astronomers and advisers to the emperor. The relationship of trust was however lost in the later

1974:

and Han Bannermen were involved and carried out the worst slaughter. 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers were used against the Three Feudatories in addition to the 200,000 Bannermen.

1422:

When the Jurchens were reorganized by Nurhaci into the Eight Banners, many Manchu clans were artificially created as a group of unrelated people founded a new Manchu clan (Manchu:

3301:". The edict paved the way for the most far-reaching reforms in terms of their social consequences, including the creation of a national education system and the abolition of the 2487:, the emperor's handsome young favorite, took advantage of the emperor's indulgence to become one of the most corrupt officials in the history of the dynasty. Qianlong's son, the 7998: 3297:

issued an imperial edict in 1901 calling for reform proposals from the governors-general and governors and initiated the era of the dynasty's "New Policies", also known as the "

1248:. A brief and ineffective restoration of the dynasty occurred in 1917 with Puyi at its head, emblematic of the chaotic and inconclusive conflicts that would wrack China until 2603:

bemoaned the country's situation by remarking, "The population continues to grow, but the land does not." The only remaining part of the empire that had arable farmland was

7276: 2035:

The early Manchu rulers established two foundations of legitimacy that help to explain the stability of their dynasty. The first was the bureaucratic institutions and the

8037: 1913:(劉良佐), who had been ordered to "fill the city with corpses before you sheathe your swords", massacred the entire population, killing between 74,000 and 100,000 people. 1356:

in the early 17th century. Nurhaci may have spent time in a Chinese household in his youth, and became fluent in Chinese as well as Mongol, and read the Chinese novels

3232:, arrested and executed several reformers, and took over day-to-day control of policy. Yet many of the plans stayed in place, and the goals of reform were implanted. 3062:. However Japan threatened to enter the war against China due to the Gapsin Coup and China chose to end the war with negotiations. The war ended in 1885 with the 1144:

on the Chinese frontier. During this period, the Qing dynasty, through its military conquests, reached a territorial extent never seen before in Chinese history.

6836: 1853:

both had their titles confirmed by the Shunzhi Emperor upon the Qing entry into Beijing on 31 October. The Kong's title of Duke was maintained in later reigns.

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The Yongzheng Emperor died in 1735. His 24-year-old son, Prince Bao (寶親王), then became the Qianlong Emperor. Qianlong personally led military campaigns near

2759:

to end the opium trade. Lin confiscated the stocks of opium without compensation in 1839, leading Britain to send a military expedition the following year.

7371: 2395:, which brought frank and detailed reports on local conditions directly to the throne without being intercepted by the bureaucracy, and he created a small 1195:

to the British and opened several ports to foreign trade. In 1856, further tensions between the Qing dynasty and foreign powers led to the outbreak of the

1647:. This final victory resulted in the surrender of many of the Ming dynasty's most battle-hardened troops, the death of Yuan Chonghuan at the hands of the 8042: 7878: 3322:

ordered trusted eunuchs to poison the Guangxu Emperor, and an autopsy conducted nearly a century later confirmed lethal levels of arsenic in his corpse.

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of 10 October 1911 was a success; by November, 14 of the 22 provinces had rejected Qing rule. This led to the creation of a new central government, the

3173:

From 1889, when Guangxu began to rule in his own right, to 1898, the Empress Dowager lived in semi-retirement, spending the majority of the year at the

1905:

Jiading within a month, resulting in tens of thousands of deaths. At the end of the third massacre, there was hardly a living person left in this city.

2392: 2432:

chieftains resisted Qing expansion. These campaigns drained the treasury but established the emperor's control of the military and military finance.

3391:

Sun Yat-sen, who decided that his goal had been achieved in forming a republic, and that therefore he could allow Yuan to step into the position of

7717: 1873:

pretext or another. Although the period of his regency was relatively short, Dorgon's precedents and example cast a long shadow over the dynasty.

1048:

ultimately led to its downfall, and the instability which emerged in China during the final years of the dynasty ultimately paved the way for the

7457: 1124:

ascended to the throne in 1662, ruling for 61 years until 1722. During is reign, the Qing dynasty entered into an era of prosperity known as the

3042:

took large chunks of territory in the Northeast in 1860. The period of cooperation between the reformers and the European powers ended with the

2208:

backfired as the young emperor called their bluff by accepting their requests and ordering that all three fiefdoms to be reverted to the crown.

1910: 5070: 2679:, a loose set of institutions and customs taken over from the Ming, in theory governed relations with East and Southeast Asian countries. The 2249:

To extend and consolidate the dynasty's control in Central Asia, the Kangxi Emperor personally led a series of military campaigns against the

7862: 7833: 7452: 6908: 3964:

Tumen jalafun jecen akū: Manchu studies in honour of Giovanni Stary By Giovanni Stary, Alessandra Pozzi, Juha Antero Janhunen, Michael Weiers

2512:

After the death of the Qianlong Emperor in the beginning of February 1799, the Jiaqing Emperor took control of the government and prosecuted

7534: 5500: 7073: 3392: 3054:

began with a surprise attack by the French on the Chinese southern fleet at Fuzhou. After that the Chinese declared war on the French. A

3050:

in 1858, France expanded control of Indochina. By 1883, France was in full control of the region and had reached the Chinese border. The

3038:

The dynasty lost control of peripheral territories bit by bit. In return for promises of support against the British and the French, the

2838:

to Britain. It revealed weaknesses in the Qing government and provoked rebellions against the regime. In 1842, the Qing dynasty fought a

2767: 1433:

Relocating his court from Jianzhou to Liaodong provided Nurhaci access to more resources; it also brought him in close contact with the

6056: 4020: 3990: 2483:

Beneath outward prosperity and imperial confidence, the later years of Qianlong's reign were marked by rampant corruption and neglect.

1485:, the defining element of Manchu identity and the foundation for transforming the loosely-knitted Jurchen tribes into a single nation. 955: 895: 7415: 2079:"barbarians". Qing emperors, on the contrary, sought to prevent this in regard to those subjects. The Qing used the title of Emperor ( 1749:. They were unable to capitalise on the Manchu succession dispute and the presence of a minor as emperor. In April 1644, the capital, 7522: 7507: 3379:. Yuan Shikai was now a dictator—the ruler of China and the Manchu dynasty had lost all power; it formally abdicated in early 1912. 7209: 3756: 3702: 3375:, Yuan Shikai went as far as to ask for the removal of Zaifeng from the regency. This removal later proceeded with directions from 1495:

Han Chinese played a massive role in the Qing conquest of China proper. Han Chinese Generals who defected to the Manchu were often

4669: 3729: 2480:

time of Shunzhi and Kangxi, but became a pattern under Qianlong's rule, during which there were 53 cases of literary persecution.

6051: 5987: 4015: 3985: 3046:

of 1870, which was incited by the murder of French nuns set off by the belligerence of local French diplomats. Starting with the

2463: 2306:. Zheng's former soldiers on Taiwan like the rattan shield troops were also inducted into the Eight Banners and used by the Qing 3034:

Imperialism 1900: The bear represents Russia, the lion Britain, the frog France, the sun Japan, and the eagle the United States.

8245: 7584: 3382: 3293:

By the early 20th century, mass civil disorder had begun in China, and it was growing continuously. To overcome such problems,

973: 585: 8276: 7517: 6805: 6786: 6767: 6746: 6722: 6701: 6680: 6654: 6633: 6607: 6586: 6567: 6538: 6517: 6475: 6454: 6424: 6386: 6365: 6344: 6325: 6304: 6275: 6256: 6237: 6216: 6195: 6174: 6145: 6116: 6097: 6030: 5948: 5927: 5906: 5887: 5820: 5799: 5780: 5759: 5719: 5700: 5681: 5660: 5615: 5596: 5575: 5165: 2326:

By the end of the 17th century, China was at its greatest height of confidence and political control since the Ming dynasty.

1277: 885: 4477: 3015:. The reformers then proceeded with institutional reforms, including China's first unified ministry of foreign affairs, the 2975:

and, in an act of revenge for the arrest, torture, and execution of the English diplomatic mission, burnt it to the ground.

2927:

The Western powers, largely unsatisfied with the Treaty of Nanjing, gave grudging support to the Qing government during the

2121:

or "(Manchu) Emperor", and among Muslim subjects in Inner Asia the Qing ruler was referred to as the "Khagan of China" (or "

7746: 7497: 7410: 7134: 2723: 458: 448: 6837:"Reinventing China Imperial Qing Ideology and the Rise of Modern Chinese National Identity in the Early Twentieth Century" 8312: 7319: 7149: 2979:, a younger half-brother of the emperor, who had been left as his brother's proxy in the capital, was forced to sign the 2261:'s invading forces from these regions, which were then incorporated into the empire. Galdan was eventually killed in the 1651:(who thought Yuan had betrayed him), and the complete and permanent withdrawal of the remaining Ming forces north of the 927: 89: 3157:(r. 1850–1861) and came to power in 1861 after her five-year-old son, the Tongzhi Emperor ascended the throne. She, the 7962: 7331: 7204: 7028: 5192: 4079: 4045: 3766: 3739: 3712: 79: 5999: 4927: 2722:

In 1793, the British East India Company, with the support of the British government, sent a delegation to China under

1027:, and the year 1644 is generally considered the start of the dynasty's rule. The Qing dynasty lasted until 1912, when 8251: 8092: 7967: 7324: 6901: 6875: 6825: 6498: 6445:(1991). "Ch'ing Imperial Marriage and Problems of Rulership". In Rubie Sharon Watson; Patricia Buckley Ebrey (eds.). 6405: 6074: 5967: 5831: 5738: 4823: 4719: 4692: 4350: 4334: 4095: 3686: 3662: 3535: 3510: 3347: 2676: 1577:

of the Mongols, Hong Taiji renamed his state from "Great Jin" to "Great Qing" and elevated his position from Khan to

756: 6777:

Wang, Shuo (2008). "Qing Imperial Women: Empresses, Concubines, and Aisin Gioro Daughters". In Anne Walthall (ed.).

5233: 4167: 2391:

were allowed to remain in the capital. Next, he moved to control the government. He expanded his father's system of

2044: 1677:

and it was not until the eve of completing the conquest ten years later that they fulfilled their government roles.

8062: 3610: 3210: 3020: 2755:, concerned both over the outflow of silver and the damage that opium smoking was causing to his subjects, ordered 2008:

was the longest of any Chinese emperor. Kangxi's reign is also celebrated as the beginning of an era known as the "

1624:, Joseon Korea was forced to give several of their royal princesses as concubines to the Qing Manchu regent Prince 6512:. Cambridge, MA: Council on East Asian Studies Harvard University : Distributed by Harvard University Press. 5115:

Life among the Chinese: with characteristic sketches and incidents of missionary operations and prospects in China

4911: 4895: 3866: 3850: 3834: 3655:

Foreign Devils and Philosophers Cultural Encounters between the Chinese, the Dutch, and Other Europeans, 1590-1800

3626: 2671:

continued to be the hegemonic power in East Asia. Although there was no formal ministry of foreign relations, the

8179: 7422: 7109: 6995: 3101:. Tensions between China and Japan rose after China intervened to suppress the uprising. Japanese Prime Minister 2216: 1983: 1745:

Meanwhile, Ming government officials fought against each other, against fiscal collapse, and against a series of

1621: 1582: 1129: 510: 5292: 5256:

Reardon-Anderson, James (2000). "Land Use and Society in Manchuria and Inner Mongolia During the Qing Dynasty".

5217: 4844: 4366: 3790: 1269: 1067:

military system and conquering territory from the Ming after he openly renounced the Ming overlordship with the

7763: 7629: 7397: 7144: 7083: 7053: 7043: 5639: 5475:

The Boxer Rebellion: The Dramatic Story of China's War on Foreigners That Shook the World in the Summer of 1900

4496: 4484:(27). China Heritage Project, ANU College of Asia & the Pacific (CAP), The Australian National University. 3898: 3474: 3446: 3318:

The Guangxu Emperor died on 14 November 1908, and on 15 November 1908, Cixi also died. Rumors held that she or

3224:

were given positions of influence. The emperor issued a series of edicts and plans were made to reorganize the

1200: 1164: 948: 900: 5940:

Conflict and Commerce in Maritime East Asia: The Zheng Family and the Shaping of the Modern World, c.1620–1720

1534:

To redress the technological and numerical disparity, Hong Taiji created his own artillery corps in 1634, the

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weapons, had come to the assistance of the Qing imperial army. It was not until 1864 that Qing armies under

2211:

Faced with the stripping of their powers, Wu Sangui, later joined by Geng Zhongming and by Shang Kexi's son

7956: 7734: 7601: 7467: 7361: 6971: 6961: 6894: 4574:

with original text in Latin, first published in Rome 1654. First English edition, London: John Crook, 1654.

4544: 4306: 4290: 4258: 4211: 3882: 3458: 2897: 2423:

Yongzheng also inherited diplomatic and strategic problems. A team made up entirely of Manchus drew up the

2396: 1695: 1566: 1273: 1073: 858: 3583:

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 9, The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part 1, by Willard J. Peterson, p. 29

1658: 1565:

in Shenyang, and recommended the khan of Later Jin to be the emperor of the Great Qing empire. One of the

7873: 7856: 7366: 7341: 7304: 7214: 7174: 6645: 4528: 4512: 3012: 2999:

came to the throne at the age of five in 1861, these officials rallied around him in what was called the

2913: 2150: 1746: 1388: 1373: 910: 667: 48: 6714:

The Ch'ing Imperial Household Department: A Study of Its Organization and Principal Functions, 1662–1796

6078: 2794:

revealed the outdated state of the Chinese military. The Qing navy, composed entirely of wooden sailing

8256: 7702: 6559: 6296: 6166: 6155:

Liu, Kwang-Ching; Smith, Richard J. (1980). "The Military Challenge: The North-west and the Coast". In

6137: 4649:"Conquest dynasties of China or foreign empires? The problem of relations between China, Yuan and Qing" 3479: 2976: 2888:

succeeded in crushing the revolt. After the outbreak of this rebellion, there were also revolts by the

2712: 2647:

continued for eight years, until 1804, when badly run, corrupt, and brutal campaigns finally ended it.

2238:

Manchu Generals and Bannermen were initially put to shame by the better performance of the Han Chinese

1935: 1849:(Doctor of the Five Classics) and 65th generation descendant in the northern branch who held the title 1819:, but was turned over to a Qing expeditionary army commanded by Wu Sangui, who had him brought back to 1808: 1216: 915: 6599:

The Headless State: Aristocratic Orders, Kinship Society, and Misrepresentations of Nomadic Inner Asia

3398:

On 12 February 1912, after rounds of negotiations, Longyu issued an imperial edict bringing about the

1620:

to be part of Ming China, as the "superior country" (sangguk) which they called Ming China. After the

1481:). Nurhaci also created the civil and military administrative system that eventually evolved into the 8266: 7985: 7914: 7707: 7239: 7164: 7033: 6951: 3427: 3202: 3198: 3063: 2748: 2162: 1605:

were not used to source content on Jurchens during Ming rule in the History of Ming because of this.

1602: 1581:, suggesting imperial ambitions beyond unifying the Manchu territories. Hong Taiji then proceeded to 1569:

was also dedicated to the emperor (Bogd Setsen Khan) by the nobility. When he was presented with the

1369: 1261: 1172: 1056: 1004: 941: 878: 843: 416: 112: 22: 5078: 4192:

is disputed. Some primary sources, such as the official Qing and Ming court histories (Chinese:

2655: 2461:

The Qianlong Emperor launched several ambitious cultural projects, including the compilation of the

2055:

of 1670 effectively extolled Confucian family values. His attempts to discourage Chinese women from

622: 8187: 8007: 7741: 7712: 7462: 6757: 5839: 3177:. On 1 November 1897, two German Roman Catholic missionaries were murdered in the southern part of 3158: 3130:

to Japan, but Russia, with its own designs on the territory, along with Germany and France, in the

2876: 2716: 2557: 2529: 2424: 1212: 1132:

was suppressed under his reign, and various border conflicts were resolved. Succeeding him was the

612: 261: 3422:

activism and open rebellions to restore the monarchy, but to no avail. In July 1917, there was an

1926:

and his men on Taiwan shave in order to receive recognition as a fiefdom. His men and Ming prince

1890:

it was a humiliating reminder of Qing authority that challenged traditional Confucian values. The

1508:

The unbroken series of Nurhaci's military successes ended in January 1626 when he was defeated by

7783: 7249: 7234: 7068: 6966: 5751:

The Diary of a Manchu Soldier in Seventeenth Century China: "My Service in the Army," by Dzengseo

5421: 3217: 3153:: Tz'u-Hsi) in state affairs. She entered the imperial palace in the 1850s as a concubine to the 3110: 2968: 2691:

and state to state relations. European trading posts expanded into territorial control in nearby

2688: 1892: 838: 6001:

Sealords Live in Vain: Fujian and the Making of a Maritime Frontier in Seventeenth-Century China

3650: 3030: 1992: 1203:. Amidst a backdrop of rising economic issues, sectarian tension and foreign interventions, the 8164: 8052: 7933: 7758: 6976: 3376: 3372: 3331: 3106: 2848: 2586: 2357: 2137:

in the hope to appease the Mongols and Tibetans. The Kangxi Emperor also welcomed to his court

1789: 1765:, committed suicide when the city fell to the rebels, marking the official end of the dynasty. 1570: 1097: 890: 868: 853: 339: 58: 6759:

The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of Imperial Order in Seventeenth-century China

5302: 5243: 5227: 4937: 4921: 4905: 4554: 4284: 4035: 3952: 3936: 3892: 3876: 3860: 3844: 3800: 3620: 2919: 1100:, seized the capital, and took over the government, although he also implemented the infamous 8307: 8238: 8097: 8057: 7724: 7686: 7574: 7554: 7472: 7271: 7254: 7119: 7088: 7023: 6625: 5980:

The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. XI: Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, 1870–98

5211: 5182: 5155: 4889: 4870: 4854: 4538: 4522: 4506: 4316: 4252: 4069: 3908: 3816: 3500: 3271: 3239: 3114: 2980: 2846:(the last independent kingdom of India), resulting in a negotiated peace and a return to the 2779: 2644: 2560:

among Han Chinese and Manchus. Christians who would not repent their conversion were sent to

2544: 2525: 2416: 1558: 1235: 1160: 969: 863: 280: 6486: 6378:

Autumn in the Heavenly Kingdom: China, the West, and the Epic Story of the Taiping Civil War

4376: 4360: 4344: 4300: 4268: 4221: 4105: 4009: 3414:

led to questioning and doubt about the future. Some Qing loyalists organized themselves as "

3066:

and the Chinese recognition of the French protectorate in Vietnam. Some Russian and Chinese

3003:. Their aim was to adopt Western military technology in order to preserve Confucian values. 8169: 8136: 8102: 8047: 7927: 7909: 7619: 7549: 7356: 7139: 6040: 5625: 4004: 3979: 3974: 3636: 3454: 3327: 3312: 3302: 3294: 3161:(who had been Xianfeng's empress), and Prince Gong (a son of the Daoguang Emperor), staged 3146: 3047: 2942:, which the British claimed had been flying the British flag, an incident which led to the 2868: 2625: 2476: 2262: 2114: 1438:

cooperation against the Ming, securing his western border from a powerful potential enemy.

1329: 1223: 905: 118: 5539:

Chien-nung Li, Jiannong Li, Ssŭ-yü Têng, "The political history of China, 1840–1928", p234

3334:" because among the thirteen cabinet members, five were members of the imperial family or 8: 8222: 8072: 8012: 7944: 7624: 7477: 7432: 7179: 7058: 7038: 6946: 6549: 6286: 6127: 5119: 3410:. The unorganized political and economic systems combined with a widespread criticism of 3131: 3000: 2680: 2668: 2335: 2311: 2295: 2239: 1971: 1838:

commoners. Later in the dynasty the policies allowing intermarriage were done away with.

1777: 1652: 1474: 1461:

Some other important contributions by Nurhaci include ordering the creation of a written

1265: 1227: 1141: 70: 5157:

Frontier Encounters: Knowledge and Practice at the Russian, Chinese and Mongolian Border

1700: 1612:

referred to the Jurchen-inhabited lands north of the Korean peninsula, above the rivers

8107: 7818: 7813: 7639: 7579: 7569: 7564: 7559: 7383: 7229: 7048: 6867: 6859: 6712: 6082: 5864: 5856: 5281: 5273: 4794: 4777:

Farquhar, David (1978). "Emperor As Bodhisattva in the Governance of the Qing Empire".

3423: 3368: 3194: 3127: 2951: 2739: 2524:

At the time, the Qing Empire faced internal disorder, most importantly the large-scale

2204: 2154: 1640: 1554: 1513: 1478: 1040: 988: 873: 53: 5978: 2675:

was responsible for relations with the Mongol and Tibetans in Central Asia, while the

8117: 8112: 8087: 8032: 8027: 7950: 7898: 7803: 7634: 7539: 7437: 7336: 7299: 7224: 7154: 7124: 7078: 6871: 6821: 6801: 6782: 6763: 6742: 6718: 6697: 6676: 6661: 6650: 6629: 6603: 6582: 6563: 6534: 6513: 6494: 6487: 6471: 6450: 6430: 6420: 6401: 6382: 6376: 6361: 6355: 6340: 6321: 6300: 6271: 6252: 6233: 6212: 6191: 6170: 6141: 6112: 6093: 6070: 6069:; Introductory matter by Pamela Kyle Crossley (Great Barrington, MA: Berkshire, 2018 6026: 5963: 5944: 5923: 5902: 5883: 5868: 5816: 5795: 5776: 5770: 5755: 5734: 5715: 5696: 5677: 5656: 5635: 5611: 5592: 5571: 5520: 5399: 5285: 5188: 5161: 4819: 4715: 4688: 4485: 4075: 4041: 3762: 3735: 3708: 3682: 3658: 3531: 3506: 3364: 3298: 3075: 3059: 3043: 2972: 2928: 2905: 2856: 2803: 2581: 2499:, who was on the throne for 61 years. Prince Jia ascended the throne and adopted the 2372: 2303: 2169: 2110: 2048: 1886: 1785: 1762: 1648: 1636: 1391:

Tartars", who "have occupied and are at present ruling China", north of Liaodong and

1353: 1226:

as its effective head from 1861 to 1908. She was a moderate reformer, overseeing the

1204: 1184: 1133: 1101: 801: 369: 349: 124: 6465: 6045: 1768:

Li Zicheng then led a collection of rebel forces numbering some 200,000 to confront

8271: 8154: 8077: 8017: 7823: 7544: 7405: 7351: 7194: 7159: 7063: 6988: 6956: 6851: 6732: 6665: 6156: 5848: 5265: 4786: 4567: 3343: 3154: 3055: 2947: 2943: 2835: 2752: 2621: 2549: 2500: 2475:

is the largest collection of books in Chinese history. Nevertheless, Qianlong used

2455: 2376: 2365: 2138: 2134: 2126: 2106: 2088: 2062: 2040: 1578: 1466: 1434: 1404: 1399:

is the homeland of the Manchus, the designation introduced in 1635 for the Jurchen.

1300: 1196: 1192: 1168: 1137: 1068: 1036: 480: 38: 30: 5962:. Durham & Hong Kong: Duke University Press & Hong Kong University Press. 2575: 2450: 8286: 8232: 8082: 8067: 7891: 7346: 7309: 7259: 7219: 7169: 7114: 6983: 6736: 6617: 6597: 6553: 6528: 6315: 6290: 6227: 6206: 6185: 6160: 6131: 5938: 5917: 5877: 5810: 5749: 5671: 5629: 5586: 4813: 4709: 4682: 4119: 3443: 3411: 3262: 3256: 3167: 3051: 2996: 2791: 2783: 2708: 2633: 2553: 2488: 2412: 2146: 2141:

missionaries, who had first come to China under the Ming. Missionaries including

2092: 1796: 1788:. Together, the two former enemies met and defeated Li Zicheng's rebel forces in 1739: 1670: 1598: 1462: 1454: 1333: 1245: 1231: 1180: 1156: 1113: 1105: 1032: 1016: 6285:

Myers, H. Ramon; Wang, Yeh-Chien (2002). "Economic developments, 1644–1800". In

3102: 3007:, in alliance with Prince Gong, sponsored the rise of younger officials such as 2039:

culture that they adopted from earlier dynasties. Manchu rulers and Han Chinese

1108:, the Qing dynasty conquered most of the territory of the Ming dynasty, chasing 8149: 8022: 7788: 7751: 7199: 7189: 7129: 5113: 3435: 3415: 3403: 3267: 3243: 3150: 3141:

Painting of Empress Dowager Cixi by Dutch American artist Hubert Vos circa 1905

3039: 2932: 2860: 2815: 2807: 2775: 2505: 2496: 2383: 2270: 2254: 2250: 2189: 2158: 2142: 2122: 2017: 2005: 1997: 1963: 1955: 1861: 1731: 1719: 1682: 1629: 1509: 1470: 1384: 1188: 1176: 1121: 1060: 1012: 382: 299: 4737:"Translating through the Cultural Barriers: the Qing Imperial Multilingualism" 1718:, 1759, by Shen Quan (1682–1760). Hanging scroll, ink and colour on silk. The 1379: 8301: 8261: 8227: 8192: 7808: 7798: 7614: 7005: 6855: 6798:

The Last Stand of Chinese Conservatism: The T'ung-Chih Restoration, 1862–1874

6555:

The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One

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The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One

6133:

The Cambridge History of China, Volume 9: The Ch'ing Empire to 1800, Part One

5712:

Empire at the Margins: Culture, Ethnicity, and Frontier in Early Modern China

4489: 3186: 3182: 3174: 2839: 2771: 2700: 2537: 2471:. With a total of over 3,400 books, 79,000 chapters, and 36,304 volumes, the 2345: 2231: 2096: 2036: 2009: 1987: 1850: 1800: 1781: 1528: 1482: 1450: 1296: 1292: 1136:, who proved to be an able reformer. Under the reign of him and his son, the 1125: 1109: 1064: 1020: 996: 172: 139: 5879:

The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic Identity in Late Imperial China

5650: 3027:, as well as a navy; and the purchase from Europeans of armament factories. 3019:; allowing foreign diplomats to reside in the capital; establishment of the 2762: 2323:, the capital of Tibet, and installed a Dalai Lama sympathetic to the Qing. 1523: 1244:

and the country splintered apart, not to be fully reunited until 1928 under

1222:

Despite these issues, the Qing dynasty carried on after the rebellion, with

8281: 7978: 7920: 7609: 7591: 7447: 6917: 6005: 5608:

The Far East: A history of Western impacts and Eastern responses, 1830–1975

5400:"California on the Amur, or the 'Zheltuga Republic' in Manchuria (1883-86)" 4711:

New Qing Imperial History: The Making of Inner Asian Empire at Qing Chengde

4189: 3831:

Bernard Hung-Kay Luk, Amir Harrak-Contacts between cultures, Volume 4, p.25

3462: 3439: 3360: 3283: 3190: 3024: 3016: 3008: 2992: 2864: 2811: 2719:

had long before been granted similar monopoly rights by their governments.

2612: 2278: 2212: 2130: 2056: 2052: 1878: 1865: 1831: 1784:

for himself. Wu and Dorgon allied in the name of avenging the death of the

1773: 1758: 1546: 1489: 1365: 1361: 1308: 1208: 1117: 1089: 1081: 992: 984: 747: 723: 710: 697: 641: 600: 538: 252: 242: 219: 4008: 2938:

In 1856, Qing authorities, in searching for a pirate, boarded a ship, the

1496: 1011:

to "Great Qing" in 1636, sometimes referred to as the Predynastic Qing in

8217: 7938: 7659: 7654: 6530:

The Unending Frontier: An Environmental History of the Early Modern World

4159: 3978: 3407: 3355: 3335: 3319: 3287: 3225: 3221: 3216:

In the wake of these external defeats, the Guangxu Emperor initiated the

3162: 3098: 3071: 3067: 3004: 2995:

led the suppression of rebellions and stood behind the Manchus. When the

2961: 2893: 2885: 2843: 2795: 2660: 2640: 2429: 2047:

offered a path for ethnic Han to become officials. Imperial patronage of

1816: 1617: 1550: 1349: 1288: 1240: 1152: 1049: 1045: 654: 525: 359: 327: 314: 148: 6863: 6162:

The Cambridge History of China, Volume 11: Late Ch'ing 1800–1911, Part 2

5960:

English Lessons: The Pedagogy of Imperialism in Nineteenth-Century China

5568:

Monarchs and Ministers: The Grand Council in Mid-Ch'ing China, 1723–1820

5100:

Revolution and its Past: Identities and Change in Modern Chinese History

3651:"The Tartars in European Missionary Writings of the Seventeenth Century" 3137: 2407: 1711: 7885: 7729: 7679: 7649: 7492: 6398:

Imperial Twilight: The Opium War and the End of China's Last Golden Age

5860: 5832:"The Limits of Tartary: Manchuria in Imperial and National Geographies" 5631:

Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Qing World

5277: 4798: 3553:

Ritual Music in the Court and Rulership of the Qing Dynasty (1644–1911)

3122: 3079: 2889: 2799: 2734: 2727: 2672: 2316: 2287: 2185: 2118: 2075: 1927: 1923: 1754: 1738:. A compromise installed Hong Taiji's five-year-old son, Fulin, as the 1666: 1613: 1517: 1325: 1249: 1104:

to force the Han Chinese to adopt the hairstyle. Under the rule of the

1077: 1000: 406: 195: 6886: 6581:. History of Imperial China. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 3704:

Global Crisis: War, Climate and Catastrophe in the Seventeenth Century

3402:

of the child emperor Puyi. This brought an end to over 2,000 years of

3399: 3386:

A pitched battle between the imperial and revolutionary armies in 1911

3134:, successfully put pressure on the Japanese to abandon the peninsula. 3011:, who put the dynasty back on its feet financially and instituted the 1542: 1539: 1080:

captured the Ming capital Beijing in 1644 and founded the short-lived

7674: 7664: 3450: 3229: 2798:, was severely outclassed by the modern tactics and firepower of the 2704: 2696: 2604: 2517: 2291: 2193: 2173: 1842: 1804: 1769: 1396: 1321: 1085: 5852: 5673:

A Translucent Mirror: History and Identity in Qing Imperial Ideology

5269: 4790: 4736: 4648: 2986: 2227: 1303:

who lived around the region now comprising the Chinese provinces of

1291:, who constitute the majority of the Chinese population, but by the 8159: 7904: 7851: 7793: 7669: 7644: 6489:

The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom: Rebellion and the Blasphemy of Empire

3419: 3178: 2831: 2756: 2565: 2536:

from the country as payment for the opium smuggled into China from

2440: 2436: 2340: 1959: 1906: 1901: 1562: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1199:, which resulted in further "unequal treaties" being signed by the 6548:

Rowe, William T. (2002). "Social stability and social change". In

6208:

What Remains: Coming to Terms with Civil War in 19th Century China

6044: 2703:

in 1756, which restricted maritime trade to that city (modern-day

1742:, with Dorgon as regent and de facto leader of the Manchu nation. 1516:. He died a few months later and was succeeded by his eighth son, 8144: 6467:

The Last Emperors: A Social History of Qing Imperial Institutions

3351: 3308: 2901: 2880: 2879:

with Hong himself as king. Hong announced that he had visions of

2872: 2699:. The Qing response, successful for a time, was to establish the 2444: 2361: 2299: 2283: 2274: 2266: 2221: 2181: 2067: 2025: 1918: 1750: 1723: 1644: 1345: 1317: 1155:, leading to widespread starvation among the Chinese public. The 1024: 1008: 549: 400: 394: 5710:

Crossley, Pamela Kyle; Siu, Helen F.; Sutton, Donald S. (2006).

5308: 2991:

Yet the dynasty rallied. Chinese generals and officials such as

2447:

and parts of southern China while expanding control over Tibet.

2329: 1445: 6741:. Transformation of modern China series. New York: Free Press. 4409: 3338:

relatives. This brought a wide range of negative opinions from

3118: 2909: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2599: 2595: 2561: 2533: 2513: 2484: 2399:

of personal advisors, which eventually grew into the emperor's

2258: 2197: 2177: 2105:), and among Tibetans the Qing emperor was referred to as the " 2021: 2013: 1962:. He was succeeded by his third son Xuanye, who reigned as the 1947: 1856: 1820: 1735: 1704: 1625: 1609: 1601:

to hide their former subservient relationship to the Ming. The

1574: 1411:

to successively bigger captured Ming cities in Liaodong: first

1148: 1093: 6077:). 800 biographical articles on people who died 1644 to 1912. 5380: 5154:

Billé, Franck; Delaplace, Grégory; Humphrey, Caroline (2012).

1757:, a former minor Ming official, who established a short-lived 1348:, the chieftain of a minor Jurchen tribe – the 1039:, the Qing dynasty reached heights of power unlike any of the 7868: 7427: 6693:

China's Response to the West: A Documentary Survey, 1839–1923

6004:(Thesis). University of California, San Diego. Archived from 5542: 5184:

Nomads on Pilgrimage: Mongols on Wutaishan (China), 1800–1940

4421: 4397: 3528:

Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places

3094: 3086: 2692: 2608: 1812: 1426:) using a geographic origin name such as a toponym for their 1392: 1312: 1304: 6126:

Li, Gertraude Roth (2002). "State building before 1644". In

6090:

Ladder to the Clouds: Intrigue and Tradition in Chinese Rank

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The Northern Region of Korea: History, Identity, and Culture

3827: 3825: 2491:(r. 1796–1820), eventually forced Heshen to commit suicide. 2109:" (or "Chinese Emperor") and "the Great Emperor" (or "Great 1497:

given women from the Imperial Aisin Gioro family in marriage

8038:

Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet

7527: 6622:

Tsʻao Yin and the Kʻang-hsi Emperor: Bondservant and Master

5368: 5320: 4227: 3780: 3778: 3323: 2569: 2101: 2029: 1977: 1031:(Xuantong Emperor) abdicated the throne in response to the 1028: 5442: 5356: 3109:, an agreement to withdraw troops simultaneously, but the 3082:

basin, which was however soon crushed by the Qing forces.

2983:. The humiliated emperor died the following year at Rehe. 2650: 2352: 2117:, while among Mongols the Qing monarch was referred to as 6510:

China, 1898–1912 : The Xinzheng Revolution and Japan

4979: 4478:"The End of the Queue: Hair as Symbol in Chinese History" 4188:

The exact figure of Li Zicheng's forces at the battle of

3822: 3502:

The Routledge Encyclopedia of Traditional Chinese Culture

2810:", demanded war reparations, forced China to open up the 2639:

In 1796, open rebellion broke out among followers of the

2286:

to Taiwan in 1661–1662, including the Prince of Ningjing

1295:, descendants of a sedentary farming people known as the 6820:(illustrated ed.). University of California Press. 6357:

China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia

6109:

The politics of language in Chinese education, 1895–1919

5501:"Reformist Emperor Guangxu was Poisoned, Study Confirms" 5430: 5051: 4955: 4457: 3775: 3189:

used the murders as a pretext for a naval occupation of

2859:

in the mid-19th century was the first major instance of

2344:

A sign in Mongolian, Tibetan, Chinese and Manchu at the

1946:), the only instance in Qing history in which a Manchu " 1795:

The newly allied armies captured Beijing on 6 June. The

1175:, which brought the Qing dynasty into conflict with the 5039: 4967: 4881: 4879: 4832: 4387: 4385: 4244: 4242: 2896:

of China against the Qing dynasty, most notably in the

2051:

demonstrated respect for Confucian learning, while the

6779:

Servants of the Dynasty: Palace Women in World History

6249:

Making China Modern: From the Great Qing to Xi Jinping

6061:(2 vol); reprinted: Leiden: Brill, 2010); revised ed: 5899:

Emperor and Ancestor: State and Lineage in South China

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Mair, Victor H.; Chen, Sanping; Wood, Frances (2013).

3731:

The Military Collapse of China's Ming Dynasty, 1618–44

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and the French were defeated on land in Tonkin at the

2971:. Once in Beijing, the Anglo-French forces looted the 1159:

attempted to stamp out corruption, and suppressed the

983:

began in the first half of the 17th century, when the

5480: 4628: 4322: 3145:

These years saw an evolution in the participation of

2689:

newly developing concepts of the international system

2215:, felt they had no choice but to revolt. The ensuing 1938:, who turned out to be a skilled political operator. 1055:

Though he did not officially found the Qing dynasty,

5812:

East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History

5111: 5027: 4991: 4618: 4616: 4433: 4382: 4199: 3598: 2364:, built in the 18th century during the reign of the 2257:. The Kangxi Emperor was able to successfully expel 2043:

elites gradually came to terms with each other. The

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Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory

6602:(illustrated ed.). Columbia University Press. 6025:(4th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. 4128: 3586: 1753:, was sacked by a coalition of rebel forces led by 1344:What was to become the Manchu state was founded by 5344: 5015: 4943: 4757:"The Qing Dynasty and Its Central Asian Neighbors" 4670:Treaty between Tibet and Nepal, 1856 (translation) 3023:; the formation of modernized armies, such as the 1207:broke out in 1850. Led by Christian revolutionary 6690:Têng, Ssu-yü; Fairbank, John King, eds. (1954) . 5916:Graff, David Andrew; Higham, Robin, eds. (2012). 5731:Robert Morrison and the Protestant Plan for China 5709: 5003: 4613: 4601: 4589: 4577: 3758:Chinese Lives: The People Who Made a Civilization 3207:British lease of the New Territories of Hong Kong 2987:Self-strengthening and the frustration of reforms 2683:(1689) stabilized relations with Czarist Russia. 2265:. In 1683, Qing forces received the surrender of 1689: 1573:of the Yuan dynasty after the defeat of the last 8299: 6818:Printing and Book Culture in Late Imperial China 5464:(6th ed. Oxford University Press. 2000), ch. 16. 5255: 4140: 4037:The Qing Dynasty and Traditional Chinese Culture 2556:. It sentenced Europeans to death for spreading 1255: 6762:. Vol. I. University of California Press. 6314:Naquin, Susan; Rawski, Evelyn Sakakida (1987). 3734:(illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 16. 3707:(illustrated ed.). Yale University Press. 3406:and began an extended period of instability of 3278: 2834:to Western trade and missionaries, and to cede 2632:illegally and legally, over the Great Wall and 1183:. The war resulted in a Chinese defeat and the 1116:, and establishing the basis of Qing rule over 7443:Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations 5775:(2nd ed.). New York: Simon and Schuster. 4653:International Journal of Central Asian Studies 4646: 4074:. University of Washington Press. p. 19. 3681:, National Library of Australia, p. 107, 3220:of 1898. Newer, more radical advisers such as 2568:, to be given as slaves to Muslim leaders and 1772:, the general commanding the Ming garrison at 1234:exemplified popular discontent, and led to an 7863:Complete Classics Collection of Ancient China 7834:Imperial Tombs of the Ming and Qing Dynasties 6902: 6251:. Harvard University Press. pp. 21–227. 5808: 4647:Kuzmin, Sergius L.; Dmitriev, Sergey (2015). 4117: 3761:(illustrated ed.). Thames & Hudson. 3616: 3250: 2330:Reigns of the Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors 2074:The second major source of stability was the 1488:There were too few ethnic Manchus to conquer 1215:. The rebellion ultimately became one of the 949: 6689: 6313: 6087: 5326: 4233: 3754: 3498: 3085:In 1884, Qing China obtained concessions in 2731:"consequently there is nothing we lack ..." 1270:Timeline of the Jurchens § 17th century 6800:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 6696:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. 6493:. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 5915: 5591:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 5584: 5548: 5507:. Archived from the original on 2 July 2017 4933: 4917: 4901: 3872: 3856: 3840: 2923:A scene of the Taiping Rebellion, 1850–1864 2871:candidate, in 1851 launched an uprising in 1557:of Inner Mongolia, Manchu nobility and the 1383:An Italian map showing the "Kingdom of the 1311:. The Manchus are sometimes mistaken for a 6909: 6895: 6755: 6731: 6447:Marriage and Inequality in Chinese Society 6229:Eurasian crossroads: a history of Xinjiang 6204: 5792:The Cambridge Illustrated History of China 5605: 5386: 4502: 4463: 4427: 4415: 4403: 4356: 4340: 4101: 3904: 3632: 956: 942: 7523:Royal and noble ranks of the Qing dynasty 6317:Chinese Society in the Eighteenth Century 6284: 6183: 5733:. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. 5606:Clyde, Paul H.; Beers, Burton F. (1975). 4961: 4040:. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 216. 3679:Celestial Empire: Life in China 1644–1911 3246:after capturing Beijing, 28 November 1900 3117:recognized Korean independence and ceded 2659:British Steamship destroying Chinese war 2509:(emperor emeritus) after his abdication. 1639:from 1640 to 1642 for the territories of 7372:Imperial Edict of the Abdication of Puyi 6526: 6507: 6337:Peking: Temples and City Life, 1400–1900 6246: 6225: 6154: 6057:United States Government Printing Office 5747: 5690: 5669: 5648: 5624: 5565: 5448: 5436: 5298: 5239: 5223: 5180: 4885: 4866: 4850: 4811: 4776: 4296: 4264: 4248: 4217: 4021:United States Government Printing Office 3991:United States Government Printing Office 3920: 3812: 3604: 3555:. University of Pittsburgh. p. 136. 3381: 3363:to crush the revolution in Wuhan at the 3307: 3282: 3234: 3136: 3113:of 1895 was a military humiliation. The 3029: 2956: 2946:. In 1858, facing no other options, the 2918: 2761: 2733: 2654: 2574: 2449: 2443:, putting down revolts and uprisings in 2406: 2351: 2339: 2226: 2061: 1991: 1978:Kangxi Emperor's reign and consolidation 1855: 1710: 1699: 1657: 1522: 1473:was forgotten (it had been derived from 1444: 1403:Two years later, Nurhaci announced the " 1378: 1092:to the armies of the Qing regent Prince 7979:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries 6916: 6814: 6710: 6265: 6088:Jackson, Beverly; Hugus, David (1999). 5976: 5875: 5829: 5809:——; Walthall, Anne (2013). 5374: 5207: 5141: 4707: 3676: 2651:Rebellion, unrest and external pressure 2473:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries 2464:Complete Library of the Four Treasuries 1830:This multi-ethnic Qing force conquered 8300: 6795: 6670: 6642: 6616: 6595: 6484: 6463: 6441: 6414: 6353: 6334: 6079:Vol 1 of 1943 edition Internet Archive 6039: 5362: 5314: 5057: 5045: 4997: 4985: 4973: 4949: 4838: 4475: 4391: 4372: 4328: 4312: 4280: 4205: 4003: 3973: 3948: 3796: 3700: 3579: 3577: 3550: 3525: 2738:View of the Canton River, showing the 2707:) and gave monopoly trading rights to 2290:and Prince Zhu Honghuan (朱弘桓), son of 1453:cavalry charging Ming infantry in the 8277:Timeline of late anti-Qing rebellions 7518:Principles of the Constitution (1908) 6890: 6395: 6374: 6187:Forbidden Nation: A History of Taiwan 6106: 5993:from the original on 18 October 2017. 5957: 5896: 5789: 5768: 5728: 5486: 5419: 5350: 5338: 4714:. Taylor & Francis. p. 124. 4476:Godley, Michael R. (September 2011). 4451: 4439: 4033: 3784: 3727: 3592: 3530:. Taylor & Francis. p. 744. 1823:province and executed in early 1662. 1807:and rebels. The last Ming pretender, 1628:. In 1650, Dorgon married the Korean 1320:" for the lands they ruled, that is, 1278:History of foreign relations of China 7498:Ministry of Posts and Communications 6834: 6776: 6576: 6547: 6508:Reynolds, Douglas Robertson (1993). 6419:. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. 6052:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period 5936: 5693:The Wobbling Pivot: China since 1800 5160:. Open Book Publishers. p. 41. 5021: 4818:. Wisdom Publications. p. 185. 4687:. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 278. 4680: 4634: 4550: 4534: 4518: 4016:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period 3986:Eminent Chinese of the Ch'ing Period 3932: 3888: 3505:. Taylor & Francis. p. 57. 3442:happened in 1924. In the 1930s, the 3056:French invasion of Taiwan was halted 2277:, who had conquered Taiwan from the 2129:portrayed the image of himself as a 1287:The Qing dynasty was founded not by 1239:his regency was fiercely contested. 987:was established and became the last 8246:History of Qing (People's Republic) 6579:China's Last Empire: The Great Qing 6020: 5492: 5033: 5009: 4734: 4566:This event was recorded by Italian 4067: 3574: 3565: 3426:to restore the Qing dynasty led by 2308:against Russian Cossacks at Albazin 1608:In the Ming period, the Koreans of 1140:, the Qing military engaged in the 1035:. As the final imperial dynasty in 1023:seized control of the Ming capital 974:History of Qing (People's Republic) 13: 7963:Sacred Edict of the Kangxi Emperor 7332:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1910) 7325:1909 Provincial Assembly elections 7205:Japanese invasion of Taiwan (1874) 7029:Chinese expedition to Tibet (1720) 6781:. University of California Press. 6717:. Harvard University Asia Center. 6675:(3rd ed.). New York: Norton. 6649:(1st ed.). New York: Norton. 6533:. University of California Press. 6470:. University of California Press. 6449:. University of California Press. 6339:. University of California Press. 6125: 6063:Eminent Chinese of the Qing Period 5997: 5815:(3rd ed.). Cengage Learning. 5772:Chinese Civilization: A Sourcebook 5714:. University of California Press. 5676:. University of California Press. 5570:. University of California Press. 5498: 4779:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 4622: 4607: 4595: 4583: 4146: 4134: 3434:. Puyi was allowed to live in the 3393:President of the Republic of China 3093:, but the pro-Japanese Koreans in 2552:, and abrogated in 1870 under the 2319:. Kangxi dispatched two armies to 1553:in Inner Mongolia. In April 1636, 14: 8324: 8252:Imperial hunt of the Qing dynasty 8093:Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1881) 7968:Shamanism during the Qing dynasty 7120:Dogra–Tibetan war (Sino-Sikh war) 6270:(4th ed.). Pearson Longman. 5423:A New Modern History of East Asia 4170:from the original on 27 July 2019 3657:, Leiden: Brill, pp. 82–83, 3021:Imperial Maritime Customs Service 2667:At the start of the dynasty, the 2302:, the far eastern outpost of the 2176:, who was given the provinces of 1845:' descendants who held the title 1811:, sought refuge with the King of 8063:Sino-Portuguese Treaty of Peking 7379:Articles of Favourable Treatment 7135:Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856) 5922:. University Press of Kentucky. 5533: 5467: 5454: 5413: 5392: 5249: 5118:. Carlton & Porter. p. 5102:. Pearson Hall, 2010, pp. 42–43. 4815:Buddhism Between Tibet and China 4570:Martin Martinius in his account 3430:, which was quickly reversed by 2749:growing Chinese demand for opium 2695:and on the islands that are now 2375:(r. 1723–1735) and his son, the 2004:The sixty-one year reign of the 1328:as ruled by the Qing before the 1151:regularly stole tax revenue and 37: 7110:Eight Trigrams uprising of 1813 6996:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 5695:. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell. 5610:(6th ed.). Prentice-Hall. 5174: 5147: 5105: 5092: 5063: 4805: 4770: 4749: 4728: 4701: 4674: 4663: 4640: 4560: 4469: 4182: 4152: 4111: 4061: 4027: 3997: 3967: 3958: 3748: 3721: 3694: 3670: 3642: 3438:after his abdication until the 3367:. After taking the position of 3342:and some senior officials. The 3070:also established a short-lived 2217:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 1984:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 1622:Second Manchu invasion of Korea 1167:rebellions. His successor, the 1130:Revolt of the Three Feudatories 7764:Guest House of Imperial Envoys 7054:Revolt of the Altishahr Khojas 6796:Wright, Mary Clabaugh (1957). 5943:. Cambridge University Press. 5794:. Cambridge University Press. 5748:Di Cosmo, Nicola, ed. (2007). 5729:Daily, Christopher A. (2013). 5634:. Princeton University Press. 5566:Bartlett, Beatrice S. (1991). 4193: 3653:, in Weststeijn, Thijs (ed.), 3559: 3544: 3519: 3492: 3475:Government of the Qing dynasty 3197:" in 1898, which included the 2969:imperial hunting lodge at Rehe 2875:province, and established the 2059:, however, were unsuccessful. 1951: 1943: 1930:fiercely objected to shaving. 1734:and Hong Taiji's half brother 1690:Claiming the Mandate of Heaven 1217:bloodiest conflicts in history 1003:(Emperor Taizong) renamed the 896:Science and technology history 1: 8198:Banknotes of the Da Qing Bank 7973:Islam during the Qing dynasty 7829:Zhao Mausoleum (Qing dynasty) 7513:Provincial military commander 7503:Nine Gates Infantry Commander 7488:Imperial Household Department 7315:Preparative Constitutionalism 7019:Sino-Russian border conflicts 6232:. Columbia University Press. 6211:. Stanford University Press. 5901:. Stanford University Press. 5882:. Stanford University Press. 5112:Robert Samuel Maclay (1861). 4659:: 59–92 – via Academia. 3485: 3193:. The occupation prompted a " 3091:Chinese concession of Incheon 1841:The southern cadet branch of 1503: 1358:Romance of the Three Kingdoms 1256:Formation of the Manchu state 1211:, the rebels established the 266: 225: 201: 178: 154: 95: 7957:Researches on Manchu Origins 7362:Mongolian Revolution of 1911 6972:Transition from Ming to Qing 6962:Later Jin invasion of Joseon 6711:Torbert, Preston M. (1977). 6360:. Harvard University Press. 6184:Manthorpe, Jonathan (2008). 6021:Hsü, Immanuel C. Y. (1990). 5499:Mu, Eric (3 November 2008). 5077:(in Chinese). Archived from 3449:Northeast China and founded 3279:Reform, revolution, collapse 3211:French lease of Guangzhouwan 3199:German lease of Jiaozhou Bay 3105:and Li Hongzhang signed the 2742:in the background, 1850–1855 2454:Lord Macartney saluting the 2095:(along with titles like the 1696:Transition from Ming to Qing 1374:previous Jurchen Jin dynasty 1274:Timeline of the Qing dynasty 1171:, attempted to suppress the 7: 7857:Changzhou School of Thought 7367:1911 Revolution in Xinjiang 7342:Railway Protection Movement 7320:1909 Parliamentary election 7305:British expedition to Tibet 7215:Qing reconquest of Xinjiang 7175:Self-Strengthening Movement 7150:Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856) 6673:The Search for Modern China 6646:The Search for Modern China 6400:. New York: Vintage Books. 6226:Millward, James A. (2007). 6159:; Liu, Kwang-Ching (eds.). 5919:A Military History of China 5588:Bandits in Republican China 5181:Charleux, Isabelle (2015). 3617:Ebrey & Walthall (2013) 3468: 3230:stepped in to call them off 3013:Self-Strengthening Movement 2766:In this political cartoon, 2151:Johann Adam Schall von Bell 2066:Camp of the Manchu army in 1761:. The last Ming ruler, the 1591:Qing Taizu Wu Huangdi Shilu 1282: 981:history of the Qing dynasty 10: 8329: 8313:History of China by period 8257:Legacy of the Qing dynasty 7145:Miao Rebellion (1854–1873) 7084:Miao Rebellion (1795–1806) 7074:Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa 7044:Miao Rebellion (1735–1736) 6738:The Fall of Imperial China 6560:Cambridge University Press 6527:Richards, John F. (2003). 6485:Reilly, Thomas H. (2004). 6396:Platt, Stephen R. (2018). 6375:Platt, Stephen R. (2012). 6297:Cambridge University Press 6205:Meyer-Fong, Tobie (2013). 6167:Cambridge University Press 6138:Cambridge University Press 6065:; Wade–Giles converted to 5585:Billingsley, Phil (1988). 5558: 5327:Têng & Fairbank (1954) 5130:mohammedan slaves to beys. 4812:Kapstein, Matthew (2014). 4234:Naquin & Rawski (1987) 4034:Smith, Richard J. (2015). 3728:Swope, Kenneth M. (2014). 3480:Legacy of the Qing dynasty 3465:, Manchukuo fell in 1945. 3453:in 1932, with Puyi as its 3254: 3251:Boxer Rebellion, 1899-1901 2713:British East India Company 2626:Qing lists of Manchu clans 2333: 2294:, where they lived in the 1981: 1936:Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang 1693: 1419:(Manchu: Mukden) in 1625. 1339: 1259: 1230:. The turn of the century 1063:tribes, consolidating the 1007:established by his father 967: 8267:Names of the Qing dynasty 8210: 8178: 8135: 8128: 7997: 7915:Manchu Han Imperial Feast 7842: 7774: 7695: 7600: 7396: 7287: 7245:Dungan Revolt (1895–1896) 7240:Gongche Shangshu movement 7185:Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) 7097: 7034:Chinese Rites controversy 7004: 6934: 6925: 6417:Imperial China, 1350–1900 6415:Porter, Jonathan (2016). 6354:Perdue, Peter C. (2005). 6320:. Yale University Press. 6107:Kaske, Elisabeth (2008). 5998:Ho, David Dahpon (2011). 5830:Elliott, Mark C. (2000). 5525:: CS1 maint: unfit URL ( 5317:, pp. 112, 114, 116. 4934:Graff & Higham (2012) 4918:Graff & Higham (2012) 4902:Graff & Higham (2012) 3873:Graff & Higham (2012) 3857:Graff & Higham (2012) 3841:Graff & Higham (2012) 3701:Parker, Geoffrey (2013). 3268:Righteous Harmony Society 3203:Russian lease of Liaodong 3064:Treaty of Tientsin (1885) 2709:private Chinese merchants 2607:, where the provinces of 2417:Qing conquest of Xinjiang 2163:Chinese Rites controversy 1603:Veritable Records of Ming 1262:Manchuria under Ming rule 989:imperial dynasty of China 770: 692: 572: 505: 435: 309: 8188:Great Qing Treasure Note 8008:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727) 7718:Administrative divisions 7535:Administrative divisions 7463:Flag of the Qing dynasty 6856:10.1177/0097700405282349 6268:East Asia: A New History 6266:Murphey, Rhoads (2007). 6247:Mühlhahn, Klaus (2019). 6023:The rise of modern China 5958:Hevia, James L. (2003). 5840:Journal of Asian Studies 5769:Ebrey, Patricia (1993). 5462:The Rise of Modern China 5420:Fuchs, Eckhardt (2017). 5387:Clyde & Beers (1975) 4482:China Heritage Quarterly 3677:Woolley, Nathan (2016), 3195:scramble for concessions 2898:Miao Rebellion (1854–73) 2877:Taiping Heavenly Kingdom 2717:Dutch East India Company 2540:, the economy declined. 2425:Treaty of Kyakhta (1727) 2200:provinces respectively. 2113:"), such as in the 1856 1864:driven ship from a Qing 1567:Yuan Dynasty's jade seal 1213:Taiping Heavenly Kingdom 968:Not to be confused with 7784:Chengde Mountain Resort 7585:Three Eastern Provinces 7235:First Sino-Japanese War 7210:Northern Chinese Famine 7069:Lin Shuangwen rebellion 6967:Qing invasion of Joseon 6756:—— (1985). 6671:—— (2012). 6643:—— (1990). 6577:—— (2009). 6464:—— (1998). 5876:—— (2001). 5790:—— (2010). 5691:—— (2010). 5670:—— (2000). 5649:—— (1997). 4164:Encyclopedia Britannica 3526:Watson, Noelle (2012). 3111:First Sino-Japanese War 2914:Dungan Revolt (1862–77) 2579:Commerce on the water, 2521:from Heshen's estates. 2382:After the death of the 1893:Classic of Filial Piety 1236:international coalition 1084:, but the Ming general 8165:Great Qing Copper Coin 8053:Convention of Tientsin 7986:Annotated Bibliography 7934:Qing official headwear 6977:Battle of Shanhai Pass 6596:Sneath, David (2007). 6335:Naquin, Susan (2000). 6190:. St. Martin's Press. 6083:Vol 2 Internet Archive 5977:Hinsley, F.H. (1962). 4708:Dunnell, Ruth (2004). 4684:Tibet Past and Present 4681:Bell, Charles (1992). 4418:, p. 648, n. 183. 4118:梨大史學會 (Korea) (1968). 3649:Dong, Shaoxin (2020), 3387: 3377:Empress Dowager Longyu 3315: 3290: 3247: 3142: 3107:Convention of Tientsin 3035: 2964: 2924: 2849:status quo ante bellum 2787: 2743: 2664: 2590: 2458: 2420: 2368: 2358:Putuo Zongcheng Temple 2349: 2235: 2071: 2001: 1881:in the Chinese style. 1869: 1790:battle on May 27, 1644 1726: 1708: 1673: 1531: 1512:while laying siege to 1458: 1400: 1324:and adjacent parts of 1114:southwestern provinces 8239:Draft History of Qing 8098:Treaty of Shimonoseki 7879:performance criticism 7483:Imperial Commissioner 7473:Great Qing Legal Code 7272:Eight-Nation Alliance 7255:Third plague pandemic 7165:Punti–Hakka Clan Wars 7089:White Lotus Rebellion 6626:Yale University Press 6041:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. 5897:Faure, David (2007). 5626:Crossley, Pamela Kyle 5258:Environmental History 5187:. BRILL. p. 15. 4745:– via Academia. 4124:. 梨大史學會. p. 105. 4068:Kim, Sun Joo (2011). 4005:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. 3975:Hummel, Arthur W. Sr. 3499:Sin-wai Chan (2019). 3385: 3311: 3303:imperial examinations 3286: 3272:Eight-Nation Alliance 3238: 3159:Empress Dowager Ci'an 3140: 3115:Treaty of Shimonoseki 3033: 2981:Convention of Beijing 2960: 2922: 2861:anti-Manchu sentiment 2765: 2737: 2724:Lord George Macartney 2658: 2645:White Lotus Rebellion 2578: 2545:Great Qing Legal Code 2453: 2419:between 1755 and 1758 2411:Campaign against the 2410: 2355: 2343: 2230: 2168:Yet controlling the " 2065: 1995: 1859: 1799:was invested as the " 1716:Pine, Plum and Cranes 1714: 1703: 1661: 1526: 1448: 1395:, published in 1682. 1382: 1352: – in 1260:Further information: 970:Draft History of Qing 761:(mainland, 1912–1949) 8170:Great Qing Gold Coin 8103:Treaty of Tarbagatai 8048:Convention of Peking 7928:Pentaglot Dictionary 7910:Literary inquisition 7620:Ever Victorious Army 7453:Deliberative Council 7357:Xinhai Lhasa turmoil 7310:1905 Batang uprising 7250:Hundred Days' Reform 7140:Small Swords Society 6733:Wakeman Jr, Frederic 6562:. pp. 473–562. 6550:Peterson, Willard J. 6299:. pp. 563–647. 6287:Peterson, Willard J. 6169:. pp. 202–273. 6128:Peterson, Willard J. 5460:Immanuel C. Y. Hsü, 4735:Golikov, Alexander. 3418:", and tried to use 3408:warlord factionalism 3328:Zaifeng, Prince Chun 3326:, the oldest son of 3313:Zaifeng, Prince Chun 3295:Empress Dowager Cixi 3242:assemble inside the 3218:Hundred Days' Reform 3147:Empress Dowager Cixi 3048:Cochinchina Campaign 2806:, the first of the " 2477:Literary Inquisition 2348:monastery in Beijing 2115:Treaty of Thapathali 1776:, a key pass of the 1549:by Ming dynasty and 1469:, after the earlier 1372:in reference to the 1330:Ming-Qing transition 1224:Empress Dowager Cixi 1173:opium trade in China 8223:Anti-Qing sentiment 8073:Treaty of the Bogue 8013:Treaty of Nerchinsk 7945:Complete Tang Poems 7625:Green Standard Army 7508:Provincial governor 7478:Imperial Clan Court 7458:Diplomatic missions 7433:Consultative Bureau 7180:Tongzhi Restoration 7059:Afaqi Khoja revolts 7039:Ten Great Campaigns 6947:Jurchen unification 6835:Zhao, Gang (2006). 6618:Spence, Jonathan D. 6381:. Alfred A. Knopf. 6092:. Ten Speed Press. 5937:Hang, Xing (2016). 5389:, pp. 193–194. 5377:, pp. 437–463. 5365:, pp. 196–221. 5098:Schoppa, R. Keith. 4988:, pp. 97, 101. 4430:, pp. 651–680. 4406:, pp. 646–650. 3787:, pp. 220–224. 3132:Triple Intervention 3078:(1883–1886) in the 3001:Tongzhi Restoration 2681:Treaty of Nerchinsk 2641:White Lotus Society 2336:Ten Great Campaigns 2312:Treaty of Nerchinsk 2296:Kingdom of Tungning 2240:Green Standard Army 2234:of the 17th century 2131:Buddhist sage ruler 1972:Green Standard Army 1948:prince of the blood 1266:Jurchen unification 1228:Tongzhi Restoration 1142:Ten Great Campaigns 1098:defeated the rebels 8108:Treaty of Tientsin 7819:Western Qing tombs 7814:Eastern Qing tombs 7640:Peking Field Force 7384:Manchu Restoration 7277:Declaration of war 7230:Jindandao incident 7049:Lhasa riot of 1750 5549:Billingsley (1988) 5060:, pp. 83, 86. 3570:. 京華書局. p. 5. 3388: 3340:constitutionalists 3316: 3291: 3248: 3143: 3128:Liaodong Peninsula 3036: 2965: 2962:Yixin, Prince Gong 2952:Treaty of Tientsin 2925: 2916:in the northwest. 2800:British Royal Navy 2788: 2786:are dividing China 2744: 2740:Thirteen Factories 2665: 2663:(E. Duncan) (1843) 2591: 2459: 2421: 2371:The reigns of the 2369: 2350: 2236: 2155:Ferdinand Verbiest 2072: 2045:examination system 2002: 1870: 1747:peasant rebellions 1727: 1709: 1674: 1532: 1459: 1401: 1201:Chinese government 776: 586:Five Dynasties and 578: 513:Southern dynasties 441: 340:Chu–Han Contention 8295: 8294: 8206: 8205: 8118:Treaty of Whampoa 8113:Treaty of Wanghia 8088:Treaty of Nanking 8058:Li–Lobanov Treaty 8033:Chefoo Convention 8028:Burlingame Treaty 7899:Kangxi Dictionary 7804:Old Summer Palace 7635:Firearm Battalion 7438:Cup of Solid Gold 7392: 7391: 7337:Manchurian plague 7300:Late Qing reforms 7291:(1901–1912) 7225:Sikkim expedition 7155:Panthay Rebellion 7125:Taiping Rebellion 7101:(1801–1900) 7079:Sino-Nepalese War 7024:Dzungar–Qing Wars 7010:(1683–1799) 6938:(1616–1683) 6807:978-0-804-70475-5 6788:978-0-520-25444-2 6769:978-0-520-04804-1 6748:978-0-02-933680-9 6724:978-0-674-12761-6 6703:978-0-674-12025-9 6682:978-0-393-93451-9 6656:978-0-393-30780-1 6635:978-0-300-04278-8 6609:978-0-231-51167-4 6588:978-0-674-03612-3 6569:978-0-521-24334-6 6540:978-0-520-23075-0 6519:978-0-674-11660-3 6477:978-0-520-21289-3 6456:978-0-520-06930-5 6443:Rawski, Evelyn S. 6426:978-1-442-22293-9 6388:978-0-307-27173-0 6367:978-0-674-01684-2 6346:978-0-520-21991-5 6327:978-0-300-04602-1 6306:978-0-521-24334-6 6277:978-0-321-42141-8 6258:978-0-674-73735-8 6239:978-0-231-13924-3 6218:978-0-804-78559-4 6197:978-0-230-61424-6 6176:978-0-521-22029-3 6157:Fairbank, John K. 6147:978-0-521-24334-6 6140:. pp. 9–72. 6118:978-90-04-16367-6 6111:. Leiden: BRILL. 6099:978-1-580-08020-0 6032:978-0-19-505867-3 5950:978-1-316-45384-1 5929:978-0-8131-3584-7 5908:978-0-8047-5318-0 5889:978-0-8047-4684-7 5822:978-1-285-52867-0 5801:978-0-521-12433-1 5782:978-0-02-908752-7 5761:978-1-135-78955-8 5721:978-0-520-23015-6 5702:978-1-4051-6079-7 5683:978-0-520-92884-8 5662:978-1-55786-560-1 5617:978-0-881-33612-2 5598:978-0-804-71406-8 5577:978-0-520-06591-8 5551:, pp. 56–59. 5451:, pp. 35–36. 5167:978-1-906924-87-4 5081:on 5 January 2009 5048:, pp. 80–83. 5036:, pp. 35–37. 4976:, pp. 62–66. 4841:, pp. 48–51. 4637:, pp. 32–33. 4572:Bellum Tartaricum 4503:Meyer-Fong (2013) 4464:Wakeman Jr (1977) 4428:Wakeman Jr (1985) 4416:Wakeman Jr (1985) 4404:Wakeman Jr (1985) 4357:Wakeman Jr (1985) 4341:Wakeman Jr (1985) 4137:, pp. 60–62. 4102:Wakeman Jr (1985) 3905:Wakeman Jr (1977) 3633:Wakeman Jr (1985) 3432:republican troops 3365:Battle of Yangxia 3348:Republic of China 3299:Late Qing reforms 3179:Shandong province 3076:Zheltuga Republic 3060:Battle of Bang Bo 3044:Tientsin Massacre 2973:Old Summer Palace 2906:Panthay Rebellion 2857:Taiping Rebellion 2804:Treaty of Nanjing 2726:in order to open 2582:Prosperous Suzhou 2373:Yongzheng Emperor 2304:Tsardom of Russia 2184:, while generals 2170:Mandate of Heaven 2111:Emperor Manjushri 2049:Kangxi Dictionary 1868:published in 1726 1786:Chongzhen Emperor 1763:Chongzhen Emperor 1663:Sura han ni chiha 1649:Chongzhen Emperor 1637:series of battles 1205:Taiping Rebellion 1185:Treaty of Nanjing 1134:Yongzheng Emperor 1110:loyalist remnants 1041:Chinese dynasties 995:(1368–1644). The 991:, succeeding the 966: 965: 923:Transport history 849:Education history 821: 820: 816: 815: 802:Republic of China 784:People's Republic 757:Republic of China 736: 735: 685: 684: 680: 679: 565: 564: 498: 497: 493: 492: 429: 428: 332:(206 BC – 220 AD) 262:Spring and Autumn 125:Liao civilization 8320: 8272:New Qing History 8155:Qianlong Tongbao 8133: 8132: 8078:Treaty of Canton 8018:Unequal treaties 7824:Fuling Mausoleum 7423:Advisory Council 7352:Wuchang Uprising 7292: 7195:Tianjin Massacre 7160:Second Opium War 7102: 7064:Sino-Burmese War 7011: 6989:Battle of Penghu 6957:Seven Grievances 6939: 6932: 6931: 6911: 6904: 6897: 6888: 6887: 6882: 6880: 6874:. Archived from 6841: 6831: 6811: 6792: 6773: 6752: 6728: 6707: 6686: 6666:Internet Archive 6660: 6639: 6613: 6592: 6573: 6544: 6523: 6504: 6492: 6481: 6460: 6438: 6411: 6392: 6371: 6350: 6331: 6310: 6281: 6262: 6243: 6222: 6201: 6180: 6151: 6122: 6103: 6060: 6048: 6036: 6017: 6015: 6013: 5994: 5992: 5985: 5973: 5954: 5933: 5912: 5893: 5872: 5836: 5826: 5805: 5786: 5765: 5744: 5725: 5706: 5687: 5666: 5645: 5621: 5602: 5581: 5552: 5546: 5540: 5537: 5531: 5530: 5524: 5516: 5514: 5512: 5496: 5490: 5484: 5478: 5471: 5465: 5458: 5452: 5446: 5440: 5434: 5428: 5427: 5417: 5411: 5410: 5408: 5406: 5396: 5390: 5384: 5378: 5372: 5366: 5360: 5354: 5348: 5342: 5336: 5330: 5324: 5318: 5312: 5306: 5296: 5290: 5289: 5253: 5247: 5237: 5231: 5221: 5215: 5205: 5199: 5198: 5178: 5172: 5171: 5151: 5145: 5139: 5133: 5132: 5127: 5126: 5109: 5103: 5096: 5090: 5089: 5087: 5086: 5071:"康乾盛世"的文化專制與文字獄" 5067: 5061: 5055: 5049: 5043: 5037: 5031: 5025: 5019: 5013: 5007: 5001: 4995: 4989: 4983: 4977: 4971: 4965: 4962:Manthorpe (2008) 4959: 4953: 4947: 4941: 4931: 4925: 4915: 4909: 4899: 4893: 4883: 4874: 4864: 4858: 4848: 4842: 4836: 4830: 4829: 4809: 4803: 4802: 4774: 4768: 4767: 4765: 4763: 4753: 4747: 4746: 4744: 4743: 4732: 4726: 4725: 4705: 4699: 4698: 4678: 4672: 4667: 4661: 4660: 4644: 4638: 4632: 4626: 4620: 4611: 4605: 4599: 4593: 4587: 4581: 4575: 4564: 4558: 4548: 4542: 4532: 4526: 4516: 4510: 4500: 4494: 4493: 4473: 4467: 4461: 4455: 4449: 4443: 4437: 4431: 4425: 4419: 4413: 4407: 4401: 4395: 4389: 4380: 4370: 4364: 4354: 4348: 4338: 4332: 4326: 4320: 4310: 4304: 4294: 4288: 4278: 4272: 4262: 4256: 4246: 4237: 4231: 4225: 4215: 4209: 4203: 4197: 4196:), cite 200,000. 4195: 4186: 4180: 4179: 4177: 4175: 4156: 4150: 4144: 4138: 4132: 4126: 4125: 4115: 4109: 4099: 4093: 4092: 4090: 4088: 4065: 4059: 4058: 4056: 4054: 4031: 4025: 4024: 4012: 4001: 3995: 3994: 3982: 3971: 3965: 3962: 3956: 3946: 3940: 3930: 3924: 3918: 3912: 3902: 3896: 3886: 3880: 3870: 3864: 3854: 3848: 3838: 3832: 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articles 809: 791: 773: 772: 768: 767: 762: 729: 716: 703: 690: 689: 673: 660: 647: 628: 618: 606: 593: 575: 574: 570: 569: 554: 544: 531: 518: 503: 502: 486: 481:Sixteen Kingdoms 464: 454: 438: 437: 433: 432: 422: 388: 375: 365: 355: 345: 333: 320: 307: 306: 285: 277: 275: 271: 268: 258: 248: 236: 234: 230: 227: 212: 210: 206: 203: 189: 187: 183: 180: 165: 163: 159: 156: 106: 104: 100: 97: 41: 31:History of China 18: 17: 8328: 8327: 8323: 8322: 8321: 8319: 8318: 8317: 8298: 8297: 8296: 8291: 8287:Willow Palisade 8233:Chuang Guandong 8202: 8174: 8124: 8083:Treaty of Kulja 8068:Treaty of Aigun 8001: 7993: 7892:History of Ming 7844: 7838: 7776: 7770: 7696:Special regions 7691: 7630:Imperial Guards 7596: 7388: 7347:1911 Revolution 7293: 7290: 7283: 7260:Boxer Rebellion 7220:Sino-French War 7170:Amur Annexation 7115:First Opium War 7103: 7100: 7093: 7012: 7009: 7000: 6984:Great Clearance 6940: 6937: 6921: 6915: 6885: 6878: 6839: 6828: 6808: 6789: 6770: 6749: 6725: 6704: 6683: 6657: 6636: 6610: 6589: 6570: 6541: 6520: 6501: 6478: 6457: 6427: 6408: 6389: 6368: 6347: 6328: 6307: 6278: 6259: 6240: 6219: 6198: 6177: 6148: 6119: 6100: 6033: 6011: 6009: 6008:on 29 June 2016 5990: 5983: 5970: 5951: 5930: 5909: 5890: 5853:10.2307/2658945 5834: 5823: 5802: 5783: 5762: 5741: 5722: 5703: 5684: 5663: 5642: 5618: 5599: 5578: 5561: 5556: 5555: 5547: 5543: 5538: 5534: 5518: 5517: 5510: 5508: 5497: 5493: 5485: 5481: 5473:Diana Preston, 5472: 5468: 5459: 5455: 5449:Reynolds (1993) 5447: 5443: 5437:Crossley (2010) 5435: 5431: 5418: 5414: 5404: 5402: 5398: 5397: 5393: 5385: 5381: 5373: 5369: 5361: 5357: 5349: 5345: 5341:, p. xxii. 5337: 5333: 5325: 5321: 5313: 5309: 5299:Richards (2003) 5297: 5293: 5270:10.2307/3985584 5254: 5250: 5240:Crossley (2000) 5238: 5234: 5224:Crossley (2000) 5222: 5218: 5206: 5202: 5195: 5179: 5175: 5168: 5152: 5148: 5140: 5136: 5124: 5122: 5110: 5106: 5097: 5093: 5084: 5082: 5069: 5068: 5064: 5056: 5052: 5044: 5040: 5032: 5028: 5020: 5016: 5008: 5004: 4996: 4992: 4984: 4980: 4972: 4968: 4960: 4956: 4948: 4944: 4932: 4928: 4916: 4912: 4900: 4896: 4886:Di Cosmo (2007) 4884: 4877: 4867:Di Cosmo (2007) 4865: 4861: 4851:Di Cosmo (2007) 4849: 4845: 4837: 4833: 4826: 4810: 4806: 4791:10.2307/2718931 4775: 4771: 4761: 4759: 4755: 4754: 4750: 4741: 4739: 4733: 4729: 4722: 4706: 4702: 4695: 4679: 4675: 4668: 4664: 4645: 4641: 4633: 4629: 4621: 4614: 4606: 4602: 4594: 4590: 4582: 4578: 4565: 4561: 4549: 4545: 4533: 4529: 4517: 4513: 4501: 4497: 4474: 4470: 4462: 4458: 4450: 4446: 4438: 4434: 4426: 4422: 4414: 4410: 4402: 4398: 4390: 4383: 4371: 4367: 4355: 4351: 4339: 4335: 4327: 4323: 4311: 4307: 4297:Di Cosmo (2007) 4295: 4291: 4279: 4275: 4265:Di Cosmo (2007) 4263: 4259: 4249:Di Cosmo (2007) 4247: 4240: 4232: 4228: 4218:Di Cosmo (2007) 4216: 4212: 4204: 4200: 4187: 4183: 4173: 4171: 4158: 4157: 4153: 4145: 4141: 4133: 4129: 4116: 4112: 4100: 4096: 4086: 4084: 4082: 4066: 4062: 4052: 4050: 4048: 4032: 4028: 4010:"Nurhaci" 4002: 3998: 3972: 3968: 3963: 3959: 3947: 3943: 3931: 3927: 3921:Crossley (2010) 3919: 3915: 3903: 3899: 3887: 3883: 3871: 3867: 3855: 3851: 3839: 3835: 3830: 3823: 3813:Crossley (1991) 3811: 3807: 3795: 3791: 3783: 3776: 3769: 3753: 3749: 3742: 3726: 3722: 3715: 3699: 3695: 3689: 3675: 3671: 3665: 3648: 3647: 3643: 3631: 3627: 3615: 3611: 3605:Crossley (1997) 3603: 3599: 3591: 3587: 3582: 3575: 3564: 3560: 3551:Ben Wu (1998). 3549: 3545: 3538: 3524: 3520: 3513: 3497: 3493: 3488: 3471: 3444:Empire of Japan 3412:Chinese culture 3373:his own cabinet 3281: 3263:Boxer Rebellion 3259: 3257:Boxer Rebellion 3253: 3168:Guangxu Emperor 3052:Sino-French War 2997:Tongzhi Emperor 2989: 2933:Nian Rebellions 2908:(1856–1873) in 2792:First Opium War 2653: 2634:Willow Palisade 2554:Tongzhi Emperor 2489:Jiaqing Emperor 2338: 2332: 2147:Martino Martini 1990: 1980: 1879:bind their feet 1797:Shunzhi Emperor 1740:Shunzhi Emperor 1698: 1692: 1671:Manchu alphabet 1599:History of Ming 1585:again in 1636. 1555:Mongol nobility 1506: 1455:battle of Sarhu 1435:Khorchin Mongol 1342: 1334:Chinese Tartary 1301:Tungusic people 1285: 1280: 1258: 1246:Chiang Kai-shek 1232:Boxer Rebellion 1181:First Opium War 1157:Jiaqing Emperor 1106:Shunzhi Emperor 1037:Chinese history 1033:1911 Revolution 1017:Shunzhi Emperor 977: 962: 933: 932: 928:Women's history 834: 833: 824: 823: 822: 817: 812: 807: 805: 794: 789: 785: 765: 760: 751: 750: 739: 738: 737: 732: 727: 719: 714: 706: 701: 687: 686: 681: 676: 671: 663: 658: 650: 645: 637: 631: 626: 616: 604: 596: 591: 587: 567: 566: 561: 552: 542: 534: 529: 521: 516: 512: 500: 499: 494: 489: 484: 476: 473: 467: 462: 452: 430: 425: 420: 412: 386: 378: 373: 363: 354:(202 BC – 9 AD) 353: 343: 331: 323: 318: 303: 302: 291: 290: 283: 273: 269: 264: 256: 246: 232: 228: 223: 215: 208: 204: 199: 185: 181: 176: 168: 161: 157: 152: 143: 142: 131: 130: 102: 98: 93: 85: 74: 73: 12: 11: 5: 8326: 8316: 8315: 8310: 8293: 8292: 8290: 8289: 8284: 8279: 8274: 8269: 8264: 8259: 8254: 8249: 8242: 8235: 8230: 8225: 8220: 8214: 8212: 8208: 8207: 8204: 8203: 8201: 8200: 8195: 8190: 8184: 8182: 8176: 8175: 8173: 8172: 8167: 8162: 8157: 8152: 8150:Kangxi Tongbao 8147: 8141: 8139: 8130: 8126: 8125: 8123: 8122: 8121: 8120: 8115: 8110: 8105: 8100: 8095: 8090: 8085: 8080: 8075: 8070: 8065: 8060: 8055: 8050: 8045: 8040: 8035: 8030: 8025: 8023:Boxer Protocol 8015: 8010: 8004: 8002: 7995: 7994: 7992: 7991: 7990: 7989: 7975: 7970: 7965: 7960: 7953: 7948: 7941: 7936: 7931: 7924: 7917: 7912: 7907: 7902: 7895: 7888: 7883: 7882: 7881: 7871: 7866: 7859: 7854: 7848: 7846: 7840: 7839: 7837: 7836: 7831: 7826: 7821: 7816: 7811: 7806: 7801: 7796: 7791: 7789:Forbidden City 7786: 7780: 7778: 7772: 7771: 7769: 7768: 7767: 7766: 7756: 7755: 7754: 7752:General of Ili 7749: 7739: 7738: 7737: 7735:List of ambans 7732: 7722: 7721: 7720: 7710: 7705: 7699: 7697: 7693: 7692: 7690: 7689: 7684: 7683: 7682: 7677: 7672: 7662: 7657: 7652: 7647: 7642: 7637: 7632: 7627: 7622: 7617: 7612: 7606: 7604: 7598: 7597: 7595: 7594: 7589: 7588: 7587: 7582: 7577: 7572: 7567: 7562: 7557: 7552: 7547: 7537: 7532: 7531: 7530: 7520: 7515: 7510: 7505: 7500: 7495: 7490: 7485: 7480: 7475: 7470: 7465: 7460: 7455: 7450: 7445: 7440: 7435: 7430: 7425: 7420: 7419: 7418: 7413: 7402: 7400: 7394: 7393: 7390: 7389: 7387: 7386: 7381: 7376: 7375: 7374: 7369: 7364: 7359: 7354: 7344: 7339: 7334: 7329: 7328: 7327: 7322: 7312: 7307: 7302: 7296: 7294: 7289: 7285: 7284: 7282: 7281: 7280: 7279: 7269: 7268: 7267: 7257: 7252: 7247: 7242: 7237: 7232: 7227: 7222: 7217: 7212: 7207: 7202: 7200:Margary Affair 7197: 7192: 7190:Mudan incident 7187: 7182: 7177: 7172: 7167: 7162: 7157: 7152: 7147: 7142: 7137: 7132: 7130:Nian Rebellion 7127: 7122: 7117: 7112: 7106: 7104: 7099: 7095: 7094: 7092: 7091: 7086: 7081: 7076: 7071: 7066: 7061: 7056: 7051: 7046: 7041: 7036: 7031: 7026: 7021: 7015: 7013: 7008: 7002: 7001: 6999: 6998: 6993: 6992: 6991: 6981: 6980: 6979: 6969: 6964: 6959: 6954: 6949: 6943: 6941: 6936: 6929: 6923: 6922: 6914: 6913: 6906: 6899: 6891: 6884: 6883: 6881:on 2014-03-25. 6832: 6826: 6812: 6806: 6793: 6787: 6774: 6768: 6753: 6747: 6729: 6723: 6708: 6702: 6687: 6681: 6668: 6655: 6640: 6634: 6614: 6608: 6593: 6587: 6574: 6568: 6545: 6539: 6524: 6518: 6505: 6499: 6482: 6476: 6461: 6455: 6439: 6425: 6412: 6406: 6393: 6387: 6372: 6366: 6351: 6345: 6332: 6326: 6311: 6305: 6282: 6276: 6263: 6257: 6244: 6238: 6223: 6217: 6202: 6196: 6181: 6175: 6152: 6146: 6123: 6117: 6104: 6098: 6085: 6043:, ed. (1943). 6037: 6031: 6018: 5995: 5974: 5968: 5955: 5949: 5934: 5928: 5913: 5907: 5894: 5888: 5873: 5847:(3): 603–646. 5827: 5821: 5806: 5800: 5787: 5781: 5766: 5760: 5745: 5739: 5726: 5720: 5707: 5701: 5688: 5682: 5667: 5661: 5646: 5640: 5622: 5616: 5603: 5597: 5582: 5576: 5562: 5560: 5557: 5554: 5553: 5541: 5532: 5491: 5489:, p. 235. 5479: 5466: 5453: 5441: 5439:, p. 117. 5429: 5412: 5391: 5379: 5375:Hinsley (1962) 5367: 5355: 5343: 5331: 5319: 5307: 5291: 5264:(4): 503–509. 5248: 5232: 5216: 5208:Elliott (2001) 5200: 5194:978-9004297784 5193: 5173: 5166: 5146: 5144:, p. 617. 5142:Elliott (2000) 5134: 5104: 5091: 5062: 5050: 5038: 5026: 5014: 5002: 4990: 4978: 4966: 4964:, p. 108. 4954: 4942: 4926: 4910: 4894: 4875: 4859: 4843: 4831: 4824: 4804: 4769: 4748: 4727: 4720: 4700: 4693: 4673: 4662: 4639: 4627: 4625:, p. 307. 4612: 4610:, p. 206. 4600: 4598:, p. 198. 4588: 4586:, p. 135. 4576: 4559: 4543: 4527: 4511: 4495: 4468: 4456: 4444: 4442:, p. 164. 4432: 4420: 4408: 4396: 4381: 4365: 4349: 4333: 4331:, p. 4–5. 4321: 4305: 4289: 4273: 4257: 4238: 4236:, p. 141. 4226: 4210: 4198: 4181: 4151: 4139: 4127: 4121:梨大史苑, Volume 7 4110: 4094: 4081:978-0295802176 4080: 4060: 4047:978-1442221949 4046: 4026: 4007:, ed. (1943). 3996: 3980:"Abahai" 3977:, ed. (1943). 3966: 3957: 3941: 3925: 3913: 3897: 3881: 3865: 3849: 3833: 3821: 3805: 3789: 3774: 3768:978-0500771471 3767: 3747: 3741:978-1134462094 3740: 3720: 3714:978-0300189193 3713: 3693: 3687: 3669: 3663: 3641: 3625: 3609: 3597: 3595:, p. 220. 3585: 3573: 3558: 3543: 3536: 3518: 3511: 3490: 3489: 3487: 3484: 3483: 3482: 3477: 3470: 3467: 3436:Forbidden city 3416:Royalist Party 3404:Imperial China 3369:Prime Minister 3280: 3277: 3255:Main article: 3252: 3249: 3244:Forbidden City 3240:Foreign armies 3089:, such as the 3040:Russian Empire 2988: 2985: 2950:agreed to the 2669:Chinese empire 2652: 2649: 2506:Taishang Huang 2497:Kangxi Emperor 2384:Kangxi Emperor 2331: 2328: 2273:, grandson of 2271:Zheng Keshuang 2269:(Taiwan) from 2255:Outer Mongolia 2190:Geng Jingzhong 2159:Antoine Thomas 2133:, a patron of 2123:Chinese khagan 2006:Kangxi Emperor 2000:(r. 1662–1722) 1998:Kangxi Emperor 1979: 1976: 1964:Kangxi Emperor 1691: 1688: 1683:Hong Chengchou 1630:Princess Uisun 1510:Yuan Chonghuan 1505: 1502: 1471:Jurchen script 1415:in 1621, then 1341: 1338: 1284: 1281: 1257: 1254: 1191:" which ceded 1189:unequal treaty 1122:Kangxi Emperor 1074:peasant rebels 1015:. By 1644 the 1013:historiography 964: 963: 961: 960: 953: 946: 938: 935: 934: 931: 930: 925: 920: 919: 918: 913: 908: 903: 893: 888: 883: 882: 881: 871: 866: 861: 859:Jewish history 856: 851: 846: 841: 835: 831: 830: 829: 826: 825: 819: 818: 814: 813: 811: 810: 797: 795: 793: 792: 790:(1949–present) 779: 777: 771: 764: 763: 752: 746: 745: 744: 741: 740: 734: 733: 731: 730: 718: 717: 705: 704: 693: 683: 682: 678: 677: 675: 674: 664: 661: 651: 648: 638: 634: 632: 630: 629: 619: 608: 607: 595: 594: 581: 579: 573: 563: 562: 560: 559: 558: 557: 556: 555: 533: 532: 520: 519: 506: 496: 495: 491: 490: 488: 487: 477: 474: 470: 468: 466: 465: 455: 444: 442: 436: 427: 426: 424: 423: 411: 410: 390: 389: 383:Three Kingdoms 377: 376: 366: 356: 346: 335: 334: 322: 321: 310: 304: 298: 297: 296: 293: 292: 289: 288: 287: 286: 281:Warring States 278: 249: 238: 237: 214: 213: 191: 190: 186: 1046 BC 167: 166: 162: 1600 BC 144: 138: 137: 136: 133: 132: 129: 128: 108: 107: 103: 2000 BC 84: 83: 75: 69: 68: 67: 64: 63: 62: 61: 59:Historiography 56: 51: 43: 42: 34: 33: 27: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8325: 8314: 8311: 8309: 8306: 8305: 8303: 8288: 8285: 8283: 8280: 8278: 8275: 8273: 8270: 8268: 8265: 8263: 8262:Manchu people 8260: 8258: 8255: 8253: 8250: 8248: 8247: 8243: 8241: 8240: 8236: 8234: 8231: 8229: 8228:Canton System 8226: 8224: 8221: 8219: 8216: 8215: 8213: 8209: 8199: 8196: 8194: 8193:Hubu Guanpiao 8191: 8189: 8186: 8185: 8183: 8181: 8177: 8171: 8168: 8166: 8163: 8161: 8158: 8156: 8153: 8151: 8148: 8146: 8143: 8142: 8140: 8138: 8134: 8131: 8127: 8119: 8116: 8114: 8111: 8109: 8106: 8104: 8101: 8099: 8096: 8094: 8091: 8089: 8086: 8084: 8081: 8079: 8076: 8074: 8071: 8069: 8066: 8064: 8061: 8059: 8056: 8054: 8051: 8049: 8046: 8044: 8041: 8039: 8036: 8034: 8031: 8029: 8026: 8024: 8021: 8020: 8019: 8016: 8014: 8011: 8009: 8006: 8005: 8003: 8000: 7996: 7988: 7987: 7983: 7982: 7981: 7980: 7976: 7974: 7971: 7969: 7966: 7964: 7961: 7959: 7958: 7954: 7952: 7949: 7947: 7946: 7942: 7940: 7937: 7935: 7932: 7930: 7929: 7925: 7923: 7922: 7918: 7916: 7913: 7911: 7908: 7906: 7903: 7901: 7900: 7896: 7894: 7893: 7889: 7887: 7884: 7880: 7877: 7876: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7864: 7860: 7858: 7855: 7853: 7850: 7849: 7847: 7843:Society & 7841: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7820: 7817: 7815: 7812: 7810: 7809:Summer Palace 7807: 7805: 7802: 7800: 7799:Mukden Palace 7797: 7795: 7792: 7790: 7787: 7785: 7782: 7781: 7779: 7775:Palaces & 7773: 7765: 7762: 7761: 7760: 7757: 7753: 7750: 7748: 7745: 7744: 7743: 7740: 7736: 7733: 7731: 7728: 7727: 7726: 7723: 7719: 7716: 7715: 7714: 7711: 7709: 7706: 7704: 7701: 7700: 7698: 7694: 7688: 7685: 7681: 7678: 7676: 7673: 7671: 7668: 7667: 7666: 7663: 7661: 7658: 7656: 7653: 7651: 7648: 7646: 7643: 7641: 7638: 7636: 7633: 7631: 7628: 7626: 7623: 7621: 7618: 7616: 7615:Eight Banners 7613: 7611: 7608: 7607: 7605: 7603: 7599: 7593: 7590: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7578: 7576: 7573: 7571: 7568: 7566: 7563: 7561: 7558: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7548: 7546: 7543: 7542: 7541: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7529: 7526: 7525: 7524: 7521: 7519: 7516: 7514: 7511: 7509: 7506: 7504: 7501: 7499: 7496: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7486: 7484: 7481: 7479: 7476: 7474: 7471: 7469: 7468:Grand Council 7466: 7464: 7461: 7459: 7456: 7454: 7451: 7449: 7446: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7426: 7424: 7421: 7417: 7414: 7412: 7409: 7408: 7407: 7404: 7403: 7401: 7399: 7395: 7385: 7382: 7380: 7377: 7373: 7370: 7368: 7365: 7363: 7360: 7358: 7355: 7353: 7350: 7349: 7348: 7345: 7343: 7340: 7338: 7335: 7333: 7330: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7317: 7316: 7313: 7311: 7308: 7306: 7303: 7301: 7298: 7297: 7295: 7288:20th century 7286: 7278: 7275: 7274: 7273: 7270: 7266: 7263: 7262: 7261: 7258: 7256: 7253: 7251: 7248: 7246: 7243: 7241: 7238: 7236: 7233: 7231: 7228: 7226: 7223: 7221: 7218: 7216: 7213: 7211: 7208: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7196: 7193: 7191: 7188: 7186: 7183: 7181: 7178: 7176: 7173: 7171: 7168: 7166: 7163: 7161: 7158: 7156: 7153: 7151: 7148: 7146: 7143: 7141: 7138: 7136: 7133: 7131: 7128: 7126: 7123: 7121: 7118: 7116: 7113: 7111: 7108: 7107: 7105: 7098:19th century 7096: 7090: 7087: 7085: 7082: 7080: 7077: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7067: 7065: 7062: 7060: 7057: 7055: 7052: 7050: 7047: 7045: 7042: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7025: 7022: 7020: 7017: 7016: 7014: 7007: 7003: 6997: 6994: 6990: 6987: 6986: 6985: 6982: 6978: 6975: 6974: 6973: 6970: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6960: 6958: 6955: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6945: 6944: 6942: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6924: 6919: 6912: 6907: 6905: 6900: 6898: 6893: 6892: 6889: 6877: 6873: 6869: 6865: 6861: 6857: 6853: 6849: 6845: 6838: 6833: 6829: 6827:0-520-23126-0 6823: 6819: 6813: 6809: 6803: 6799: 6794: 6790: 6784: 6780: 6775: 6771: 6765: 6761: 6760: 6754: 6750: 6744: 6740: 6739: 6734: 6730: 6726: 6720: 6716: 6715: 6709: 6705: 6699: 6695: 6694: 6688: 6684: 6678: 6674: 6669: 6667: 6663: 6658: 6652: 6648: 6647: 6641: 6637: 6631: 6627: 6623: 6619: 6615: 6611: 6605: 6601: 6600: 6594: 6590: 6584: 6580: 6575: 6571: 6565: 6561: 6558:. Cambridge: 6557: 6556: 6551: 6546: 6542: 6536: 6532: 6531: 6525: 6521: 6515: 6511: 6506: 6502: 6500:9780295801926 6496: 6491: 6490: 6483: 6479: 6473: 6469: 6468: 6462: 6458: 6452: 6448: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6428: 6422: 6418: 6413: 6409: 6407:9780345803023 6403: 6399: 6394: 6390: 6384: 6380: 6379: 6373: 6369: 6363: 6359: 6358: 6352: 6348: 6342: 6338: 6333: 6329: 6323: 6319: 6318: 6312: 6308: 6302: 6298: 6295:. Cambridge: 6294: 6293: 6288: 6283: 6279: 6273: 6269: 6264: 6260: 6254: 6250: 6245: 6241: 6235: 6231: 6230: 6224: 6220: 6214: 6210: 6209: 6203: 6199: 6193: 6189: 6188: 6182: 6178: 6172: 6168: 6165:. Cambridge: 6164: 6163: 6158: 6153: 6149: 6143: 6139: 6136:. Cambridge: 6135: 6134: 6129: 6124: 6120: 6114: 6110: 6105: 6101: 6095: 6091: 6086: 6084: 6080: 6076: 6075:9780190088019 6072: 6068: 6064: 6058: 6054: 6053: 6047: 6046:"Index" 6042: 6038: 6034: 6028: 6024: 6019: 6007: 6003: 6002: 5996: 5989: 5982: 5981: 5975: 5971: 5969:9780822331889 5965: 5961: 5956: 5952: 5946: 5942: 5941: 5935: 5931: 5925: 5921: 5920: 5914: 5910: 5904: 5900: 5895: 5891: 5885: 5881: 5880: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5854: 5850: 5846: 5842: 5841: 5833: 5828: 5824: 5818: 5814: 5813: 5807: 5803: 5797: 5793: 5788: 5784: 5778: 5774: 5773: 5767: 5763: 5757: 5754:. Routledge. 5753: 5752: 5746: 5742: 5740:9789888208036 5736: 5732: 5727: 5723: 5717: 5713: 5708: 5704: 5698: 5694: 5689: 5685: 5679: 5675: 5674: 5668: 5664: 5658: 5654: 5653: 5647: 5643: 5637: 5633: 5632: 5627: 5623: 5619: 5613: 5609: 5604: 5600: 5594: 5590: 5589: 5583: 5579: 5573: 5569: 5564: 5563: 5550: 5545: 5536: 5528: 5522: 5506: 5502: 5495: 5488: 5483: 5476: 5470: 5463: 5457: 5450: 5445: 5438: 5433: 5426:. p. 97. 5425: 5424: 5416: 5401: 5395: 5388: 5383: 5376: 5371: 5364: 5363:Wright (1957) 5359: 5352: 5347: 5340: 5335: 5329:, p. 19. 5328: 5323: 5316: 5315:Spence (1990) 5311: 5304: 5300: 5295: 5287: 5283: 5279: 5275: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5252: 5245: 5241: 5236: 5229: 5225: 5220: 5213: 5209: 5204: 5196: 5190: 5186: 5185: 5177: 5169: 5163: 5159: 5158: 5150: 5143: 5138: 5131: 5121: 5117: 5116: 5108: 5101: 5095: 5080: 5076: 5072: 5066: 5059: 5058:Spence (2012) 5054: 5047: 5046:Spence (2012) 5042: 5035: 5030: 5024:, p. 68. 5023: 5018: 5012:, p. 35. 5011: 5006: 5000:, p. 72. 4999: 4998:Spence (2012) 4994: 4987: 4986:Spence (2012) 4982: 4975: 4974:Spence (2012) 4970: 4963: 4958: 4951: 4950:Perdue (2005) 4946: 4939: 4935: 4930: 4923: 4919: 4914: 4907: 4903: 4898: 4891: 4887: 4882: 4880: 4872: 4868: 4863: 4856: 4852: 4847: 4840: 4839:Spence (2012) 4835: 4827: 4825:9780861718061 4821: 4817: 4816: 4808: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4773: 4762:September 17, 4758: 4752: 4738: 4731: 4723: 4721:9781134362226 4717: 4713: 4712: 4704: 4696: 4694:9788120810679 4690: 4686: 4685: 4677: 4671: 4666: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4643: 4636: 4631: 4624: 4619: 4617: 4609: 4604: 4597: 4592: 4585: 4580: 4573: 4569: 4563: 4556: 4552: 4547: 4540: 4536: 4531: 4524: 4520: 4515: 4508: 4504: 4499: 4491: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4472: 4466:, p. 83. 4465: 4460: 4453: 4448: 4441: 4436: 4429: 4424: 4417: 4412: 4405: 4400: 4394:, p. 38. 4393: 4392:Spence (2012) 4388: 4386: 4378: 4374: 4373:Rawski (1998) 4369: 4362: 4358: 4353: 4346: 4342: 4337: 4330: 4329:Spence (1988) 4325: 4318: 4314: 4313:Spence (1990) 4309: 4302: 4298: 4293: 4286: 4282: 4281:Rawski (1991) 4277: 4270: 4266: 4261: 4254: 4250: 4245: 4243: 4235: 4230: 4223: 4219: 4214: 4208:, p. 32. 4207: 4206:Spence (2012) 4202: 4194:《清世祖實錄》, 《明史》 4191: 4185: 4169: 4165: 4161: 4155: 4149:, p. 65. 4148: 4143: 4136: 4131: 4123: 4122: 4114: 4107: 4103: 4098: 4083: 4077: 4073: 4072: 4064: 4049: 4043: 4039: 4038: 4030: 4022: 4018: 4017: 4011: 4006: 4000: 3992: 3988: 3987: 3981: 3976: 3970: 3961: 3954: 3950: 3949:Rawski (1991) 3945: 3938: 3934: 3929: 3923:, p. 95. 3922: 3917: 3910: 3906: 3901: 3894: 3890: 3885: 3878: 3874: 3869: 3862: 3858: 3853: 3846: 3842: 3837: 3828: 3826: 3818: 3814: 3809: 3802: 3798: 3797:Sneath (2007) 3793: 3786: 3781: 3779: 3770: 3764: 3760: 3759: 3751: 3743: 3737: 3733: 3732: 3724: 3716: 3710: 3706: 3705: 3697: 3690: 3688:9780642278760 3684: 3680: 3673: 3666: 3664:9789004418929 3660: 3656: 3652: 3645: 3638: 3634: 3629: 3622: 3618: 3613: 3606: 3601: 3594: 3589: 3580: 3578: 3569: 3562: 3554: 3547: 3539: 3537:9781136639791 3533: 3529: 3522: 3514: 3512:9781315453477 3508: 3504: 3503: 3495: 3491: 3481: 3478: 3476: 3473: 3472: 3466: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3445: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3396: 3394: 3384: 3380: 3378: 3374: 3371:and creating 3370: 3366: 3362: 3357: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3341: 3337: 3333: 3332:Royal Cabinet 3329: 3325: 3321: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3289: 3285: 3276: 3273: 3269: 3264: 3258: 3245: 3241: 3237: 3233: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3214: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3183:Juye Incident 3180: 3176: 3175:Summer Palace 3171: 3169: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3139: 3135: 3133: 3129: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3108: 3104: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3083: 3081: 3077: 3074:known as the 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3032: 3028: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2998: 2994: 2984: 2982: 2978: 2974: 2970: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2941: 2936: 2934: 2930: 2921: 2917: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2869:civil service 2866: 2862: 2858: 2853: 2851: 2850: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2764: 2760: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2741: 2736: 2732: 2729: 2725: 2720: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2701:Canton System 2698: 2694: 2690: 2684: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2662: 2657: 2648: 2646: 2642: 2637: 2635: 2629: 2627: 2623: 2617: 2614: 2610: 2606: 2601: 2597: 2588: 2584: 2583: 2577: 2573: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2546: 2541: 2539: 2538:British India 2535: 2531: 2527: 2522: 2519: 2515: 2510: 2508: 2507: 2502: 2498: 2492: 2490: 2486: 2481: 2478: 2474: 2470: 2466: 2465: 2457: 2452: 2448: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2433: 2431: 2426: 2418: 2414: 2409: 2405: 2402: 2398: 2397:Grand Council 2394: 2388: 2385: 2380: 2378: 2374: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2354: 2347: 2342: 2337: 2327: 2324: 2322: 2318: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2247: 2243: 2241: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2223: 2222:Yangtze River 2218: 2214: 2209: 2206: 2201: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2171: 2166: 2164: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2143:Tomás Pereira 2140: 2136: 2132: 2128: 2124: 2120: 2116: 2112: 2108: 2104: 2103: 2098: 2097:Son of Heaven 2094: 2090: 2086: 2082: 2077: 2069: 2064: 2060: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2037:neo-Confucian 2033: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2015: 2011: 2007: 1999: 1994: 1989: 1988:High Qing era 1985: 1975: 1973: 1967: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1949: 1939: 1937: 1931: 1929: 1925: 1920: 1914: 1912: 1908: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1894: 1888: 1882: 1880: 1874: 1867: 1863: 1858: 1854: 1852: 1851:Duke Yansheng 1848: 1844: 1839: 1835: 1833: 1828: 1824: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1801:Son of Heaven 1798: 1793: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1782:Chen Yuanyuan 1779: 1775: 1771: 1766: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1743: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1725: 1721: 1720:Palace Museum 1717: 1713: 1706: 1702: 1697: 1687: 1684: 1678: 1672: 1668: 1667:Tiancong Khan 1664: 1660: 1656: 1654: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1633: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1611: 1606: 1604: 1600: 1596: 1592: 1586: 1584: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1571:imperial seal 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1541: 1537: 1530: 1529:Mukden Palace 1525: 1521: 1519: 1515: 1511: 1501: 1498: 1493: 1491: 1486: 1484: 1483:Eight Banners 1480: 1476: 1472: 1468: 1464: 1463:Manchu script 1456: 1452: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1436: 1431: 1429: 1425: 1420: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1398: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1381: 1377: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1337: 1335: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1314: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1298: 1294: 1290: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1263: 1253: 1251: 1247: 1242: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1220: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1162: 1158: 1154: 1150: 1145: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1127: 1126:High Qing era 1123: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1087: 1083: 1079: 1075: 1070: 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After the 3440:Beijing Coup 3397: 3389: 3361:Beiyang Army 3317: 3292: 3260: 3215: 3191:Jiaozhou Bay 3172: 3144: 3103:Itō Hirobumi 3084: 3037: 3025:Beiyang Army 3017:Zongli Yamen 3009:Li Hongzhang 2993:Zuo Zongtang 2990: 2966: 2939: 2937: 2926: 2865:Hong Xiuquan 2854: 2847: 2812:Treaty Ports 2789: 2745: 2721: 2685: 2666: 2638: 2630: 2618: 2613:Heilongjiang 2592: 2580: 2542: 2523: 2511: 2504: 2493: 2482: 2472: 2469:Siku Quanshu 2468: 2462: 2460: 2434: 2422: 2400: 2389: 2381: 2370: 2325: 2248: 2244: 2237: 2213:Shang Zhixin 2210: 2202: 2167: 2100: 2084: 2080: 2073: 2057:foot binding 2053:Sacred Edict 2034: 2003: 1968: 1940: 1932: 1915: 1911:Liu Liangzuo 1897: 1891: 1883: 1875: 1871: 1866:encyclopedia 1862:paddle-wheel 1847:Wujing boshi 1846: 1840: 1836: 1832:China proper 1829: 1825: 1794: 1774:Shanhai Pass 1767: 1759:Shun dynasty 1744: 1728: 1715: 1679: 1675: 1662: 1634: 1607: 1594: 1590: 1587: 1583:invade Korea 1559:Han mandarin 1547:Shanhai Pass 1535: 1533: 1507: 1494: 1490:China proper 1487: 1460: 1440: 1432: 1427: 1423: 1421: 1402: 1362:Water Margin 1343: 1309:Heilongjiang 1286: 1221: 1209:Hong Xiuquan 1153:public funds 1146: 1118:China proper 1102:queue decree 1090:Shanhai Pass 1082:Shun dynasty 1054: 993:Ming dynasty 985:Qing dynasty 980: 978: 864:LGBT history 800: 782: 755: 722: 709: 696: 666: 653: 640: 621: 611: 599: 588:Ten Kingdoms 584: 537: 524: 511:Northern and 509: 479: 457: 447: 415: 405: 399: 393: 387:(220–280 AD) 381: 368: 358: 348: 344:(206–202 BC) 338: 326: 319:(221–207 BC) 313: 284:(475–221 BC) 257:(771–256 BC) 253:Eastern Zhou 251: 243:Western Zhou 241: 218: 194: 171: 147: 123: 117: 111: 88: 78: 15: 8218:Aisin Gioro 8180:Paper money 7939:Qing poetry 7660:Wuwei Corps 7655:Shuishiying 7416:Family tree 6850:(1): 3–30. 5652:The Manchus 5511:13 February 5242:, pp. 5022:Rowe (2009) 4936:, pp. 4785:(1): 5–34. 4635:Rowe (2009) 4551:Hang (2016) 4535:Hang (2016) 4519:Hang (2016) 4454:, p. . 3935:, pp. 3933:Wang (2008) 3889:Wang (2008) 3799:, pp. 3356:Sun Yat-sen 3336:Aisin Gioro 3320:Yuan Shikai 3288:Yuan Shikai 3226:bureaucracy 3222:Kang Youwei 3099:Gapsin Coup 3072:proto-state 3068:gold miners 3005:Zeng Guofan 2977:Prince Gong 2894:Miao people 2886:Zeng Guofan 2867:, a failed 2844:Sikh Empire 2558:Catholicism 2526:White Lotus 2310:. The 1689 2192:were given 2076:Inner Asian 1817:Pindale Min 1707:(1612–1650) 1593:" and the " 1551:Ligdan Khan 1465:, based on 1350:Aisin Gioro 1289:Han Chinese 1241:Yuan Shikai 1161:White Lotus 1088:opened the 1050:Warlord Era 1046:imperialism 911:Discoveries 906:Cartography 901:Archaeology 839:Art history 728:(1644–1912) 715:(1368–1644) 702:(1271–1368) 672:(1115–1234) 659:(1038–1227) 655:Western Xia 627:(1127–1279) 459:Eastern Jin 449:Western Jin 374:(25–220 AD) 370:Eastern Han 350:Western Han 229: 1046 209: 1046 205: 1250 182: 1600 158: 2070 99: 8500 80:Paleolithic 71:Prehistoric 8302:Categories 7886:Four Wangs 7777:mausoleums 7730:Golden Urn 7703:Inner Asia 7680:Xiang Army 7650:Hushenying 7575:Liangguang 7555:Liangjiang 7493:Lifan Yuan 7398:Government 5641:0691008779 5301:, p. 5226:, p. 5210:, p. 5125:2011-07-06 5085:2008-12-30 5034:Hsü (1990) 5010:Hsü (1990) 4920:, p. 4904:, p. 4888:, p. 4869:, p. 4853:, p. 4742:2020-05-18 4553:, p. 4537:, p. 4521:, p. 4505:, p. 4375:, p. 4359:, p. 4343:, p. 4315:, p. 4299:, p. 4283:, p. 4267:, p. 4251:, p. 4220:, p. 4104:, p. 3951:, p. 3907:, p. 3891:, p. 3875:, p. 3859:, p. 3843:, p. 3815:, p. 3635:, p. 3619:, p. 3486:References 3400:abdication 3209:, and the 3151:Wade–Giles 3123:Pescadores 3080:Amur river 2728:free trade 2673:Lifan Yuan 2564:cities in 2334:See also: 2317:Dalai Lama 2288:Zhu Shugui 2186:Shang Kexi 2119:Bogda Khan 1982:See also: 1928:Zhu Shugui 1924:Zheng Jing 1860:A Chinese 1809:Prince Gui 1805:pretenders 1778:Great Wall 1755:Li Zicheng 1694:See also: 1665:(Coins of 1653:Great Wall 1538:(Chinese: 1536:ujen cooha 1518:Hong Taiji 1504:Hong Taiji 1387:" or the " 1332:(see also 1326:Inner Asia 1250:Kuomintang 1078:Li Zicheng 1001:Hong Taiji 916:Inventions 646:(916–1125) 617:(960–1127) 605:(960–1279) 272: – c. 270: 770 231: – c. 207: – c. 196:Late Shang 184: – c. 160: – c. 101: – c. 7708:Manchuria 7675:Huai Army 7665:Yong Ying 7550:Shaan-Gan 7006:High Qing 6952:Later Jin 6872:144587815 6435:920818520 5869:162684575 5655:. Wiley. 5286:143541438 5075:china.com 4623:Ho (2011) 4608:Ho (2011) 4596:Ho (2011) 4584:Ho (2011) 4490:1833-8461 4147:Li (2002) 4135:Li (2002) 3451:Manchukuo 3428:Zhang Xun 3305:in 1905. 2842:with the 2705:Guangzhou 2697:Indonesia 2620:the Qing 2605:Manchuria 2518:favourite 2292:Zhu Yihai 2194:Guangdong 2174:Wu Sangui 2010:High Qing 1843:Confucius 1770:Wu Sangui 1561:held the 1397:Manchuria 1370:Great Jin 1322:Manchuria 1112:into the 1086:Wu Sangui 1057:Later Jin 1005:Later Jin 592:(907–979) 553:(690–705) 543:(618–907) 530:(581–618) 517:(420–589) 485:(304–439) 463:(317–420) 453:(266–316) 421:(266–420) 364:(9–23 AD) 90:Neolithic 54:Dynasties 8160:Hongqian 8129:Currency 7999:Treaties 7905:Kaozheng 7852:Booi Aha 7794:Hetu Ala 7747:Timeline 7742:Xinjiang 7713:Mongolia 7670:Chu Army 7645:New Army 7602:Military 7540:Viceroys 6864:20062627 6735:(1977). 6620:(1988). 5988:Archived 5628:(1991). 5521:cite web 4168:Archived 3469:See also 3459:invasion 3420:militant 3121:and the 3097:led the 2912:and the 2832:Shanghai 2757:Lin Zexu 2715:and the 2566:Xinjiang 2501:era name 2441:Mongolia 2437:Xinjiang 2415:and the 2413:Dzungars 2401:de facto 2251:Dzungars 2205:Liaodong 2125:"). 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