History of the Teller–Ulam design

233: 224: 651:, a 50 Mt (210 PJ) hydrogen bomb which derived almost 97% of its energy from fusion rather than fission—its uranium tamper was replaced with one of lead shortly before firing, in an effort to prevent excessive nuclear fallout. Had it been fired in its "full" form, it would have yielded at around 100 Mt (420 PJ). The weapon was technically deployable (it was tested by dropping it from a specially modified bomber), but militarily impractical, and was developed and tested primarily as a show of Soviet strength. It is the largest nuclear weapon developed and tested by any country. 739:, said that India's assertion of having detonated a staged thermonuclear bomb was believable. The British seismologist Roger Clarke argued that seismic magnitudes suggested a combined yield of up to 60 kilotonnes, consistent with the Indian announced total yield of 56 kilotonnes. Professor Jack Evernden, a US seismologist, has always maintained that for correct estimation of yields, one should "account properly for geological and seismological differences between test sites." His estimation of the yields of the Indian tests concur with those of India. 363:"). However, compression alone would not have been enough and the other crucial idea, staging the bomb by separating the primary and secondary, seems to have been exclusively contributed by Ulam. The elegance of the design impressed many scientists, to the point that some who previously wondered if it were feasible suddenly believed it was inevitable and that it would be created by both the US and the Soviet Union. Even Oppenheimer, who was originally opposed to the project, called the idea "technically sweet." The "George" shot of 66: 187:, argued that such a development was inevitable, and to deny such protection to the people of the United States—especially when the Soviet Union was likely to create such a weapon itself—was itself an immoral and unwise act. Still others, such as Oppenheimer, simply thought that the existing stockpile of fissile material was better spent in attempting to develop a large arsenal of tactical atomic weapons rather than potentially squandered on the development of a few massive "Supers". 284: 642:, which became an international incident involving Japan, told Sakharov that the US design was much better than theirs, and he decided that they must have exploded a separate fission bomb and somehow used its energy to compress the lithium deuteride. He then turned his focus to finding a way for an explosion to one side to be used to compress the ball of fusion fuel within 5% of symmetry, which he realised could be achieved by focusing the X-rays. 817: 1036:

known with any great confidence. The difficulty which a number of nations had in developing the Teller–Ulam design (even when they understood the design, such as with the United Kingdom) makes it somewhat unlikely that the simple information alone is what provides the ability to manufacture thermonuclear weapons. Nevertheless, the ideas put forward by Morland in 1979 have been the basis for all current speculation on the Teller–Ulam design.

673:" test, which yielded 1.8 Mt. The British development of the Teller–Ulam design was apparently independent, but it was allowed to share in some US fallout data which may have been useful. After the successful detonation of a megaton-range device and thus its practical understanding of the Teller–Ulam design "secret," the United States agreed to exchange some of its nuclear designs with the United Kingdom, which led to the 610: 438:). The dry lithium mixture performed much better than had been expected, and the "Castle Bravo" device that was detonated in 1954 had a yield two-and-a-half times greater than had been expected (at 15 Mt (63 PJ), it was also the most powerful bomb ever detonated by the United States). Because much of the yield came from the final fission stage of its 105:, where he guided discussion towards the idea of creating his "Super" bomb, which would hypothetically be many times more powerful than the yet-undeveloped fission weapon. Teller assumed creating the fission bomb would be nothing more than an engineering problem, and that the "Super" provided a much more interesting theoretical challenge. 605:

short-lived isotopes formed in the course of thermonuclear reactions could have made it possible to judge the degree of compression of the thermonuclear fuel, but knowing the degree of compression would not have allowed Soviet scientists to conclude exactly how the exploded device had been made, and it would not have revealed its design.

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magazine, was sent to the DOE after it had fallen into the hands of a professor who was opposed to Morland's goal, the DOE requested that the article not be published and pressed for a temporary injunction. After a short court hearing in which the DOE argued that Morland's information was (1). likely

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scientists at Los Alamos were surprised by how devastating the effects of the weapon had been. Many of the scientists rebelled against the notion of creating a weapon thousands of times more powerful than the first atomic bombs. For the scientists the question was in part technical—the weapon design

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was declassified in 1991: "Fact that fissile and/or fissionable materials are present in some secondaries, material unidentified, location unspecified, use unspecified, and weapons undesignated." In 1998, the DOE declassified the statement that "The fact that materials may be present in channels and

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Teller became known in the press as the "father of the hydrogen bomb", a title which he did not seek to discourage. Many of Teller's colleagues were irritated that he seemed to enjoy taking full credit for something he had only a part in, and in response, with encouragement from Enrico Fermi, Teller

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A view of the "Sausage" device casing, with its instrumentation and cryogenic equipment attached. The long pipes were for measurement purposes; their function was to transmit the first radiation from the "primary" and "secondary" stages (known as "Teller light") to instruments just as the device was

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In any case, work slowed greatly at Los Alamos, as some 5,500 of the 7,100 scientists and related staff who had been there at the conclusion of the war left to go back to their previous positions at universities and laboratories. A conference was held at Los Alamos in 1946 to examine the feasibility

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Because the DOE sought to censor Morland's work, one of the few times that it violated its usual approach of not acknowledging "secret" material that had been released, it is interpreted as being at least partially correct, but to what degree it lacks information or has incorrect information is not

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The Teller–Ulam breakthrough—the details of which are still classified—was apparently the separation of the fission and fusion components of the weapons, and to use the radiation produced by the fission bomb to first compress the fusion fuel before igniting it. Some sources have suggested that Ulam

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In 1972, the DOE declassified a statement that "The fact that in thermonuclear (TN) weapons, a fission 'primary' is used to trigger a TN reaction in thermonuclear fuel referred to as a 'secondary'", and in 1979, it added: "The fact that, in thermonuclear weapons, radiation from a fission explosive

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device did, however, have the advantage of being a weapon which could actually be delivered to a military target, unlike the "Ivy Mike" device, though it was never widely deployed. Teller had proposed a similar design as early as 1946, dubbed the "Alarm Clock" (meant to "wake up" research into the

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magazine in February 1955, emphasizing that he was not alone in the weapon's development (he would later write in his memoirs that he had told a "white lie" in the 1955 article, and would imply that he should receive full credit for the weapon's invention). Hans Bethe, who also participated in the

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The exact history of the Teller–Ulam breakthrough is not completely known, partly because of numerous conflicting personal accounts and also by the continued classification of documents that would reveal which was closer to the truth. Previous models of the "Super" had apparently placed the fusion

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had speculated that North Korea might be trying to develop a "hydrogen bomb" and such a device might be North Korea's next weapons test. In January 2016, North Korea claimed to have successfully tested a hydrogen bomb, but only a magnitude 5.1 seismic event was detected at the time of the test, a

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At that time, Soviet research was not organized on a sufficiently high level, and useful results were not obtained, although radiochemical analyses of samples of fallout could have provided some useful information about the materials used to produce the explosion. The relationship between certain

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design to achieve megaton-range results proved unfeasible in the Soviet Union as it had in the calculations done in the US, but its value as a practical weapon since it was 20 times more powerful than their first fission bomb, should not be underestimated. The Soviet physicists calculated that at

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The issue is controversial. Bethe in his “Memorandum on the History of the Thermonuclear Program” (1952) cited Teller as the discoverer of an “entirely new approach to thermonuclear reactions”, which “was a matter of inspiration” and was “therefore, unpredictable” and “largely accidental.” At the

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scientists (including Teller and Ulam, though neither gave him any useful information), and used a variety of interpersonal strategies to encourage informational responses from them (such as by asking questions such as "Do they still use sparkplugs?" even if he was unaware what the latter term

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I contributed; Ulam did not. I'm sorry I had to answer it in this abrupt way. Ulam was rightly dissatisfied with an old approach. He came to me with a part of an idea which I already had worked out and difficulty getting people to listen to. He was willing to sign a paper. When it then came to

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fuel either surrounding the fission "trigger" (in a spherical formation) or at the heart of it (similar to a "boosted" weapon) in the hopes that the closer the fuel was to the fission explosion, the higher the chance it would ignite the fusion fuel by the sheer force of the heat generated.

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and allow citizens to feel empowered to question official statements on the importance of nuclear weapons and nuclear secrecy. Most of Morland's ideas about how the weapon worked were compiled from highly-accessible sources; the drawings that most inspired his approach came from the

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case was moot, dropped its suit, and allowed the magazine to publish, which it did in November 1979. Morland had by then, however, changed his opinion of how the bomb worked to suggesting that a foam medium (the polystyrene) rather than radiation pressure was used to compress the

198:" by the US) in August 1949, it caught Western analysts off guard, and over the next several months there was an intense debate within the US government, military, and scientific communities on whether to proceed with the far-more-powerful Super. On January 31, 1950, US President 503:

had only been at Los Alamos at a very early stage of the hydrogen bomb design (before the Teller–Ulam configuration had been completed), none of his espionage information was of much use, and the Soviet physicists working on the project had to develop their weapon independently.

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best the design might yield a single megaton of energy if it was pushed to its limits. After the US tested the "Ivy Mike" device in 1952, proving that a multimegaton bomb could be created, the Soviet Union searched for an additional design and continued to work on improving the

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similar magnitude to the 2013 test of a 6–9 kt atomic bomb. Those seismic recordings have scientists worldwide doubting North Korea's claim that a hydrogen bomb was tested and suggest it was a non-fusion nuclear test. On September 9, 2016, North Korea conducted their

129:. The "Super", however, proved elusive, and the calculations were incredibly difficult to perform, especially since there was no existing way to run small-scale tests of the principles involved (in comparison, the properties of fission could be more easily probed with 1002:

Through a variety of more complicated circumstances, the DOE case began to wane, as it became clear that some of the data it attempted to claim as "secret" had been published in a students' encyclopedia a few years earlier. After another hydrogen bomb speculator,

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North Korea claimed to have tested its miniaturised thermonuclear bomb on January 6, 2016. North Korea's first three nuclear tests (2006, 2009 and 2013) had a relatively low yield and do not appear to have been of a thermonuclear weapon design. In 2013, the

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hydrogen bomb project, once said, "For the sake of history, I think it is more precise to say that Ulam is the father, because he provided the seed, and Teller is the mother, because he remained with the child. As for me, I guess I am the midwife."

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from fireball radius scaling laws, one would expect the fireball to reach down and engulf the ground ... In fact, the shock wave reaches the ground ... and bounces upward, striking the bottom of the fireball, ... preventing actual contact with the

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Whether the statements vindicate some or all of the models presented above is up for interpretation, and official US government releases about the technical details of nuclear weapons have been purposely equivocating in the past (such as the

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was still quite uncertain and unworkable—and in part moral: such a weapon, they argued, could only be used against large civilian populations, and could thus only be used as a weapon of genocide. Many scientists, such as Teller's colleague

2288: 634:(the Soviet weapons laboratory) had mistakenly poured the concentrate down the drain before it could be analyzed. Only in the fall of 1952 did the Soviet Union set up an organized system for monitoring fallout data. Nonetheless, the 664:

The details of the development of the Teller–Ulam design in other countries are less well known. In any event, the United Kingdom initially had difficulty in its development of it and failed in its first attempt in May 1957 (its

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For the remainder of the war the effort was focused on first developing fission weapons. Nevertheless, Teller continued to pursue the "Super", to the point of neglecting work assigned to him for the fission weapon at the secret

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can be contained and used to transfer energy to compress and ignite a physically separate component containing thermonuclear fuel." To the latter sentence, it specified, "Any elaboration of this statement will be classified."

553:(the "First Idea"). The "Second Idea", as Sakharov referred to it in his memoirs, was a previous proposal by Ginzburg in November 1948 to use lithium deuteride in the bomb, which would, by the bombardment by neutrons, produce 52:. The design – the details of which are military secrets and known to only a handful of major nations – is believed to be used in virtually all modern nuclear weapons that make up the arsenals of the major nuclear powers. 394:

equipment, as its fusion fuel, and it had a mass of around 80 short tons (73 tonnes) altogether. An initial press blackout was attempted, but it was soon announced that the US had detonated a megaton-range hydrogen bomb.

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The general principles of the "classical Super" design were public knowledge even before thermonuclear weapons were first tested. After Truman ordered the crash program to develop the hydrogen bomb in January 1950, the

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Here is a short discussion of the events that led to the formation of the "public" models of the Teller–Ulam design, with some discussions as to their differences and disagreements with those principles outlined above.

314:, writes that Teller sought to "conceal the role" of Ulam, and that only "radiation implosion" was Teller's idea. Teller went as far as refusing to sign the patent application because it would need Ulam's signature. 993:, Morland and his lawyers disagreed on all points, but the injunction was granted, as the judge in the case thought that it was safer to grant the injunction and allow Morland, et al., to appeal, which they did in 209:

alone from the fission bomb would be used to ignite the fusion material, but that proved to be impossible. For a while, many scientists thought (and hoped) that the weapon itself would be impossible to construct.

268:" is not definitively known in the public domain—the degree of credit assigned to Teller by his contemporaries is almost exactly commensurate with how well they thought of Teller in general. In an interview with 2198: 535:

than a Teller–Ulam weapon (though using an order of magnitude more fusion fuel than a boosted weapon). Detonated in 1953 with a yield equivalent to 400 kt (1,700 TJ) (only 15%–20% from fusion), the

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would have touched the ground were it not for the shock wave from the explosion reflecting off the ground and striking the bottom of the fireball, and nearly reached as high as the altitude of the deploying

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was seized upon by Teller and developed into the first workable design for a megaton-range hydrogen bomb. This concept, now called "staged implosion" was first proposed in a classified scientific paper,

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was clear about assigning credit for the basic staging and compression ideas to Ulam, while giving Teller the credit for recognizing the critical role of radiation as opposed to hydrodynamic pressure.

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Oppenheimer hearing, in 1954, Bethe spoke of Teller's “stroke of genius” in the invention of the H-bomb. And finally in 1997 Bethe stated that “the crucial invention was made in 1951, by Teller.”

2898:"Infamy and Honor at the Atomic Café: Father of the hydrogen bomb, "Star Wars" missile defense and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Edward Teller has no regrets about his contentious career" 1342:"Infamy and Honor at the Atomic Café: Father of the hydrogen bomb, "Star Wars" missile defense and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Edward Teller has no regrets about his contentious career" 836:

The Teller–Ulam design was for many years considered one of the top nuclear secrets, and even today, it is not discussed in any detail by official publications with origins "behind the fence" of

527:(this was later dubbed Sakharov's "First Idea"). Though nuclear fusion was technically achieved, it did not have the scaling property of a "staged" weapon, and their first "hydrogen bomb" test, " 630:

Sakharov stated in his memoirs that though he and Davidenko had fallout dust in cardboard boxes several days after the "Mike" test with the hope of analyzing it for information, a chemist at

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readings, have suggested that it might not be the case by pointing at the low yield of the test, which they say is close to 30 kilotons (as opposed to 45 kilotons announced by India).

410:," producing a much higher yield than originally estimated (11 megatons instead of 4), making it the third largest test ever conducted by the US. The Romeo "shrimp" device derived its 422:

The elaborate refrigeration plant necessary to keep its fusion fuel in a liquid state meant that the "Ivy Mike" device was too heavy and too complex to be of practical use. The first

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writes that "of course the bomb designers all knew the truth, and many considered Teller the lowest, most contemptible kind of offender in the world of science, a stealer of credit".

2315:"North Korea's Punggye-ri Nuclear Test Site: Satellite Imagery Shows Post-Test Effects and New Activity in Alternate Tunnel Portal Areas - 38 North: Informed Analysis of North Korea" 631: 596:, a key part of the Teller–Ulam device, and perhaps that the fusion fuel had been subjected to high amounts of compression before detonation. One of the key Soviet bomb designers, 471:

After an initial period focused on making multi-megaton hydrogen bombs, efforts in the United States shifted towards developing miniaturized Teller–Ulam weapons which could outfit

479:. The last major design breakthrough in this respect was accomplished by the mid-1970s, when versions of the Teller–Ulam design were created which could fit on the end of a small 205:

Many scientists returned to Los Alamos to work on the "Super" program, but the initial attempts still seemed highly unworkable. In the "classical Super," it was thought that the

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The fact that a large proportion of the yield of a thermonuclear device stems from the fission of a uranium 238 tamper (fission-fusion-fission principle) was revealed when the

462:, which caused one of the worst nuclear accidents in US history after unforeseen weather patterns blew it over populated areas of the atoll and Japanese fishermen on board the 179:), urged that the United States should not develop such weapons and set an example towards the Soviet Union. Promoters of the weapon, including Teller and Berkeley physicists 2362: 588:

If the Soviet Union had been able to analyze the fallout data from either the "Ivy Mike" or "Castle Bravo" tests, they could have been able to discern that the fission

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before fusion ("radiation implosion"), in the spring of 1954. Sakharov's "Third Idea", as the Teller–Ulam design was known in the Soviet Union, was tested in the shot "

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atoll, with a yield of 10.4 megatons of TNT (44 PJ) (over 450 times more powerful than the bomb dropped on Nagasaki during World War II). The device, dubbed the

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in 1979 on the "secret of the hydrogen bomb." In 1978, Morland had decided that discovering and exposing the "last remaining secret" would focus attention onto the

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This is the original classified paper by Teller and Ulam proposing staged implosion. This declassified version is heavily redacted, leaving only a few paragraphs.

669:" test failed to ignite as planned, but much of its energy came from fusion in its secondary). However, it succeeded in its second attempt in its November 1957 " 1086:

The term "heterocatalytic" was Teller and Ulam's jargon for their new idea; using an atomic explosion to ignite a secondary explosion in a mass of fuel located

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Artist's conception of how H-bomb might work using atomic bomb as a mere "trigger" to generate enough heat to set up the H-bomb's "thermonuclear fusion" process

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were released. Initial estimates in first few days were between 70 and 160 kilotons and were raised over a week later to range of 250 to over 300 kilotons.

907:). Other information, such as the types of fuel used in some of the early weapons, has been declassified, but precise technical information has not been. 848:" itself, most information in the public domain about the design is relegated to a few terse statements and the work of a few individual investigators. 3258: 2394: 232: 223: 2274: 480: 778: 808:

estimated, based mainly on visual analysis of propaganda pictures, that the bomb might weigh between 250 and 360 kg (550 and 790 lb).

519:, after a Russian layered puff pastry, and was not of the Teller–Ulam configuration, but rather used alternating layers of fissile material and 2144: 2104: 2039: 264:

by Teller and Ulam on March 9, 1951. The exact amount of contribution provided respectively from Ulam and Teller to what became known as the "

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on the basis of those tests. Another cited reason for the low yields was that radioactivity released from yields significantly more than 45

338:" shot demonstrated that the Teller–Ulam design could be made deployable, but also that the final fission stage created large amounts of 1463: 531:" is no longer considered to be a "true" hydrogen bomb, and is rather considered a hybrid fission/fusion device more similar to a large 2630: 1251: 704:

Very little is known about the French development of the Teller–Ulam design beyond the fact that it detonated a 2.6 Mt device in the "

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of fissile material as well. He published the changes, based in part on the proceedings of the appeals trial, as a short erratum in

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in 1951 tested the basic concept for the first time on a very small scale (and the next shot in the series, "Item," was the first

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derived from classified sources, (2). if not derived from classified sources, itself counted as "secret" information under the "

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The Soviet Union demonstrated the power of the "staging" concept in October 1961 when they detonated the massive and unwieldy

2796: 2406: 1446: 1129: 29: 2420: 1007:, had his own ideas about the "secret" (quite different from Morland's) published in a Wisconsin newspaper, the DOE claimed 742:

Indian scientists have argued that some international estimations of the yields of India's nuclear tests are unscientific.

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The idea of using the energy from a fission device to begin a fusion reaction was first proposed by the Italian physicist

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test "ran away," producing a much higher yield than originally estimated and creating large amounts of nuclear fallout.

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Even low-yield tests can have a bearing on thermonuclear capability, as they can provide information on the behavior of

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India says that the yield of its tests were deliberately kept low to avoid civilian damage and that it can build staged

541:"Super"), though it was calculated to be ultimately not worth the effort and no prototype was ever developed or tested. 3168: 2983: 2940: 2862: 2754: 2591: 2536: 2481: 1606: 1533: 1210: 1032:, about his experience, describing in detail the train of thought which led him to his conclusions about the "secret." 472: 102: 2184: 896:

the term 'channel filler,' with no elaboration," which may refer to the polystyrene foam (or an analogous substance).

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parts of the bombs in separate pieces ("staging"). The next breakthrough was discovered and developed by Sakharov and

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In 1951, after many years of fruitless labor on the "Super", a breakthrough idea from the Polish émigré mathematician

3072: 1682: 300:) have claimed that Teller would have never gotten any closer without the idea of Ulam. The nuclear weapons designer 919: 191:

of building a Super; it concluded that it was feasible, but there were a number of dissenters to that conclusion.

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in which they proposed the staged implosion (Teller–Ulam) design. This declassified version is heavily redacted.

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Most of the current ideas of the Teller–Ulam design came into public awareness after the DOE attempted to

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bomber. The RDS-220 test demonstrated how "staging" could be used to develop arbitrarily powerful weapons.

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fuel of the "Ivy Mike" device would be replaced with a dry fuel of lithium deuteride and tested in the "

3313: 2854: 2014: 1525: 1051: 496: 307: 2275:"US Intelligence: North Korea's Sixth Test Was a 140 Kiloton 'Advanced Nuclear' Device – The Diplomat" 2112: 597: 2152: 3308: 3298: 2932: 2583: 2289:"The nuclear explosion in North Korea on 3 September 2017: A revised magnitude assessment - NORSAR" 1471: 1202: 279:

defending that paper and really putting work into it, he refused. He said, "I don't believe in it."

2251:"North Korean nuke test put at 160 kilotons as Ishiba urges debate on deploying U.S. atomic bombs" 1492: 2628:(1 January 1989). "In Any Light: Scientists and the Decision to Build the Superbomb, 1952-1954". 2228: 1892: 1400: 1249:(1 January 1989). "In Any Light: Scientists and the Decision to Build the Superbomb, 1952-1954". 841: 685:

The People's Republic of China detonated its first device using a Teller–Ulam design June 1967 ("

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Braun, Reiner; Hinde, Robert; Krieger, David; Kroto, Harold; Milne, Sally, eds. (17 July 2007).

3303: 2678:(31 October 1996). "American and Soviet H-bomb development programmes: historical background". 2329:"North Korea nuclear test may have been twice as strong as first thought - The Washington Post" 2064: 1639: 1056: 939: 837: 705: 532: 368: 301: 265: 159: 2746: 1833: 1598: 1572: 990: 821: 746: 121:.) Teller was given some resources with which to study the "Super", and contacted his friend 45: 3035: 2849:

In the Shadow of the Bomb: Oppenheimer, Bethe, and the Moral Responsibility of the Scientist

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In the Shadow of the Bomb: Oppenheimer, Bethe, and the Moral Responsibility of the Scientist

1517: 721: 3081: 3031: 2225:"North Korea's 3 September 2017 Nuclear Test Location and Yield: Seismic Results from USTC" 1691: 798: 364: 288:

detonated, before being destroyed in the explosion. The man seated lower right shows scale.

122: 1946: 1921: 8: 2924: 2903: 2788: 2333: 1970: 1347: 1194: 1121: 360: 270: 184: 3085: 3070:; Smirnov, Yuri; Rothstein, Linda; Leskov, Sergei (1 May 1993). "The Khariton Version". 1885:"We have an adequate scientific database for designing ... a credible nuclear deterrent" 1695: 1680:; Smirnov, Yuri; Rothstein, Linda; Leskov, Sergei (1 May 1993). "The Khariton Version". 73:

was for many years the chief force lobbying for research into developing fusion weapons.

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nuclear warhead, allow for some speculation as to the relative size and shapes of the

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National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America Biographical Memoirs

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published a cutaway description of a hypothetical hydrogen bomb with the caption

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also ran into difficulties in developing a megaton-range fusion weapon. Because

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Teller–Ulam weapon in the US would not be developed until 1954, when the liquid

3198: 3160: 3067: 2780: 2518: 2126: 2086: 1677: 1113: 1066: 1061: 929: 750: 297: 256: 151: 94: 33: 3280:– "The H-Bomb Secret: How we got it, why we're telling" (entire issue online). 3043: 2950: 1655: 1220: 113:

where he worked. (Much of the work Teller declined to do was given instead to

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De Geer, Lars-Erik (1991). "The radioactive signature of the hydrogen bomb".

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On 11 May 1998, India announced that it has detonated a hydrogen bomb in its

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in 1949 (before the Soviet Union had a working fission bomb), was dubbed the

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Super Bomb: Organizational Conflict and the Development of the Hydrogen Bomb

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Super Bomb: Organizational Conflict and the Development of the Hydrogen Bomb

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On Heterocatalytic Detonations I. Hydrodynamic Lenses and Radiation Mirrors

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before igniting it. When an early draft of the article, to be published in

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generated by the primary and that it was Teller who then realized that the

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On Heterocatalytic Detonations I. Hydrodynamic Lenses and Radiation Mirrors

243:

On Heterocatalytic Detonations I: Hydrodynamic Lenses and Radiation Mirrors

118: 101:'s 1942 summer conference on the development of a fission bomb held at the 90: 78: 21: 3268: 283: 982: 794: 725: 500: 440: 371:), raising expectations to a near certainty that the concept would work. 352: 114: 2667: 1288: 322:

authored an article titled "The Work of Many People," which appeared in

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The Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer: And the Birth of the Modern Arms Race

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On November 1, 1952, the Teller–Ulam configuration was tested in the "

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Danger and Survival: Choices About the Bomb in the First Fifty Years

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effort by the United States and United Kingdom to develop the first

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Born Secret: The H-Bomb, the Progressive Case and National Security

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Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939-1956

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Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939-1956

801: 554: 524: 415: 3224: 3117: 2806: 2717: 2546: 2199:"Large nuclear test in North Korea on 3 September 2017 - NORSAR" 1727: 1139: 582: 398: 330: 3066: 1676: 585:" in November 1955 with a yield of 1.6 Mt (6.7 PJ). 359:

from the primary would be able to accomplish the task (hence "

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When the Soviet Union exploded their own atomic bomb (dubbed "

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Morland eventually concluded that the "secret" was that the

3144: 2421:"The H-Bomb Secret: How we got it and why we're telling it" 2012: 390:, kept in its liquid state by 20 short tons (18 tonnes) of 176: 3265:(with U.S. and USSR bomb designers as well as historians). 2631:

Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences

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Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences

943:. Morland also interviewed, often informally, many former 793:

just a few hours after photographs of North Korean leader

2407:"What If Truman Hadn't Ordered the H-bomb Crash Program?" 2040:"North Korea Claims It Successfully Tested Hydrogen Bomb" 1971:"India's Nuclear Weapons Program: Operation Shakti, 1998 1375:"Memorandum on the History of the Thermonuclear Program" 820:

Photographs of warhead casings, such as this one of the

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Howard Morland on how he discovered the "H-bomb secret"

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PBS: Race for the Superbomb: Interviews and Transcripts

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Turing's Cathedral: The Origins of the Digital Universe

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However, some non-Indian experts agree with India. Dr.

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Classified paper by Teller and Ulam on March 9, 1951:

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in the fall of 1941 during what would soon become the

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achieved the first breakthrough, that of keeping the

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tested by the US, yielding 500 kt (November 16, 1952)

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History of technical design of modern hydrogen bombs

2167:"Kim inspects 'nuclear warhead': A picture decoded" 1670: 28:, the first full test of the Teller–Ulam design (a 2967: 2896: 2575: 2127:"North Korea claims success in fifth nuclear test" 2013:Kang Seung-woo; Chung Min-uck (February 4, 2013). 1421:* H.A. Bethe, " J. Robert Oppenheimer 1904–1967," 1401:"Testimony in the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer" 1340: 1028:a month later. In 1981, Morland published a book, 724:", specifically). Some non-Indian analysts, using 296:Other scientists (antagonistic to Teller, such as 1989:"North Korea could be developing a hydrogen bomb" 1302:Teller, Edward; Ulam, Stanislaw (March 9, 1951). 3285: 2620: 2404: 1640:"The radioactive signature of the hydrogen bomb" 1324:– via Nuclear Non-Proliferation Institute. 1241: 1185: 1183: 1181: 1179: 1177: 928:a magazine article by the anti-weapons activist 125:to help with laborious calculations relating to 1235: 117:, who was later discovered to be a spy for the 2919: 1189: 789:On September 3, 2017, North Korea conducted a 202:ordered a program to develop a hydrogen bomb. 2907:. Vol. 281, no. 4. pp. 42–43. 2363:"North Korea bargains with nuclear diplomacy" 1351:. Vol. 281, no. 4. pp. 42–43. 1174: 1108: 1106: 507:The first Soviet fusion design, developed by 60: 2065:M5.1 – 21km ENE of Sungjibaegam, North Korea 1567: 1565: 1986: 1834:"What Are the Real Yields of India's Test?" 1395: 1369: 891:The only statement that may pertain to the 1301: 1103: 786:which yielded between 10 and 30 kilotons. 3134: 2785:Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb 2674: 1562: 1118:Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb 989:, and (3). dangerous and would encourage 175:, the nuclear fusion that takes place in 2841: 2740: 1592: 1512: 1506: 1389: 996:United States v. The Progressive, et al. 815: 608: 592:was being kept separate from the fusion 397: 329: 282: 139: 64: 20: 3197: 3021: 2965: 2573: 1773: 1638:De Geer, Lars-Erik (December 1, 1991). 1637: 910: 3286: 2966:Younger, Stephen M. (6 January 2009). 2779: 1573:"Why the H-Bomb Is Now Called the 3-F" 1455: 1441:. Penguin Books Limited. p. 213. 1112: 577:from the fission bomb to compress the 495:, the scientists working on their own 334:The dry-fuel device detonated in the " 2741:Holloway, David (28 September 1994). 2517: 1916: 1914: 1912: 1910: 1849: 1799: 1593:Holloway, David (28 September 1994). 1588: 1586: 1434: 1295: 757:might not have been contained fully. 477:Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles 434:" shot (the device was codenamed the 274:from 1999, Teller told the reporter: 44:is a technical concept behind modern 3319:Nuclear history of the United States 3014: 2891: 2574:DeGroot, Gerard J. (31 March 2005). 1499:(Philosophy and History of Science, 1425:(1997, vol. 71, pp. 175–218; on 197) 1335: 2468:Joseph Rotblat: Visionary for Peace 2259:. September 6, 2017. Archived from 2151:. September 9, 2016. Archived from 2111:. September 9, 2016. Archived from 1579:. December 5, 1955. pp. 54–55. 1377:. Federation of American Scientists 1329: 811: 749:of various yields up to around 200 692:Development of the bomb was led by 675:1958 US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement 473:Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles 414:from natural instead of "enriched" 347:initially proposed compressing the 158:Even though they had witnessed the 97:. Teller soon was a participant at 36:of 10.4 megatons (November 1, 1952) 13: 2451: 2405:Alex Wellerstein (June 18, 2012). 1907: 1750:"The Tsar Bomba ("King of Bombs")" 1583: 1461: 855: 654: 486: 103:University of California, Berkeley 14: 3330: 3249: 3153:; Stanford, George (1 May 1981). 3073:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 2015:"North Korea may detonate H-bomb" 1683:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 881: 797:inspecting a device resembling a 659: 214:Ulam's and Teller's contributions 2445:, vol. 43, no. 11, November 1979 1987:Kim Kyu-won (February 7, 2013). 920:United States v. The Progressive 231: 222: 2853:. Princeton Series in Physics. 2694:10.1070/PU1996v039n10ABEH000174 2413: 2387: 2355: 2341: 2321: 2307: 2281: 2267: 2243: 2217: 2191: 2177: 2159: 2137: 2119: 2097: 2079: 2067:(Report). USGS. January 6, 2016 2057: 2032: 2006: 1980: 1964: 1939: 1877: 1850:Burns, John F. (May 18, 1998). 1843: 1827: 1800:Burns, John F. (May 12, 1998). 1793: 1767: 1631: 1524:. Princeton Series in Physics. 1486: 1435:Dyson, George (March 1, 2012). 1428: 3094:10.1080/00963402.1993.11456341 1704:10.1080/00963402.1993.11456341 1415: 1363: 1080: 771: 737:Los Alamos National Laboratory 1: 3024:Science & Global Security 1644:Science & Global Security 1097: 779:South Korean Defense Ministry 764:without the full ignition of 638:also say that the yield from 2456: 1774:Li Jing (January 10, 2015). 962:were kept separate and that 832:in US thermonuclear weapons. 137:, and various other tests). 7: 1039: 948:specifically referred to). 378:" shot at an island in the 10: 3335: 2855:Princeton University Press 2395:"Hail Truman H-Bomb Order" 1526:Princeton University Press 1052:History of nuclear weapons 917: 557:. In late 1953, physicist 458:tamper, it generated much 308:Priscilla Johnson McMillan 55: 3044:10.1080/08929889108426372 2349:"SAR Image of Punggye-ri" 1656:10.1080/08929889108426372 735:, former director of the 699: 640:one of the American tests 3203:The secret that exploded 2933:Cornell University Press 2584:Harvard University Press 1780:South China Morning Post 1503:), no. 52, July 22, 2003 1203:Cornell University Press 1073: 1030:The secret that exploded 806:Jane's Information Group 711: 680: 523:fusion fuel spiked with 164:atomic bombings of Japan 3271:(includes many slides). 3261:March 11, 2017, at the 3036:1991S&GS....2..351D 2970:The Bomb: A New History 842:US Department of Energy 708:" test in August 1968. 173:stellar nucleosynthesis 2433:on September 27, 2007. 2401:: 1. February 1, 1950. 1975:Nuclear Weapon Archive 1889:frontline.thehindu.com 1838:Nuclear Weapon Archive 1057:Nuclear weapons design 940:Encyclopedia Americana 898:(DOE 2001, sect. V.C.) 889:(emphasis in original) 833: 627: 607: 533:boosted fission weapon 419: 369:boosted fission weapon 343: 289: 281: 155: 74: 37: 3294:Nuclear weapon design 3145:De Volpi, Alexander; 2747:Yale University Press 2317:. September 12, 2017. 2295:on September 13, 2017 2263:on September 6, 2017. 2155:on September 9, 2016. 2115:on September 9, 2016. 1599:Yale University Press 1464:"An American Tragedy" 991:nuclear proliferation 985:" clause of the 1954 819: 747:thermonuclear weapons 612: 602: 497:hydrogen bomb project 402:Like the Bravo test, 401: 333: 286: 276: 143: 68: 46:thermonuclear weapons 32:fusion bomb), with a 24: 2927:(15 February 2020). 2925:Schilling, Warner R. 2789:Simon & Schuster 2676:Goncharov, German A. 2626:Bernstein, Barton J. 2521:(28 November 1988). 2231:on September 4, 2017 2205:on September 4, 2017 2185:"Yonhap News Agency" 2173:. September 3, 2017. 2133:. September 9, 2016. 1247:Bernstein, Barton J. 1197:(15 February 2020). 1195:Schilling, Warner R. 1122:Simon & Schuster 1090:the initiating bomb. 840:. The policy of the 799:thermonuclear weapon 573:, that of using the 365:Operation Greenhouse 171:(who had discovered 3278:November 1979 issue 3086:1993BuAtS..49d..20K 2904:Scientific American 2895:(20 October 1999). 2845:(January 7, 2007). 2843:Schweber, Silvan S. 2375:on October 25, 2017 2334:The Washington Post 1895:on October 28, 2019 1696:1993BuAtS..49d..20K 1516:(January 7, 2007). 1514:Schweber, Silvan S. 1468:The New York Review 1348:Scientific American 1339:(20 October 1999). 361:radiation implosion 271:Scientific American 147:, the largest pure 123:Maria Göppert-Mayer 2399:Boston Daily Globe 2093:. January 6, 2016. 1856:The New York Times 1806:The New York Times 964:radiation pressure 864:Boston Daily Globe 834: 791:sixth nuclear test 784:fifth nuclear test 628: 544:Attempts to use a 465:Daigo Fukuryu Maru 420: 344: 290: 266:Teller–Ulam design 156: 99:Robert Oppenheimer 75: 42:Teller–Ulam design 38: 3314:Manhattan Project 3015:Analyzing fallout 2798:978-0-68-480400-2 2783:(1 August 1995). 2688:(10): 1033–1044. 1448:978-0-7181-9450-5 1131:978-0-68-480400-2 1116:(1 August 1995). 1047:Manhattan Project 987:Atomic Energy Act 521:lithium deuteride 412:lithium deuteride 87:Manhattan Project 81:to his colleague 3326: 3244: 3194: 3191:Internet Archive 3159:(1st ed.). 3147:Marsh, Gerald E. 3129: 3063: 3009: 3006:Internet Archive 2974:(1st ed.). 2973: 2962: 2931:(1st ed.). 2916: 2900: 2888: 2885:Internet Archive 2852: 2838: 2835:Internet Archive 2776: 2745:(1st ed.). 2737: 2671: 2644:10.2307/27757627 2617: 2614:Internet Archive 2581: 2578:The Bomb: A Life 2570: 2567:Internet Archive 2527:(1st ed.). 2514: 2508: 2506: 2471: 2446: 2438: 2434: 2432: 2426:. 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