Homo erectus - Knowledge

4081: 3879: 3770:, 1.7 Mya. The first firekeepers are thought to have simply transported to caves and maintained naturally occurring fires for extended periods of time or only sporadically when the opportunity arose. Maintaining fires would require firekeepers to have knowledge of slow-burning materials such as dung. Fire becomes markedly more abundant in the wider archaeological record after 400,000–300,000 years ago, which can be explained as some advancement in fire management techniques took place at this time or human ancestors only opportunistically used fire until this time. It is possible that firestarting was invented and lost and reinvented multiple times and independently by different communities rather than being invented in one place and spreading throughout the world. The earliest evidence of hearths comes from Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel, over 700,000 years ago, where fire is recorded in multiple layers in an area close to water, both uncharacteristic of natural fires. 141: 4106: 3394:, Kenya, where 97 footprints made 1.5 Mya were likely left by a group of at least 20 individuals. One of these trackways, based on the size of the footprints, may have been an entirely male group, which could indicate they were some specialised task group, such as a hunting or foraging party, or a border patrol. If correct, this would also indicate sexual division of labour, which distinguishes human societies from those of other great apes and social mammalian carnivores. In modern hunter gatherer societies who target large prey items, typically male parties are dispatched to bring down these high-risk animals, and, due to the low success rate, female parties focus on more predictable foods. Based on modern day savanna chimp and 2926: 3079: 5159: 3996: 3168: 5130: 3459: 667: 5177: 3687:). Though larger and heavier, these hand axes had sharper, chiseled edges. They were likely multi-purpose tools, used in variety of activities such as cutting meat, wood, or edible plants. In 1979, American paleontologist Thomas Wynn stated that Acheulean technology required operational intelligence (foresight and planning), being markedly more complex than Oldowan technology which included lithics of unstandardized shape, cross-sections, and symmetry. Based on this, he concluded that there is not a significant disparity in intelligence between 3629: 3023: 5085: 166: 5104: 4452: 2604: 4376: 16032: 13965: 3240: 13989: 3646: 2637: 1883: 3375: 3812: 16020: 2837: 13977: 3867:. This dwelling's base measured about 3 m × 4 m (9.8 ft × 13.1 ft) on the exterior and 3 m × 2 m (9.8 ft × 6.6 ft) on the interior, and is considered to have been a firm surface hut, probably with a vaulted roof made of thick branches or thin poles, supported by a foundation of big rocks and earth, and likely functioned as a winter base camp. 3139:) would have increased solar radiation bombardment- which would suggest that hairlessness first emerged in the australopithecines. However, australopithecines seem to have lived at much higher, much colder elevations—typically 1,000–1,600 m (3,300–5,200 ft) where the nighttime temperature can drop to 10 or 5 °C (50 or 41 °F)—so they may have required hair to stay warm, unlike early 3897:(the latter can only inhabit clothed individuals) for modern humans diverged about 170 kya, well before modern humans left Africa, meaning clothes were already well in use before encountering cold climates. One of the first uses of animal hide is thought to have been for clothing, and the oldest hide scrapers date to about 780 kya, though this is not indicative of clothing. 624:, and is postulated to have been the earliest human ancestor capable of using fire, hunting and gathering in coordinated groups, caring for injured or sick group members, and possibly seafaring and art (though examples of art are controversial, and are otherwise rudimentary and few and far between). Intentional seafaring has also been a controversial claim. 4182:, Spain—which dates to 424–374 kya—were suggested to have been struck by a hammerstone and purposefully shaped and trimmed. At Terra Amata, France—which dates to 425–400 or 355–325 kya—red, yellow, and brown ochres were recovered in association with pole structures; ochre was probably heated to achieve such a wide color range. As it is unclear if 3345:

ears, connecting all the way in the back of the skull, meaning blows to any of these regions can be effectively dissipated across the skull; and the sagittal keel protects the top of the braincase. Many skullcaps bear usually debilitating fractures, such as the Peking Man skull X, yet they can show signs of surviving and healing. Anthropologist

864:: "... it is useless to speculate on this subject; for two or three anthropomorphous apes, one the Dryopithecus …, existed in Europe during the Miocene age; and since so remote a period the earth has certainly undergone many great revolutions, and there has been ample time for migration on the largest scale." (1889, pp. 155–156). 4342:

lacked a humanlike vocal apparatus and thus anatomical prerequisites for a modern human level of speech. Increasing brain size and cultural complexity in tandem with technological refinement, and the hypothesis that articulate Neanderthals and modern humans may have inherited speech capabilities from

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had a great capacity for planning, likely months in advance of the trip. However, there is no evidence of the watercrafts required for such seafaring, though these would likely not survive in the fossil record. Additionally, experiments by Bednarik that show modern humans can make complex boats using

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could only safely deliver a baby with a brain volume of about 230 cc (14 cu in), equating to a similar brain growth rate as modern humans to achieve the average adult brain size of 600–1,067 cc (36.6–65.1 cu in). However, a 1.8 Ma female pelvis from Gona, Ethiopia, shows

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did not exhibit sexual dimorphism, then it is possible that they were the first in the human line to do so, though the fragmentary fossil record for earlier species makes this unclear. If yes, then there was a substantial and sudden increase in female height. Certain features of sexual dimorphism are

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had a more modern gait and body proportions, and was the first human species to have exhibited a flat face, prominent nose, and possibly sparse body hair coverage. Though the species' brain size certainly exceeds that of ancestor species, capacity varied widely depending on the population. In earlier

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Rhodin A, Thomson S, Georgalis G, Karl HV, Danilov I, Takahashi A, de la Fuente M, Bourque J, Delfino M, Bour R, Iverson J, Shaffer B, Van Dijk PP (2015). "Turtles and Tortoises of the World During the Rise and Global Spread of Humanity: First Checklist and Review of Extinct Pleistocene and Holocene

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mouths were not as versatile as those of ancestor species, capable of processing a narrower range of foods. However, tools were likely used to process hard foods, thus affecting the chewing apparatus, and this combination may have instead increased dietary flexibility (though this does not equate to

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varied widely in size, ranging from 146–185 cm (4 ft 9 in – 6 ft 1 in) in height and 40–68 kg (88–150 lb) in weight, thought to be due to regional differences in climate, mortality rates, or nutrition. Among primates, this marked of a response to environmental

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was the first human species to have featured a projecting nose, which is generally thought to have evolved in response to breathing dry air in order to retain moisture. American psychologist Lucia Jacobs hypothesized that the projecting nose instead allowed for distinguishing the direction different

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did in fact exhibit humanlike rates of sexual dimorphism. If they did, then it would mean only female height increased from the ancestor species, which could have been caused by a shift in female fertility or diet, and/or reduced pressure on males for large size. This in turn could imply a shift in

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males and females are thought to have been about the same size compared to other great apes (exhibit less size-specific sexual dimorphism), it is generally hypothesised that they lived in a monogamous society, as reduced sexual dimorphism in primates is typically correlated with this mating system.

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demonstrated there is a low correlation between the two at least in modern humans. Garn instead noted different races have different average cortical bone thicknesses, and concluded it is genetic rather than environmental. It is unclear if the condition is caused by increased bone apposition (bone

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babies with a brain volume of 310 cc (19 cu in) could have been safely delivered, which is 34–36% the mean adult size, compared to 40% in chimps and 28% in modern humans. This more aligns with the conclusions drawn from the Mojokerto child. A faster development rate could indicate a

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than they did with other large brained and large bodied modern populations. The paper points out methodological flaws in current understanding of brain size increase in human evolution, where species averages are compared with fossils, which overlooks interpopulational variation. It also overlooks

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tools so males could prove their fitness to females in some courting ritual, and were discarded afterwards. However, an apparent lack of reported wearing is likely due to a lack of use-wear studies, and only a few sites yield an exorbitant sum of hand axes likely due to gradual accumulation over

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Artificial lighting may have led to increased waking hours—modern humans have about a 16-hour waking period, whereas other apes are generally awake from only sunup to sundown—and these additional hours were probably used for socializing. Because of this, fire usage is probably also linked to the

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would fight each other with fists, stones, or clubs to settle disputes or battle for mates, since the skull is reinforced in key areas. The mandible is quite robust, capable of absorbing heavy blows (no "glass jaw"); the heavy brow ridge protects the eyes, and transitions into a bar covering the

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measured 848 and 804 cc (51.7 and 49.1 cu in), and another significantly smaller adult measured 691 cc (42.2 cu in), which could possibly indicate sexual dimorphism, though sex was undetermined. Another case that depicts the difficulty of assigning sex to the fossil

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did not have fire, it is largely unclear how they stayed warm, avoided predators, and prepared animal fat and meat for consumption. There was also a lower likelihood of naturally occurring fires due to lightning being less common in areas further north. It is possible that they only knew how to

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because of fire usage and cooking 2 million years ago to explain the rapid doubling of brain size between these two species in only a 500,000-year timespan, and the sudden appearance of the typical human body plan. Cooking makes protein more easily digestible, speeds up nutrient absorption, and

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site, Israel, the inhabitants gathered and ate 55 different types of fruits, vegetables, seeds, nuts, and tubers, and it appears that they used fire to roast certain plant materials that otherwise would have been inedible; they also consumed amphibians, reptiles, birds, aquatic and terrestrial

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is credited as the first human ancestor to have used fire, though the timing of this invention is debated mainly because campfires very rarely and very poorly preserve over long periods of time, especially thousands or millions of years. The earliest claimed fire sites are in Kenya, FxJj20 at

3446:, because the large ape gut is used to synthesize fat by fermenting plant matter, which was replaced by dietary animal fat, allowing more energy to be diverted to brain growth. This would have increased brain size indirectly while maintaining the same caloric requirements of ancestor species. 3192:—an extended childhood and long period of dependency due to the great amount of time required for brain maturation—evolved much later in human evolution, perhaps in the modern human/Neanderthal last common ancestor. It was previously believed that, based on the narrow pelvis of Turkana boy, 6421:

Husson, Laurent; Salles, Tristan; Lebatard, Anne-Elisabeth; Zerathe, Swann; Braucher, Régis; Noerwidi, Sofwan; Aribowo, Sonny; Mallard, Claire; Carcaillet, Julien; Natawidjaja, Danny H.; Bourlès, Didier; ASTER team; Aumaitre, Georges; Bourlès, Didier; Keddadouche, Karim (8 November 2022).

765:("upright apeman") in 1893. He attempted unsuccessfully to convince the European scientific community that he had found an upright-walking ape-man. Given few fossils of ancient humans had even been discovered at the time, they largely dismissed his findings as a malformed non-human ape. 8152:

Zanolli, Clément; Kullmer, Ottmar; Kelley, Jay; Bacon, Anne-Marie; Demeter, Fabrice; Dumoncel, Jean; Fiorenza, Luca; Grine, Frederick E.; Hublin, Jean-Jacques; Nguyen, Anh Tuan; Nguyen, Thi Mai Huong; Pan, Lei; Schillinger, Burkhard; Schrenk, Friedemann; Skinner, Matthew M. (May 2019).

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were comparable to those of modern humans. However, this is not indicative of anything in terms of speech capability as even large chimpanzees can have similarly expanded Broca's area, and it is unclear if these areas served as language centers in archaic humans. A 1-year-old

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sample. And this increase in the upper limit seems to be more pronounced in northern populations – which may be a result of correlated increases in body size in addition to climatic factors. Consequently, the authors argue that purely based on brain size similarities, Asian

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of the Old World, likely because he thought of orangutans as primitive humans rather than apes. While Darwin considered Africa as the most probable birthplace of human ancestors, he also made the following statement about the geographic location of human origins in his book

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sites, calculated a DEE of 2,700–3,400 kcal of which 27–44% derived from fat, and 44–62% of the fat from animal sources. In comparison, modern humans with a similar activity level have a DEE of 2,450 calories, of which 33% derives from fat, and 49% of the fat from animals.

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destroys food-borne pathogens, which would have increased the environment's natural carrying capacity, allowing group size to expand, causing selective pressure for sociality, requiring greater brain function. However, the fossil record does not associate the emergence of

4287:) would not have impeded vocalisation or speech production. However, in 2013 and 2014, anthropologist Regula Schiess and colleagues concluded that there is no evidence of any congenital defects in Turkana boy, and considered the specimen representative of the species. 4130:

with geometric markings could possibly be evidence of the earliest art-making, dating back to 546–436 kya. Art-making capabilities could be considered evidence of symbolic thinking, which is associated with modern cognition and behavior. In 1976, American archeologist

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or a rough hut. Some modern-day nomadic tribes build similar low-lying rock walls to build temporary shelters upon, bending upright branches as poles and using grasses or animal hide as a screen. Dating to 1.75 Mya, it is the oldest claimed evidence of architecture.

3719:, Kenya 1.76 Mya. Oldowan lithics are also known from the site, and the two seemed to coexist for some time. The earliest records of Acheulean technology outside of Africa date to no older than 1 Mya, indicating it only became widespread after some secondary 4222:, and smashed open the skulls and ate the brains of their victims. However, scavenging animals and natural forces such as flooding can also inflict the same kind of damage to skulls, and there is not enough evidence to suggest manhunting or cannibalism. 4198:, it is contested if body paint was used so early in time. Further, it is unclear if these few examples are not simply isolated incidents of ochre use, as ochre is much more prevalent in Middle and Upper Paleolithic sites attributed to Neanderthals and 2325:(Gabounia 1991): This hypothetical subspecific designation unites the D2600 cranium with the remainder of the Dmanisi sample, a connection that was, at the time, controversial and was only suggested if the single-species hypothesis could be proven true. 4159:

to resemble a human form. They were mostly formed by natural weathering, but slightly modified to emphasize certain grooves to suggest hairline, limbs, and eyes. The former has traces of pigments on the front side, possibly indicating it was colored.

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specimen shows that this species lacked an extended childhood required for greater brain development, indicating lower cognitive capabilities. A few sites, likely due to occupation over several generations, features hand axes en masse, such as at

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at the base of the skull, by-and-large lack of preserved facial aspects, an apparently consistent pattern of breaking on the mandible, and a lack of post-cranial remains (elements that are not the skull). He believed that the inhabitants were

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as early as 1.4~2.5 Mya. As with many isolated island systems, bats are the only mammals native to Socotra. The Socotran pipistrelle (Hypsugo lanzai) is the only species of bat, and mammal in general, thought to be endemic to the island.

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individuals found and thousands of tools recovered. Most of these remains were lost during World War 2, with the exception of two postcranial elements that were rediscovered in China in 1951 and four human teeth from 'Dragon Bone Hill'.

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food collecting strategy as a response to the increasing dependence on meat. With an emphasis on teamwork, division of labor, and food sharing, hunting and gathering was a dramatically different subsistence strategy from previous modes.

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Based on an average mass of 63 kg (139 lb) for males and 52.3 kg (115 lb) for females, the daily energy expenditure (DEE)—the amount of calories metabolized in one day—was estimated to be about 2271.8 and 1909.5

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in line with general trends exhibited in primates. Size, nonetheless, ranged widely from 146–185 cm (4 ft 9 in – 6 ft 1 in) in height and 40–68 kg (88–150 lb) in weight. It is unclear if

690:, many late-19th century evolutionary naturalists postulated that Asia, not Africa, was the birthplace of humankind as it is midway between Europe and America, providing optimal dispersal routes throughout the world (the 4014:, the earliest example of severe chewing impairment, yet still survived for several years afterwards. However, it is possible australopithecines were capable of caring for debilitated group members. Unable to chew, this 4250:

indicated that this individual did not have properly developed respiratory muscles in order to produce speech. In 2001, American anthropologists Bruce Latimer and James Ohman concluded that Turkana boy was afflicted by

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specimen from Java, who died at about 1 year of age, presented 72–84% of the average adult brain size, which is more similar to the faster brain growth trajectory of great apes than modern humans. This indicates that

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Migration into the frigid climate of Ice Age Europe may have only been possible because of fire, but evidence of fire usage in Europe until about 400–300,000 years ago is notably absent. If these early European

3155:, which is typically exacerbated in dark-skinned people living in higher latitudes due to vitamin D deficiency. Hairlessness is generally thought to have facilitated sweating, but reduction of parasite load and 10186: 5643: 5368:

Dembo M, Radovčić D, Garvin HM, Laird MF, Schroeder L, Scott JE, et al. (August 2016). "The evolutionary relationships and age of Homo naledi: An assessment using dated Bayesian phylogenetic methods".

4038:(pain running down the leg), and likely restricted Turkana boy in walking, bending, and other daily activities. The specimen appears to have survived into adolescence, which evidences advanced group care. 4018:

individual probably ate soft plant or animal foods possibly with assistance from other group members. High-latitude groups are thought to have been predominantly carnivorous, eating soft tissue such as

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Kaifu Y, Aziz F, Indriati E, Jacob T, Kurniawan I, Baba H (October 2008). "Cranial morphology of Javanese Homo erectus: new evidence for continuous evolution, specialization, and terminal extinction".

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Lordkipanidze D, Ponce de León MS, Margvelashvili A, Rak Y, Rightmire GP, Vekua A, Zollikofer CP (October 2013). "A complete skull from Dmanisi, Georgia, and the evolutionary biology of early Homo".

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Antón, Susan C.; Taboada, Hannah G.; Middleton, Emily R.; Rainwater, Christopher W.; Taylor, Andrea B.; Turner, Trudy R.; Turnquist, Jean E.; Weinstein, Karen J.; Williams, Scott A. (5 July 2016).

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Antón, Susan C.; Taboada, Hannah G.; Middleton, Emily R.; Rainwater, Christopher W.; Taylor, Andrea B.; Turner, Trudy R.; Turnquist, Jean E.; Weinstein, Karen J.; Williams, Scott A. (5 July 2016).

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associated with Achuelian lithics were found in northwestern Africa, the earliest disc beads ever found, and Acheulian disc beads have also been found in France and Israel. The Middle Pleistocene "

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d'Errico F, Moreno RG, Rifkin RF (2012). "Technological, elemental and colorimetric analysis of an engraved ochre fragment from the Middle Stone Age levels of Klasies River Cave 1, South Africa".

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Hlubik S, Berna F, Feibel C, Braun D (2017). "Researching the Nature of Fire at 1.5 Mya on the Site of FxJj20 AB, Koobi Fora, Kenya, Using High-Resolution Spatial Analysis and FTIR Spectrometry".

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maintain fires in certain settings in the landscapes and prepared food some distance away from home, meaning evidence of fire and evidence of hominin activity are spaced far apart. Alternatively,

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was a gigantic species, thickened bone required to support the massive weight. It was hypothesized that intense physical activity could have induced bone thickening, but in 1970, human biologist

3127:, which would produce dark skin, dates back to 1.2 Mya. This could indicate the evolution of hairlessness around this time, as a lack of body hair would have left the skin exposed to harmful 3442:

and therefore an increase in protein consumption through insects has also been proposed as a possible cause. However, it is also possible that the energy-expensive guts decreased in size in

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periods—thus not requiring fire, food storage, or clothing technology— and their dispersal patterns indicate they generally stayed in warmer lower-to-middle latitudes. It is debated if the

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females, possibly due to an increased body size and a decreased growth rate. A 2011 study, assuming high energy or dietary fat requirements based on the abundance of large game animals at

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Kaifu Y, Baba H, Aziz F, Indriati E, Schrenk F, Jacob T (December 2005). "Taxonomic affinities and evolutionary history of the Early Pleistocene hominids of Java: dentognathic evidence".

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Curnoe D (June 2010). "A review of early Homo in southern Africa focusing on cranial, mandibular and dental remains, with the description of a new species (Homo gautengensis sp. nov.)".

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brain size varies from 546–1,251 cc (33.3–76.3 cu in), which is greater than the range of variation seen in modern humans and chimps, though less than that of gorillas.

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and Trinil. Spherical stones, measuring 6–12 cm (2.4–4.7 in) in diameter, are frequently found in African and Chinese Lower Paleolithic sites, and were potentially used as

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populations, brain development seemed to cease early in childhood, suggesting that offspring were largely self-sufficient at birth, thus limiting cognitive development through life.

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Ni, Xijun; Ji, Qiang; Wu, Wensheng; Shao, Qingfeng; Ji, Yannan; Zhang, Chi; Liang, Lei; Ge, Junyi; Guo, Zhen; Li, Jinhua; Li, Qiang; Grün, Rainer; Stringer, Chris (28 August 2021).

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Joordens JC, d'Errico F, Wesselingh FP, Munro S, de Vos J, Wallinga J, et al. (February 2015). "Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving".

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Zaim Y, Ciochon RL, Polanski JM, Grine FE, Bettis EA, Rizal Y, et al. (October 2011). "New 1.5 million-year-old Homo erectus maxilla from Sangiran (Central Java, Indonesia)".

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Rizal Y, Westaway KE, Zaim Y, van den Bergh GD, Bettis EA, Morwood MJ, et al. (January 2020). "Last appearance of Homo erectus at Ngandong, Java, 117,000-108,000 years ago".

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mouth was less capable of processing hard foods and more at shearing through tougher foods, thus reducing the variety of foods it could process, likely as a response to tool use.

2571:(Dubois 1921): A species established by Eugene Dubois based on the Wajak skulls. Pramujiono classified these materials as a subspecies, and incorrectly self-published the name as 12192:

Schiess R, Haeusler M (March 2013). "No skeletal dysplasia in the Nariokotome boy KNM-WT 15000 (Homo erectus)--a reassessment of congenital pathologies of the vertebral column".

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Reconstitution et position phylétique des restes crâniens de l'Homme de Tautavel (Arago 21-47) et de Biache-Saint-Vaast 2. Apports de l'imagerie et de l'analyse tridimensionnelle

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In an article published in 2021 titled "Interpopulational variation in human brain size: Implications for hominin cognitive phylogeny," it was found that the brain size of Asian

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with most of the increase occurring in northern populations, which has the result of obscuring interpopulational variation. As the authors write '...the increase in the mean of

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It is largely unclear when clothing was invented, with the earliest estimate stretching as far back as 3 Mya to compensate for a lack of insulating body hair. It is known that

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Carotenuto F, Tsikaridze N, Rook L, Lordkipanidze D, Longo L, Condemi S, Raia P (June 2016). "Venturing out safely: The biogeography of Homo erectus dispersal out of Africa".

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or chewing, meaning their jaws could produce unusually powerful stresses while eating, but the practical application of this is unclear. Nonetheless, the mandibular bodies of

2184:), but there is no clear consensus on what these characteristics are or if they are indeed limited to only Asia. Based on supposed derived characteristics, the 120 kya Javan 3402:

may have lived in large, multi-male groups in order to defend against large savanna predators in the open and exposed environment. However, dispersal patterns indicate that

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de Lumley H, Boone Y (1976). "Les structures d'habitat au Paléolithique moyen" [Housing structures from the lower Paleolithic]. In de Lumley H, Guilaine J (eds.).

2091:, Georgia has the smallest brain capacity of any known Pleistocene hominin (about 600 cc), and its inclusion in the species would greatly expand the range of variation of 2007:. However, later Sangiran teeth seem to reduce in size, which could indicate a secondary colonization event of Java by the Zhoukoudian or some closely related population. 835:. Early in the century, due in part to the discoveries at Java and Zhoukoudian, the belief that modern humans first evolved in Asia was widely accepted. A few naturalists— 5129: 8275:

Argue D, Groves CP, Lee MS, Jungers WL (June 2017). "The affinities of Homo floresiensis based on phylogenetic analyses of cranial, dental, and postcranial characters".

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Argue D, Groves CP, Lee MS, Jungers WL (June 2017). "The affinities of Homo floresiensis based on phylogenetic analyses of cranial, dental, and postcranial characters".

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Joordens JC, Wesselingh FP, de Vos J, Vonhof HB, Kroon D (December 2009). "Relevance of aquatic environments for hominins: a case study from Trinil (Java, Indonesia)".

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1977): Based on hominin remains that Antón and Middleton (2023) suggest do not belong to the taxon H. erectus, although they do not provide an alternate classification.

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Kappelman J, Alçiçek MC, Kazanci N, Schultz M, Ozkul M, Sen S (January 2008). "First Homo erectus from Turkey and implications for migrations into temperate Eurasia".

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fossils have also been reported from nearby caves, but their species designation has been a tumultuous discussion. A few North African sites have additionally yielded

3549:. The large animals were likely scavenged at this site, but the turtles and fish were possibly collected live. In East Africa between 2.0 and 1.4 Mya, carcasses of C 2937:

over the last 600,000 years overlaps significantly with modern human populations. Significantly, some small brained modern populations showed greater affinity with

3261:(the outer layer of the bone) is extraordinarily thickened, particularly in East Asian populations. The skullcaps have oftentimes been confused with fossil turtle 5576:

Zohar, Irit; Alperson-Afil, Nira; Goren-Inbar, Naama; Prévost, Marion; Tütken, Thomas; Sisma-Ventura, Guy; Hershkovitz, Israel; Najorka, Jens (14 November 2022).

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Krantz, G.S. (1975). "An explanation for the diastema of Javan erectus Skull IV". In: Paleoanthropology, Morphology and Paleoecology. La Hague: Mouton, 361–372.

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Hao L, Chao Rong L, Kuman K (2017). "Longgudong, an Early Pleistocene site in Jianshi, South China, with stratigraphic association of human teeth and lithics".

5158: 12605:

Zanolli, Clément, et al. "Inner Tooth Morphology of Homo Erectus from Zhoukoudian. New Evidence from an Old Collection Housed at Uppsala University, Sweden."

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Zhu Z, Dennell R, Huang W, Wu Y, Qiu S, Yang S, et al. (July 2018). "Hominin occupation of the Chinese Loess Plateau since about 2.1 million years ago".

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In 1962, a 366 cm × 427 cm × 30 cm (12 ft × 14 ft × 1 ft) circle made with volcanic rocks was discovered in

6027:, Gathogo PN, Brown FH, Antón SC, McDougall I, et al. (August 2007). "Implications of new early Homo fossils from Ileret, east of Lake Turkana, Kenya". 3870:

The earliest evidence of cave habitation is Wonderwerk Cave, South Africa, about 1.6 Mya, but evidence of cave use globally is sporadic until about 600 kya.

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and modern humans and that, for the last 300,000 years, increasing intelligence has not been a major influencer of cultural evolution. However, a 1 year old

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It is largely unclear what function this could have served. All pathological inducers would leave scarring or some other indicator not normally exhibited in

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Capasso L, Michetti E, D'Anastasio R (December 2008). "A Homo erectus hyoid bone: possible implications for the origin of the human capability for speech".

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said that many hand axes exhibit no wear and were produced en masse, and concluded that these symmetrical, tear-drop shaped lithics functioned primarily as

721:. Because no directed expedition had ever discovered human fossils (the few known had all been discovered by accident), and the economy was strained by the 6370:

Asfaw B, Gilbert WH, Beyene Y, Hart WK, Renne PR, WoldeGabriel G, et al. (March 2002). "Remains of Homo erectus from Bouri, Middle Awash, Ethiopia".

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which localizes in that region when significant force is applied through the front teeth, such as while using the mouth as a third hand to carry objects.

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never adjusted. In 1985, American paleoanthropologist Mary Doria Russell and colleagues argued the supraorbital torus is a response to withstanding major

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Patterson, D. B.; Braun, D. R.; Behrensmeyer, A. K.; Merritt, S.; Zliobaite, I.; Reeves, J. S.; Wood, B. A.; Fortelius, M.; Bobe, R. (1 September 2017).

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specimen shows that an extended childhood to allow for brain growth, which is a prerequisite in language acquisition, was not exhibited in this species.

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Lordkipanidze D, Vekua A, Ferring R, Rightmire GP, Agusti J, Kiladze G, et al. (April 2005). "Anthropology: the earliest toothless hominin skull".

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generally avoided areas with high carnivore density. It is possible that male–male bonding and male–female friendships were important societal aspects.

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Coqueugniot H, Hublin JJ, Veillon F, Houët F, Jacob T (September 2004). "Early brain growth in Homo erectus and implications for cognitive ability".

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cranial capacity is to a large extent due to an increase in the upper limit with a much less pronounced increase in the lower limit relative to our

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Plavcan JM (2012). "Implications of Male and Female Contributions to Sexual Size Dimorphism for Inferring Behavior in the Hominin Fossil Record".

3597:

with fire usage nor with any technological breakthrough for that matter, and cooking likely did not become a common practice until after 400 kya.

15964: 15785: 15526: 15122: 13862: 9987:

Willems EP, van Schaik CP (August 2017). "The social organization of Homo ergaster: Inferences from anti-predator responses in extant primates".

9017:

Simpson SW, Quade J, Levin NE, Butler R, Dupont-Nivet G, Everett M, Semaw S (November 2008). "A female Homo erectus pelvis from Gona, Ethiopia".

4363:

Cave is like that of modern humans, and another specimen from the same area shows an auditory capacity sensitive enough to pick up human speech.

9292: 784:, China. Black lobbied across North America and Europe for funding to continue excavating the site, which has since become the most productive 3313:

condition in modern humans induced by hyper-apposition. In 1985, biological anthropologist Gail Kennedy argued for resorption as a result of

1908:

about 2 Mya, though this has been called into question because they coexisted for at least a half a million years. Alternatively, a group of

9770:

Steudel-Numbers KL (November 2006). "Energetics in Homo erectus and other early hominins: the consequences of increased lower-limb length".

8088:"BERBAGAI PANDANGAN ASAL BANGSA DAN BAHASA INDONESIA: DARI KAJIAN LINGUSITIK HISTORIS KOMPARATIF SAMPAI ARKEOLINGUISTIK DAN PALEOLINGUISTIK" 2445:

database to be a conditional proposal and thus not available for valid reuse under the ICZN. Groves (1989) classified it as a subspecies of

15741: 15250: 9149:"Rightmire GP. The Evolution of Homo Erectus: Comparative Anatomical Studies of an Extinct Human Species. Cambridge University Press; 1990" 5423: 4351:

and built the basic framework which fully fledged languages would eventually be built around. However, this ancestor may have instead been

2815:

in contrast to earlier interpretations of it as a giant species of early human although older literature has placed the fossils outside of

2442: 9949:

Russell MD, Brown T, Garn SM, Giris F, Turkel S, İşcan MY, et al. (1985). "The Supraorbital Torus: 'A Most Remarkable Peculiarity'".

9824:"Man the fat hunter: the demise of Homo erectus and the emergence of a new hominin lineage in the Middle Pleistocene (ca. 400 kyr) Levant" 3610:, possibly due to overhunting as the turtle would have been an easy, slow-moving target which could have been stored for quite some time. 3070:

with a cranial capacities of 1000 cc and 700 cc. It is unclear if sexual dimorphism is at play here since the remains are fragmentary. If

3066:

record is a few samples taken in Olduvai Gorge. In 1960, in Olduvai Gorge two skulls identified as OH12 and OH9, were found to be that of

6718: 13710: 11217:"Levantine cave dwellers: geographic and environmental aspects of early humans use of caves, case study from Wadi Amud, northern Israel" 2176:, or some hybrid between the two, was the immediate ancestor of other archaic humans and modern humans. It has been proposed that Asian 15573: 15024: 5033:. Contemporary groups appear to have been interbreeding, so any phylogeny like this only gives a coarse impression of the evolution of 3778:. Artificial lighting may have also made sleeping on the ground instead of the trees possible by keeping terrestrial predators at bay. 2978:

of any Plio–Pleistocene hominin. Enamel prevents the tooth from breaking from hard foods but impedes shearing through tough foods. The

1713: 4459:

The lower cave of China's Zhoukoudian Cave is one of the most important archaeological sites worldwide. There have been remains of 45

3803:, Northern China, were capable of controlling fires as early as 770 kya to stay warm in what may have been a relatively cold climate. 808:

provided much of the detailed description of the Chinese specimens in several monographs. The original specimens were lost during the

13098: 13058: 12621:

Copes, Lynn E., and William H. Kimbel. "Cranial Vault Thickness in Primates: Homo Erectus Does Not Have Uniquely Thick Vault Bones."

11597: 5103: 3705: 1583: 7448:"Anatomical descriptions, comparative studies and evolutionary significance of the hominin skulls from Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia" 3827:. At 61–76 cm (2–2.5 ft) intervals, rocks were piled up to 15–23 cm (6–9 in) high. British palaeoanthropologist 15938: 13950: 13794: 13108: 11681:

Henshilwood CS, d'Errico F, Watts I (July 2009). "Engraved ochres from the Middle Stone Age levels at Blombos Cave, South Africa".

6348: 1603: 972: 506:, with its earliest occurrence about 2 million years ago. Its specimens are among the first recognizable members of the genus 13011: 12228: 2527:(Czarnetzki 1989): Referring to a single cranial fragment, this subspecies is now considered a member of the Neanderthal lineage. 16147: 11760: 16162: 16142: 16112: 16072: 13852: 13103: 2459:(Arambourg 1954): A subspecies that received limited use as a descriptor for the cranial and mandibular material discovered at 1563: 691: 13006: 11386: 10595:

Lepre CJ, Roche H, Kent DV, Harmand S, Quinn RL, Brugal JP, et al. (August 2011). "An earlier origin for the Acheulian".

7823:"Homo erectus newyorkensis: An Indonesian fossil rediscovered in Manhattan sheds light on the middle phase of human evolution" 5478: 3905:

Acheulean artifacts discovered on isolated islands that were never connected to land in the Pleistocene may show seafaring by

13857: 13735: 13113: 12288: 11964: 11935: 11818: 10486: 10457: 9612: 7256: 7210: 6936: 6909: 5843: 5808: 5775: 5219: 5144: 4194:

and to think beyond simply survival. Later human species are postulated to have used ochre as body paint, but in the case of

3123:

It is largely unclear when human ancestors lost most of their body hair. Genetic analysis suggests that high activity in the

12981: 9277:

Roach, & Richmond. (2015). "Clavicle length, throwing performance and the reconstruction of the Homo erectus shoulder".

5865:

Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences

4213:

were members of some Lower Paleolithic Skull Cult because the skulls all showed fatal blows to the head, breaking in of the

3967:

is dated between 771,000 and 631,000 years ago. Because Luzon has always been an island in the Quaternary, the ancestors of

3353:

skull, a result of a ritual popular in central and southeast Australian tribes where adversaries would wack each other with

3116:, but this has since been revised, and the specimen is now considered to have exhibited a humanlike curvature of the spine ( 16137: 14020: 2583:(Huang and Fang 1991): Originally conceived as a hominin, the remains this taxon is founded on are more likely referred to 933: 8420:

Baba H, Aziz F, Kaifu Y, Suwa G, Kono RT, Jacob T (February 2003). "Homo erectus calvarium from the Pleistocene of Java".

7877: 5037:, and extinct lineage may have partially continued in other groupings. Not included are other contemporary groups such as 4338:—but is devoid of muscle impressions, has a shield-shaped body, and is implied to have had reduced greater horns, meaning 140: 13814: 9148: 7642: 4105: 3092:

had about the same limb configurations and proportions as modern humans, implying humanlike locomotion, the first in the

9341:

Rogers AR, Iltis D, Wooding S (2004). "Genetic Variation at the MC1R Locus and the Time since Loss of Human Body Hair".

7399:

Gabounia, Léo; de Lumley, Marie-Antoinette; Vekua, Abesalom; Lordkipanidze, David; de Lumley, Henry (1 September 2002).

3143:

which inhabited lower, hotter elevations. Populations in higher latitudes potentially developed lighter skin to prevent

16057: 13923: 13030: 10929:

Beaumont PB (2011). "The Edge: More on Fire-Making by about 1.7 Million Years Ago at Wonderwerk Cave in South Africa".

9595:

Pagel M, Bodmer W (2004). "The Evolution of Human Hairlessness: Cultural Adaptations and the Ectoparasite Hypothesis".

8756: 5426:, Setiyabudi E, et al. (June 2016). "Homo floresiensis-like fossils from the early Middle Pleistocene of Flores". 5084: 4061:). Livestock that grazes on volcanic ash ridden fields typically die of acute intoxication within a few days or weeks. 12769:

Herries AI, Martin JM, Leece AB, Adams JW, Boschian G, Joannes-Boyau R, et al. (April 2020). "Contemporaneity of

2902:

is about 1,000 cc (61 cu in). However, markedly smaller specimens have been found in Dmanisi, Georgia (

2371:

during the middle 20th century, interpreted as a European chronospecies of the wider Middle Pleistocene hominin morph.

768:

The significance of these fossils would not be realized until the 1927 discovery of what Canadian paleoanthropologist

15151: 14057: 13789: 12956: 11172: 11145: 10812: 9082: 8766: 6864: 6741: 3844: 3816: 2676: 1931:

are found in both Africa and East Asia (in China as early as 2.1 Mya, in South Africa 2.04 Mya), it is debated where

15358: 15245: 13981: 12178:

Language and empathy in Homo erectus: Behaviors suggested by a modern spinal cord from Dmanisi, but not Nariokotome

11886:

d'Errico F, Nowell A (2000). "A New Look at the Berekhat Ram Figurine: Implications for the Origins of Symbolism".

4471:

does not have uniquely thick vault bones, as was previously thought. Testing showed that neither Asian nor African

2215: 1543: 11981: 10652: 4057:

caused by ingestion of food contaminated by fluorine-filled volcanic ash (as the specimen was found in ash-filled

839:

the most prominent among them—theorized that humans' earliest ancestors were African. Darwin had pointed out that

15770: 15161: 14199: 14013: 13933: 13829: 8468:"Are thickened cranial bones and equal participation of the three structural bone layers autapomorphic traits of 6783: 5239: 4267:

specimen as having a spine within the range of variation of modern human spines, contending that Turkana boy had

3749: 2879: 2854:

featured a flat face compared to earlier hominins; pronounced brow ridge; and a low, flat skull. The presence of

1753: 153: 31: 8363: 16157: 16077: 13928: 13229: 12905: 6713: 5214: 3108:. A humanlike shoulder suggests an ability for high speed throwing. It was once thought that Turkana boy had 6 2658: 730: 9379:

Gilligan I (2010). "The Prehistoric Development of Clothing: Archaeological Implications of a Thermal Model".

8318:

Kennedy KA, Sonakia A, Chiment J, Verma KK (December 1991). "Is the Narmada hominid an Indian Homo erectus?".

7668: 3929:), at least before 800 kya. It is also possible they were the first European mariners as well and crossed the 2925: 16127: 16117: 16097: 16067: 15383: 14913: 14173: 13051: 3537:

Basin, Kenya, the inhabitants ate (alongside the usual bovids, hippos, and rhinos) aquatic creatures such as

2654: 726: 674: 24: 14241: 12542:

Raia P, Mondanaro A, Melchionna M, Di Febbraro M, Diniz-Filho JA, Rangel TF, et al. (23 October 2020).

11161:

Ingold T (2000). "Building, dwelling, living: how animals and people make themselves at home in the world".

11101: 10438:

Chelonians". In Rhodin A, Pritchard P, van Dijk PP, Saumure R, Buhlmann K, Iverson J, Mittermeier R (eds.).

3438:

Increasing brain size is often directly associated with a meatier diet and resultant higher caloric intake.

3417:

likely did not exhibit the same degree of maternal investment or child-rearing behaviours as modern humans.

2990:, are thicker than those of modern humans and all living apes. The mandibular body resists torsion from the 2196:, but this has been challenged because most of the basic cranial features are maintained. In a wider sense, 804:(Java Man) in 1937. The Sangiran site yielded the best preserved Java Man skull. German paleoanthropologist 16122: 16107: 16102: 15378: 14918: 14391: 13799: 13676: 13562: 13022: 12384:"Human hyoid bones from the middle Pleistocene site of the Sima de los Huesos (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain)" 8113:. Multidisciplinary Perspectives on the Gigantopithecus Fauna and Quaternary Biostratigraphy in East Asia. 1193: 965: 14067: 10444:. Chelonian Research Monographs. Vol. 5 (First ed.). Chelonian Research Foundation. p. 15. 7044:"Three new human skulls from the Sima de los Huesos Middle Pleistocene site in Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain" 5703:

Yen HP (2014). "Evolutionary Asiacentrism, Peking man, and the origins of sinocentric ethno-nationalism".

3078: 16152: 16024: 14344: 13993: 13897: 13715: 13236: 13090: 12990: 9544:

Best A, Kamilar JM (April 2018). "The evolution of eccrine sweat glands in human and nonhuman primates".

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Soriano M (January 1970). "The fluoric origin of the bone lesion in the Pithecanthropus erectus femur".

10400:"Earliest fire in Africa: Towards the convergence of archaeological evidence and the cooking hypothesis" 7573:"Le statut phylogénétique d'Homo heidelbergensis – étude cladistique des homininés du Pléistocène moyen" 16132: 16092: 16087: 16082: 16062: 16010: 15646: 15447: 13755: 13686: 13222: 13215: 13208: 12517: 11137: 10286: 9416:"Bipedality and hair loss in human evolution revisited: The impact of altitude and activity scheduling" 5092: 5065: 4127: 4087: 4046: 2563:(Sartono 1976): A tentative classification scheme, thus making the name conditional and unable for use. 1646: 1380: 1372: 1364: 12836:"Massive cranium from Harbin in northeastern China establishes a new Middle Pleistocene human lineage" 10545:"The origins of the Acheulean: past and present perspectives on a major transition in human evolution" 9219:

Hatala KG, Roach NT, Ostrofsky KR, Wunderlich RE, Dingwall HL, Villmoare BA, et al. (July 2016).

8106: 7447: 7400: 7042:

Arsuaga, Juan-Luis; Martínez, Ignacio; Gracia, Ana; Carretero, José-Miguel; Carbonell, Eudald (1993).

6996: 6296:

Augusti J, Lordkipanidze D (June 2011). "How "African" was the early human dispersal out of Africa?".

3131:. It is possible that exposed skin only became maladaptive in the Pleistocene, because the increasing 2491:(Sartono 1976): A name that was used in the process of splitting Pithecanthropus into many subspecies. 2219:(Vlček 1978): Originally described from a series of skulls from Bilzingsleben, with the individual of 15452: 15267: 13938: 13730: 12277:

Luef EM (2018). "Tracing the human brain's classical language areas in extant and extinct hominids".

11506:"Living to fight another day: The ecological and evolutionary significance of Neanderthal healthcare" 10243:"Ecosystem evolution and hominin paleobiology at East Turkana, northern Kenya between 2.0 and 1.4 Ma" 7694: 3525: 3325:

deficiency), a consequence of a dietary shift to low-calcium meat. Kennedy could not explain why the

1484: 713:, so no fossils could be found to prove this. Nevertheless, Haeckel's model inspired Dutch scientist 13720: 12280:

The talking species: Perspectives on the evolutionary, neuronal and cultural foundations of language

6843:

Lordkipanidze D (4 October 2018). "Dmanisi". In Trevathan W, Cartmill M, Dufour D, Larsen C (eds.).

6215: 15641: 14733: 14278: 13969: 13272: 13044: 4387: 3517: 3466: 2883: 2030:

in 1893, there has been a trend in paleoanthropology of reducing the number of proposed species of

809: 14805: 14800: 11344: 8105:

Wei, Guangbiao; Huang, Wanbo; Chen, Shaokun; He, Cunding; Pang, Libo; Wu, Yan (15 December 2014).

7338:"Comment on "A Complete Skull from Dmanisi, Georgia, and the Evolutionary Biology of Early Homo "" 5315:

Herries AI, Martin JM, Leece AB, Adams JW, Boschian G, Joannes-Boyau R, et al. (April 2020).

3281:). This degree of thickening is usually exhibited in semi-aquatic animals which used their heavy ( 3214:, despite a marked increase in activity and migratory capacity, likely because the longer legs of 15758: 15668: 14840: 14607: 14426: 14359: 14091: 13907: 13844: 13804: 13691: 13250: 13026: 12637:"The Sambungmacan 3 Homo erectus calvaria: a comparative morphometric and morphological analysis" 11287: 11188:

Sklenář K (1987). "The Lower Paleolithic Dwelling Structure at Přezletice and its Significance".

9293:"New vertebral and rib material point to modern bauplan of the Nariokotome Homo erectus skeleton" 8633:

Antón SC, Taboada HG, Middleton ER, Rainwater CW, Taylor AB, Turner TR, et al. (July 2016).

5061: 3831:

suggested the rock piles were used to support poles stuck into the ground, possibly to support a

3124: 2942:

the fact that some modern populations have not seen any dramatic brain size increase relative to

2870:

lines, has been proposed to be evidence of significant thickening of the skull, specifically the

2811:, based on fossils found in Java, dated to between 1.4 and 0.9 Mya, was tentatively grouped with 2647: 2337:

are contenders in taxonomy. Rukang (1992) notes that this taxon was born in a "subspecies fever".

1913: 1454: 958: 165: 15995: 10449: 4435:– climate they were adapted to – with no corresponding reduction in physical range, just before 3340:

In 2004, Noel Boaz and Russel Ciochon suggested it was a result of a cultural practice, wherein

3167: 2499:: A subspecies that described the OH 9 cranium, compared to the Bilzingsleben cranial fragments. 1669: 15969: 15916: 15878: 15846: 15720: 15326: 15217: 15205: 14901: 14642: 14481: 14118: 14052: 14036: 13902: 13877: 13872: 13765: 13681: 13243: 8791:"The Effects of Mortality, Subsistence, and Ecology on Human Adult Height and Implications for 8684:"Interpopulational variation in human brain size: Implications for hominin cognitive phylogeny" 4546: 4144: 4027: 3864: 3852: 3152: 2206: 1413: 698:, who argued that the first human species evolved on the now-disproven hypothetical continent " 621: 12744: 11925: 11240:"Origin of clothing lice indicates early clothing use by anatomically modern humans in Africa" 11162: 9072: 7281:"Making meaning from fragmentary fossils: Early Homo in the Early to early Middle Pleistocene" 7246: 3995: 3458: 1995:. Early teeth from Sangiran are bigger and more similar to those of basal (ancestral) Western 666: 16052: 15990: 15982: 15585: 15521: 15395: 15088: 15014: 14788: 14783: 14721: 14660: 14597: 14545: 14538: 14084: 13286: 12972: 11808: 11131: 8246:, or an altogether separate species. In 2017, it was suggested on morphological grounds that 4152: 4116: 3840: 3350: 3136: 3043: 2887: 2310: 1185: 729:

as a medical officer, and was able to secure a post in 1887 in the Indies to search for his "

301: 14970: 12544:"Past Extinctions of Homo Species Coincided with Increased Vulnerability to Climatic Change" 11442: 10802: 8741: 8503:"Cranial vault thickness in primates: Homo erectus does not have uniquely thick vault bones" 8004:

Oppenoorth, W.F.F. (1932). "Homo (Javanthropus) soloensis. Ein plistocene mensch van Java".

630:

males and females may have been roughly the same size as each other (i.e. exhibited reduced

15925: 15851: 15802: 15797: 15780: 15775: 15753: 15543: 15257: 15110: 15002: 14906: 14699: 14384: 14183: 14126: 13867: 13770: 13671: 13632: 13577: 13482: 13186: 13179: 12847: 12697: 12555: 12492: 12445: 12398: 12243: 11733: 11690: 11554: 11517: 11401: 11359: 10883: 10759: 10721: 10604: 10295: 10256: 10195: 10134: 10042: 9996: 9923: 9835: 9779: 9677: 9553: 9427: 9307: 9232: 9182: 9026: 8514: 8378: 8284: 8166: 8118: 8068: 7968: 7776:"Skull Cap of an Early Man from the Narmada Valley Alluvium (Pleistocene) of Central India" 7706: 7459: 7412: 7349: 7292: 7055: 7008: 6961: 6809: 6665: 6543: 6496: 6435: 6379: 6305: 6250: 6181: 6087: 6036: 5589: 5493: 5435: 5378: 5231: 4935: 4427: 3144: 2768: 2363: 2054: 1822: 1623: 1470: 1339: 1324: 916: 876: 14354: 12050: 11980:

Wreschner EE, Bolton R, Butzer KW, Delporte H, Häusler A, Heinrich A, et al. (1980).

10993: 10504:"A brief review of the archaeological evidence for Palaeolithic and Neolithic subsistence" 9471:

Jablonski NG (March 2012). "Human skin pigmentation as an example of adaptive evolution".

8364:"Evidence for increased hominid diversity in the Early to Middle Pleistocene of Indonesia" 8155:"Evidence for increased hominid diversity in the Early to Middle Pleistocene of Indonesia" 7112:"Review of The Nomenclature of the Hominidae, including a Definitive List of Hominid Taxa" 4186:

could have used ochre for any practical application, ochre collection might indicate that

2895:

smells come from (stereo olfaction) to facilitate navigation and long-distance migration.

2023:, but is now thought to be based upon fossilized fragments of an extinct non-hominin ape. 8: 15841: 15506: 15311: 15144: 14677: 14550: 14431: 14406: 13279: 12635:

Delson E, Harvati K, Reddy D, Marcus LF, Mowbray K, Sawyer GJ, et al. (April 2001).

12067:, Ho CK (1985). "Taphonomy at a Distance: Zhoukoudian, 'The Cave Home of Beijing Man'?". 8362:

Zanolli C, Kullmer O, Kelley J, Bacon AM, Demeter F, Dumoncel J, et al. (May 2019).

8061:

Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen Proceedings Series B Physical Sciences

4166:

was also the earliest human to have intentionally collected red-colored pigments, namely

3930: 3500:

would have had considerable leftovers, potentially pointing to food sharing or long-term

3314: 3301: 3282: 2544: 2479: 2388: 2333:: A name utilized in a 2007 review of Chinese archeology; the text suggests that it and 2223:

being referred. The material historically referred to this taxon are now affiliated with

699: 643:

was anatomically capable of speech, though it is postulated they communicated using some

635: 12851: 12701: 12686:"Dated co-occurrence of Homo erectus and Gigantopithecus from Tham Khuyen Cave, Vietnam" 12559: 12518:"Climate change likely drove early human species to extinction, modeling study suggests" 12449: 12434:"Auditory capacities in Middle Pleistocene humans from the Sierra de Atapuerca in Spain" 12402: 12247: 11953:

La Préhistoire française: Les civilisations paléolithiques et mésolithiques de la France

11737: 11694: 11558: 11521: 11405: 11363: 10969:"Identifying and Describing Pattern and Process in the Evolution of Hominin Use of Fire" 10887: 10763: 10725: 10608: 10549:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

10346:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

10299: 10260: 10199: 10138: 10046: 10000: 9927: 9839: 9783: 9681: 9557: 9431: 9311: 9236: 9186: 9030: 8639:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

8591:"The navigational nose: a new hypothesis for the function of the human external pyramid" 8518: 8382: 8288: 8170: 8122: 8072: 8056: 7972: 7710: 7463: 7416: 7353: 7296: 7059: 7012: 6965: 6813: 6669: 6547: 6500: 6439: 6383: 6309: 6254: 6185: 6091: 6040: 5833: 5593: 5497: 5439: 5382: 4136: 3476:

sites frequently are associated with assemblages of medium- to large-sized game, namely

2515:

and Nanjing may be referrable under this name if they exhibit enough discontinuity from

2261:: A name utilized in a 2007 review of Chinese archeology; the text suggests that it and 30:"Pithecanthropus erectus" redirects here. For the song and album by Charles Mingus, see 15792: 15695: 15597: 15410: 14592: 14322: 14288: 13824: 13666: 13542: 12935: 12876: 12835: 12816: 12666: 12359: 12332: 12134: 12092: 12084: 12012: 12004: 11903: 11863: 11838: 11780: 11628: 11578: 11425: 11385:

Détroit F, Mijares AS, Corny J, Daver G, Zanolli C, Dizon E, et al. (April 2019).

11371: 11325: 11264: 11239: 11197: 11082: 10998: 10946: 10906: 10871: 10845: 10783: 10690: 10628: 10569: 10544: 10419: 10366: 10341: 10218: 10181: 10157: 10122: 10103: 9966: 9858: 9823: 9701: 9645: 9577: 9480: 9448: 9415: 9396: 9358: 9255: 9220: 9130: 9050: 8989: 8952: 8933: 8869: 8836: 8814: 8659: 8634: 8445: 8402: 8198: 7914: 7858: 7803: 7600: 7553: 7381: 7178: 7131: 7087: 6870: 6775: 6689: 6638: 6569: 6464: 6423: 6403: 6352: 6273: 6238: 6197: 6154: 6111: 6060: 5898: 5814: 5728: 5621: 5517: 5477:

Détroit F, Mijares AS, Corny J, Daver G, Zanolli C, Dizon E, et al. (April 2019).

5459: 5294: 5148: 4360: 4348: 4299: 4252: 4132: 4054: 3937:

found no evidence of interbreeding with modern humans. Seafaring capability would show

3933:

between North Africa and Spain. A 2021 genetic analysis of these island populations of

3883: 3775: 3558: 3430:

female behavior which made it difficult for males to maintain a harem, and vice versa.

3326: 3322: 3075:

often identified in the possibility of determining sex such as lack of muscle marking.

2228: 1733: 644: 517: 330: 160: 12939: 12684:

Ciochon R, Long VT, Larick R, González L, Grün R, de Vos J, et al. (April 1996).

12468: 12433: 12432:

Martínez I, Rosa M, Arsuaga JL, Jarabo P, Quam R, Lorenzo C, et al. (July 2004).

12037:

Population of Choukoutien (Locality 1) with a Preliminary Report on New Discoveries".

11924:

Watts I (2014). "The red thread: pigment use and the evolution of collective ritual".

11454: 9935: 9747: 9720: 8893: 7822: 7424: 7337: 7020: 3061:), though there is not much fossil data regarding this. Brain size in two adults from 1800: 15977: 15834: 15824: 15814: 15763: 15420: 15338: 14632: 14617: 14602: 14582: 14473: 14452: 14263: 14106: 13988: 13943: 13809: 13750: 13740: 13511: 13475: 13329: 13123: 12952: 12918: 12910: 12881: 12863: 12820: 12808: 12725: 12720: 12685: 12658: 12583: 12473: 12414: 12364: 12313: 12284: 12278: 12259: 12209: 12176: 12138: 12096: 12030: 11960: 11931: 11907: 11868: 11854: 11814: 11784: 11706: 11663: 11620: 11570: 11429: 11417: 11269: 11216: 11168: 11141: 11058: 11039: 11002: 10968: 10950: 10911: 10849: 10808: 10775: 10620: 10574: 10525: 10482: 10475: 10453: 10423: 10399: 10371: 10311: 10223: 10162: 10068: 10012: 9970: 9885: 9863: 9795: 9752: 9693: 9608: 9569: 9526: 9488: 9453: 9400: 9362: 9323: 9260: 9198: 9088: 9078: 9042: 8994: 8976: 8925: 8917: 8874: 8856: 8837:"Morphological variation in Homo erectus and the origins of developmental plasticity" 8790: 8762: 8664: 8635:"Morphological variation in Homo erectus and the origins of developmental plasticity" 8612: 8571: 8532: 8437: 8406: 8394: 8335: 8300: 8202: 8190: 8182: 8134: 7986: 7957:"On the phylogenetic position of the pre-Neandertal specimen from Reilingen, Germany" 7906: 7850: 7842: 7795: 7730: 7722: 7592: 7545: 7514: 7483: 7475: 7428: 7373: 7365: 7318: 7310: 7252: 7206: 7170: 7123: 7079: 7071: 7024: 6977: 6932: 6905: 6889: 6874: 6860: 6825: 6761:"Dmanisi hominin fossils and the problem of multiple species in the early Homo genus" 6681: 6607: 6573: 6561: 6512: 6469: 6451: 6395: 6278: 6201: 6158: 6146: 6130: 6103: 6052: 5933: 5890: 5882: 5839: 5818: 5804: 5771: 5720: 5661: 5625: 5613: 5605: 5577: 5558: 5521: 5509: 5463: 5451: 5404: 5350: 5298: 5286: 5039: 4729: 4234: 4206: 4175: 4058: 3955: 3501: 3439: 3113: 3058: 3022: 2784: 2777: 2616: 2495: 2422: 2413: 2101: 2060: 2039: 805: 750: 718: 631: 556: 126: 12670: 12383: 12382:

Martínez I, Arsuaga JL, Quam R, Carretero JM, Gracia A, Rodríguez L (January 2008).

12016: 11632: 11582: 11530: 11505: 11086: 10107: 9649: 9221:"Footprints reveal direct evidence of group behavior and locomotion in Homo erectus" 9134: 9054: 8937: 8818: 8449: 8154: 7862: 7604: 7385: 6779: 6693: 6642: 6356: 6317: 6237:

Ferring R, Oms O, Agustí J, Berna F, Nioradze M, Shelia T, et al. (June 2011).

6115: 5902: 5732: 5578:"Evidence for the cooking of fish 780,000 years ago at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel" 4302:

areas (in charge of sentence formulation and speech production in modern humans) of

3882:

Reconstruction of Turkana boy with light clothing by Adrie and Alfons Kennis at the

3628: 3218:

were more energy-efficient in long-distance movement. Nonetheless, the estimate for

3031: 2245:", a taxon erected from a skull from South Africa formally classified as a type of " 15829: 15736: 15479: 15262: 15062: 14982: 14938: 14738: 14560: 14411: 14371: 13819: 13572: 13389: 13351: 13198: 13016: 12871: 12855: 12798: 12790: 12715: 12705: 12648: 12573: 12563: 12463: 12453: 12406: 12354: 12344: 12251: 12201: 12126: 12076: 12046: 11996: 11895: 11858: 11850: 11772: 11741: 11698: 11655: 11612: 11562: 11525: 11409: 11367: 11259: 11251: 11074: 11029: 10988: 10980: 10938: 10901: 10891: 10837: 10787: 10767: 10729: 10682: 10632: 10612: 10564: 10556: 10515: 10445: 10411: 10361: 10353: 10303: 10264: 10213: 10203: 10152: 10142: 10095: 10058: 10050: 10004: 9958: 9931: 9853: 9843: 9787: 9742: 9732: 9705: 9685: 9637: 9600: 9581: 9561: 9518: 9443: 9435: 9388: 9350: 9315: 9250: 9240: 9190: 9122: 9109:

Plavcan JM (2012). "Body Size, Size Variation, and Sexual Size Dimorphism in Early

9034: 8984: 8968: 8909: 8864: 8848: 8806: 8737: 8695: 8654: 8646: 8602: 8563: 8522: 8483: 8429: 8386: 8327: 8292: 8174: 8126: 7976: 7834: 7787: 7748: 7714: 7584: 7467: 7420: 7357: 7300: 7162: 7091: 7063: 7016: 6969: 6897: 6856: 6852: 6817: 6673: 6630: 6599: 6551: 6504: 6459: 6443: 6407: 6387: 6344: 6313: 6268: 6258: 6189: 6138: 6095: 6044: 6000: 5925: 5872: 5796: 5767: 5763: 5712: 5651: 5597: 5548: 5501: 5443: 5394: 5386: 5340: 5278: 5208: 5136: 5055: 4668: 4566: 4432: 4148: 4135:

asserted that engraved lines on an ox rib, associated with Acheulean lithics, from

4112: 4034:(abnormal curving of the spine). These usually cause recurrent lower back pain and 3946:

actually undercut this hypothesis. Such experiments presuppose cognition rivalling

3581: 3156: 2886:, at the rear of the skull is notably thicker than that of modern humans, likely a 2867: 2710: 2535:(Oppenoorth 1932): The original name devised by Oppenoorth for the Ngandong crania. 2351: 2321: 2069: 1992: 1405: 1354: 424: 130: 15321: 15277: 12996: 7791: 6926: 5800: 3839:

In Europe, evidence of constructed dwelling structures dating to or following the

3557:, featured increasingly prominently in the diet of these hominins. At the 1.5 Mya 827:

in 1950. Throughout much of the 20th century, anthropologists debated the role of

714: 359: 345: 321: 15710: 15680: 15442: 15370: 15348: 15306: 15201: 15171: 15036: 15031: 14682: 14565: 14136: 13626: 13599: 13497: 13455: 13067: 12985: 12978: 12568: 12543: 12410: 12255: 11702: 11616: 10415: 10307: 10269: 10242: 10054: 10008: 9848: 9791: 9604: 9565: 9439: 9319: 9194: 8527: 8502: 8296: 8130: 7933: 7619: 7471: 7305: 7280: 7227: 7200: 6973: 6901: 6821: 6508: 6239:"Earliest human occupations at Dmanisi (Georgian Caucasus) dated to 1.85-1.78 Ma" 6064: 6004: 5390: 5049: 4651: 4295: 4268: 4070: 3963: 3767: 3504:(such as by drying) if most of the kill was indeed utilized. It is possible that 3451: 3306: 3266: 3180: 3172: 3109: 2761: 2608: 1438: 1207: 1163: 832: 797: 722: 704: 575: 569: 5877: 5860: 3950:, despite the lack of evidence for such a premise. Instead, it may well be that 1965:), eventually evolving into modern humans in Africa. Others have suggested that 16036: 15819: 15746: 15568: 15533: 15464: 15353: 15225: 14933: 14518: 14508: 14329: 14310: 13446: 13150: 13136: 13075: 12859: 12690: