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him on his back, tying the hands to the sides and fastening the legs ... Soon comes the sacrificing priestâand this is no small office among themâarmed with a stone knife, which cuts like steel, and is as big as one of our large knives. He plunges the knife into the breast, opens it, and tears out the heart hot and palpitating. And this as quickly as one might cross himself. At this point the chief priest of the temple takes it, and anoints the mouth of the principal idol with the blood; then filling his hand with it he flings it towards the sun, or towards some star, if it be night. Then he anoints the mouths of all the other idols of wood and stone, and sprinkles blood on the cornice of the chapel of the principal idol. Afterwards they burn the heart, preserving the ashes as a great relic, and likewise they burn the body of the sacrifice, but these ashes are kept apart from those of the heart in a different vase.
1484:
continued to use these sources and claimed them as reliable. Ortiz qualifies Harner's sources as
Spanish propaganda, and states the need to critique primary sources of interactions with the Aztecs. By dehumanizing and villainizing Aztec culture, the Spaniards were able to justify their own actions for conquest. Therefore, encounters with sacrificial cannibalism were said to be grossly exaggerated and Harner used the sources to aid his argument. However, it is unlikely that the Spanish conquerors would need to invent additional cannibalism to justify their actions given that human sacrifice already existed, as attested by archeological evidence. Overall, ecological factors alone are not sufficient to account for human sacrifice and, more recently, it is posited that religious beliefs have a significant effect on motivation.
262:
385:
551:"), and the god of the north. The Aztecs believed that Tezcatlipoca created war to provide food and drink to the gods. Tezcatlipoca was known by several epithets including "the Enemy" and "the Enemy of Both Sides", which stress his affinity for discord. He was also deemed the enemy of Quetzalcoatl, but an ally of Huitzilopochtli. Tezcatlipoca had the power to forgive sins and to relieve disease, or to release a man from the fate assigned to him by his date of birth; however, nothing in Tezcatlipoca's nature compelled him to do so. He was capricious and often brought about reversals of fortune, such as bringing drought and famine. He turned himself into
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brave. Then, instead of being sacrificed honorably, their lowly death paralleled their new lowly status. Where one's body traveled in the afterlife also depended on the type of death awarded to the individual. Those who died while being sacrificed or while battling in war went to the second-highest heaven, while those who died of illness were the lowest in the hierarchy. Those going through the lowest hierarchy of death were required to undergo numerous torturous trials and journeys, only to culminate in a somber underworld. Additionally, death during Flower Wars was considered much more noble than death during regular military endeavors.
1466:
population pressure and an emphasis on maize agriculture, without domesticated herbivores, led to a deficiency of essential amino acids amongst the Aztecs. As population increased and the amount of available game decreased, the Aztecs had to compete with other carnivorous mammals, such as dogs, to find food. Harner believes that although intensified agricultural practices provided the Aztec society a surplus of carbohydrates, they did not provide sufficient nutritional balance; for this reason, the cannibalistic consumption of sacrificed humans was needed to supply an appropriate amount of protein per individual. Harris, author of
471:
19:
525:
681:
573:, a young impersonator of Tezcatlipoca would be sacrificed. Throughout a year, this youth would be dressed as Tezcatlipoca and treated as a living incarnation of the god. The youth would represent Tezcatlipoca on earth; he would get four beautiful women as his companions until he was killed. In the meantime he walked through the streets of Tenochtitlan playing a flute. On the day of the sacrifice, a feast would be held in Tezcatlipoca's honor. The young man would climb the pyramid, break his flute and surrender his body to the priests. SahagĂșn compared it to the Christian
1272:, Juan DĂaz, Bernal DĂaz, AndrĂ©s de Tapia, Francisco de Aguilar, Ruy GonzĂĄlez and the Anonymous Conqueror detailed their eyewitness accounts of human sacrifice in their writings about the Conquest of the Aztec Empire. However, as the conquerors often used such accounts to portray the Aztecs in a negative light, and thus justifying their colonization, the accuracy of these sources has been called into question. Martyr d'Anghiera, Lopez de Gomara, Oviedo y Valdes and Illescas, while not in Mesoamerica, wrote their accounts based on interviews with the participants.
137:
1444:
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the enemy from afar. During the flower wars, warriors were expected to fight up close and exhibit their combat abilities while aiming to injure the enemy, rather than kill them. The main objective of Aztec flower warfare was to capture victims alive for later ritual execution, and offerings to the gods. Being killed in the flower wars, which was considered much more noble than dying in a regular military battle, was religiously more prestigious, as these dead were given the privilege to live in heaven with the war god, Huitzilopochtli.
377:, to be an exaggeration. Hassig states "between 10,000 and 80,400 persons" were sacrificed in the ceremony. The higher estimate would average 15 sacrifices per minute during the four-day consecration. Four tables were arranged at the top so that the victims could be jettisoned down the sides of the temple. Additionally, some historians argue that these numbers were inaccurate as most written account of Aztec sacrifices were made by Spanish sources to justify Spain's conquest. Nonetheless, according to
1493:
504:
Sun-God. The body would then be pushed down the pyramid where the
Coyolxauhqui stone could be found. The Coyolxauhqui Stone recreates the story of Coyolxauhqui, Huitzilopochtli's sister who was dismembered at the base of a mountain, just as the sacrificial victims were. The body would be carried away and either cremated or given to the warrior responsible for the capture of the victim. He would either cut the body in pieces and send them to important people as an
353:
1213:
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including meat from salamanders, fowls, armadillos, and weasels. These resources were also plenty available due to their need to subsist in Lake
Texcoco, the place where the Aztecs had created their home. In addition, even if no herbivores were available to eat, the nutrients needed were found in the leaves and seeds of amaranth which also provided protein. Lastly, the Aztecs had a highly structured system in which
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245:, Huexotzingo and Cholula. This form of ritual was introduced probably after the mid-1450s following droughts, as famine caused many deaths in the Mexican highlands. The droughts and damage to crops were believed to be punishment by gods who felt unappreciated and improperly honored. Therefore, the flower wars provided victims for human sacrificial offerings in a highly structured and ceremonial manner.
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had been captured and prepared to be sacrificed. Even enemies of the Aztecs understood their roles as sacrifices to the gods since many also practiced the same type of religion. For many rites, the victims were expected to bless children, greet and cheer passers-by, hear people's petitions to the gods, visit people in their homes, give discourses and lead sacred songs, processions and dances.
1245:. A contrast is offered in the few Aztec statues that depict sacrificial victims, which show an Aztec understanding of sacrifice. Rather than showing a preoccupation with debt repayment, they emphasize the mythological narratives that resulted in human sacrifices, and often underscore the political legitimacy of the Aztec state. For instance, the
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extremely malevolent supernatural force. To avoid such calamities befalling their community, those who had erred punished themselves by extreme measures such as slitting their tongues for vices of speech or their ears for vices of listening. Other methods of atoning wrongdoings included hanging themselves, or throwing themselves down precipices.
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society who had fallen into debt or committed some crime. Likewise, most of the earliest accounts talk of prisoners of war of diverse social status, and concur that virtually all child sacrifices were locals of noble lineage, offered by their own parents. That women and children were not excluded from potential victims is attested by a
1562:(merchants), commoners and farmers. Then the lowest level of the hierarchy consisted of slaves and indentured servants. The only way of achieving social mobility was through successful performance as a warrior. This shows how important capturing enemies for sacrifice was as it was the singular way of achieving some type of "nobility".
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aquellos Ădolos los abren vivos por los pechos y les sacan el corazĂłn y las entrañas, y queman las dichas entrañas y corazones delante de los Ădolos, y ofreciĂ©ndolos en sacrificio aquel humo. Esto habemos visto algunos de nosotros, y los que lo han visto dicen que es la mĂĄs cruda y espantosa cosa de ver que jamĂĄs han visto.
1361:, would complain on numerous occasions to Cortés about the perennial need to supply the Aztecs with victims for human sacrifice. It is clear from his description of their fear and resentment toward the Mexicas that, in their opinion, it was no honor to surrender their kinsmen to be sacrificed by them.
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Within the system of organization based on hierarchy, there was also a social expectation contributing to the status of an individual at the time of their sacrifice. An individual was punished if unable to confidently address their own sacrifice, i.e. the person acted cowardly beforehand instead of
1536:
Posthumously, their remains were treated as actual relics of the gods which explains why victims' skulls, bones and skin were often painted, bleached, stored and displayed, or else used as ritual masks and oracles. For example, Diego Duran's informants told him that whoever wore the skin of the
1465:
Different anthropological or other sources have attempted to provide a possible ecological explanation of the need for human sacrifices to supplement overall Aztec diet. Harner's main argument lies within his claim that cannibalism is needed to assist the diet of the Aztecs. He claimed that very high
1307:
When he reached said tower the
Captain asked him why such deeds were committed there and the Indian answered that it was done as a kind of sacrifice and gave to understand that the victims were beheaded on the wide stone; that the blood was poured into the vase and that the heart was taken out of the
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appeared it meant that the sacrifices for this cycle had been enough. A fire was ignited on the body of a victim, and this new fire was taken to every house, city, and town. Rejoicing was general: a new cycle of 52 years was beginning and the end of the world had been postponed, at least for another
670:
According to the accounts of some, they assembled the children whom they slew in the first month, buying them from their mothers. And they went on killing them in all the feasts which followed, until the rains really began. And thus they slew some on the first month, named
Quauitleua; and some in the
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victims were honored, hallowed and addressed very highly. Particularly the young man who was indoctrinated for a year to submit himself to
Tezcatlipoca's temple was the Aztec equivalent of a celebrity, being greatly revered and adored to the point of people "kissing the ground" when he passed by.
1509:
Sacrifices were ritualistic and symbolic acts accompanying huge feasts and festivals, and were a way to properly honor the gods. Victims usually died in the "center stage" amid the splendor of dancing troupes, percussion orchestras, elaborate costumes and decorations, carpets of flowers, crowds
1352:
They strike open the wretched Indian's chest with flint knives and hastily tear out the palpitating heart which, with the blood, they present to the idols ... They cut off the arms, thighs and head, eating the arms and thighs at ceremonial banquets. The head they hang up on a beam, and the body
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tool. The same can be said for Bernal DĂaz's inflated calculations when, in a state of visual shock, he grossly miscalculated the number of skulls at one of the seven
Tenochtitlan tzompantlis. The counter argument is that both the Aztecs and Diaz were very precise in the recording of the many other
257:
Human sacrifice rituals were performed at the appropriate times each month or festival with the appropriate number of living bodies and other goods. These individuals were previously chosen to be sacrificed, as was the case for people embodying the gods themselves, or members of an enemy party which
1406:
They have a most horrid and abominable custom which truly ought to be punished and which until now we have seen in no other part, and this is that, whenever they wish to ask something of the idols, in order that their plea may find more acceptance, they take many girls and boys and even adults, and
1368:
Every day we saw sacrificed before us three, four or five
Indians whose hearts were offered to the idols and their blood plastered on the walls, and their feet, arms and legs of the victims were cut off and eaten, just as in our country we eat beef bought from the butchers. I even believe that they
456:
It is doubtful if many victims came from far afield. In 1454, the Aztec government forbade the slaying of captives from distant lands at the capital's temples. Duran's informants told him that sacrifices were consequently 'nearly always ... friends of the House' â meaning warriors from allied
436:
Every Aztec warrior would have to provide at least one prisoner for sacrifice. All the male population was trained to be warriors, but only the few who succeeded in providing captives could become full-time members of the warrior elite. Accounts also state that several young warriors could unite to
248:
This type of warfare differed from regular political warfare, as the flower wars were also an opportunity for combat training and as first exposure to combat for new soldiers. In addition, regular warfare included the use of long range weapons such as atlatl darts, stones, and sling shots to damage
202:
It is debated whether these rites functioned as a type of atonement for Aztec believers. Some scholars argue that the role of sacrifice was to assist the gods in maintaining the cosmos, and not as an act of propitiation. Aztec society viewed even the slightest tlatlacolli ('sin' or 'insult') as an
1421:
They lead him to the temple, where they dance and carry on joyously, and the man about to be sacrificed dances and carries on like the rest. At length the man who offers the sacrifice strips him naked, and leads him at once to the stairway of the tower where is the stone idol. Here they stretch
1381:
Cortes thanked them and made much of them, and we continued our march and slept in another small town, where also many sacrifices had been made, but as many readers will be tired of hearing of the great number of Indian men and women whom we found sacrificed in all the towns and roads we passed, I
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There is still much debate as to what social groups constituted the usual victims of these sacrifices. It is often assumed that all victims were 'disposable' commoners or foreigners. However, slaves â a major source of victims â were not a permanent class but rather persons from any level of Aztec
281:
A great deal of cosmological thought seems to have underlain each of the Aztec sacrificial rites. Most of the sacrificial rituals took more than two people to perform. In the usual procedure of the ritual, the sacrifice would be taken to the top of the temple. The sacrifice would then be laid on a
108:
A wide variety of interpretations of the Aztec practice of human sacrifice have been proposed by modern scholars. Many scholars now believe that Aztec human sacrifice, especially during troubled times like pandemic or other crises, was performed in honor of the gods. Most scholars of Pre-Columbian
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Y tienen otra cosa horrible y abominable y digna de ser punida que hasta hoy no habĂamos visto en ninguna parte, y es que todas las veces que alguna cosa quieren pedir a sus Ădolos para que mĂĄs acepten su peticiĂłn, toman muchas niñas y niños y aun hombre y mujeres de mayor edad, y en presencia de
1475:
However, Bernard Ortiz
Montellano offers a counter argument and points out the faults of Harner's sources. First off, Ortiz challenges Harner's claim of the Aztecs needing to compete with other carnivorous mammals for protein packed food. Many other types of foods were available to the Aztecs,
1434:
Other human remains found in the Great Temple of
Tenochtitlan contribute to the evidence of human sacrifice through osteologic information. Indentations in the rib cage of a set of remains reveal the act of accessing the heart through the abdominal cavity, which correctly follows images from the
1483:
Ortiz's argument helps to frame and evaluate the gaps within Harner's argument. Part of the issue with Harner's reasoning for Aztec use of cannibalism was the lack of reliability of his sources. Harner recognized the numbers he used may be contradicting or conflicting with other sources, yet he
1224:
Visual accounts of Aztec sacrificial practice are principally found in codices and some Aztec statuary. Many visual renderings were created for Spanish patrons, and thus may reflect European preoccupations and prejudices. Produced during the 16th century, the most prominent codices include the
705:
dress and live as Xipe Totec. The victims were then taken to the Xipe Totec's temple where their hearts would be removed, their bodies dismembered, and their body parts divided up to be later eaten. Prior to death and dismemberment the victim's skin would be removed and worn by individuals who
503:
When the Aztecs sacrificed people to Huitzilopochtli (the god with warlike aspects) the victim would be placed on a sacrificial stone. The priest would then cut through the abdomen with an obsidian or flint blade. The heart would be torn out still beating and held towards the sky in honor to the
1549:
Politically, human sacrifice was important in Aztec culture as a way to represent a social hierarchy between their own culture and the enemies surrounding their city. Additionally, it was a way to structure the society of the Aztec culture itself. The hierarchy of cities like Tenochtitlan were
1343:
DĂaz recounted that, after landing on the coast, they came across a temple dedicated to Tezcatlipoca. "That day they had sacrificed two boys, cutting open their chests and offering their blood and hearts to that accursed idol". DĂaz narrates several more sacrificial descriptions on the later
515:
During the festival of Panquetzaliztli, of which Huitzilopochtli was the patron, sacrificial victims were adorned in the manner of Huitzilopochtli's costume and blue body paint, before their hearts would be sacrificially removed. Representations of Huitzilopochtli called teixiptla were also
1407:
in the presence of these idols they open their chests while they are still alive and take out their hearts and entrails and burn them before the idols, offering the smoke as sacrifice. Some of us have seen this, and they say it is the most terrible and frightful thing they have ever witnessed.
630:) rose over the mountain, a man would be sacrificed. The victim's heart would be ripped from his body and a ceremonial hearth would be lit in the hole in his chest. This flame would then be used to light all of the ceremonial fires in various temples throughout the city of Tenochtitlan.
1330:
On these altars were idols with evil looking bodies, and that every night five Indians had been sacrificed before them; their chests had been cut open, and their arms and thighs had been cut off. The walls were covered with blood. We stood greatly amazed and gave the island the name
173:(also called "MotolinĂa") observed that the Aztecs gladly parted with everything. Even the "stage" for human sacrifice, the massive temple-pyramids, was an offering mound: crammed with the land's finest art, treasure and victims; they were then buried underneath for the deities.
1523:
For each festival, at least one of the victims took on the paraphernalia, habits, and attributes of the god or goddess whom they were dying to honor or appease. Through this performance, it was said that the divinity had been given 'human form'âthat the god now had an
339:
Those individuals who were unable to complete their ritual duties were disposed of in a much less honorary matter. This "insult to the gods" needed to be atoned, therefore the sacrifice was slain while being chastised instead of revered. The conquistadors Cortés and
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is the god of rain, water, and earthly fertility. The Aztecs believed that if sacrifices were not supplied for Tlaloc, rain would not come, their crops would not flourish, and leprosy and rheumatism, diseases caused by Tlaloc, would infest the village.
655:. Many of the children suffered from serious injuries before their death, they would have to have been in significant pain as Tlaloc required the tears of the young as part of the sacrifice. The priests made the children cry during their way to
1348:, they find "cages of stout wooden bars ... full of men and boys who were being fattened for the sacrifice at which their flesh would be eaten". When the conquistadors reached Tenochtitlan, DĂaz described the sacrifices at the Great Pyramid:
306:. The priest would rip out the heart and it would then be placed in a bowl held by a statue of the honored god, and the body would then be thrown down the temple's stairs. The body would land on a terrace at the base of the pyramid called an
313:
Before and during the killing, priests and audience, gathered in the plaza below, stabbed, pierced and bled themselves as auto-sacrifice. Hymns, whistles, spectacular costumed dances and percussive music marked different phases of the rite.
415:
argues that a claim by Don Carlos ZumĂĄrraga of 20,000 per annum is "more plausible". Other scholars believe that, since the Aztecs often tried to intimidate their enemies, it is more likely that they could have inflated the number as a
606:, the fire god and a senior deity, the Aztecs had a ceremony where they prepared a large feast, at the end of which they would burn captives; before they died they would be taken from the fire and their hearts would be cut out.
725:
The cycle of 52 years was central to Mesoamerican cultures. The Nahua's religious beliefs were based on a great fear that the universe would collapse after each cycle if the gods were not strong enough. Every 52 years a special
489:. He was considered the primary god of the south and a manifestation of the sun, and a counterpart of the black Tezcatlipoca, the primary god of the north, "a domain associated with Mictlan, the underworld of the dead".
157:
What the Aztec priests were referring to was a cardinal Mesoamerican belief: that a great and continuing sacrifice by the gods sustains the Universe. A strong sense of indebtedness was connected with this worldview. Indeed,
191:
by Franciscan friar Bernardino de SahagĂșn reports that in one of the creation myths, QuetzalcĂłatl offered blood extracted from a wound in his own penis to give life to humanity. There are several other myths in which
61:(1200â400 BC), and perhaps even throughout the early farming cultures of the region. However, the extent of human sacrifice is unknown among several Mesoamerican civilizations. What distinguished Aztec practice from
701:, in which captured warriors and slaves were sacrificed in the ceremonial center of the city of Tenochtitlan. For forty days prior to their sacrifice one victim would be chosen from each ward of the city to act as
433:(INAH), discovered a skull rack and skull towers next to the Templo Mayor complex that could have held thousands of skulls. However, as of 2020, only 603 skulls have ever been found associated with human sacrifice.
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or the skull rack. When the consumption of individuals was involved, the warrior who captured the enemy was given the meaty limbs while the most important flesh, the stomach and chest, were offerings to the gods.
327:
Other types of human sacrifice, which paid tribute to various deities, killed the victims differently. The victim could be shot with arrows, die in gladiatorial style fighting, be sacrificed as a result of the
671:
second, named Tlacaxipeualiztli; and some in the third, named Tocoztontli; and others in the fourth, named Ueitocoztli; so that until the rains began in abundance, in all the feasts they sacrificed children.
485:
and, as such, he represented the character of the Mexican people and was often identified with the sun at the zenith, and with warfare, who burned down towns and carried a fire-breathing serpent,
3035:
2824:
1413:
425:, fifty years before the conquest the Aztecs burnt the skulls of the former tzompantli. Archeologist Eduardo Matos Moctezuma has unearthed and studied some tzompantlis. In 2003, archaeologist
1364:
At the town of Cingapacigna Cortez told the chiefs that for them to become friends and brothers of the Spaniards they must end the practice of making sacrifices. According to Bernal DĂaz:
610:
and SahagĂșn reported that the Aztecs believed that if they did not placate Huehueteotl, a plague of fire would strike their city. The sacrifice was considered an offering to the deity.
1472:, has propagated the claim originally proposed by Harner, that the flesh of the victims was a part of an aristocratic diet as a reward, since the Aztec diet was lacking in proteins.
558:
Some captives were sacrificed to Tezcatlipoca in ritual gladiatorial combat. The victim was tethered in place and given a mock weapon. He died fighting against up to four fully armed
133:
confronted the remaining Aztec priesthood and demanded, under threat of death, that they desist from this traditional practice. The Aztec priests defended themselves as follows:
97:, and other archaeological sites, have provided physical evidence of human sacrifice among the Mesoamerican peoples. As of 2020, archaeologists have found 603 human skulls at the
555:, the god of the hunt, to make fire. To the Aztecs, he was an all-knowing, all-seeing nearly all-powerful god. One of his names can be translated as "He Whose Slaves We Are".
187:
thorns, tainted with their own blood and would offer blood from their tongues, ear lobes, or genitals. Blood held a central place in Mesoamerican cultures. The 16th-century
2619:
1391:
Cortés was the Spanish conquistador whose expedition to Mexico in 1519 led to the fall of the Aztecs, and led to the conquering of vast sections of Mexico on behalf of the
1024:
Sacrifice of a decapitated young woman to Toci; she was skinned and a young man wore her skin; sacrifice of captives by hurling from a height and extraction of the heart
199:
Another theory is that human sacrifice was used to supply protein and other vital nutrients in the absence of large game animals, though this argument is controversial.
2970:
169:
Human sacrifice was in this sense the highest level of an entire panoply of offerings through which the Aztecs sought to repay their debt to the gods. Both SahagĂșn and
1308:
breast and burnt and offered to the said idol. The fleshy parts of the arms and legs were cut off and eaten. This was done to the enemies with whom they were at war.
1261:; it also, as Cecelia Kline has pointed out, "served to warn potential enemies of their certain fate should they try to obstruct the state's military ambitions".
429:
noted that the largest number of skulls yet found at a single tzompantli was only about a dozen. In 2015, RaĂčl Barrera RodrĂguez, archeologist and director of the
3102:
81:
2096:
Doubleday, New York, pp. 194â195. Hanson, who accepts the 80,000+ estimate, also notes that it exceeded "the daily murder record at either Auschwitz or Dachau".
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and MotolinĂa report that the Aztecs had 18 festivities each year, one for each Aztec month. The table below shows the festivals of the 18-month year of the
381:, old Aztecs who talked with the missionaries told about a much lower figure for the reconsecration of the temple, approximately 4,000 victims in total.
1792:
403:
of the number of persons sacrificed in central Mexico in the 15th century as high as 250,000 per year, which may have been one percent of the population.
206:
What has been gleaned from all of this is that the sacrificial role entailed a great deal of social expectation and a certain degree of acquiescence.
430:
4202:
1764:
599:
For ten days preceding the festival various animals would be captured by the Aztecs, to be thrown in the hearth on the night of celebration.
3442:
65:
was the way in which it was embedded in everyday life. These cultures also notably sacrificed elements of their own population to the gods.
4417:
2923:
373:
in 1487, the Aztecs sacrificed about 80,400 prisoners over the course of four days. This number is considered by Ross Hassig, author of
153:
Life is because of the gods; with their sacrifice, they gave us life. ... They produce our sustenance ... which nourishes life.
2483:
FernĂĄndez 1992, 1996, pp. 60â63. Matos Moctezuma 1988, p.181. Matos Moctezuma & Solis OlguĂn 2002, pp. 54â55. Neumann 1976, pp. 252.
317:
The body parts would then be disposed of, the viscera fed to the animals in the zoo, and the bleeding head was placed on display in the
176:
Additionally, the sacrifice of animals was a common practice, for which the Aztecs bred dogs, eagles, jaguars and deer. The cult of
3625:
1431:
Modern excavations in Mexico City have found evidence of human sacrifice in the form of hundreds of skulls at the site of old temples.
730:
was performed. All fires were extinguished and at midnight a human sacrifice was made. The Aztecs then waited for the sunrise. If the
3532:
1528:(face). Duran says such victims were 'worshipped ... as the deity' or 'as though they had been gods'. Even whilst still alive,
639:
622:
617:, which occurred every 52 years, and prevented the ending of the world. During the festival priests would march to the top of the
512:. The warrior would thus ascend one step in the hierarchy of the Aztec social classes, a system that rewarded successful warriors.
4192:
404:
3481:
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found that some of the sacrificial victims they freed "indignantly rejected offer of release and demanded to be sacrificed".
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civilization see human sacrifice among the Aztecs as a part of the long cultural tradition of human sacrifice in Mesoamerica.
4523:
3454:
3412:
3364:
3290:
3245:
Ingham, John M. "Human Sacrifice at Tenochtitln." Society for Comparative Studies in Society and History 26 (1984): 379â400.
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3158:
3120:
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2195:"A 500-Year-Old Aztec Tower of Human Skulls Is Even More Terrifyingly Humongous Than Previously Thought, Archaeologists Find"
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that relate to the testimonies of native eyewitnesses. The literary accounts have been supported by archeological research.
2645:
De Montellano, Bernard R. Ortiz (1983-06-01). "Counting Skulls: Comment on the Aztec Cannibalism Theory of Harner-Harris".
500:. The Templo Mayor consisted of twin pyramids, one for Huitzilopochtli and one for the rain god Tlaloc (discussed below).
126:
3308:
Ortiz De Montellano, Bernard R. (June 1983). "Counting Skulls: Comment on the Aztec Cannibalism Theory of Harner-Harris".
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worshipped, the most significant being the one at the Templo Mayor which was made of dough mixed with sacrificial blood.
261:
1292:
1186:
Sacrifices of victims representing Xiuhtecuhtli and their women (each four years), and captives; hour: night; New Fire
2320:
2194:
1585:
505:
4432:
2946:
1377:
On meeting a group of inhabitants from Cempoala who gave Cortés and his men food and invited them to their village:
1480:
and tribute provided a surplus of materials and therefore ensured the Aztec were able to meet their caloric needs.
4487:
4367:
4312:
2611:
1580:
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was a very important religious tool used during sacrifices. The cut was made in the abdomen and went through the
270:
62:
1460:
2363:
Boone, Elizabeth. "Incarnations of the Aztec Supernatural: The Image of Huitzilopochtli in Mexico and Europe".
1900:
607:
170:
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In addition to the accounts provided by SahagĂșn and DurĂĄn, there are other important texts to be considered.
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3525:
384:
370:
94:
3282:
2349:
2179:
1510:
of thousands of commoners, and all the assembled elite. Aztec texts frequently refer to human sacrifice as
286:, by four priests, and their abdomen would be sliced open by a fifth priest with a ceremonial knife made of
3258:
3219:
3150:
694:, known as "Our Lord the Flayed One", is the god of rebirth, agriculture, the seasons, and craftsmen.
57:
performed sacrifices as well and from archaeological evidence, it probably existed since the time of the
799:
Sacrifice of captives; gladiatorial fighters; dances of the priest wearing the skin of the flayed victims
474:
Techcatl â Mesoamerican sacrifice altar. Mexica room of the National Museum of Anthropology (Mexico City).
4462:
3434:
3400:
548:
426:
3098:
77:
4267:
4227:
825:
Type of sacrifice: extraction of the heart; burying of the flayed human skins; sacrifices of children
4437:
2781:
2767:
2753:
2739:
1834:
1318:
1234:
378:
80:, who participated in the Cortés expedition, made frequent mention of human sacrifice in his memoir
18:
4307:
4282:
2804:
2717:
Historia verdadera de la conquista de Nueva España (IntroducciĂłn y notas de JoaquĂn RamĂrez Cabañas)
1273:
229:'s History of the Indies of New Spain (and a few other sources that are believed to be based on the
4528:
3518:
3404:
3356:
2821:
1604:
1345:
290:. The most common form of human sacrifice was heart-extraction. The Aztec believed that the heart (
4342:
3712:
3382:
2285:
1064:-Napatecuhtli, Matlalcueye, Xochitécatl, Mayåhuel, Milnåhuatl, Napatecuhtli, Chicomecóatl,
995:, Ixcozauhqui, Otontecuhtli, ChiconquiĂĄhitl, Cuahtlaxayauh, CoyolintĂĄhuatl, ChalmecacĂhuatl
543:
was generally considered the most powerful god, the god of night, sorcery and destiny (the name
437:
capture a single prisoner, which suggests that capturing prisoners for sacrifice was challenging.
163:
141:
4151:
3310:
3274:
3039:
1735:
524:
470:
148:
and reuniting it with the Sun: the victim's transformed heart flies Sun-ward on a trail of blood.
3595:
3250:
3043:
1969:
4518:
4327:
4012:
4007:
2902:
1793:"Feeding the gods: Hundreds of skulls reveal massive scale of human sacrifice in Aztec capital"
1299:
before 1520, in which he describes the aftermath of a sacrifice on an island off the coast of
739:
242:
4387:
3559:
2107:
680:
4467:
3821:
3390:
2126:
1291:
was one of the first Spaniards to explore Mexico and traveled on his expedition in 1518 with
627:
329:
273:. This altar-like stone vessel was used to hold the hearts of sacrificial victims. See also
238:
4352:
3563:
2797:
1747:
1541:(Our Lord the Flayed One) felt he was wearing a holy relic. He considered himself 'divine'.
4497:
4477:
4457:
4447:
4442:
4377:
4357:
4337:
4322:
4317:
4292:
4197:
4172:
4002:
3257:. Civilization of the American Indian series, #67. Translated by Jack Emory Davis. Norman:
1684:
1637:
1238:
529:
42:
2827:, México, Chapter XV, written by a Companion of Hernån Cortés, The Anonymous Conquistador.
2534:
651:
Archaeologists have found the remains of at least 42 children sacrificed to Tlaloc at the
46:
8:
4382:
4297:
4146:
3729:
3702:
3653:
1468:
412:
408:
3663:
3149:. Civilization of the American Indian series, #210. Translated by Doris Heyden. Norman:
2249:
1641:
125:", all the gods sacrificed themselves so that mankind could live. Some years after the
4237:
3966:
3826:
3806:
3633:
3583:
3349:
3335:
3212:
2878:
2670:
2510:
1938:
1703:
1653:
1269:
1070:
Sacrifices of children, two noble women, extraction of the heart and flaying; ritual
421:
details of Aztec life, and inflation or propaganda would be unlikely. According to the
303:
69:
1443:
706:
traveled throughout the city fighting battles and collecting gifts from the citizens.
4482:
4287:
4118:
3946:
3901:
3801:
3761:
3460:
3450:
3418:
3408:
3386:
3370:
3360:
3339:
3327:
3296:
3286:
3262:
3233:
3223:
3195:
3185:
3164:
3154:
3126:
3116:
3086:
3076:
3049:
2952:
2942:
2870:
2674:
2662:
2514:
2326:
2316:
1896:
1707:
1071:
943:
727:
614:
509:
341:
136:
3786:
3493:
2882:
1942:
86:. There are a number of second-hand accounts of human sacrifices written by Spanish
4452:
4272:
4212:
4182:
4177:
4108:
3871:
3831:
3751:
3692:
3680:
3446:
3394:
3319:
2862:
2697:
2654:
2502:
1930:
1693:
1645:
1501:
1392:
1288:
1265:
1242:
936:
422:
188:
38:
4397:
4113:
3323:
2866:
2701:
2658:
1628:
Diaz de Castillo, Bernal (1917). "The True History of the Conquest of New Spain".
411:, estimated that one in five children of the Mexica subjects was killed annually.
76:
and made observations of and wrote reports about the practice of human sacrifice.
4347:
4277:
4242:
4063:
3836:
3771:
3658:
3643:
3541:
3045:
Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and of the Great City of Temestitan, MĂ©xico
2313:
Quetzalcoatl and the irony of empire: myths and prophecies in the Aztec tradition
1698:
1679:
1112:
1105:
973:
965:
911:
871:
793:
478:
184:
26:
3956:
3791:
2493:
Carrasco, David (1995). "Give Me Some Skin: The Charisma of the Aztec Warrior".
1514:, "the desire to be regarded as a god". These members of the society became an
1065:
1040:
4392:
4222:
3856:
1575:
1448:
1411:
The Anonymous Conquistador was an unknown travel companion of Cortés who wrote
886:
743:
715:
656:
588:
is the god of fire and heat and in many cases is considered to be an aspect of
563:
559:
392:
4262:
4187:
4037:
3911:
3138:
2971:
Aztec human sacrifice: Cross-cultural assessments of the ecological hypothesis
1921:
Isaac, Barry L (1983). "The Aztec "Flowery War": A Geopolitical Explanation".
1447:
Aztec or Mixtec sacrificial knife, probably for ceremonial use only, in the
1323:
226:
4512:
4257:
4032:
3851:
3846:
3816:
3811:
3776:
3766:
3555:
3445:(photographer) (2nd paperback, reprint with corrections ed.). New York:
3181:
3130:
3112:
2903:"Human Sacrifice and Mortuary Treatments in the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan"
2666:
1934:
1357:
According to Bernal DĂaz, the chiefs of the surrounding towns, for example
1153:
918:
834:
536:(sword/club) is covered with what appears to be feathers instead of obsidian.
400:
193:
4412:
3951:
3697:
3464:
3396:
Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain, 13 vols. in 12
3374:
3300:
3237:
3199:
3168:
3090:
3069:
City of Sacrifice: The Aztec Empire and the Role of Violence in Civilization
2956:
1866:
1398:
Cortés wrote of Aztec sacrifice on numerous occasions, one of which in his
1226:
1163:
Sacrifice of a woman by extraction of the heart and decapitation afterwards
4492:
4472:
4332:
4217:
4207:
4083:
4047:
3976:
3916:
3906:
3717:
3685:
3605:
3600:
3430:
3331:
3142:
3072:
3053:
2874:
2330:
1492:
1250:
1246:
1230:
1217:
1180:
1157:
992:
969:
958:
897:
867:
846:
652:
585:
540:
497:
493:
450:
446:
431:
Urban Archaeology Program at National Institute of Anthropology and History
266:
177:
118:
102:
73:
54:
3422:
3266:
1558:) next who managed the land owned by the emperor. Then the warriors, the
1280:
but had access to direct testimony, especially of the indigenous people.
230:
166:
reported, it was said that the victim was someone who "gave his service".
162:(debt-payment) was a commonly used metaphor for human sacrifice, and, as
4427:
4402:
4372:
4362:
4252:
4247:
4232:
4167:
4123:
4103:
4078:
3981:
3961:
3921:
3707:
3504:
3207:
3108:
2838:
Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and of the Great City of Temestitan
2825:
Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and of the Great City of Temestitan
1414:
Narrative of Some Things of New Spain and of the Great City of Temestitan
1054:
1007:
808:
603:
595:
Both Xiuhtecuhtli and Huehueteotl were worshipped during the festival of
589:
363:
220:
130:
30:
4017:
3722:
3638:
3178:
One Cosmos under God: The Unification of Matter, Life, Mind & Spirit
294:) was both the seat of the individual and a fragment of the Sun's heat (
4302:
4098:
4073:
4042:
4022:
3997:
3781:
3610:
2404:
LĂłpez Austin 1998, p.10. SahagĂșn 1577, 1989, p.48 (Book I, Chapter XIII
1657:
1538:
1201:
Five ominous days at the end of the year, no ritual, general fasting
922:
691:
684:
533:
442:
417:
358:
319:
234:
98:
4088:
144:, Folio 70. Heart-extraction was viewed as a means of liberating the
4141:
4027:
3941:
3936:
3841:
1516:
1277:
1258:
1254:
1194:
1126:
1117:
Massive sacrifices of captives and slaves by extraction of the heart
1090:
1082:
1018:
815:
659:: a good omen that Tlaloc would wet the earth in the raining season.
496:, which was the primary religious structure of the Aztec capital of
486:
122:
4068:
3675:
2533:(1997). Wired humanities project. Retrieved September 2, 2012, from
2082:. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University.
1649:
1133:
1096:
Sacrifice by bludgeoning, decapitation and extraction of the heart
1061:
893:
772:
352:
3896:
3881:
3876:
3861:
3756:
3746:
3648:
3614:
3048:. Translated by Marshall H. Saville. New York: The Cortes Society.
2506:
1765:"The Aztecs Constructed This Tower Out of Hundreds of Human Skulls"
1417:
which details Aztec sacrifices. The Anonymous Conquistador wrote,
1358:
1300:
1253:
commemorates the mythic slaying of Huitzilopochli's sister for the
1212:
1033:
552:
274:
3510:
3500:
3926:
3886:
3866:
3796:
3741:
1172:
949:
Sacrifice by decapitation of a woman and extraction of her heart
860:
618:
570:
369:
Some post-conquest sources report that at the re-consecration of
333:
2853:
Wade, Lizzie (2018). "Aztec Human Sacrifice: Feeding the Gods".
3971:
3891:
3574:
3346:
3307:
3218:. Civilization of the American Indian series, no. 188. Norman:
1386:
842:
819:
644:
574:
482:
58:
50:
34:
3429:
3255:
Aztec Thought and Culture: A Study of the Ancient NĂĄhuatl Mind
1967:
Hassig, Ross (2003). "El sacrificio y las guerras floridas".
1426:
1382:
shall go on with my story without saying any more about them.
697:
Xipe Totec was worshipped extensively during the festival of
287:
87:
2437:
Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain
2108:"Human Sacrifice: Why the Aztecs Practiced This Gory Ritual"
347:
3931:
1014:
93:
Since the late 1970s, excavations of the offerings in the
2612:"Fighting with Femininity: Gender and War in Aztec Mexico"
746:
and the deities with which the festivals were associated.
3381:
3097:
2382:
2380:
2378:
731:
183:
Self-sacrifice was also quite common; people would offer
3273:
1496:
A ceremonial offering of Aztec sacrificial knife blades
778:
Sacrifice of children and captives to the water deities
180:
required the sacrifice of butterflies and hummingbirds.
3214:
Aztec Warfare: Imperial Expansion and Political Control
1850:
Atrocities: The 100 Deadliest Episodes in Human History
755:
Name of the Mexican month and its Gregorian equivalent
2375:
2250:"Aztec tower of human skulls uncovered in Mexico City"
1435:
codices in the pictorial representation of sacrifice.
3249:
1673:
1671:
1669:
1667:
1505:
at the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City
112:
2688:
Nuttall, Zelia (1910). "The Island of Sacrificios".
3034:
2450:
The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya
1520:âthat is, a god's representative, image or idol.
998:Sacrifices to the fire gods by burning the victims
3348:
3211:
2939:Cannibals and kings : the origins of cultures
2796:
2365:Transactions of the American Philosophical Society
1895:. University of Michigan: Zone. pp. 367â385.
1664:
1138:Sacrifices of children and slaves by decapitation
902:Sacrifice by drowning and extraction of the heart
3175:
3111:(6th printing ed.). Harmondsworth, England:
1819:Ingham, John M. "Human Sacrifice at Tenochtitlan"
1283:
946:, Quilaztli-Cihacóatl, Ehécatl, Chicomelcóatl
877:Sacrifice of captives by extraction of the heart
738:Sacrifices were made on specific days. SahagĂșn,
528:Victim of sacrificial gladiatorial combat, from
362:, or skull rack, as shown in the post-Conquest
4510:
3399:. vols. I-XII. Santa Fe, NM and Salt Lake City:
2415:Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva España
2290:Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva España
1748:"Grisly Sacrifices Found in Pyramid of the Moon"
1627:
532:. Note that he is tied to a large stone and his
3066:
2900:
2564:Motolinia's History of the Indians of New Spain
2173:
1720:
3439:Blood of Kings: Dynasty and Ritual in Maya Art
1987:
1093:, Izquitécatl, Yoztlamiyåhual, Huitznahuas
1017:, Teteoinan, ChimelcĂłatl-ChalchiuhcĂhuatl,
460:
3526:
2644:
2452:. Thames and Hudson Inc. p. 166-167, 142â143.
2346:La flor letal: economĂa del sacrificio azteca
2269:
2267:
2118:
2073:
2071:
1554:(emperor) on the top, the remaining nobles (
626:and when the constellation "the fire drill" (
3479:
3206:
3137:
1815:
1813:
1387:Hernån Cortés and the Anonymous Conquistador
1045:Sacrifices by fire; extraction of the heart
978:Sacrifice by starvation in a cave or temple
613:Xiuhtecuhtli was also worshipped during the
45:. Other Mesoamerican cultures, such as the
3021:Peregrine, Peter N, and Melvin Ember. 2002.
2080:State and Cosmos in the Art of Tenochtitlan
580:
3533:
3519:
3281:(in Spanish) (3rd ed.). MĂ©xico D.F.:
3012:Peregrine, Peter N, and Melvin Ember. 2002
2546:
2465:. Fondo de cultura econĂłmica. pp. 128â129.
2264:
2068:
1736:"Evidence May Back Human Sacrifice Claims"
1680:"The Ecological Basis for Aztec Sacrifice"
1427:Archaeological evidence of human sacrifice
664:General History of the Things of New Spain
2963:
2561:
2002:Sahagun Bk 5: 8; Bk 2: 5:9; Bk 2:24:68â69
1828:
1810:
1697:
1461:Cannibalism in the Americas § Aztecs
1454:
1021:, Atlauhaco, Chiconquiåuitl, Cintéotl
640:Child sacrifice in pre-Columbian cultures
592:, the "Old God" and another fire deity.
348:Scope of human sacrifice in Aztec culture
196:gods offer their blood to help humanity.
83:True History of the Conquest of New Spain
3347:Ortiz De Montellano, Bernard R. (1990).
2492:
2343:
2315:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2310:
2077:
1890:
1831:(in) Handbook of Middle American Indians
1544:
1491:
1487:
1442:
1438:
1211:
709:
679:
662:In the Florentine Codex, also known as
523:
469:
407:, a Mexica descendant and the author of
383:
351:
260:
135:
17:
4418:Romances de los señores de Nueva España
2687:
2192:
1852:. W.W. Norton and Company. p. 158.
22:Prisoners for sacrifice were decorated.
4511:
3147:The History of the Indies of New Spain
2936:
2848:
2846:
2794:
2526:
2524:
2244:
2242:
2124:
1966:
1677:
1500:
492:Huitzilopochtli was worshipped at the
209:
33:, so the rite was nothing new to the
3514:
3482:"El sacrificio humano en Mesoamérica"
3351:Aztec Medicine, Health, and Nutrition
2896:
2894:
2892:
2640:
2638:
2636:
2634:
2609:
2590:
2588:
2042:
2040:
2038:
2036:
2034:
2032:
2030:
2028:
2026:
2010:
2008:
1962:
1960:
1958:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1920:
1916:
1914:
1912:
1861:
1859:
1847:
1786:
1784:
1758:
1756:
927:Sacrifice by extraction of the heart
851:Sacrifice of a maid; of boy and girl
405:Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxochitl
336:after being sacrificed, or drowned.
2852:
2803:. MĂ©xico: Editorial PorrĂșa. p.
2714:
2435:Sahagun, Fray Bernardino de (1569).
1037:(from September 10 to September 29)
127:Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
3540:
2843:
2594:
2576:
2521:
2239:
1990:Handbook to Life in the Aztec World
1923:Journal of Anthropological Research
1762:
1353:is ... given to the beasts of prey.
252:
13:
3107:. Penguin Classics. Translated by
2889:
2631:
2585:
2570:
2226:
2217:
2023:
2005:
1949:
1909:
1856:
1781:
1753:
1586:Human trophy taking in Mesoamerica
1326:corroborates Juan DĂaz's history:
1207:
1130:(from November 29 to December 18)
1058:(from September 30 to October 19)
465:
237:were a ritual among the cities of
113:Role of sacrifice in Aztec culture
41:, nor was it something unique to
14:
4540:
4313:Lienzo de Coixtlahuaca I & II
3558:: OmetÄcuthli and OmecihuÄtl (or
3473:
2362:
2174:Matos-Moctezuma, Eduardo (2005).
2017:The Aztecs: History of the Indies
2014:
1721:Matos-Moctezuma, Eduardo (1986).
1183:, Cihuatontli, Nancotlaceuhqui
1109:(from November 9 to November 28)
769:(from February 2 to February 21)
101:in the archeological zone of the
3573:
3279:Vida y muerte en el Templo Mayor
2901:Chavez Balderas, Ximena (2007).
2105:
2059:
1790:
1723:Vida y muerte en el Templo Mayor
1198:(from January 28 to February 1)
1149:(from December 19 to January 7)
1086:(from October 20 to November 8)
1011:(from August 21 to September 9)
720:
508:, or use the pieces for ritual
140:Human sacrifice as shown in the
117:Sacrifice was a common theme in
4488:Codex Vindobonensis Mexicanus I
4368:Oztoticpac Lands Map of Texcoco
4318:Lienzo de Santa MarĂa Nativitas
3027:
3015:
3006:
2993:
2980:
2930:
2924:"Website of the British Museum"
2916:
2830:
2815:
2788:
2774:
2760:
2746:
2732:
2723:
2719:. Editorial PorrĂșa. p. 24.
2708:
2681:
2603:
2555:
2549:RelaciĂłn de Juan Bautista Pomar
2540:
2486:
2477:
2468:
2455:
2442:
2429:
2420:
2407:
2398:
2389:
2356:
2337:
2304:
2295:
2279:
2211:
2186:
2167:
2158:
2149:
2127:"The Enigma of Aztec Sacrifice"
2099:
2086:
2053:
1996:
1992:. New York: Facts on File, Inc.
1988:Aguilar-Moreno, Manuel (2006).
1981:
1884:
1841:
1822:
1581:Human sacrifice in Maya culture
1344:Cortés expedition. Arriving at
1249:stone found at the foot of the
1176:(from January 8 to January 27)
789:(from February 22 to March 13)
519:
271:National Museum of Anthropology
72:conquered the Aztec capital of
4328:Lienzo de Zacatepec I & II
1741:
1729:
1714:
1621:
1597:
1312:
1284:Juan de Grijalva and Juan DĂaz
214:
1:
3501:" The Custom of Aztec Burial"
3324:10.1525/aa.1983.85.2.02a00130
2977:Vol 37 No. 3 1998 pp. 285â298
2867:10.1126/science.360.6395.1288
2702:10.1525/aa.1910.12.2.02a00070
2659:10.1525/aa.1983.85.2.02a00130
2193:Cascone, Sarah (2020-12-16).
1725:. Fondo de Cultura EconĂłmica.
1537:victim who had portrayed god
1276:and SahagĂșn arrived later to
989:(from August 1 to August 20)
758:Deities and human sacrifices
675:
653:Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan
547:means "smoking mirror", or "
397:The Enigma of Aztec Sacrifice
371:Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan
95:Great Pyramid of Tenochtitlan
4524:Aztec mythology and religion
3259:University of Oklahoma Press
3220:University of Oklahoma Press
3151:University of Oklahoma Press
2461:Duverger, Christian (2005).
2344:Duverger, Christian (2005).
2092:Victor Davis Hanson (2000),
1891:Duverger, Christian (1989).
1829:Nicholson, Henry B. (1971).
1699:10.1525/ae.1977.4.1.02a00070
1591:
874:, Tlacahuepan, Cuexcotzin
841:Cintéotl, Chicomecacóatl,
481:was the tribal deity of the
29:was common in many parts of
7:
4463:Historia Tolteca-Chichimeca
4323:Lienzo de Santiago Ihuitlan
3492:(63): 16â21. Archived from
3401:School of American Research
3042:; Alec Christensen (eds.).
2620:Estudios de Cultura Nahuatl
2164:Duverger (op. cit), 174â177
2048:Book of the Gods and Rites,
1569:
1373:as they call their markets.
838:(from April 3 to April 22)
812:(from March 14 to April 2)
775:, Chalchitlicue, Ehécatl
569:During the 20-day month of
461:Sacrifices to specific gods
68:In 1519, explorers such as
10:
4545:
4423:Codex Santa Maria AsunciĂłn
4203:Boban Aztec Calendar Wheel
3283:Fondo de Cultura EconĂłmica
3176:Godwin, Robert W. (2004).
2988:Book of the Gods and Rites
2562:Andros Foster, Elizabeth.
2350:Fondo de Cultura EconĂłmica
2275:Book of the Gods and Rites
2180:Fondo de Cultura EconĂłmica
2176:Muerte a filo de obsidiana
2078:Townsend, Richard (1979).
1458:
1316:
962:(from July 12 to July 31)
940:(from June 22 to July 11)
864:(from April 23 to May 12)
713:
637:
218:
4438:Codex Telleriano-Remensis
4228:Mapas de Cuauhtinchan 1-4
4198:Codices Becker I & II
4160:
4132:
4056:
3990:
3624:
3582:
3571:
3548:
3104:The Conquest of New Spain
3099:DĂaz del Castillo, Bernal
2782:The Conquest of New Spain
2768:The Conquest of New Spain
2754:The Conquest of New Spain
2740:The Conquest of New Spain
2386:Olivier (2003) pp. 14â15.
2062:The Conquest of New Spain
1835:University of Texas Press
1502:[tekpatÍĄÉŹiÊËkawa]
1369:sell it by retain in the
1341:The Conquest of New Spain
1319:The Conquest of New Spain
1200:
1089:MixcĂłatl-Tlamatzincatl,
915:(from June 2 to June 21)
757:
633:
379:Codex Telleriano-Remensis
37:when they arrived at the
4378:Plano en papel de maguey
4188:Codices AzoyĂș I & II
3405:University of Utah Press
3357:Rutgers University Press
3275:Matos Moctezuma, Eduardo
3067:Carrasco, David (1999).
2836:Anonymous Conquistador.
2795:Cortés, Hernån (2005) .
2395:SahagĂșn, Op. cit., p. 79
2311:Carrasco, David (1982).
2125:Harner, Michael (1977).
1935:10.1086/jar.39.4.3629865
1893:The Meaning of Sacrifice
1678:Harner, Michael (1977).
1630:The Geographical Journal
890:(from May 13 to June 1)
822:, Chalchitlicue, Tona
581:Huehueteotl/Xiuhtecuhtli
78:Bernal DĂaz del Castillo
4173:Aubin Manuscript no. 20
3311:American Anthropologist
2937:Harris, Marvin (1978).
2729:DĂaz (op. cit.), p. 150
2690:American Anthropologist
2647:American Anthropologist
2610:Klein, Cecelia (1994).
2413:Bernardino de SahagĂșn,
2252:. BBC News. 2 July 2017
1848:White, Matthew (2012).
399:, cited an estimate by
395:, in his 1977 article
388:Decapitated ball player
123:Legend of the Five Suns
121:culture. In the Aztec "
4308:Lienzo Antonio de LeĂłn
3383:SahagĂșn, Bernardino de
2715:DĂaz, Bernal (2005) .
2547:Bautista Pomar, Juan.
1605:"Fall of Tenochtitlan"
1506:
1455:Ecological explanation
1451:
1424:
1409:
1384:
1375:
1355:
1337:
1310:
1297:Itinerario de Grijalva
1274:Bartolomé de las Casas
1221:
796:, Tequitzin-MayĂĄhuel
740:Juan Bautista de Pomar
688:
673:
537:
475:
389:
366:
278:
155:
149:
23:
4468:Codex Totomixtlahuaca
4408:RelaciĂłn de MichoacĂĄn
4358:CĂłdice Maya de MĂ©xico
4343:MatrĂcula de Tributos
4268:Codex Fejérvåry-Mayer
3713:TlÄhuizcalpantecuhtli
3355:. New Brunswick, NJ:
3251:LeĂłn-Portilla, Miguel
2969:Winkelman, Michael. "
2448:Miller, Mary (1993).
2286:Bernardino de SahagĂșn
2234:History of the Indies
1750:By LiveScience Staff.
1545:Political explanation
1495:
1488:Religious explanation
1446:
1439:Proposed explanations
1419:
1404:
1379:
1366:
1350:
1333:isleta de Sacrificios
1328:
1305:
1215:
710:Calendar of sacrifice
683:
668:
527:
473:
449:in the Aztec capital
387:
355:
330:Mesoamerican ballgame
264:
239:Aztec Triple Alliance
164:Bernardino de SahagĂșn
151:
139:
21:
4498:Codex Zouche-Nuttall
4448:Anales de Tlatelolco
4338:Codex Magliabechiano
3588:(Four Tezcatlipocas)
3486:ArqueologĂa Mexicana
3391:Arthur J.O. Anderson
2595:SahagĂșn, Bernadino.
2495:History of Religions
2094:Carnage and Culture,
2019:. pp. 141, 198.
1970:ArqueologĂa Mexicana
1769:Smithsonian Magazine
1685:American Ethnologist
530:Codex Magliabechiano
171:Toribio de Benavente
142:Codex Magliabechiano
63:Maya human sacrifice
43:pre-Columbian Mexico
4388:Codex Porfirio DĂaz
4383:Primeros Memoriales
4298:Codex Ixtlilxochitl
4293:Humboldt fragment 1
4283:CĂłdice de Huichapan
4193:Badianus Manuscript
4147:The Stinking Corpse
3040:Marshall H. Saville
3036:Anonymous Conqueror
2861:(6395): 1288â1292.
2579:Primeros Memoriales
2531:Nahuatl dictionary.
2182:. pp. 111â124.
1642:1917GeogJ..49...61T
1469:Cannibals and Kings
1235:Telleriano-Remensis
413:Victor Davis Hanson
409:Codex Ixtlilxochitl
210:Holistic assessment
4353:CrĂłnica Mexicayotl
4238:Codex Chimalpopoca
3827:Itzpapalotlcihuatl
3807:Huitztlampaehecatl
3668:Tezcatlipoca (see
3634:Lords of the Night
3480:Graulich, Michel.
3180:. Saint Paul, MN:
3062:– via FAMSI.
2799:Cartas de relaciĂłn
1507:
1452:
1222:
1160:, HuitzilncuĂĄtec
1152:Tona-Cozcamiauh,
787:Tlacaxipehualiztli
699:Tlacaxipehualiztli
689:
666:, SahagĂșn wrote:
538:
476:
390:
367:
279:
150:
24:
4506:
4505:
4483:Codex Vaticanus B
4443:Tira de Tepechpan
4288:Codex Huexotzinco
4233:Codex Chimalpahin
4152:Use of entheogens
4119:Tlillan-Tlapallan
4013:Centzon TĆtĆchtin
4008:CentzonhuÄ«tznÄhua
3734:Acuecueyotl (see
3589:
3503:is a part of the
3456:978-0-8076-1278-1
3435:Mary Ellen Miller
3414:978-0-87480-082-1
3387:Charles E. Dibble
3366:978-0-8135-1562-5
3292:978-968-16-5712-3
3229:978-0-8061-2121-5
3191:978-1-55778-836-8
3160:978-0-8061-2649-4
3122:978-0-14-044123-9
3082:978-0-8070-4642-5
3003:, op. cit, p. 104
2417:(op. cit.), p. 83
2352:. pp. 83â93.
2292:(op. cit.), p. 76
1738:By Mark Stevenson
1241:, and SahagĂșn's
1205:
1204:
728:New Fire ceremony
615:New Fire Ceremony
445:found in 2015 at
129:, a body of the
4536:
4453:Codex Tlatelolco
4273:Codex Florentine
4213:Codex Borbonicus
4183:Codex Azcatitlan
4178:Aubin Tonalamatl
4109:Thirteen Heavens
3872:Mictlanpachecatl
3832:Itzpapalotltotec
3752:Chalchiuhtotolin
3693:Lords of the Day
3587:
3577:
3535:
3528:
3521:
3512:
3511:
3507:from around 1585
3497:
3468:
3447:George Braziller
3426:
3378:
3354:
3343:
3304:
3270:
3241:
3217:
3203:
3172:
3134:
3094:
3063:
3061:
3060:
3022:
3019:
3013:
3010:
3004:
3001:Historia general
2997:
2991:
2984:
2978:
2967:
2961:
2960:
2934:
2928:
2927:
2920:
2914:
2913:
2907:
2898:
2887:
2886:
2850:
2841:
2834:
2828:
2819:
2813:
2812:
2802:
2792:
2786:
2778:
2772:
2764:
2758:
2750:
2744:
2736:
2730:
2727:
2721:
2720:
2712:
2706:
2705:
2685:
2679:
2678:
2642:
2629:
2628:
2616:
2607:
2601:
2600:
2597:Florentine Codex
2592:
2583:
2582:
2574:
2568:
2567:
2559:
2553:
2552:
2544:
2538:
2528:
2519:
2518:
2490:
2484:
2481:
2475:
2472:
2466:
2459:
2453:
2446:
2440:
2433:
2427:
2426:Roy 2005, p. 316
2424:
2418:
2411:
2405:
2402:
2396:
2393:
2387:
2384:
2373:
2372:
2360:
2354:
2353:
2341:
2335:
2334:
2308:
2302:
2299:
2293:
2283:
2277:
2271:
2262:
2261:
2259:
2257:
2246:
2237:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2215:
2209:
2208:
2206:
2205:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2171:
2165:
2162:
2156:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2142:
2122:
2116:
2115:
2103:
2097:
2090:
2084:
2083:
2075:
2066:
2065:
2057:
2051:
2044:
2021:
2020:
2012:
2003:
2000:
1994:
1993:
1985:
1979:
1978:
1964:
1947:
1946:
1918:
1907:
1906:
1888:
1882:
1881:
1879:
1877:
1863:
1854:
1853:
1845:
1839:
1838:
1826:
1820:
1817:
1808:
1807:
1805:
1803:
1788:
1779:
1778:
1776:
1775:
1763:Gershon, Livia.
1760:
1751:
1745:
1739:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1718:
1712:
1711:
1701:
1675:
1662:
1661:
1625:
1619:
1618:
1617:
1616:
1601:
1550:tiered with the
1512:neteotoquiliztli
1504:
1393:Crown of Castile
1289:Juan de Grijalva
1266:Juan de Grijalva
749:
748:
427:Elizabeth Graham
423:Florentine Codex
265:A jaguar-shaped
253:Sacrifice ritual
189:Florentine Codex
99:Hueyi Tzompantli
39:Valley of Mexico
4544:
4543:
4539:
4538:
4537:
4535:
4534:
4533:
4529:Human sacrifice
4509:
4508:
4507:
4502:
4348:Codex Mexicanus
4278:Codex Huamantla
4253:Codex Cozcatzin
4243:Codex Colombino
4156:
4134:
4128:
4052:
4003:CentzonmÄ«mixcĆa
3986:
3837:Itztlacoliuhqui
3736:Chalchiuhtlicue
3659:Piltzintecuhtli
3644:Chalchiuhtlicue
3620:
3596:HuÄ«tzilĆpĆchtli
3586:
3578:
3569:
3544:
3542:Aztec mythology
3539:
3476:
3471:
3457:
3415:
3367:
3293:
3230:
3192:
3161:
3123:
3083:
3058:
3056:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3016:
3011:
3007:
2998:
2994:
2990:, p. 177 Note 4
2985:
2981:
2968:
2964:
2949:
2935:
2931:
2922:
2921:
2917:
2905:
2899:
2890:
2851:
2844:
2835:
2831:
2820:
2816:
2793:
2789:
2779:
2775:
2765:
2761:
2751:
2747:
2737:
2733:
2728:
2724:
2713:
2709:
2686:
2682:
2643:
2632:
2614:
2608:
2604:
2593:
2586:
2575:
2571:
2560:
2556:
2545:
2541:
2529:
2522:
2491:
2487:
2482:
2478:
2474:Sahagun Bk 2: 4
2473:
2469:
2460:
2456:
2447:
2443:
2434:
2430:
2425:
2421:
2412:
2408:
2403:
2399:
2394:
2390:
2385:
2376:
2361:
2357:
2342:
2338:
2323:
2309:
2305:
2300:
2296:
2284:
2280:
2272:
2265:
2255:
2253:
2248:
2247:
2240:
2231:
2227:
2216:
2212:
2203:
2201:
2191:
2187:
2172:
2168:
2163:
2159:
2155:Hanson, p. 195.
2154:
2150:
2140:
2138:
2131:Natural History
2123:
2119:
2104:
2100:
2091:
2087:
2076:
2069:
2058:
2054:
2045:
2024:
2013:
2006:
2001:
1997:
1986:
1982:
1965:
1950:
1919:
1910:
1903:
1889:
1885:
1875:
1873:
1865:
1864:
1857:
1846:
1842:
1827:
1823:
1818:
1811:
1801:
1799:
1789:
1782:
1773:
1771:
1761:
1754:
1746:
1742:
1734:
1730:
1719:
1715:
1676:
1665:
1650:10.2307/1779784
1626:
1622:
1614:
1612:
1603:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1572:
1547:
1498:tecpatlixquahua
1490:
1463:
1457:
1441:
1429:
1389:
1321:
1315:
1286:
1210:
1208:Primary sources
1113:Huitzilopochtli
1106:Panquetzaliztli
974:Mictlantecuhtli
966:Huitzilopochtli
912:Tecuilhuitontli
872:Huitzilopochtli
794:Huitzilopochtli
735:52-year cycle.
723:
718:
712:
678:
642:
636:
583:
522:
479:Huitzilopochtli
468:
466:Huitzilopochtli
463:
350:
255:
223:
217:
212:
115:
27:Human sacrifice
12:
11:
5:
4542:
4532:
4531:
4526:
4521:
4504:
4503:
4501:
4500:
4495:
4490:
4485:
4480:
4478:Anales de Tula
4475:
4470:
4465:
4460:
4455:
4450:
4445:
4440:
4435:
4430:
4425:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4395:
4393:Mapa Quinatzin
4390:
4385:
4380:
4375:
4370:
4365:
4360:
4355:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4335:
4330:
4325:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4270:
4265:
4260:
4255:
4250:
4245:
4240:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4223:Codex Boturini
4220:
4215:
4210:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4180:
4175:
4170:
4164:
4162:
4158:
4157:
4155:
4154:
4149:
4144:
4138:
4136:
4130:
4129:
4127:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4111:
4106:
4101:
4096:
4086:
4084:HuÄyi TeĆcalli
4081:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4060:
4058:
4054:
4053:
4051:
4050:
4045:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3994:
3992:
3988:
3987:
3985:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3969:
3964:
3959:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3929:
3924:
3919:
3914:
3909:
3904:
3899:
3894:
3889:
3884:
3879:
3874:
3869:
3864:
3859:
3857:Malinalxochitl
3854:
3849:
3844:
3839:
3834:
3829:
3824:
3819:
3814:
3809:
3804:
3799:
3794:
3789:
3784:
3779:
3774:
3769:
3764:
3759:
3754:
3749:
3744:
3739:
3732:
3727:
3726:
3725:
3720:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3703:MictÄcacihuÄtl
3700:
3690:
3689:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3673:
3666:
3661:
3656:
3654:MictlÄntÄcutli
3651:
3646:
3641:
3630:
3628:
3622:
3621:
3619:
3618:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3592:
3590:
3580:
3579:
3572:
3570:
3568:
3567:
3560:TĆnacÄtÄcuhtli
3552:
3550:
3546:
3545:
3538:
3537:
3530:
3523:
3515:
3509:
3508:
3498:
3496:on 2010-03-14.
3488:(in Spanish).
3475:
3474:External links
3472:
3470:
3469:
3455:
3427:
3413:
3379:
3365:
3344:
3318:(2): 403â406.
3305:
3291:
3271:
3243:
3242:
3228:
3204:
3190:
3173:
3159:
3135:
3121:
3095:
3081:
3071:. Boston, MA:
3064:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3023:
3014:
3005:
2992:
2979:
2962:
2947:
2929:
2915:
2888:
2842:
2829:
2814:
2787:
2773:
2759:
2745:
2731:
2722:
2707:
2696:(2): 257â295.
2680:
2653:(2): 403â406.
2630:
2602:
2584:
2569:
2554:
2539:
2520:
2507:10.1086/463405
2485:
2476:
2467:
2454:
2441:
2428:
2419:
2406:
2397:
2388:
2374:
2355:
2336:
2322:978-0226094878
2321:
2303:
2301:SahagĂșn, Ibid.
2294:
2278:
2263:
2238:
2225:
2210:
2185:
2166:
2157:
2148:
2117:
2098:
2085:
2067:
2064:. p. 159.
2060:Diaz, Bernal.
2052:
2022:
2004:
1995:
1980:
1948:
1929:(4): 415â432.
1908:
1901:
1883:
1855:
1840:
1837:. p. 402.
1821:
1809:
1797:Sciencemag.org
1791:Wade, Lizzie.
1780:
1752:
1740:
1728:
1713:
1692:(1): 117â135.
1663:
1620:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1589:
1588:
1583:
1578:
1576:Aztec religion
1571:
1568:
1546:
1543:
1489:
1486:
1459:Main article:
1456:
1453:
1449:British Museum
1440:
1437:
1428:
1425:
1388:
1385:
1317:Main article:
1314:
1311:
1285:
1282:
1239:Magliabechiano
1209:
1206:
1203:
1202:
1199:
1191:
1188:
1187:
1184:
1177:
1169:
1165:
1164:
1161:
1150:
1144:
1140:
1139:
1136:
1131:
1123:
1119:
1118:
1115:
1110:
1102:
1098:
1097:
1094:
1087:
1079:
1075:
1074:
1068:
1059:
1051:
1047:
1046:
1043:
1038:
1030:
1026:
1025:
1022:
1012:
1004:
1000:
999:
996:
990:
984:
980:
979:
976:
963:
955:
951:
950:
947:
941:
937:Hueytecuihutli
933:
929:
928:
925:
916:
908:
904:
903:
900:
891:
887:Etzalcualiztli
883:
879:
878:
875:
865:
857:
853:
852:
849:
839:
831:
827:
826:
823:
813:
805:
801:
800:
797:
790:
784:
780:
779:
776:
770:
764:
760:
759:
756:
753:
744:Aztec calendar
722:
719:
716:Aztec calendar
714:Main article:
711:
708:
677:
674:
638:Main article:
635:
632:
582:
579:
564:eagle warriors
560:jaguar knights
521:
518:
467:
464:
462:
459:
393:Michael Harner
349:
346:
282:stone slab, a
254:
251:
219:Main article:
216:
213:
211:
208:
114:
111:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4541:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4519:Aztec society
4517:
4516:
4514:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4476:
4474:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4464:
4461:
4459:
4456:
4454:
4451:
4449:
4446:
4444:
4441:
4439:
4436:
4434:
4433:Mapa SigĂŒenza
4431:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4419:
4416:
4414:
4411:
4409:
4406:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4398:Codex RamĂrez
4396:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4369:
4366:
4364:
4361:
4359:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4259:
4258:Codex Dresden
4256:
4254:
4251:
4249:
4246:
4244:
4241:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4214:
4211:
4209:
4206:
4204:
4201:
4199:
4196:
4194:
4191:
4189:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4179:
4176:
4174:
4171:
4169:
4166:
4165:
4163:
4159:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4139:
4137:
4131:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4094:
4090:
4087:
4085:
4082:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4061:
4059:
4055:
4049:
4046:
4044:
4041:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4033:Ehecatotontli
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3995:
3993:
3989:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3935:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3923:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3910:
3908:
3905:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3895:
3893:
3890:
3888:
3885:
3883:
3880:
3878:
3875:
3873:
3870:
3868:
3865:
3863:
3860:
3858:
3855:
3853:
3852:Macuilxochitl
3850:
3848:
3847:Macuiltochtli
3845:
3843:
3840:
3838:
3835:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3817:Ilamatecuhtli
3815:
3813:
3812:Huixtocihuatl
3810:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3785:
3783:
3780:
3778:
3777:Cihuatecayotl
3775:
3773:
3770:
3768:
3765:
3763:
3760:
3758:
3755:
3753:
3750:
3748:
3745:
3743:
3740:
3737:
3733:
3731:
3730:Acolnahuacatl
3728:
3724:
3721:
3719:
3716:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3695:
3694:
3691:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3671:
3667:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3636:
3635:
3632:
3631:
3629:
3627:
3623:
3616:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3593:
3591:
3585:
3581:
3576:
3565:
3564:TĆnacÄcihuÄtl
3561:
3557:
3554:
3553:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3536:
3531:
3529:
3524:
3522:
3517:
3516:
3513:
3506:
3502:
3499:
3495:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3478:
3477:
3466:
3462:
3458:
3452:
3448:
3444:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3431:Schele, Linda
3428:
3424:
3420:
3416:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3397:
3392:
3388:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3362:
3358:
3353:
3352:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3313:
3312:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3294:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3252:
3248:
3247:
3246:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3225:
3221:
3216:
3215:
3209:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3187:
3183:
3182:Paragon House
3179:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3124:
3118:
3114:
3113:Penguin Books
3110:
3106:
3105:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3084:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3065:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3046:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3032:
3018:
3009:
3002:
2996:
2989:
2983:
2976:
2972:
2966:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2948:9780006356035
2944:
2941:. : Fontana.
2940:
2933:
2925:
2919:
2912:. p. 15.
2911:
2904:
2897:
2895:
2893:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2849:
2847:
2839:
2833:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2800:
2791:
2784:
2783:
2777:
2770:
2769:
2763:
2756:
2755:
2749:
2742:
2741:
2735:
2726:
2718:
2711:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2684:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2641:
2639:
2637:
2635:
2626:
2622:
2621:
2613:
2606:
2598:
2591:
2589:
2580:
2573:
2565:
2558:
2550:
2543:
2536:
2532:
2527:
2525:
2516:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2489:
2480:
2471:
2464:
2463:La flor letal
2458:
2451:
2445:
2438:
2432:
2423:
2416:
2410:
2401:
2392:
2383:
2381:
2379:
2370:
2366:
2359:
2351:
2347:
2340:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2318:
2314:
2307:
2298:
2291:
2287:
2282:
2276:
2270:
2268:
2251:
2245:
2243:
2235:
2229:
2221:
2214:
2200:
2196:
2189:
2181:
2177:
2170:
2161:
2152:
2136:
2132:
2128:
2121:
2113:
2109:
2102:
2095:
2089:
2081:
2074:
2072:
2063:
2056:
2049:
2043:
2041:
2039:
2037:
2035:
2033:
2031:
2029:
2027:
2018:
2011:
2009:
1999:
1991:
1984:
1976:
1972:
1971:
1963:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1955:
1953:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1917:
1915:
1913:
1904:
1898:
1894:
1887:
1872:
1868:
1862:
1860:
1851:
1844:
1836:
1832:
1825:
1816:
1814:
1798:
1794:
1787:
1785:
1770:
1766:
1759:
1757:
1749:
1744:
1737:
1732:
1724:
1717:
1709:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1686:
1681:
1674:
1672:
1670:
1668:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1624:
1610:
1606:
1600:
1596:
1587:
1584:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1573:
1567:
1563:
1561:
1557:
1553:
1542:
1540:
1534:
1531:
1527:
1521:
1519:
1518:
1513:
1503:
1499:
1494:
1485:
1481:
1479:
1473:
1471:
1470:
1462:
1450:
1445:
1436:
1432:
1423:
1418:
1416:
1415:
1408:
1403:
1401:
1396:
1394:
1383:
1378:
1374:
1372:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1354:
1349:
1347:
1342:
1336:
1334:
1327:
1325:
1320:
1309:
1304:
1302:
1298:
1295:. Diaz wrote
1294:
1290:
1281:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1270:Hernån Cortés
1267:
1262:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1220:
1219:
1214:
1197:
1196:
1192:
1190:
1189:
1185:
1182:
1178:
1175:
1174:
1170:
1167:
1166:
1162:
1159:
1155:
1154:Ilamatecuhtli
1151:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1141:
1137:
1135:
1132:
1129:
1128:
1124:
1121:
1120:
1116:
1114:
1111:
1108:
1107:
1103:
1100:
1099:
1095:
1092:
1088:
1085:
1084:
1080:
1077:
1076:
1073:
1069:
1067:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1056:
1052:
1049:
1048:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1035:
1031:
1028:
1027:
1023:
1020:
1016:
1013:
1010:
1009:
1005:
1002:
1001:
997:
994:
991:
988:
987:Xocotlhuetzin
985:
982:
981:
977:
975:
971:
967:
964:
961:
960:
956:
953:
952:
948:
945:
942:
939:
938:
934:
931:
930:
926:
924:
920:
919:Huixtocihuatl
917:
914:
913:
909:
906:
905:
901:
899:
895:
892:
889:
888:
884:
881:
880:
876:
873:
869:
866:
863:
862:
858:
855:
854:
850:
848:
844:
840:
837:
836:
832:
829:
828:
824:
821:
817:
814:
811:
810:
806:
803:
802:
798:
795:
792:Xipe TĂłtec,
791:
788:
785:
782:
781:
777:
774:
771:
768:
767:Atlacacauallo
765:
762:
761:
754:
751:
750:
747:
745:
741:
736:
733:
729:
721:52-year cycle
717:
707:
704:
700:
695:
693:
686:
682:
672:
667:
665:
660:
658:
654:
649:
646:
641:
631:
629:
625:
624:
620:
616:
611:
609:
605:
600:
598:
593:
591:
587:
578:
576:
572:
567:
565:
561:
556:
554:
550:
546:
542:
535:
531:
526:
517:
513:
511:
507:
501:
499:
495:
490:
488:
484:
480:
472:
458:
454:
452:
448:
444:
438:
434:
432:
428:
424:
419:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
386:
382:
380:
376:
375:Aztec Warfare
372:
365:
361:
360:
354:
345:
343:
337:
335:
331:
325:
322:
321:
315:
311:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
289:
285:
276:
272:
268:
263:
259:
250:
246:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
225:According to
222:
207:
204:
200:
197:
195:
190:
186:
181:
179:
174:
172:
167:
165:
161:
154:
147:
143:
138:
134:
132:
128:
124:
120:
110:
106:
104:
100:
96:
91:
89:
85:
84:
79:
75:
71:
70:Hernån Cortés
66:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
28:
20:
16:
4493:Codex Xolotl
4473:Codex Tudela
4458:Mapa Tloztin
4333:Codex Madrid
4218:Codex Borgia
4208:Codex Bodley
4133:Beliefs and
4092:
4048:Xiuhtotontli
3977:Yacatecuhtli
3957:XĆchiquetzal
3917:Tlacotzontli
3907:Temazcalteci
3902:TÄcciztÄcatl
3802:HuÄhuecoyĆtl
3792:CoyolxÄuhqui
3762:ChicomecĆÄtl
3735:
3718:Tlaltecuhtli
3686:Xiuhtecuhtli
3670:Creator gods
3669:
3606:Tezcatlipoca
3601:Quetzalcoatl
3584:Creator gods
3494:the original
3489:
3485:
3438:
3395:
3385:(1950â82) .
3350:
3315:
3309:
3278:
3254:
3244:
3213:
3208:Hassig, Ross
3177:
3146:
3143:Doris Heyden
3139:DurĂĄn, Diego
3103:
3073:Beacon Press
3068:
3057:. Retrieved
3044:
3028:Bibliography
3017:
3008:
3000:
2995:
2987:
2982:
2974:
2965:
2938:
2932:
2918:
2909:
2858:
2854:
2837:
2832:
2817:
2808:
2798:
2790:
2785:, chap. XXIX
2780:
2776:
2771:, chap. XXXV
2766:
2762:
2757:, chap. XLVI
2752:
2748:
2738:
2734:
2725:
2716:
2710:
2693:
2689:
2683:
2650:
2646:
2624:
2618:
2605:
2596:
2578:
2572:
2563:
2557:
2548:
2542:
2530:
2498:
2494:
2488:
2479:
2470:
2462:
2457:
2449:
2444:
2436:
2431:
2422:
2414:
2409:
2400:
2391:
2368:
2364:
2358:
2345:
2339:
2312:
2306:
2297:
2289:
2281:
2274:
2254:. Retrieved
2233:
2228:
2219:
2213:
2202:. Retrieved
2198:
2188:
2175:
2169:
2160:
2151:
2139:. Retrieved
2134:
2130:
2120:
2111:
2106:Roos, Dave.
2101:
2093:
2088:
2079:
2061:
2055:
2047:
2016:
1998:
1989:
1983:
1974:
1968:
1926:
1922:
1892:
1886:
1874:. Retrieved
1870:
1867:"The Aztecs"
1849:
1843:
1830:
1824:
1800:. Retrieved
1796:
1772:. Retrieved
1768:
1743:
1731:
1722:
1716:
1689:
1683:
1633:
1629:
1623:
1613:, retrieved
1611:, 2021-02-07
1608:
1599:
1564:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1548:
1535:
1529:
1525:
1522:
1515:
1511:
1508:
1497:
1482:
1477:
1474:
1467:
1464:
1433:
1430:
1420:
1412:
1410:
1405:
1399:
1397:
1390:
1380:
1376:
1370:
1367:
1363:
1356:
1351:
1340:
1338:
1332:
1329:
1322:
1306:
1296:
1287:
1263:
1251:Templo Mayor
1247:Coyolxauhqui
1223:
1218:Codex Tudela
1216:
1193:
1181:Xiuhtecuhtli
1171:
1158:Yacatecuhtli
1146:
1125:
1104:
1081:
1066:Xochiquétzal
1053:
1041:Xochiquétzal
1032:
1006:
993:Xiuhtecuhtli
986:
970:Tezcatlipoca
959:Tlaxochimaco
957:
935:
910:
898:Quetzalcoatl
885:
868:Tezcatlipoca
859:
847:Quetzalcoatl
835:Hueytozoztli
833:
807:
786:
766:
737:
724:
702:
698:
696:
690:
669:
663:
661:
650:
643:
628:Orion's belt
621:
612:
601:
596:
594:
586:Xiuhtecuhtli
584:
568:
557:
545:tezcatlipoca
544:
541:Tezcatlipoca
539:
520:Tezcatlipoca
514:
502:
498:Tenochtitlan
494:Templo Mayor
491:
477:
455:
451:Tenochtitlan
447:Templo Mayor
439:
435:
396:
391:
374:
368:
357:
338:
326:
318:
316:
312:
307:
299:
295:
291:
283:
280:
267:cuauhxicalli
256:
247:
224:
205:
201:
198:
182:
178:Quetzalcoatl
175:
168:
160:nextlahualli
159:
156:
152:
145:
116:
107:
103:Templo Mayor
92:
82:
74:Tenochtitlan
67:
25:
15:
4428:Selden Roll
4403:Codex Reese
4373:Paris Codex
4363:Codex Osuna
4263:Codex DurĂĄn
4248:Codex Cospi
4168:Aubin Codex
4104:Teotihuacan
4079:Chicomoztoc
4038:TiÄnquiztli
3982:Zacatzontli
3962:Xochitlicue
3922:Tlalocayotl
3912:TepoztÄcatl
3822:ÄȘtzpÄpÄlĆtl
3708:Nanahuatzin
3681:TlazĆlteĆtl
3664:TepÄyĆllĆtl
3549:Primordials
3505:Tovar Codex
3443:Justin Kerr
3109:J. M. Cohen
2743:, chap. XCI
2232:Motolinia,
2199:Artnet News
1871:In Our Time
1802:13 November
1402:he states:
1324:Bernal DĂaz
1313:Bernal DĂaz
1303:. He said,
1179:Ixozauhqui-
1072:cannibalism
1008:Ochpaniztli
809:Tozoztontli
623:Huixachtlan
604:Huehueteotl
602:To appease
590:Huehueteotl
510:cannibalism
364:Codex Tovar
235:flower wars
227:Diego DurĂĄn
221:Flower wars
215:Flower wars
131:Franciscans
31:Mesoamerica
4513:Categories
4413:Codex RĂos
4303:Codex Laud
4099:Tamoanchan
4093:Underworld
4074:Cemanahuac
4043:Tzitzimitl
4023:Cihuateteo
3998:Ahuiateteo
3952:XĆchipilli
3782:Cipactonal
3772:CihuacĆÄtl
3698:CitlÄlicue
3611:Xipe Totec
3059:2008-01-12
2627:: 219â253.
2220:Letter 105
2204:2021-12-07
2141:October 8,
2137:(4): 46â51
1902:0942299256
1774:2021-12-07
1636:(1): 206.
1615:2021-02-16
1243:Florentine
1055:Tepeihuitl
923:Xochipilli
703:teixiptla,
692:Xipe Totec
685:Xipe Totec
676:Xipe Totec
657:immolation
534:macuahuitl
443:tzompantli
418:propaganda
359:tzompantli
332:, burned,
320:tzompantli
53:, and the
47:Purépechas
4142:Five Suns
4028:Civateteo
3942:Tonantzin
3937:Toltecatl
3842:Ixtlilton
3787:CĆÄtlÄ«cue
3340:162218640
3141:(1994) .
3131:162351797
3101:(1963) .
3038:(1917) .
2999:SahagĂșn,
2975:Ethnology
2675:162218640
2667:1548-1433
2577:Sahagun.
2515:162295619
2236:, 118â119
1708:144736919
1609:Knowledge
1592:Footnotes
1530:teixiptla
1517:teixiptla
1478:chinampas
1293:Juan DĂaz
1278:New Spain
1259:Coatlicue
1255:matricide
1195:Nemontemi
1134:Tlaloques
1127:Atemoztli
1091:Coatlicue
1083:Quecholli
1019:Atlatonin
816:Coatlicue
608:MotolinĂa
487:Xiuhcoatl
304:diaphragm
231:CrĂłnica X
119:the Aztec
4135:practice
4114:TlÄlĆcÄn
4018:CintÄteo
3897:Patecatl
3882:Opochtli
3877:Mixcoatl
3862:Mayahuel
3767:ChÄ«malmÄ
3757:Chantico
3747:Atlacoya
3723:TĆnatiuh
3649:Cinteotl
3639:CenteĆtl
3615:Camaxtle
3556:ĆmeteĆtl
3465:41441466
3437:(1992).
3403:and the
3393:(eds.).
3375:20798977
3301:40997904
3277:(1998).
3253:(1963).
3238:17106411
3210:(1988).
3200:55131504
3169:29565779
3091:41368255
2957:16420059
2883:49414905
2875:29930121
2218:Cortes.
1943:55463057
1876:13 April
1570:See also
1560:pochteca
1556:pipiltin
1552:Tlatoani
1400:Letters,
1371:tianguez
1359:Cempoala
1301:Veracruz
597:Izcalli.
553:Mixcoatl
549:obsidian
506:offering
457:states.
342:Alvarado
308:apetlatl
300:chacmool
284:chacmool
275:chacmool
243:Tlaxcala
233:), the
4161:Codices
4089:MictlÄn
4064:Anahuac
3947:Xilonen
3927:Tlilhua
3887:Oxomoco
3867:Metztli
3797:Ehecatl
3742:Atlahua
3626:Deities
3332:1479294
3145:(ed.).
3054:6720413
2986:Duran,
2855:Science
2439:. p. 2.
2331:8626972
2273:Duran,
2112:History
2050:p. 167.
2046:Duran,
2015:Duran.
1658:1779784
1638:Bibcode
1346:Cholula
1173:Izcalli
1034:Teoleco
944:Xilonen
861:Toxcatl
619:volcano
571:Toxcatl
298:). The
269:in the
51:Toltecs
4124:TĆllÄn
4069:AztlĂĄn
4057:Places
3991:Groups
3972:Xolotl
3967:Xocotl
3892:Painal
3676:TlĂĄloc
3463:
3453:
3423:276351
3421:
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3373:
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3338:
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2329:
2319:
2256:3 July
1941:
1899:
1706:
1656:
1526:ixitli
1231:Tudela
1168:XVIII
1147:Tititl
1062:TlĂĄloc
894:TlĂĄloc
843:Tlaloc
820:Tlaloc
773:TlĂĄloc
645:Tlaloc
634:Tlaloc
575:Easter
483:Mexica
334:flayed
185:maguey
88:friars
59:Olmecs
35:Aztecs
4091:(The
3336:S2CID
2910:FAMSI
2906:(PDF)
2879:S2CID
2840:. XV.
2671:S2CID
2615:(PDF)
2511:S2CID
2501:: 5.
1977:: 47.
1939:S2CID
1704:S2CID
1654:JSTOR
1143:XVII
1050:XIII
932:VIII
401:Borah
296:istli
288:flint
194:Nahua
146:Istli
3932:Toci
3613:(or
3562:and
3461:OCLC
3451:ISBN
3419:OCLC
3409:ISBN
3371:OCLC
3361:ISBN
3328:OCLC
3297:OCLC
3287:ISBN
3263:OCLC
3234:OCLC
3224:ISBN
3196:OCLC
3186:ISBN
3165:OCLC
3155:ISBN
3127:OCLC
3117:ISBN
3087:OCLC
3077:ISBN
3050:OCLC
2953:OCLC
2943:ISBN
2871:PMID
2663:ISSN
2535:link
2327:OCLC
2317:ISBN
2258:2017
2143:2018
1897:ISBN
1878:2018
1804:2020
1539:Xipe
1227:RĂos
1122:XVI
1078:XIV
1029:XII
1015:Toci
907:VII
804:III
752:No.
687:mask
562:and
292:tona
241:and
55:Maya
49:and
3320:doi
2973:".
2863:doi
2859:360
2698:doi
2655:doi
2503:doi
1931:doi
1694:doi
1646:doi
1339:In
1268:,
1257:of
1237:,
1233:,
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1156:,
1101:XV
1003:XI
972:,
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954:IX
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818:,
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