Hungarian prehistory

54: 3417: 3842: 2341: 1715: 1512: 3181: 1425: 3856:. Ethnographic studies of modern nomadic populations suggest cyclic migrations – a year-by-year movement between their winter and summer camps – featured in their way of life, but they also cultivated arable lands around their winter camps. Most historians agree the Magyars had a mixed nomadic or semi-nomadic economy, characterized by both the raising of cattle and the cultivation of arable lands. Turkic loanwords in the Hungarian language show the Magyars adopted many practices of animal husbandry and agriculture from Turkic peoples between the 3513: 2326: 3126: 2154: 4155: – was widely practiced by 10th-century Magyars. Gyula László writes that real trepanations – the opening of the skull with a chiesel and the closing of the wound with a sheet of silver – were actually surgical operations similarly to those already practiced by Arab physicians, whereas symbolic trepanations – the marking of the skull with an incised circle – were aimed at the disposal of a protective talisman on the head. According to Róna-Tas, a Hungarian word for cunning, 1303: 3005: 4001:

lands, although it is unclear whether those lands were cultivated by the Magyars themselves or by their prisoners. Taxes collected from the neighboring peoples, a slave trade, and plundering raids made the Magyars a wealthy people. Gardezi wrote that they were "a handsome people and of good appearance and their clothes are of silk brocade and their weapons are of silver and are encrusted with pearls", proving their growing wealth. However, 9th-century Byzantine and Muslim coins have rarely been found in the Pontic steppes.

4024:. Cemeteries in the Carpathian Basin also yielded scraps of canvas made of flax or hemp. The positioning of metal buttons in the graves shows the Magyars wore clothes that either opened down the front or were fastened at the neck. Ear-rings were the only accessories worn above the belt by Magyar warriors; jewelry on their upper bodies would have hindered them from firing arrows. In contrast, Magyar women wore head jewelry decorated with leaf-like pendants, ear-rings, decorated pectoral disks, and rings with gemstones. 2994: 3624: 2885: – a group of Khazars who rebelled against the Khagan – joined the Magyars in Etelköz at an unspecified time, suggesting that the Magyars had got rid of the Khagan's suzerainty. The Kabars were organized into three tribes, but a single chieftain commanded them. Porphyrogenitus also wrote that the Kabars "were promoted to be first" tribe, because they showed themselves "the strongest and most valorous" of the tribes. Accordingly, the Kabars formed the Magyars' 2362: 1735: 3122:

the steppes and their settlement in the Carpathian Basin may have caused the development of a new material culture, rendering the identification of pre-conquest Hungarians difficult. Archaeological research has demonstrated that the material culture of the Avars and other steppe peoples who settled in the Carpathian Basin before the Hungarians experienced a similarly significant change after they left the steppes and settled in their new homeland.

4247: 762: 2767: 4056: 3727: 3094: 2102:. The period when the Magyars settled in Levedia is also uncertain; this happened either before 750 (István Fodor) or around 830 (Gyula Kristó). Porphyrogenitus said that the Magyars had been named "Sabartoi asphaloi", or "steadfast Savarts", while staying in Levedia. Róna-Tas says the ethnonym is an invented term with no historical credibility. Based on the same denomination, Károly Czeglédy, Dezső Dümmerth, 2114:, according to a scholarly view. On the other hand, historian György Szabados says, the emperor's words prove the equal position of the Magyars and the Khazars, instead of the Magyars' subjugation to the Khagan. Although the emperor said that the Magyars' cohabitation with the Khazars lasted only for three years, modern historians tend to propose a longer period (20, 30, 100, 150, 200 or even 300 years). 3484:, descended. However, Simon of Kéza explicitly identified the Huns and the Hungarians in the 1280. He started his chronicle with a book of the history of the Huns, thus presenting the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin as the reoccupation of a land inherited from their ancestors. Thereafter the identification of the two peoples was the basic theory of the origins of the Hungarians for centuries. 1466:. During this period, all ethnic groups in the steppes were nomads with almost identical material cultures, for which the certain identification of the Magyars is impossible. Consequently, the exact location of their original homeland is subject to scholarly debates. Róna-Tas says the development of Hungarian started in the region of the rivers Kama and Volga, west of the Urals. Archaeologist 2792:. The Khagan accepted Levedi's proposal and upon his demand the Magyar chiefs proclaimed Árpád their head. According to Kristó and Spinei, Porphyrogenitus' report preserved the memory of the creation of a central office within the federation of the Magyar tribes. Róna-Tas says the story relates only a "change of dynasty"; the fall of Levedi's family and the emergence of the 1404:, the climate again changed with the beginning of a wetter period, forcing the nomadic Ugric groups to start a southward migration, following the grasslands. Their movement separated them from the northern Ugric groups, which gave rise to the development of the language from which modern Hungarian emerged. According to historian László Kontler, the concept of the " 2227:

Pechenegs who were at that time called "Kangar", the army of the was defeated and split into two parts. One part went eastwards and settled in the region of Persia, and they to this day are called by the ancient denomination of the "Sabartoi asphaloi"; but the other part, together with their voivode and chief , settled in the western regions, in places called

1275:. Alan W. Ertl writes that the ethnonym was initially the name of a smaller group, the Megyer tribe; it developed into an ethnonym because Megyer was the most powerful tribe within the people. Most scholars agree that the Hungarian exonym and its variants were derived from the Onogurs' name. This form started spreading in Europe with Slavic mediation. 1604:, and other Turkic peoples controlled the grasslands of Eastern Europe for centuries. Gardizi described the Magyars as "a branch of the Turks"; Leo the Wise and Constantine Porphyrogenitus called them Turks. About 450 Hungarian words were borrowed from Turkic languages before around 900. The oldest layer of Hungarian folk songs show similarities to 2125:'first clue' to the upheaval on the steppes created by the migration of the Magyars into the lands between the Dnieper and the Danube". The earliest certainly identifiable events of the Magyars' history occurred in the 830s. The Bulgarians hired them to fight against their Byzantine prisoners, who rebelled and tried to return to 3595:

their sight altogether, and they could not find it no matter how long they searched. But as they were wandering through these marshes, they saw that the land was well suited for grazing cattle. They then returned to their father, and after obtaining his permission they took all their possessions and went to live in the Meotis

4216:, a drum, and a reed violin preserves the memory of a pagan ritual for expelling harmful spirits by raising great noise. The refrain of another children's verse, which mentions three days of the week in reverse order, may have preserved an ancient belief in the existence of an afterlife world where everything is upside-down. 4127:

Modern scholarly theories of the Magyars' pagan religious beliefs and practices are primarily based on reports by biased medieval authors and prohibitions enacted during the reigns of Christian kings. Both Christian and Muslim sources say the Magyars worshipped forces of nature. They gave offering to

4000:

According to Ibn Rusta, the late 9th-century Magyars "dwell in tents and move from place to place in search of pasturage", but during the winters they settled along the nearest river, where they lived by fishing. He also said their "land is well watered and harvests abundant", showing they had arable

3489:

In the 401st year of Our Lord’s birth, in the 28th year since the arrival of the Hungarians in Pannonia, according to the custom of the Romans, the Huns, namely the Hungarians exalted Attila as king above themselves, the son of Bendegúz, who was before among the captains. And he made his brother Buda

3121:

Both the scarcity of published archaeological material and the misdating of some sites may have contributed to the low number of archaeological sites that can be attributed to the Hungarians in the steppes, according to archaeologist László Kovács. Kovács also says that the Hungarians' migration from

2787:

The Khazar Khagan sent his envoys to the Magyars shortly after they fled from Levedia and settled in Etelköz, according to Porphyrogenitus. The Khagan invited Levedi to a meeting, proposing to make Levedi the supreme head of the confederation of the Magyar tribes in exchange for the acceptance of his

1549:

original homeland is still subject to scholarly debates. According to a third scholarly theory, Magna Hungaria was neither the Magyars' original homeland nor their first homeland in Europe. Instead, the ancestors of the Eastern Magyars whom Friar Julian met had moved to Magna Hungaria from the south.

4097:

Frequently they tie the extra horses together to the rear, that is, behind their battle line, as protection for it. They make the depth of the files, that is, the rows, of their battle line irregular because they consider it more important that the line should be thick than deep, and they make their

3700:

According to mainstream scholarly consensus, the Hungarians are not the autochthonous population of the Carpathian Basin. Their ancestors arrived there through a series of westward migrations across the Eurasian steppes around 894, centuries after their departure from their original homeland located

3599:

So they entered the Meotis marshes and remained there for five years without leaving. Then in the sixth year they went out, and when by chance they discovered that the wives and children of the sons of Belar were camped in tents in a lonely place without their menfolk, they carried them off with all

3594:

s Hunor and Mogor were Ménrót's first born, they journeyed separately from their father in tents. Now it happened one day when they had gone out hunting in the Meotis marshes that they encountered a hind in the wilderness. As they went in pursuit of it, it fled before them. Then it disappeared from

2226:

he Pechenegs who were previously called "Kangar" (for this "Kangar" was a name signifiying nobility and valour among them), these, then, stirred up war against the and, being defeated, were forced to quit their own land and to settle in that of the . And when battle was joined between the and the

2097:

wrote that the Magyars "had of old their dwelling next to Chazaria, in the place called Levedia," adding that "a river Chidmas, also called Chingilous" ran through this territory. The identification of the (one or two) rivers is uncertain. Porphyrogenitus associated Levedia with the whole territory

2965:

came to the lands of the Danube, Methodius wished to see him. And though some were assuming and saying: "He will not escape torment," Methodius went to . And as befits a sovereign, received with honor, solemnity, and joy. Having conversed with as befits such men to converse, dismissed with an

3171:

of the Hungarian people because a language shows the circumstances of its own development and its contacts with other idioms. According to a scholarly theory, the oldest layers of Hungarian vocabulary show features of the territory in which the language emerged. The study of loan words from other

3071:

sent envoys to the Pechenegs and persuaded them to storm into Etelköz. The unexpected invasion destroyed the unguarded dwelling places of the Magyars, forcing them to leave the Pontic steppes and seek refuge over the Carpathian Mountains. The Magyars occupied their new homeland in several phases,

3446:

in 862 were enemies "hitherto unknown" to the local population. Likewise, Regino of Prüm wrote that the Magyars had been "unheard of in the previous centuries because they were not named". in the sources. Both remarks evince that late 9th-century authors had no knowledge of the Magyars' origins.

4162:

The Magyars buried their dead, laying the deceased on their backs with the arms resting along their bodies or upon their pelvises. A deceased warrior's tomb always contained material connected with his horse. These are most frequently its skin, skull, and the lower legs; these were put into its

2145:

because "the route by which they had reached Constantinople had taken them through primitive tribes that were very fierce and savage"; Curta and Kristó identify those tribes with the Magyars. Ibn Rusta wrote that the Khazars "used to be protected from attack by the Magyars and other neighboring

3792:

were dug deep into the ground; along the Kama River, rectangular semi-pit houses were built. The local people were hunter-gatherers. They used egg-shaped, baked clay vessels that were decorated with rhombuses, triangles, and other geometrical forms. They buried their dead in shallow graves and

3066:

in 893, forcing them to invade the Pechenegs' lands between the Volga and Ural rivers. After being expelled from their homeland, the Pechenegs departed for the west in search of new pastures. The Magyars had in the meantime invaded Bulgaria in alliance with the Byzantine Emperor Leo the Wise.

2908:"howling like wolves and wishing to kill him" in the steppes near the Crimea, according to the saint's legend. However, Cyril convinced them to "release him and his entire retinue in peace". The inhabitants of the regions along the left bank of the Dniester – whom the 2077:

culture", which flourished in the same region around 750 and 900, had at least seven variants. In the Hungarian chronicles, the legend of the wondrous hind seems to have preserved the memory of the Magyars' "close symbiosis, intermarriages, and incipient fusion" with various ethnic

4079:

taking besieged cities". Archaeological research confirms Leo the Wise's report of the use of sabres, bows, and arrows. However, in contrast with the emperor's report, spears have rarely been found in Magyar warriors' tombs. Their most important weapons were bone-reinforced

2185:

wheresoever war breaks out", suggesting the tribal chiefs were military rather than political leaders. According to Kristó, the emperor's report also shows the tribal confederation was not a "solid political formation with strong cohesion" in the early 9th century. The

1536:

went to search for the Magyars' legendary homeland Magna Hungaria after reading about it and a group of Magyars who had remained there in a Hungarian chronicle. He met a Hungarian-speaking group "beside the great Etil river" (the Volga or the Kama) in the land of the

2177:

cannot be exactly determined, scholars have traditionally considered the Magyar "clans" or "tribes" as ethnic and territorial units. In the Hungarian chronicles, references to "seven leading persons" or "seven captains" denote the existence of seven Magyar tribes.

3600:

their belongings as fast as they could into the Meotis marshes. Two daughters of Dula, prince of the Alans, happened to be among the children who were seized. Hunor took one of them in marriage and Mogor the other, and to these women all the Huns owe their origin.

3105:

Since the 1830s, archaeology has played an important role in the study of the Magyar prehistory. Archaeologists have applied two methods; the so-called "linear method" attempts to determine the route of the migrating Magyars from their original homeland to the

1573:. Most specialists say that the cemetery at Bolshie Tigany was used by Magyars who either remained in Magna Hungaria when other Magyar groups left the territory, or who moved there from other regions which were inhabited by the Magyars during their migrations. 1376:

About 1000 basic words of the Hungarian language – including the names of the seasons and natural phenomena, and the most frequently used verbs – had cognates in other Finno-Ugric languages, suggesting the temporary existence of a

3683:

languages. Hereafter linguistics played a pre-eminent role in the research of the Magyars' prehistory because it was always the dominant linguistic theory that determined the interpretation of historical and archaeological evidence. Consequently, as historian

3738:

Most Neolithic settlements were situated on the banks of rivers and lakes in the proposed original homeland of the Uralic peoples, but no houses have been excavated there. The local inhabitants primarily used tools made of stone – especially

3705:, their lifestyle and political organization, and the background of their conquest of the Carpathian Basin – are still subject to scholarly debates. With regard to the connections between the Magyars and the Turkic tribes, archaeologist 4136:. In accordance with the custom of the peoples of the Eurasian steppes, the pagan Magyars swore oaths on dogs, which were bisected to warn potential oathbrakers of their fate. Simon of Kéza also wrote about the sacrifice of horses. According to the 3072:

initially settling the lands east of the Danube and only invading the March of Pannonia after Arnulf of East Francia died in 899. They destroyed Moravia before 906 and consolidated their control of the Carpathian Basin through their victory over a

3533:

preserved the Hungarians' own myth of their origins. The late 13th-century chronicler Simon of Kéza was the first to record it. The legend says two brothers, Hunor and Magor, were the forefathers of the Huns and Hungarians. They were the sons of

886:

studies. In addition to linguistics, archaeology, and archaeogenetics, the re-evaluation of well-known written sources has also begun. Together, these fields of study may provide new information regarding the origins of the Hungarian people.

3837:

are of Proto-Iranian origin. Archaeological finds – including seeds of millet, wheat, and barley, and tools including sickles, hoes, and spade handles – prove the local population also cultivated arable lands.

3743:

from the southern Urals – , bone and wood, but baked clay vessels decorated with broken or wavy lines were also found. Their economy was based on fishing, hunting, and gathering. The basic Hungarian words connected to these

997:

with the withdrawal of the grasslands and the parallel southward migration of the nomadic Ugric groups. The history of the ancient Magyars during the next thousand years is uncertain; they lived in the steppes but the location of their

3570:(Belar) and the Dula – kindred of the Alans or Bulgars (Dulo). The hunt for a beast, ending with the arrival in a new homeland, was a popular legend among the peoples of the Eurasian steppes, including the Huns and the 4163:

master's grave, but occasionally only the harness was buried together with the warrior, or the horse's skin was stuffed with hay. The Magyars rolled the corpses in textiles or mats and placed silver plates on the eyes and the mouth.

3996:

Turkic language, but the place and the time of the borrowings are uncertain. The Magyars' connections with the people of the Saltovo-Mayaki culture may have contributed to the development of their agriculture, according to Spinei.

8976:"Ethnography and Hungarian Prehistory (Edited version of a lecture held at the conference "Ethnography and Prehistory," organized by the Hungarian Prehistoric Committee of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences on December 5, 1995)" 4088:

In battle do not line up as do the in three divisions, but in several units of irregular size, linking the divisions close to one another although separated by short distances, so that they give the impression of one

3326:

used his book, preserving important facts about the late 9th-century Magyars. However, their works also contain interpolations from later periods. Among the sources written in Western Europe, the longer version of the

3696:

identifies "the history of Hungarian origins" as "the history of a community whose genetic composition and cultural character has been changing, but which has assuredly spoken Hungarian or its predecessor language".

3055:, most historians agree the Moravian ruler persuaded them to invade East Francia. During their raids in the Carpathian Basin, the Magyars had several opportunities to collect information on their future homeland. 1372:

material culture of the wider region of the Urals spread over vast territories to the west and east. Regional variants emerged, showing the appearance of groups of people who had no close contact with each other.

2109:

Porphyrogenitus wrote that the Magyars "lived together with the Chazars for three years, and fought in alliance with the Chazars in all their wars", which suggests that the Magyars were subjugated to the Khazar

3797:. They also placed objects including tools, jewels made of pierced boar tusks, and small pendants in the form of animal heads into the graves. Copper objects found in the graves, which were manufactured in the 1597:. The Avars' attack against the Sabirs in Siberia set in motion a number of migrations in the 460s. Between around 550 and 600, the migration of the Avars towards Europe compelled many nomadic groups to move. 1576:

If the Magyars' original homeland was situated in Western Siberia, instead of being identical with Magna Hungaria, their ancestors moved from Western Siberia to Eastern Europe. This must have happened between

3574:. The myth that a people were descended from two brothers was also widespread. Consequently, it is possible that Simon of Kéza did not record a genuine Hungarian legend, but borrowed it from foreign sources. 1408:" and some other elements of Hungarian folklore seem to have been inherited from the period of the Finno-Ugric unity. The melodies of the most common Hungarian funeral songs show similarities to tunes of 3384:

but their texts were preserved in manuscripts compiled in the 13th to 15th centuries. Most extant chronicles show that the earliest works contained no information on the history of the Hungarians before

3051:, they "killed men and old women outright, and carried out the young women along with them like cattle to satisfy their lusts". Although this source does not refer to an alliance between the Magyars and 3688:

writes, Hungarian prehistory is "a tenuous construct based on linguistics, folklore analogies, archaeology, and later written evidence", because there are no certain records of the Magyars before the

3395:, which is the earliest extant Hungarian chronicle, whose principal subject is the Magyars' pagan past. However, the reliability of this work, which was written by a former royal notary now known as 3172:

languages is instrumental in determining direct contacts between the ancient speakers of the Hungarian language and other peoples. Loan words also reflect changes in the way of life of the Magyars.

1484:, including the northward orientation of the heads of the deceased and the geometric motifs on the clay vessels put in the graves, are similar to older burials that he attributes to Ugric peoples. 4047:

prohibiting the abduction of a girl without her parents' consent implies that pretended abduction of the bride by her future husband was an integral part of ancient Magyar matrimonial ceremonies.

3490:

a prince and a judge from the River Tisza to the River Don. Calling himself the King of the Hungarians, the Fear of the World, the Scourge of God: Attila, King of the Huns, Medes, Goths and Danes…

3118:. However, only twelve cemeteries in the steppes have yielded finds that show similarities to assemblages unearthed in the Carpathian Basin. The dating of those cemeteries is also controversial. 3455:

or Huns, which gave rise to their identification with those peoples. For instance, Leo the Wise listed the Hungarians among the "Scythian nations". The similarity between the Latin ethnonyms

2694:(actually Ἀτελκούζου from Ἐτὲλ and Κουζοῦ) with the lands where the rivers "Barouch", "Koubou", "Troullos", "Broutos", and "Seretos" run. The identification of the last three rivers with the 1389:

caused the spread of swamps on both sides of the Urals, forcing groups of inhabitants to leave their homelands. The Finno-Ugric linguistic unity disappeared and new languages emerged around

4143:

Scholars studying the Magyars' religion also take into account ethnographic analogies, folklore, linguistic evidence, and archaeological research. Artifacts depicting a bird of prey or a

1545:

in Eastern Europe. Whether Magna Hungaria was the original homeland of the Magyars, or whether the Magyars' ancestors settled in Magna Hungaria after their migration to Europe from their

3825:. The bones of domestic animals – cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, and horses – comprised 90% of all animal bones excavated in many settlements. Loan words from 3701:

somewhere in the East. Many details of the Magyars' prehistory – the location of their original homeland, the ancient Magyars' connections with the Turkic peoples and the

2896:, imposing "a heavy tribute on them" and treating them as prisoners. The Magyars also "made piratical raids on the Slavs" and sold those captured during these raids to the Byzantines in 1123:, they invaded Central Europe at least four times between 861 and 894. A new Pecheneg invasion compelled the Magyars to leave Etelköz, cross the Carpathian Mountains, and settle in the 1141:

The Hungarians were mentioned under various ethnic names in Arabic, Byzantine, Slavic, and Western European sources in the 9th and 10th centuries. Arabic scholars referred to them as

3310:, collected the reports of merchants who had traveled in the western regions of the Eurasian steppes in the 870s and 880s. Although Al-Jayhani's work was lost, later Muslim scholars 1467: 8891:

Zimonyi, István (2005). "The state of the research on the prehistory of the Hungarians: Historiography (Oriental sources, history of the Steppe)". In Mende, Balázs Gusztáv (ed.).

2340: 1714: 4004:

Archaeological finds from the Carpathian Basin provide evidence of the crafts practiced by the Magyars. 10th-century warriors' graves yielding sabres, arrow-heads, spear-heads,

1217: – reflect that the Magyars had been integrated in various empires of the Eurasian steppes – the tribal confederations of the Onogurs and of the 878:

analogies provide information on the Magyars' early history. After the 2000s, archaeological research aimed at exploring the early history of the Hungarians resumed in the

4098:

front even and dense. They prefer battles fought at long range, ambushes, encircling their adversaries, simulated withdrawals and wheeling about, and scattered formations.

4093:. Apart from their battle line, they maintain an additional force that they send out to ambush careless adversaries of theirs or hold in reserve to support a hard-pressed 3713:

arrived in the Carpathian Basin in 670, and a Turkic-speaking people conquered the same territory in the late 9th century. László's theory has never been widely accepted.

1400:

caused the northward expansion of the steppes by about 200–300 kilometres (120–190 mi), compelling the southernmost Ugric groups to adopt a nomadic lifestyle. Around

8938:

Makkai, László (1994). "The Hungarians' prehistory, their conquest of Hungary and their raids to the West to 955". In Sugar, Peter F.; Hanák, Péter; Frank, Tibor (eds.).

2166:

According to Porphyrogenitus, In Levedia, the Magyars "were seven clans, but they had never had over them a prince either native or foreign, but there were among them '

2674: 2660: 2635: 2621: 2607: 2045: 2031: 2017: 1992: 1978: 1561:

and the placing of parts of horses into the graves – featuring a 9th- or 10th-century cemetery at the confluence of the Volga and Kama near present-day

4031:

to her father before the marriage took place, according to Gardizi's description of the late 9th-century Magyars. The Hungarian word for bridegroom –

3465: 1107: – a group of rebellious subjects of the Khazar turks – joined the Magyars in Etelköz. The Magyars regularly invaded the neighboring 8842: 3355:("Retribution"), provide contemporaneous or near-contemporaneous information of the 9th-century Magyars. There are also references to the Magyars dwelling in the 3141:, and other sites along the middle course of the Dniester show similarities with archaeological finds from the 10th-century Carpathian Basin. These objects were 4016:

plates – often decorated with precious stones – and golden or silver pectoral disks evidence the high levels of skills of Magyar

1393:. Whether the groups speaking the language from which Hungarian emerged lived to the east or to the west of the Urals in this period is debated by historians. 3693: 3472:

The earliest Hungarian chronicles adopted the idea that the Huns and Hungarians were closely related. Anonymus did not mention the Huns, but he referred to

1320:

Hungarian has traditionally been classified as an Ugric language within the family of Uralic languages, but alternative views exist. For instance, linguist

3643:

Scholarly attempts in the early 18th century to prove a relationship between the Finns and the Huns led to the realization of the similarities between the

4071:, and other nomadic peoples. According to Emperor Leo the Wise, the main components of Magyar warfare were long-distance arrow-fire, surprise attack, and 9396: 3590:, which is now called Persia, and there he begot two sons, Hunor and Mogor, by his wife Eneth. It was from them that the Huns, or Hungarians, took their 2117:

According to a memorial stone erected in or before 831, a Bulgarian military commander named Okorsis drowned in the Dnieper during a military campaign.

8822:

Tóth, Sándor László (2005). "The past and present of the research on the prehistory of the Hungarians:Historiography". In Mende, Balázs Gusztáv (ed.).

2815:, the latter being their ruler in the 870s. Their report implies the Khagan granted a Khazar title to the head of the federation of the Magyar tribes; 966:. They lived in settled communities, cultivated millet, wheat, and other crops, and bred animals – especially horses, cattle, and pigs. 2919:

A plundering raid in East Francia in 862 was the Magyars' first recorded military expedition in Central Europe. This raid may have been initiated by

1321: 3668: 854:. This historiographical tradition disappeared from mainstream history after the realization of similarities between the Hungarian language and the 1562: 73: 20: 1893: 283: 3239: 8782:

Szíj, Enikő (2005). "The past and present of the research on the prehistory of the Hungarians:Historiography". In Mende, Balázs Gusztáv (ed.).

3821:("wagon") – show that those who spoke this language rode horses. Animal husbandry spread on both sides of the Urals from around 3535: 8893:

Research on the Prehistory of the Hungarians: Review: Papers Presented at the Meetings of the Institute of Archaeology of the HAS, 2003–2004

8824:

Research on the Prehistory of the Hungarians: Review: Papers Presented at the Meetings of the Institute of Archaeology of the HAS, 2003–2004

8784:

Research on the Prehistory of the Hungarians: Review: Papers Presented at the Meetings of the Institute of Archaeology of the HAS, 2003–2004

8641:

Research on the Prehistory of the Hungarians: Review: Papers Presented at the Meetings of the Institute of Archaeology of the HAS, 2003–2004

8600:

Research on the Prehistory of the Hungarians: Review: Papers Presented at the Meetings of the Institute of Archaeology of the HAS, 2003–2004

3852:

The Magyars' ancestors gave up their settled way of life because of the northward expansion of the steppes during the last centuries of the

2788:

suzerainty. Instead of accepting the offer, Levedi suggested the new rank should be offered to another voivode, Álmos, or the latter's son,

9581: 9084: 8189:(Greek text edited by Gyula Moravcsik, English translation by Romillyi J. H. Jenkins) (1967). Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. 2949:

in the same year, showing that the Kabars formed a distinct group. In the early 880s, a "king" of the Magyars had an amicable meeting with

2916: – fortified their settlements in the second half of the 9th century, which seems to be connected to the Magyars' presence. 790: 538: 378: 303: 8171:(Edited, Translated and Annotated by Martyn Rady and László Veszprémy) (2010). In: Rady, Martyn; Veszprémy, László; Bak, János M. (2010); 4176:, but the existence of shamans among the ancient Magyars cannot be proven. Many elements of the Hungarian religious vocabulary, including 2210:' tribal confederation whom the Khazars had expelled from their homeland, invaded Levedia and forced the Magyars to cede the territory. A 4128:

trees, fountains, and stones, and made sacrifices at wells; these are evidenced by the prohibition of such practices during the reign of

3386: 4295: 3299: 2998: 2988: 2942: 2565: 2398: 2332: 2181:

Porphyrogenitus said the tribes did not "obey their own particular , but a joint agreement to fight together with all earnestness and

1769: 1297: 1010:

at the latest. Other scholars say Magna Hungaria was the Magyars' original homeland, from where they moved either to the region of the

835: 143: 3801:, indicate that the inhabitants of the lands on both sides of the Ural Mountains had trading contacts with faraway territories around 3829:

suggest the Ugric-speaking populations adopted animal husbandry from neighboring peoples. For instance, the Hungarian words for cow

2106:, and other historians associated the Magyars either with the late 6th-century Sabirs or with the Suvar tribe of the Volga Bulgars. 9359: 9016: 8598:

Kovács, László (2005). "Remarks on the archaeological remains of the 9th–10th century Hungarians". In Mende, Balázs Gusztáv (ed.).

1044:

in the late 830s was the first historical event that was recorded with certainty in connection with the Magyars. According to the

932:

by the end of the millennium. Linguistic studies and archaeological research evidence that those who spoke this language lived in

9813: 8744:

The Great Migrations in the East and South East of Europe from the Ninth to the Thirteenth Century (Translated by Dana Badulescu)

3709:

mooted an alternative theory in the 1960s. According to his theory of the "double conquest", a large group of people who spoke a

3403:

describes it as "the most famous, the most obscure, the most exasperating and most misleading of all the early Hungarian texts".

846:, Western European, and Hungarian chronicles, scholars considered them for centuries to have been the descendants of the ancient 518: 8872:

Veres, Péter (2004). "The Uralic and Hungarian ancestral homeland: the state of current research". In Nanovfszky, György (ed.).

3298:("On Governing the Empire"), which was completed between 948 and 952, preserves most information on the Magyars' early history. 1600:

The arrival of the Huns ended the dominance of Iranian peoples in the Eurasian steppes. Thereafter the Sabirs, Avars, Onoghurs,

1593:. The westward migration of the Huns forced many groups of people of Western Siberia to depart for Europe between about 350 and 3562:

ancestor. Kristó also says the four personal names mentioned in the legend personify four peoples: the Hungarians (Magor), the

188: 1344:

lived in a territory where four trees – larch, silver fir, spruce, and elm – grew together. The

9089: 8772: 8732: 8713: 8690: 8451: 8407: 8388: 8369: 8298: 8270: 8251: 8209: 8180: 368: 253: 8725:

Hungarians and Europe in the Early Middle Ages: An Introduction to Early Hungarian History (Translated by Nicholas Bodoczky)

9403: 4012:

made of iron show that blacksmiths had a pre-eminent role in the militarized Magyar society. Engraved or gilded sabres and

3780:

are of Proto-Finno-Ugric origin. Houses built in the presumed Finno-Ugric homeland in the wider region of the Urals in the

2325: 9298: 9250: 9240: 428: 9162: 3463:

strengthened the identification of the two peoples, which became commonplace in Western Europe in the 11th century. The

9889: 9427: 9157: 9119: 9079: 9069: 9064: 8853: 8639:

Langó, Péter (2005). "Archaeological research on the conquering Hungarians: a review". In Mende, Balázs Gusztáv (ed.).

8263:

History and Politics in Late Carolingian and Ottonian Europe: The Chronicle of Regino of Prüm and Adalbert of Magdeburg

4122: 4108: 3284: 2407: 1002:

is subject to scholarly debates. According to one theory, they initially lived east of the Urals and migrated west to "

707: 498: 478: 343: 218: 178: 3667:. However, the majority of Hungarian scholars only gradually adopted Sajnovics's and Gyarmathi's views. In the 1830s, 1229:

likely comes from proximity to the Turkic-speaking Bashkirs, a group which still today remains in the southern Urals.

9839: 9624: 9499: 9413: 9303: 9029: 8955: 8928: 8900: 8881: 8831: 8812: 8791: 8751: 8667: 8648: 8629: 8607: 8588: 8569: 8550: 8529: 8508: 8489: 8470: 8428: 8342: 8313: 8284: 8237: 8223: 8194: 3158: 2760: 2190:

referred to the seven Magyar chiefs as "Hetumoger", or "Seven Magyars". Similar ethnonyms – including

6727: 4140:, the seven Magyar chiefs confirmed their treaty "in pagan manner with their own blood spilled in a single vessel". 3288:, a book written around 904, contained a detailed description of their military strategies and way of life. Emperor 2198:

preserved the name of the confederation of the Magyar tribes. According to Porphyrogenitus, Levedia was named after

9524: 9379: 9144: 8539:

Harmatta, János (1997). "A magyarok nevei görög nyelvű forrásokban ". In Kovács, László; Veszprémy, László (eds.).

3149:. The same archaeological sites also yielded vessels similar to the pottery of the neighboring Slavic territories. 2361: 2098:

dominated by the Magyars, but most modern historians agree that he only described a smaller region situated on the

1615:, to the north of the Caucasus Mountains. They say it was there that the Magyars adopted the Turkic terminology of 1386: 1293: 783: 208: 3396: 1734: 9899: 3029: 2950: 1608:

songs. These facts show the Magyars were closely connected to the Turks while they stayed in the Pontic steppes.

1243:

is said to have been connected to several recorded or hypothetical words, including the Mansi's self-designation

1079:

and settled in the lands south of the mountains, but the majority of the people fled to the steppes north of the

1048: 687: 4930:"Tracing genetic connections of ancient Hungarians to the 6th–14th century populations of the Volga-Ural region" 3218:, and other scholars identify them as Hungarians; their view has not been universally accepted. The 6th-century 9172: 9134: 8560:

Klima, László (2004). "The history of research on the ancestral Uralic homeland". In Nanovfszky, György (ed.).

6745: 3481: 3022: 2780: 2452: 1818: 1553:

According to a scholarly theory, the name of at least one Magyar tribe, Gyarmat, is connected to the name of a

742: 702: 583: 448: 2706:

is without debate, but the traditional identification of the Barouch with the Dnieper and the Koubou with the

9874: 9758: 9748: 9514: 3448: 2552: 652: 333: 133: 9879: 9604: 9476: 9349: 9139: 9094: 9009: 8218:(Edited and translated by László Veszprémy and Frank Schaer with a study by Jenő Szűcs) (1999). CEU Press. 3610: 593: 398: 9260: 5109:(3). International Commission for a History of the Scientific and Cultural Development of Mankind: 513–540 2966:

embrace and many gifts. Kissing him, said: "O venerable Father, remember me always in your holy prayers."

1091:

and the Don River in the 870s. The confederation of their seven tribes was led by two supreme chiefs, the

9808: 9798: 9753: 9548: 9391: 9265: 9167: 8518:

Gulya, János (1997). "A magyarok önelnevezésének eredete ". In Kovács, László; Veszprémy, László (eds.).

4929: 3289: 2905: 2235: 1239:. According to a scholarly theory, the ethnonym "Magyar" is a composite word. The first part of the word 776: 712: 697: 53: 33: 4159: – verbatim "with a drilled brain" – may reflect these ancient practices. 1611:

Gyula Németh, András Róna-Tas and other scholars write that for centuries, the Magyars lived around the

9685: 9678: 9644: 9369: 9308: 9276: 9187: 9074: 3360: 2146:

peoples" by a ditch. According to a scholarly theory, Ibn Rusta's report shows that the Khazar fort at

1378: 929: 682: 228: 1202: 9422: 9386: 9290: 9129: 3369: 2861:

Their territory is vast, extending to the Black Sea, into which two rivers flow, one larger than the

1442:

The stag and the eagle, which are popular motifs of 10th-century Magyar art, have close analogies in

573: 468: 273: 263: 78: 4285: 3133:

Buckles, belt mounts, and other objects of the so-called "Subotcy horizon", which were unearthed at

2129:

in the late 830s, but the Byzantines routed them on the banks on the Lower Danube. According to the

2073:

after around 650. Archaeological finds show that the Khagans controlled a multi-ethnic empire. The "

1585:, because there were several major movements of peoples across the steppes during this period. The " 9894: 9788: 9723: 9589: 9560: 9462: 9457: 9374: 9283: 9109: 4270: 3400: 3294: 3111: 2954: 2711: 2240: 1653:("lady", originally "noble or royal lady") – were also borrowed in the same region. 732: 613: 458: 3841: 3101:, Ukraine; the finding belongs to the "Subotcy horizon", attributed to the pre-conquest Hungarians 1470:

writes that the original homeland lay to the east of the Urals. He says that some features of the

9793: 9672: 9639: 9570: 9534: 9504: 9468: 9364: 9354: 9339: 9214: 9124: 9059: 9002: 8279:

Chronica de Gestis Hungarorum (Edited by Dezső Dercsényi) (1970). Corvina, Taplinger Publishing.

4290: 3764:(egg) – are inherited from the Proto-Uralic period. The Hungarian words for house 3077: 2742:, suggests the Magyars inhabited the eastern regions of the Pontic steppes, according to Spinei. 2667: 2346: 2266: 1720: 1364:. The land between the Urals and the Kama was sparsely inhabited during this period. From around 722: 662: 548: 168: 9494: 4043:(verbatim, "bride for sale") confirm the reliability of the Muslim author's report. A decree of 3469:

was the first source that clearly stated that the Huns and the Hungarians were the same people.

3451:

reminded the Western European and Byzantine scholars of earlier historians' descriptions of the

2825:

in the 920s. The Muslim scholar's report also implies the Magyars adopted the Khazar system of "

2150:, which was built in the 830s, was one of the forts protecting the Khazars against the Magyars. 978:

show that they had close contacts with their neighbors. The southernmost Ugric groups adopted a

9634: 9104: 4280: 4192:), are of Turkic origin. Many of these loanwords were adopted into their Christian vocabulary: 4129: 3826: 3710: 3272: 3261: 3052: 3035:

The Magyars returned to Central Europe in July 892, when they invaded Moravia in alliance with

2889:, because nomadic peoples always placed the associated tribes in the most vulnerable position. 2800:

says it was not Árpád, but his father who was elected the first supreme prince of the Magyars.

1455: 1136: 1041: 975: 438: 3692:

and the identification of archaeological cultures with peoples is highly debatable. Historian

9884: 9803: 9743: 9619: 9599: 9334: 9192: 4466:"Problems in the taxonomy of the Uralic languages in the light of modern comparative studies" 3546:, where they abducted the wives of Belar's sons and two daughters of Dula, the prince of the 3522: 3017: 2775: 2159: 1341: 910: 823: 677: 8947: 9768: 9629: 9575: 9529: 9408: 9344: 9270: 9228: 4044: 3579: 3438: 3364: 3348: 3068: 3059: 3040: 2920: 843: 727: 388: 8204:(Translated with an Introduction by Paul Lunde and Caroline Stone) (2012); Penguin Books; 4084:, with which they could shoot at a specific target within 60–70 metres (200–230 ft). 8: 9649: 9509: 9322: 9245: 8482:

Toward an Understanding of Europe: A Political Economic Précis of Continental Integration

4260: 4064: 3036: 2392: 1763: 1546: 747: 528: 198: 113: 3660: 1405: 9832: 9763: 9730: 9664: 9614: 9519: 9445: 9255: 9204: 9177: 9037: 8679: 8440: 4954: 3798: 3425: 3329: 3164: 2946: 2929: 2793: 2755: 2626: 2312: 2286: 2142: 2099: 1983: 1684: 1502: 1076: 1011: 819: 807: 692: 672: 667: 657: 508: 323: 42: 8304:"The Life of Constantine"; "The Life of Methodius" (1983). In: Kantor, Marvin (1983); 3648: 3628: 1348:

shows these trees could be found on both sides of the Ural Mountains along the rivers

862:. Thereafter, linguistics became the principal source of the study of the Hungarians' 9703: 9698: 9594: 9481: 9197: 9114: 8951: 8940: 8924: 8896: 8877: 8827: 8808: 8787: 8768: 8747: 8728: 8709: 8702: 8686: 8663: 8644: 8625: 8603: 8584: 8565: 8546: 8525: 8504: 8485: 8466: 8447: 8424: 8403: 8384: 8365: 8348: 8338: 8309: 8294: 8280: 8266: 8247: 8233: 8219: 8205: 8190: 8176: 6739: 4959: 4213: 3706: 3583: 3319: 3276: 3271:, recorded the first historical event – an alliance between the Magyars and the 3138: 3125: 3110:, while the "retrospective method" tries to discover the antecedents of 10th-century 3098: 3044: 3026: 2901: 2222:. Most historians agree the Magyars' forced exodus from Levedia occurred around 850. 2126: 1586: 1283: 1045: 906: 603: 488: 8501:

In Search of a New Homeland: The Prehistory of the Hungarian People and the Conquest

3663:

demonstrated similarities between a larger group of languages that are now known as

3334: 3215: 2957:, who was returning from Constantinople to Moravia, according to Methodius' legend. 2743: 9848: 9778: 9773: 9654: 9565: 9486: 8975: 8362:

Central Europe in the High Middle Ages: Bohemia, Hungary and Poland, c. 900-c. 1300

8246:(Translated and annotated by Janet L. Nelson) (1991). Manchester University Press. 4949: 4941: 4090: 3702: 3672: 3664: 3644: 3429: 3416: 3391: 3219: 3186: 3115: 3107: 3073: 2924: 1740: 1337: 1333: 1232: 1124: 1112: 1056: 1026: 971: 855: 647: 313: 8232:(Translated and annotated by Timothy Reuter) (1992). Manchester University Press. 4212:(devil). According to Gyula László, a Hungarian children's verse that refers to a 3605: 9783: 9738: 9716: 9209: 9182: 9099: 4265: 4072: 3993: 3989: 3680: 3656: 3530: 3517: 3343: 3227: 3211: 2962: 2211: 2094: 1646: 1248: 1023: 921: 883: 827: 717: 418: 408: 293: 123: 8617: 8293:(Text, translation, and commentary by George T. Dennis) (2010). Dumbarton Oaks. 8202:

Ibn Fadlān: Ibn Fadlān on the Land of Darkness: Arab Travellers in the Far North

3671:

still wrote that Hungarian had an intermediate position between the Finnish and

3551: 3275:

in the late 830s – that can without doubt be connected to the Magyars. The

928:. They spread over vast territories, which caused the development of a separate 9853: 9709: 4252: 3676: 3636: 3543: 3512: 3473: 3356: 3307: 2893: 2138: 2134: 2074: 1605: 1506: 1492: 1314: 1226: 1030: 1003: 914: 879: 766: 3685: 3373:, which was completed in the 1110s, has to be "treated with extreme caution". 1569:

are also evidenced among the Magyars who lived in the Carpathian Basin in the

1302: 9868: 9693: 8352: 5098: 4465: 4275: 4075:. However, the contemporaneous Regino of Prüm said the Magyars knew "nothing 3731: 3247: 3180: 2811: 2444: 2429: 2262: 2103: 1810: 1796: 1542: 1538: 1409: 1353: 1310: 1306: 1222: 1120: 1108: 1099: 1064: 947: 7979: 7130: 1063:

and supported the Khazars in their wars "for three years". The Magyars were

7937: 7935: 7933: 7931: 6921: 6919: 6894: 6892: 5645: 4963: 4144: 4103: 3623: 3571: 3496: 3443: 3279: 3223: 3168: 3142: 2707: 2381: 2218:. However, the masses departed for the West and settled in a region called 2153: 2118: 1752: 1645:

and some other fruits. According to these scholars, the Hungarian words of

1533: 1443: 1218: 1116: 1088: 863: 8921:

Franks, Moravians and Magyars: The Struggle for the Middle Danube, 788–907

8265:(Translated and annotated by Simon MacLean); Manchester University Press; 6674: 6672: 6557: 6555: 4945: 1511: 936:

and used decorated clay vessels. The expansion of marshlands after around

4148: 4028: 4021: 4009: 3785: 3251: 3203: 3134: 3063: 2821: 2703: 2524: 2436: 2191: 1865: 1803: 1616: 1612: 1526: 1477: 1325: 1263:

may have developed from a reconstructed Finno-Ugrian word for man or boy

1015: 959: 951: 871: 8078: 7928: 7904: 6916: 6889: 1111:, forcing them to pay a tribute and seizing prisoners to be sold to the 737: 9609: 7288: 6669: 6591: 6552: 5577: 4081: 4013: 3012: 2816: 2803:

According to Muslim scholars, the Magyars had two supreme leaders, the

2789: 2735: 2714:

wrote that the Magyars' territory was located between two rivers named

2419: 2194:("Nine Oghuzes") and Onogur ("Ten Ogurs") – suggest the 1786: 1632: 1558: 1451: 1357: 1345: 1329: 1235:

was the first to record a variant of the Hungarians' self-designation;

1033:. Byzantine and Muslim authors regarded them as a Turkic people in the 955: 890: 5394: 3004: 2933:

said the Magyars returned to East Francia and ransacked the region of

2219: 2173:", or chiefs. Although the exact meaning of the term the emperor used 2010: 1936: 1525:

and of their migrations, including their staying in the region of the

1424: 1084: 4470:Лингвистический беспредел: сборник статей к 70-летию А. И. Кузнецовой 4017: 3845:

10th-century artifacts from a grave of a wealthy woman, unearthed at

3794: 3789: 3452: 3311: 3195: 2870: 2739: 2653: 2207: 2024: 1566: 1447: 1369: 1225: – before gaining their independence. The designation 1080: 967: 933: 918: 847: 8843:"The new archaeological research design for early Hungarian history" 8681:

The Medieval Hungarian Historians: A Critical & Analytical Guide

5011: 4168: 4055: 3635:, the first systematic study of the comparison of the Hungarian and 2857:. All the Magyars implicitly obey this ruler in wars of offence and 9054: 8994: 8360:

Berend, Nora; Urbańczyk, Przemysław; Wiszewski, Przemysław (2013).

8334: 7498: 4147:

imply both symbols were important elements of the Magyar religion.

3323: 3231: 3207: 2913: 2886: 2695: 2403: 2203: 1774: 1628: 1554: 1521: 1434: 1349: 1072: 942: 875: 3477: 3242:, and other historians connect Muageris's name to the Hungarians' 3008: 2770: 2510: 1557:

group, Yurmatï. Specific burial rites – the use of

9025: 6567: 4152: 4068: 4063:

The Magyars' military tactics were similar to those of the Huns,

4005: 3726: 3587: 3567: 3563: 3399:, is suspect. In his monograph of medieval Hungarian historians, 3377: 3315: 3303: 3243: 3184:

The first page of the sole manuscript preserving the text of the

2829:", whereby supreme power was divided between a sacred ruler (the 2826: 2640: 2612: 2439: 2414: 2167: 2087: 2083: 2066: 2062: 2038: 1997: 1806: 1781: 1601: 1516: 1429: 1068: 1052: 987: 894: 815: 623: 8463:

The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526

3206:. Based on the location of the homeland of the Iyrcae and their 1415: 6103: 6101: 4911: 4909: 4173: 3846: 3740: 3421: 3199: 2934: 2882: 2842: 2485: 2215: 2199: 2147: 2111: 1851: 1639: 1472: 1104: 103: 3675:, but later accepted that Hungarian is closely related to the 3655:, the first systematic comparative study of Hungarian and the 2993: 2927:, according to Róna-Tas and Spinei. The longer version of the 2849:

Their chief rides at the head of 20,000 horsemen. He is named

8102: 6645: 5753: 4300: 3559: 3547: 3194:

Written sources on the prehistoric Hungarians may begin with

2897: 2805: 2433: 2079: 2070: 1800: 1093: 979: 898: 882:

region. Today, these efforts are regularly supplemented with

8114: 6708: 6657: 6603: 6242: 6098: 5370: 5224: 5222: 5220: 5218: 5216: 4906: 19:

For the pre-conquest history and prehistory of Hungary, see

8244:

The Annals of St-Bertin (Ninth-Century Histories, Volume I)

8044: 8042: 7563: 7561: 7109: 6540: 6203: 5729: 5201: 4896: 4894: 3539: 3246:(Magyar); they say Malalas's report proves the presence of 3093: 2892:

Ibn Rusta wrote that the Magyars subjected the neighboring

2862: 2699: 851: 83: 8169:

Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians

8126: 8090: 8003: 7868: 7762: 7750: 7702: 7534: 7183: 7156: 7080:

Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians

7019: 7017: 6865: 6635: 6633: 6579: 6113: 6056: 6044: 5913: 5838:

Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians

5765: 5599:

Anonymus, Notary of King Béla: The Deeds of the Hungarians

5316: 5314: 5312: 5251: 5249: 5140: 5138: 5136: 4795: 1493:

Early westward migrations (before 600 AD –

814:) spans the period of history of the Hungarian people, or 8786:. Archaeological Institute of the HAS. pp. 115–156. 8643:. Archaeological Institute of the HAS. pp. 175–340. 8602:. Archaeological Institute of the HAS. pp. 351–368. 8143: 8141: 7779: 7777: 7690: 7678: 7627: 7573: 7402: 7195: 7173: 7171: 7146: 7144: 7142: 7140: 7138: 6831: 6829: 6827: 6501: 6499: 6349: 6312: 6310: 6073: 6071: 5886: 5884: 5882: 5809: 5807: 5633: 5326: 5285: 5213: 4819: 4484: 3558:, showing that the Magyars regarded this animal as their 2065:

was the dominant power in the steppes between the rivers

1075:

invasion against Levedia, a group of Magyars crossed the

993:

The development of the Hungarian language started around

902: 8895:. Archaeological Institute of the HAS. pp. 87–102. 8359: 8230:

The Annals of Fulda (Ninth-Century Histories, Volume II)

8084: 8054: 8039: 8015: 7985: 7969: 7967: 7965: 7941: 7910: 7794: 7792: 7668: 7666: 7605: 7603: 7590: 7588: 7558: 7294: 7048: 7046: 7044: 6976: 6974: 6972: 6970: 6943: 6925: 6898: 6678: 6597: 6561: 6474: 6472: 6421: 6339: 6337: 6261: 6259: 6257: 6232: 6230: 6181: 6179: 6152: 6142: 6140: 6088: 6086: 6034: 6032: 6030: 6028: 6026: 6024: 5985: 5925: 5903: 5901: 5899: 5867: 5843: 5782: 5780: 5717: 5651: 5623: 5621: 5619: 5583: 5555: 5553: 5406: 5400: 5360: 5358: 5179: 5177: 4891: 4783: 4700: 4661: 4576: 4574: 4572: 4570: 4568: 4566: 4564: 4562: 4039:("purchasing lad") – and the expression 3988:

are of Turkic origin. Most loanwords were borrowed from

3860:. For instance, the Hungarian words for hen (tyúk), pig 3554:, Eneth's name derived from the Hungarian word for hind 2978: 2766: 2202:, one of the Magyar voivodes. During Levedi's life, the 1284:

Before the separation of the Hungarian language (before

8826:. Archaeological Institute of the HAS. pp. 45–86. 7952: 7950: 7486: 7450: 7426: 7390: 7378: 7366: 7305: 7303: 7278: 7276: 7248: 7246: 7014: 7002: 6931: 6904: 6877: 6853: 6812: 6776: 6752: 6630: 6620: 6618: 6409: 6397: 6361: 6271: 5669: 5594: 5592: 5565: 5478: 5476: 5474: 5472: 5447: 5445: 5430: 5345: 5343: 5341: 5309: 5246: 5162: 5133: 5121: 5078: 5042: 4999: 4977: 4975: 4973: 4879: 4831: 4773: 4771: 4756: 4746: 4744: 4742: 4729: 4727: 4712: 4690: 4688: 4622: 4598: 4520: 4433: 4423: 4421: 4184:("to charm"), and the ancient Hungarian word for holy ( 4151: – the real or symbolic wounding of the 3202:, a people of equestrian hunters who lived next to the 2865:. Their campsites are located between these two rivers. 2141:

in 839 could only return to their homeland through the

8138: 7991: 7880: 7804: 7774: 7738: 7726: 7714: 7651: 7639: 7332: 7330: 7315: 7263: 7261: 7168: 7135: 6824: 6800: 6696: 6511: 6496: 6307: 6283: 6164: 6068: 6009: 5961: 5879: 5855: 5804: 5792: 5741: 5705: 5528: 5526: 5382: 5032: 5030: 5028: 5026: 4639: 4637: 4549: 4547: 4406: 4382: 4370: 4336: 4334: 4332: 4319: 4317: 4315: 3363:

and other early Slavic saints. According to historian

2845:, which belongs to the , lies the first of the Magyar 1458:

peoples dominated the Eurasian steppes between around

8187: