35:
518:
zone in which shearing action occurs tends to spread further outwards. This zone is known as the "boundary layer". The flow outside the boundary layer is free of shear and viscous-related forces so it is assumed to act as an ideal fluid. The intermolecular cohesive forces in a fluid are not great enough to hold fluid together. Hence a fluid will flow under the action of the slightest stress and flow will continue as long as the stress is present. The flow inside the layer can be either vicious or turbulent, depending on
Reynolds number.
27:
2715:
2585:
641:
2745:
103:
hydraulic engineer is concerned with the transport of sediment by the river, the interaction of the water with its alluvial boundary, and the occurrence of scour and deposition. "The hydraulic engineer actually develops conceptual designs for the various features which interact with water such as spillways and outlet works for dams, culverts for highways, canals and related structures for irrigation projects, and cooling-water facilities for
2735:
2725:
950:
viscosity-dominated boundary layer near solid surfaces, and an effectively inviscid outer zone away from the boundaries. This concept explained many former paradoxes and enabled subsequent engineers to analyze far more complex flows. However, we still have no complete theory for the nature of turbulence, and so modern fluid mechanics continues to be combination of experimental results and theory.
946:
fluid mechanics. Using Newton's laws of motion, numerous 18th-century mathematicians solved many frictionless (zero-viscosity) flow problems. However, most flows are dominated by viscous effects, so engineers of the 17th and 18th centuries found the inviscid flow solutions unsuitable, and by experimentation they developed empirical equations, thus establishing the science of hydraulics.
50:
699:". It is commonly thought that the terraces were built with minimal equipment, largely by hand. The terraces are located approximately 1500 metres (5000 ft) above sea level. They are fed by an ancient irrigation system from the rainforests above the terraces. It is said that if the steps were put end to end, it would encircle half the globe.
724:
in the 6th century BC, an important feat of both civil and hydraulic engineering. The civil engineering aspect of this tunnel was that it was dug from both ends which required the diggers to maintain an accurate path so that the two tunnels met and that the entire effort maintained a sufficient slope
517:
action between the layer of fluid on the plate surface and the second layer of fluid. The second layer is therefore forced to decelerate (though it is not quite brought to rest), creating a shearing action with the third layer of fluid, and so on. As the fluid passes further along with the plate, the
269:
On undisturbed submerged bodies, pressure acts along all surfaces of a body in a liquid, causing equal perpendicular forces in the body to act against the pressure of the liquid. This reaction is known as equilibrium. More advanced applications of pressure are that on plane surfaces, curved surfaces,
142:
defines hydrostatics as the study of fluids at rest. In a fluid at rest, there exists a force, known as pressure, that acts upon the fluid's surroundings. This pressure, measured in N/m, is not constant throughout the body of fluid. Pressure, p, in a given body of fluid, increases with an increase in
932:
In many respects, the fundamentals of hydraulic engineering have not changed since ancient times. Liquids are still moved for the most part by gravity through systems of canals and aqueducts, though the supply reservoirs may now be filled using pumps. The need for water has steadily increased from
949:
Late in the 19th century, the importance of dimensionless numbers and their relationship to turbulence was recognized, and dimensional analysis was born. In 1904 Ludwig
Prandtl published a key paper, proposing that the flow fields of low-viscosity fluids be divided into two zones, namely a thin,
945:
Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) performed experiments, investigated and speculated on waves and jets, eddies and streamlining. Isaac Newton (1642–1727) by formulating the laws of motion and his law of viscosity, in addition to developing the calculus, paved the way for many great developments in
937:
the Los
Angeles area would not have been able to grow as it has because it simply does not have enough local water to support its population. The same is true for many of our world's largest cities. In much the same way, the central valley of California could not have become such an important
508:
102:
Hydraulic engineering is the application of the principles of fluid mechanics to problems dealing with the collection, storage, control, transport, regulation, measurement, and use of water. Before beginning a hydraulic engineering project, one must figure out how much water is involved. The
828:
landmass, both within and beyond the
Islamic world. However, it was in the medieval Islamic lands where the technological complex was assembled and standardized, and subsequently diffused to the rest of the Old World. Under the rule of a single Islamic
346:
625:, hydraulic engineering was highly developed, and engineers constructed massive canals with levees and dams to channel the flow of water for irrigation, as well as locks to allow ships to pass through.
942:(TVA) brought work and prosperity to the South by building dams to generate cheap electricity and control flooding in the region, making rivers navigable and generally modernizing life in the region.
75:
and sewage. One feature of these systems is the extensive use of gravity as the motive force to cause the movement of the fluids. This area of civil engineering is intimately related to the design of
565:
while related applications include hydraulic modeling, flood mapping, catchment flood management plans, shoreline management plans, estuarine strategies, coastal protection, and flood alleviation.
1623:
1047:
243:
534:, water distribution networks including both domestic and fire water supply, distribution and automatic sprinkler systems, water collection networks, sewage collection networks,
1276:
176:
938:
agricultural region without effective water management and distribution for irrigation. In a somewhat parallel way to what happened in
California, the creation of the
312:. Ideal fluid is incompressible and has no viscosity. Real fluid has viscosity. Ideal fluid is only an imaginary fluid as all fluids that exist have some viscosity.
1631:
1258:
1221:
2690:
606:. Controlling the movement and supply of water for growing food has been used for many thousands of years. One of the earliest hydraulic machines, the
503:{\displaystyle {\frac {p}{\rho g}}+{\frac {u^{2}}{2g}}={\frac {p_{1}}{\rho g}}+{\frac {u_{1}^{2}}{2g}}={\frac {p_{2}}{\rho g}}+{\frac {u_{2}^{2}}{2g}}}
589:
965:
mapping to assist in locating the best paths for installing a system and laser-based surveying tools to aid in the actual construction of a system.
1613:
Classification of
Organics in Secondary Effluents. M. Rebhun, J. Manka. Environmental Science and Technology, 5, pp. 606–610, (1971). 25.
1910:
1538:
1460:
1415:
1439:
579:
933:
ancient times and the role of the hydraulic engineer is a critical one in supplying it. For example, without the efforts of people like
1204:
513:
As the flow comes into contact with the plate, the layer of fluid actually "adheres" to a solid surface. There is then a considerable
2631:
2493:
1174:
817:
1273:
1517:
660:
2415:
2053:
1681:
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A viscous fluid will deform continuously under a shear force by the pascles law, whereas an ideal fluid does not deform.
736:
to supply water to and remove sewage from their cities. In addition to supplying the needs of their citizens they used
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1304:
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1867:
1567:
1628:
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2668:
1903:
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585:
1124:
Cassidy, John J., Chaudhry, M. Hanif, and
Roberson, John A. "Hydraulic Engineering", John Wiley & Sons, 1998
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2028:
1872:
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technological complex that was to have a global impact." The various components of this complex included
610:
was used in the early 2nd millennium BC. Other early examples of using gravity to move water include the
2779:
2403:
2398:
2048:
1877:
1380:
1337:
981:
939:
696:
543:
2103:
2093:
1991:
1971:
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1745:
1559:
1369:
Edmund Burke (June 2009), "Islam at the Center: Technological
Complexes and the Roots of Modernity",
1326:
Edmund Burke (June 2009), "Islam at the Center: Technological
Complexes and the Roots of Modernity",
1138:
E. John
Finnemore, Joseph Franzini "Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications", McGraw-Hill, 2002
962:
96:
957:(CAD) tools as many of the other engineering disciplines while also making use of technologies like
2363:
2013:
1981:
1735:
1674:
1371:
1328:
629:
is considered the first Chinese hydraulic engineer. Another important Hydraulic Engineer in China,
547:
637:(481 BC–221 BC), even today hydraulic engineers remain a respectable position in China.
2601:
2560:
2483:
2443:
2237:
2226:
1826:
1014:
622:
337:
34:
1535:
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2178:
2143:
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2043:
2008:
1996:
1986:
1935:
1930:
1846:
1811:
1509:
1503:
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as a way for assisting in growing crops around 1000 BC. These Rice Terraces are 2,000-year-old
149:
20:
1436:
1011: – Science of the movement, distribution, and quality of water on Earth and other planets
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2500:
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2327:
2317:
2279:
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954:
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of the state that are still operative and in use today. The rulers developed new systems for
680:
634:
555:
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and fluid mechanics are widely utilized by other engineering disciplines such as mechanical,
328:
The various effects of disturbance on a viscous flow are a stable, transition and unstable.
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2555:
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2001:
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depth. Where the upward force on a body acts on the base and can be found by the equation:
8:
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2188:
2168:
2128:
2118:
2058:
1976:
1954:
1786:
1667:
1656:, Journal of Hydraulic Research, IAHR, Vol. 45, No. 3, pp. 291–301 (ISSN 0022-1686).
1058:
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104:
84:
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1963:
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Common topics of design for hydraulic engineers include hydraulic structures such as
64:
824:. The various components of this 'toolkit' were developed in different parts of the
16:
Sub-discipline of civil engineering concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids
2264:
2173:
1384:
1341:
1032:
834:
767:
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737:
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The main difference between an ideal fluid and a real fluid is that for ideal flow
1148:
1017: – Study of agricultural water management, especially irrigation and drainage
26:
2427:
1831:
1821:
1796:
1764:
1709:
1647:
1635:
1542:
1443:
1419:
1294:
1280:
1262:
1244:
1225:
833:, different regional hydraulic technologies were assembled into "an identifiable
771:
633:
was credited of starting the practice of large scale canal irrigation during the
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1162:
2383:
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1851:
1836:
1531:
1456:
1023:
902:
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779:
551:
1237:
1035: – Mining technique using high-pressure water jets to carve away minerals
115:
A few examples of the fundamental principles of hydraulic engineering include
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1841:
760:
710:
603:
258:
205:
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Hydraulic engineering was highly developed in Europe under the aegis of the
2510:
1431:
Donald Routledge Hill, "Mechanical Engineering in the Medieval Near East",
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809:
729:
131:
transport, physical modeling, hydraulic machines, and drainage hydraulics.
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1919:
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1002:
874:
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43:
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1048:
International Association for Hydro-Environment Engineering and Research
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to perform the calculations to accurately predict flow characteristics,
2322:
1704:
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914:
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786:
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where it was especially applied to the construction and maintenance of
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649:
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2616:
2133:
1489:
1079:
1073:
1041: – artificial structure which disrupts the natural flow of water
1008:
987:
862:
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783:
702:
630:
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124:
2657:
2647:
2505:
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in Africa. As a hydraulic empire, the Ajuran State monopolized the
713:
562:
128:
1536:
The Crank-Connecting Rod System in a Continuously Rotating Machine
663:, hydraulic engineering also developed specially in the Island of
1640:
996:
978: – Engineering discipline focused on physical infrastructure
891:
790:
782:. Through hydraulic engineering, it also constructed many of the
745:
668:
1654:
Hydraulic Engineering in the 21st Century : Where to ?
812:
between the 8th and 16th centuries, during what is known as the
1624:
International Association of Hydraulic Engineering and Research
857:
851:
system from Persia, regional water-lifting devices such as the
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531:
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721:
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1055: – Agricultural artificial application of water to land
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National Statistical Coordinating Body of the Philippines.
910:
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753:
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built irrigations, dams and hydraulic works and the famous
652:, ancient sprawling man-made structures which are a UNESCO
527:
39:
1461:"The Origin of the Suction Pump: Al-Jazari 1206 A.D."
808:
Further advances in hydraulic engineering occurred in the
842:
749:
748:, and applied the methods to other ores such as those of
80:
49:
1486:
A History of Engineering in Classical and Medieval Times
999: – Software for simulating water flow within rivers
1107:
1105:
1103:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1082: – 4th-century BC Chinese philosopher and engineer
1063:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1028:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
1019:
Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
618:
in ancient China as well as irrigation canals in Peru.
1556:
Science in Medieval Islam: An Illustrated Introduction
953:
The modern hydraulic engineer uses the same kinds of
695:. The Rice Terraces are commonly referred to as the "
349:
213:
152:
1094:
1043:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
992:
Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
1435:, May 1991, pp. 64–69. (cf. Donald Routledge Hill,
1219:‘The Best’ of the Philippines – its natural wonders
877:. Other original Islamic developments included the
127:, pipelines, open channel hydraulics, mechanics of
1061: – Water overflow submerging usually-dry land
502:
237:
170:
1076: – Chinese hydraulic engineer and politician
590:Cultural achievements of pre-colonial Philippines
2761:
1070: – Engineering discipline of marine vessels
594:Earliest uses of hydraulic engineering were to
1115:. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston: New York, 1987.
614:system in ancient Persia and the very similar
323:
1904:
1675:
1163:http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/qanats/
1005: – French hydraulic engineer (1695–1771)
801:, which continued to be used in parts of the
550:. Equations developed from the principles of
270:dams, and quadrant gates, just to name a few.
67:is concerned with the flow and conveyance of
1501:
1449:
1368:
1364:
1362:
1325:
1161:"Qanats" Water History. From 2001, ongoing.
1629:Hydraulic Engineering in Prehistoric Mexico
1505:Islam and Science, Medicine, and Technology
1134:
1132:
1130:
580:Sanitation of the Indus Valley Civilization
1911:
1897:
1682:
1668:
1455:
984: – Software used in civil engineering
274:
1478:
1359:
1319:
740:methods to prospect and extract alluvial
110:
1402:
1127:
639:
279:
204:Rearranging this equation gives you the
48:
33:
25:
1591:Vincent J. Zipparro, Hans Hasen (Eds),
683:that were carved into the mountains of
561:Related branches include hydrology and
331:
2762:
2691:Electrical and electronics engineering
1548:
1508:, The Rosen Publishing Group, p.
1495:
1286:
1274:Department of Tourism: Ifugao Province
1203:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
818:water management technological complex
542:, and various other topics related to
30:Hydraulic Flood Retention Basin (HFRB)
1892:
1663:
1593:Davis' Handbook of Applied Hydraulics
1525:
1425:
1292:
1256:About Banaue > Tourist Attractions
1113:Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering
238:{\displaystyle {\frac {p}{\rho g}}=y}
140:Fundamentals of Hydraulic Engineering
2724:
1502:Sally Ganchy, Sarah Gancher (2009),
1238:Facts & Figures: Ifugao Province
816:. Of particular importance was the '
261:, as well as an inclined manometer.
2734:
13:
1585:
134:
14:
2796:
1617:
1026: – Mechanical lifting device
744:deposits in a technique known as
671:of the mountainous region of the
2743:
2733:
2723:
2714:
2713:
2583:
1293:Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (2013).
661:Archaic epoch of the Philippines
1918:
1572:
1267:
990: – ancient Greek architect
927:
887:effect from Islamic Spain, the
586:Architecture of the Philippines
521:
315:
123:flow, behavior of real fluids,
1689:
1484:Donald Routledge Hill (1996),
1283:. Accessed September 04, 2008.
1249:
1230:
1211:
1167:
1155:
1141:
1118:
38:View from Church Span Bridge,
1:
1641:Hydrologic Engineering Center
1087:
805:as late as the 19th century.
200:= depth of the body of liquid
1941:List of engineering branches
959:computational fluid dynamics
725:to allow the water to flow.
573:
558:and even traffic engineers.
7:
968:
820:' which was central to the
324:Laminar flow and turbulence
95:, and to both sanitary and
10:
2801:
2785:Water resources management
1381:University of Hawaii Press
1338:University of Hawaii Press
1151:. Encyclopedia Britannica.
982:Civil engineering software
940:Tennessee Valley Authority
697:Eighth Wonder of the World
583:
577:
568:
544:transportation engineering
257:, differential manometer,
18:
2709:
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2640:
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2581:
2356:
2298:
2217:
2142:
2069:
1962:
1949:
1926:
1860:
1779:
1756:Hydrological optimization
1746:Groundwater flow equation
1728:
1697:
1560:University of Texas Press
1554:Howard R. Turner (1997),
1059:Significant modern floods
759:In the 15th century, the
340:holds along streamlines.
245:. Four basic devices for
171:{\displaystyle p=\rho gy}
97:environmental engineering
1372:Journal of World History
1329:Journal of World History
822:Islamic Green Revolution
548:geotechnical engineering
19:Not to be confused with
2602:Bachelor of Engineering
2444:Engineering mathematics
1751:Hazen–Williams equation
1741:Darcy–Weisbach equation
1599:, 4th Edition (1992),
1492:, pp. 143 & 150–152
1015:Hydrology (agriculture)
275:Behavior of real fluids
63:as a sub-discipline of
2701:Structural engineering
2696:Mechanical engineering
2439:Engineering management
1437:Mechanical Engineering
1410:Flywheel Effect for a
1296:The History of Somalia
656:
650:Philippine Cordilleras
504:
239:
172:
111:Fundamental principles
57:
46:
31:
21:Hydrologic engineering
2770:Hydraulic engineering
2681:Aerospace engineering
2594:Engineering education
1771:Pipe network analysis
1736:Bernoulli's principle
1720:Hydraulic engineering
955:computer-aided design
643:
635:Warring States period
505:
280:Real and Ideal fluids
240:
173:
61:Hydraulic engineering
52:
37:
29:
2622:Graduate certificate
1652:Chanson, H. (2007).
691:by ancestors of the
677:Banaue Rice Terraces
646:Banaue Rice Terraces
347:
338:Bernoulli's equation
336:For an ideal fluid,
332:Bernoulli's equation
247:pressure measurement
211:
150:
105:thermal power plants
2607:Bachelor of Science
2449:Engineering physics
2433:Engineering drawing
1955:Interdisciplinarity
1433:Scientific American
1039:Hydraulic structure
918:water supply system
718:Tunnel of Eupalinos
654:World Heritage Site
616:Turpan water system
489:
434:
56:lining a lake shore
2209:Telecommunications
2114:Naval architecture
1646:2013-03-08 at the
1634:2015-04-30 at the
1541:2013-03-12 at the
1442:2007-12-25 at the
1418:2010-10-07 at the
1389:10.1353/jwh.0.0045
1346:10.1353/jwh.0.0045
1279:2009-03-02 at the
1261:2008-12-14 at the
1243:2012-11-13 at the
1224:2014-11-05 at the
1185:on 1 December 2007
935:William Mulholland
814:Islamic Golden Age
657:
598:and dates back to
540:sediment transport
500:
475:
420:
298:and for real flow
264:As Prasuhn states:
235:
194:= specific gravity
188:= density of water
168:
58:
47:
32:
2780:Civil engineering
2757:
2756:
2686:Civil engineering
2632:Licensed engineer
2627:Engineer's degree
2579:
2578:
2411:Building services
2394:Health technology
2255:Chemical reaction
2204:Signal processing
1886:
1885:
1761:Open-channel flow
1519:978-1-4358-5066-8
1217:Filipinasoul.com.
1179:www.geocities.com
1111:Prasuhn, Alan L.
1068:Naval engineering
976:Civil engineering
693:indigenous people
498:
468:
443:
413:
388:
363:
227:
65:civil engineering
2792:
2747:
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2174:Electromechanics
1960:
1959:
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1499:
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1423:
1408:Ahmad Y Hassan,
1406:
1400:
1399:
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1356:
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1190:
1181:. Archived from
1171:
1165:
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1145:
1139:
1136:
1125:
1122:
1116:
1109:
1064:
1044:
1033:Hydraulic mining
1029:
1020:
993:
835:water management
768:hydraulic empire
738:hydraulic mining
509:
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2705:
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2636:
2612:Master's degree
2588:
2575:
2489:Instrumentation
2352:
2294:
2260:Electrochemical
2213:
2199:Radio frequency
2138:
2065:
2029:Municipal/Urban
1953:
1951:
1945:
1922:
1917:
1887:
1882:
1861:Public networks
1856:
1775:
1765:Manning formula
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2665:Engineering
2511:Mechatronics
2364:Agricultural
2018:
2014:Geotechnical
1982:Construction
1847:Rescue tools
1812:Drive system
1780:Technologies
1719:
1592:
1574:
1555:
1550:
1527:
1504:
1497:
1485:
1480:
1469:. Retrieved
1465:the original
1451:
1432:
1427:
1411:
1404:
1383:: 165–186 ,
1376:
1370:
1340:: 165–186 ,
1333:
1327:
1321:
1310:. Retrieved
1295:
1288:
1269:
1251:
1232:
1213:
1187:. Retrieved
1183:the original
1178:
1169:
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1143:
1120:
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948:
944:
931:
928:Modern times
915:hydropowered
878:
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846:
810:Muslim world
807:
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730:Roman Empire
727:
701:
658:
620:
593:
560:
556:aeronautical
538:management,
525:
522:Applications
512:
335:
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316:Viscous flow
306:
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185:
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139:
138:
114:
101:
60:
59:
2739:Wikiproject
2494:and Control
2484:Information
2308:Biomaterial
2238:Bioresource
2229:/Bioprocess
2227:Biochemical
2179:Electronics
1950:Specialties
1920:Engineering
1792:Accumulator
1715:Fluid power
1597:Mcgraw-Hill
1149:"Clepsydra"
1003:Henri Pitot
875:Afghanistan
795:agriculture
689:Philippines
673:Cordilleras
608:water clock
536:storm water
44:Switzerland
2775:Hydraulics
2764:Categories
2658:Glossaries
2479:Industrial
2459:Facilities
2454:Explosives
2379:Biomedical
2374:Automation
2323:Metallurgy
2233:Biological
2184:Microwaves
2144:Electrical
2089:Automotive
2071:Mechanical
2044:Structural
2009:Geological
1997:Ecological
1987:Earthquake
1878:Manchester
1705:Hydraulics
1691:Hydraulics
1605:0070730024
1558:, p. 181,
1471:2008-07-16
1312:2014-02-14
1189:11 January
1088:References
1053:Irrigation
909:, and the
899:crankshaft
869:, and the
584:See also:
578:See also:
251:piezometer
2617:Doctorate
2531:Packaging
2501:Logistics
2474:Geomatics
2435:/graphics
2328:Molecular
2318:Corrosion
2300:Materials
2280:Petroleum
2270:Molecular
2152:Broadcast
2134:Tribology
2084:Aerospace
2019:Hydraulic
1868:Liverpool
1787:Machinery
1490:Routledge
1397:143484233
1354:143484233
1080:Ximen Bao
1074:Sunshu Ao
1009:Hydrology
988:Eupalinos
863:screwpump
831:caliphate
784:limestone
734:aqueducts
703:Eupalinos
631:Ximen Bao
627:Sunshu Ao
574:Antiquity
462:ρ
407:ρ
357:ρ
255:manometer
221:ρ
160:ρ
125:hydrology
2719:Category
2648:Engineer
2556:Software
2551:Security
2526:Ontology
2516:Military
2506:Robotics
2469:Forensic
2389:Clinical
2348:Surfaces
2338:Polymers
2313:Ceramics
2290:Reaction
2219:Chemical
2157:Computer
2079:Acoustic
2034:Offshore
2002:Sanitary
1817:Manifold
1807:Cylinder
1729:Modeling
1698:Concepts
1644:Archived
1632:Archived
1539:Archived
1440:Archived
1416:Archived
1277:Archived
1259:Archived
1241:Archived
1222:Archived
1199:cite web
969:See also
885:flywheel
871:windmill
799:taxation
791:cisterns
714:engineer
681:terraces
563:rheology
515:shearing
181:where,
129:sediment
85:channels
2729:Commons
2571:Textile
2566:Systems
2536:Privacy
2521:Nuclear
2285:Process
2243:Genetic
2189:Optical
2169:Control
2162:outline
2129:Thermal
2119:Railway
2059:Railway
2054:Traffic
1977:Coastal
1936:Outline
1931:History
1802:Circuit
997:HEC-RAS
892:suction
883:with a
774:of the
746:hushing
709:was an
687:in the
669:Ifugaos
659:In the
648:in the
569:History
77:bridges
2749:Portal
2546:Survey
2541:Safety
2428:Design
2248:Tissue
2124:Sports
2109:Marine
2099:Energy
2024:Mining
1873:London
1603:
1566:
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1412:Saqiya
1395:
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1303:
911:geared
880:saqiya
858:shaduf
845:, the
839:canals
761:Somali
707:Megara
685:Ifugao
667:, the
604:Africa
532:levees
249:are a
186:ρ
93:levees
91:, and
89:canals
69:fluids
54:Riprap
2369:Audio
2357:Other
2275:Paper
2194:Power
2039:River
1964:Civil
1832:Press
1822:Motor
1797:Brake
1393:S2CID
1379:(2),
1350:S2CID
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920:from
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865:from
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776:Jubba
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2464:Fire
2265:Food
1852:Seal
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1301:ISBN
1205:link
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897:and
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861:and
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797:and
789:and
778:and
754:lead
752:and
742:gold
644:The
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588:and
546:and
528:dams
81:dams
40:Bern
2674:M–Z
2669:A–L
2416:MEP
1952:and
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1385:doi
1342:doi
963:GPS
750:tin
720:on
705:of
621:In
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471:+
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416:+
410:g
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198:y
192:g
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