20:
468:
456:
103:
198:. They are more efficient than modern 7 to 90-passenger turboprop airliners such as the DASH 8. The efficiency of a hydrogen-fueled aircraft is a trade-off of the larger wetted area, lower fuel weight, and added tank weight, varying with the aircraft size. Hydrogen is suited for short-range airliners. While longer-range aircraft need new aircraft designs.
643:
demonstrator, refitted with a hydrogen-electric powertrain in May, completed a record 523 miles non-stop flight, more than triple the range of the battery powered version. It landed with 10% liquid hydrogen fuel remaining in its cyrogenic fuel tank, and the only in-flight emission was water vapor. A
245:
hydrogen-powered aircraft could be commercially viable for short-haul and regional flights by the second half of the 2020s with airlines potentially able to replace the entire UK regional fleet with hydrogen aircraft by 2040. However, the report highlighted that national supply, and the price of
122:
of 10.05 kJ/L at normal atmospheric pressure and temperature, compared to ~31293 kJ/L for liquid fuels, 3114 times lower. When pressurised to 690 bar (10,000 psi), it reaches 4,500 kJ/L, still 7 times lower than liquid fuels. Cooled at 20 K (−253 °C),
228:
solutions, has investigated the potential of new hydrogen-powered aircraft designs to reduce the environmental impact of aviation. The aircraft designers have proposed a range of hydrogen-fuelled aircraft concepts, ranging from 7 to 90 seats, exploring the use of hydrogen with
775:
becoming up to 1 m (3 ft 3 in) wider at the rear to accommodate two cryogenic fuel tanks, and a larger wingspan requiring folding wing-tips for a 2,400 nmi (4,400 km) range with a 450 kn (830 km/h)
582:
four-seater was powered by a hydrogen fuel cell, its first flight took place on
September 29, 2016. It has the possibility to store 9 kg (20 lb) of hydrogen, 4x11 kW fuel cells and 2x10 kWh batteries.
254:
are critical factors in determining uptake of hydrogen aircraft by airline operators. Modeling showed that, if hydrogen prices approach $ 1/kg, hydrogen aircraft uptake could cover almost 100% of the UK domestic market.
410:
turbines could reduce climate impact by 40–50% for a 40–50% additional cost. Research and development would be required, in aircraft technology and into hydrogen infrastructure, regulations and certification standards.
755:
with a larger fuselage diameter at 3.5 m (11 ft) compared to 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in) to accommodate hydrogen storage, for a 325 kn (601 km/h) cruise and an 800 nmi (1,480 km)
1283:
391:
430:
which – absent human action – would be almost totally dry and still remains relatively devoid of water. If hydrogen is burned and the resulting water vapor is released at stratospheric heights (the
660:
Langley, exploring airliners carrying 130 passengers over 2,780 km (1500 nmi); 200 passengers over 5,560 km (3,000 nmi); and 400 passengers over 9,265 km (5,000 nmi).
740:
In August 2021 the UK Government claimed it was the first to have a
Hydrogen Strategy. This report included a suggested strategy for hydrogen powered aircraft along with other transport modes.
717:
used in gas turbines for a 279-passenger design with 5,250 nmi (9,720 km) of range. ATI is supported by Airbus, Rolls-Royce, GKN, Spirit, General
Electric, Reaction Engines, Easyjet,
675:
Study, assessing the configurations, systems, engines, infrastructure, safety, environmental compatibility and transition scenarios. Multiple configurations were envisioned: a 12 passenger
734:
1541:
821:
706:
135:
The low volumetric energy density of hydrogen poses challenges when designing an aircraft, where weight and exposed surface area are critical. To reduce the size of the tanks
2033:
1134:
2105:
1402:
176:
Hydrogen's high specific energy means it would need less fuel weight for the same range, ignoring the repercussions of added volume and tank weight. As airliners have a
560:. Hydrogen gas is stored at 350 bar, feeding a 20 kW (27 hp) fuel cell powering a 40 kW (54 hp) electric motor along a 20 kW (27 hp)
1906:
644:
hydrogen fuel cell system provided the power for the six electric rotors of the eVTOL during its flight, and a small battery provided added takeoff and landing power.
1976:
1452:
825:
1586:
94:
forecast hydrogen aircraft entering the market in the late 2030s and scaling up through 2050, when they could account for a third of aviation's energy demand.
698:
hydrogen-fuelled concepts aiming for commercial service by 2035: a 100-passenger turboprop, a 200-passenger turbofan, and a futuristic design based around a
1681:
1247:
975:
ZEROe, presented in late 2020, it aims to create four concept aircraft and launch the first commercial zero-emission aircraft, entering service by 2035
406:
turbines could have a 50–60% reduced climate impact for a 30–40% overcost, and a long-range aircraft (> 7,000 km, 3,800 nmi) also with H
383:
than current aircraft: water vapor and a small amount of nitrogen oxide. Currently very little hydrogen is produced using low-carbon energy sources.
1928:
1825:
632:
Arcus-M glider, dubbed the Blue Condor, equipped with a hydrogen combustion engine for the first time, using hydrogen as its sole source of fuel.
1201:
996:
602:
for peak power. The aim is to have a certifiable system by 2025 to power airframes carrying up to 19 passengers over 300 nmi (560 km).
1946:
1523:
1873:
1505:
1272:
1465:
1403:
https://www.fz-juelich.de/en/iek/iek-7/research/upper-troposphere-and-stratosphere/water-vapour-in-the-upper-troposphere-and-stratosphere
484:
1180:
2092:
1732:
1656:
438:
takes place almost entirely at stratospheric altitude), the content of water vapor in the stratosphere is increased. Due to the long
857:
by 35% compared with the current jet-fuel PW1100G, for a service entry by 2035 with a compatible airframe. On 21 February 2022, the
862:
1453:
https://essopenarchive.org/users/304243/articles/657090-long-term-climate-impact-of-large-stratospheric-water-vapor-perturbations
1428:
2062:
787:, flying 279 passengers over 5,750 nmi (10,650 km), with a 6 m (20 ft) wide fuselage diameter closer to the
1484:
1947:"Project Fresson to deliver world's first truly green passenger carrying airline services using hydrogen fuel cell technology"
1587:"Global Observer, AeroVironment's Extreme Endurance Unmanned Aircraft System, Achieves Historic First Hydrogen-Powered Flight"
1374:
368:. However, hydrogen combustion produces up to 90% less nitrogen oxides than kerosene fuel, and it eliminates the formation of
2156:
1042:
1558:
683:
for 44 passengers over 1,500 nmi (2,800 km) and 70 passengers over 2,000 nmi (3,700 km), a medium range
1791:
613:
40-passenger testbed with one engine powered by their hydrogen-electric powertrain. The company has received an order from
1488:
1228:
1843:
1994:
1013:, operated by DLR spinoff H2Fly, completed the world's first piloted electric flights powered by liquid hydrogen in 2023
2146:
2121:
106:
Energy density of fuels: horizontal per mass, vertical per volume. Kerosene is highlighted in red and hydrogen in blue.
1360:
1314:
1620:
873:
used to recover water vapour in the exhaust stream, injected into the combustor to increase its power, and into the
2151:
79:
1335:
442:
of water vapor at those heights, the long term effects over years or even decades cannot be entirely discounted.
184:
between 26% for medium-haul to 45% for long-haul, maximum fuel weight could be reduced to 9% to 16% of the MTOW.
594:
testbed with one turboprop replaced by a prototype hydrogen-electric powertrain in the cabin, consisting of two
962:
212:
A study in the UK, NAPKIN (New
Aviation, Propulsion Knowledge and Innovation Network), with collaboration from
1350:
173:
Gaseous hydrogen may be used for short-haul aircraft. Liquid hydrogen might be needed for long-haul aircraft.
939:
568:
1755:
1600:
1116:
402:/Turbines could reduce climate impact by 70–80% for a 20–30% additional cost, a medium-range airliner with H
2050:
1892:
1642:"ZeroAvia Makes Aviation History, Flying World's Largest Aircraft Powered with a Hydrogen-Electric Engine"
1605:
1077:
610:
276:
52:
865:(ARPA-E) awarded P&W $ 3.8 million for a two-year early stage research initiative, to develop the
1441:
1414:
1095:
948:, 2012-2016 piston engine powered drone demonstrator, flew 9 times with flights lasting up to 9 hours
1950:
1657:"Universal Hydrogen's 40-passenger hydrogen electric plane completes maiden flight [Video]"
923:
854:
2117:
1527:
1026:
1020:
986:
858:
817:
575:
561:
526:
1248:
ACRP Research Report 236: Preparing Your
Airport for Electric Aircraft and Hydrogen Technologies
966:
914:
426:
as water does not long remain static in that layer of the atmosphere. This is different in the
422:
the content of water vapor is not dominated by anthropogenic emissions but rather the natural
209:, or even for cooling the aircraft's skin itself, particularly for scramjet-powered aircraft.
1509:
1355:
1156:
571:
unmanned aircraft completed its first flight powered by a hydrogen-fueled propulsion system.
557:
91:
59:
to generate electricity to power an electric propulsor. It cannot be stored in a traditional
2034:"H2FLY's HY4 Completes First-Ever Piloted Flight Of Liquid Hydrogen-Powered Electric Plane"
1762:
1062:(fuel cell powered Dash 8-300) the largest aircraft ever to cruise mainly on hydrogen power
768:
653:
541:
467:
202:
553:
8:
1776:
1036:
809:
664:
599:
225:
206:
19:
1059:
1053:
945:
835:
606:
534:
530:
514:
460:
177:
163:
147:
1482:
1310:
1090:
942:, 2010-2011 fuel-cell powered drone demonstrator, performed 9 flights before crashing
889:
748:
726:
699:
680:
435:
431:
415:
170:. The extra tank weight is offset by dramatically lower liquid hydrogen fuel weight.
796:
2106:"Forget batteries, is hydrogen the holy grail for carbon-free commercial aviation?"
1893:"Zero-carbon emission flights to anywhere in the world possible with just one stop"
1839:
1382:
1302:
1065:
784:
614:
545:
380:
376:
213:
191:
159:
71:
1706:
455:
1977:"P&W sees 2035 service entry potential for revolutionary hydrogen powerplant"
1624:
1049:
1016:
839:
820:
retrofit for a
September 2022 demonstration. Project Fresson is supported by the
813:
714:
136:
124:
111:
2074:
1800:
1682:"Contrail-chasing Blue Condor makes Airbus' first full hydrogen-powered flight"
1506:"Boeing Prepares Fuel Cell Demonstrator Airplane for Ground and Flight Testing"
933:
870:
772:
730:
687:
aircraft for 185 passengers over 4,000 nmi (7,400 km) and long range
549:
522:
439:
291:
287:
247:
140:
119:
102:
1641:
2140:
2008:
1949:(Press release). Cranfield Aerospace Solutions. 30 March 2021. Archived from
1733:"Joby Aviation takes 523-mile hydrogen-electric flight above Monterey County"
1306:
847:
718:
636:
629:
518:
395:
306:
268:
221:
162:
will be increased somewhat by larger fuel tanks. A larger fuselage adds more
127:
has an energy density of 8,491 kJ/L, 3.7 times lower than liquid fuels.
75:
64:
40:
846:
Turbine Engine (HySIITE) project, to avoid carbon dioxide emissions, reduce
751:
has six electric propulsors powered by fuel cells, a size comparable to the
1000:
676:
656:
prepared a study of liquid hydrogen fueled subsonic transport aircraft for
548:. The aircraft and the electric and energy system was developed within the
506:
495:
first flew as the first hydrogen-powered experimental aircraft, an adapted
427:
369:
238:
234:
143:
2129:
398:. A short-range aircraft (< 2,000 km, 1,100 nmi) with hybrid
394:
2 Joint
Undertakings found that hydrogen could power aircraft by 2035 for
897:
893:
843:
829:
691:
aircraft for 380 to 550 passengers over 8,500 nmi (15,700 km).
591:
480:
423:
419:
217:
195:
167:
115:
1707:"Joby's record 523-mile eVTOL flight: A huge leap for hydrogen aviation"
1542:"DLR motor glider Antares takes off in Hamburg – powered by a fuel cell"
1030:
982:
874:
760:
684:
618:
488:
272:
230:
48:
1874:"Airbus unveils concepts for zero-emission planes powered by hydrogen"
359:
reaction in a nitrogen-rich environment also causes the production of
205:
have been proposed to use this property for cooling the intake air of
90:
plans to launch a first commercial hydrogen-powered aircraft by 2035.
2093:"Bjorn's Corner: Why e in ePlane shall stand for environment, Part 8"
1279:
990:
888:
announced a demonstration of a liquid hydrogen-fueled turbofan, with
866:
595:
510:
399:
387:
264:
201:
Liquid hydrogen is one of the best coolants used in engineering, and
194:
and regional aircraft but their engine efficiency is less than large
187:
56:
36:
2051:
This plane powered by hydrogen has made an electrifying first flight
702:. The aircraft are powered by gas turbines rather than fuel cells.
1073:
927:
780:
688:
587:
251:
155:
151:
60:
44:
1572:
1442:
https://acp.copernicus.org/preprints/acp-2018-630/acp-2018-630.pdf
1010:
878:
579:
1777:"Liquid hydrogen fuelled aircraft - system analysis (CRYOPLANE)"
379:
such as wind or nuclear, its use in aircraft will produce fewer
67:
have to be housed in the fuselage or be supported by the wing.
1004:
978:
972:
885:
764:
752:
722:
668:
625:
502:
496:
492:
87:
83:
24:
271:
in operation, whereas aircraft using hydrogen as a fuel for a
2063:
ZeroAvia
Conducts UK's First Commercial-Scale Electric Flight
1202:"Liquid hydrogen as a potential low-carbon fuel for aviation"
936:, 1988 modified Tupolev Tu-154 testbed, flew over 100 flights
918:
892:
modifying the combustor, fuel system and control system of a
640:
414:
Water vapor is a greenhouse gas – in fact, most of the total
309:). The burning of hydrogen in air leads to the production of
743:
In March 2022, FlyZero detailed its three concept aircraft:
114:
of 119.9 MJ/kg, compared to ~43.5 MJ/kg for usual
1209:
816:
switched from batteries to hydrogen for the nine-passenger
792:
788:
657:
181:
900:
prototype, for a first flight expected within five years.
1929:"FlyZero details trio of zero-emission aircraft concepts"
1851:
1756:
Study of LH2 fueled subsonic passenger transport aircraft
965:
creating a gaseous and liquid hydrogen fuelled drone and
826:
Department for
Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy
472:
295:
280:
434:
of some commercial flights is within the stratosphere –
1508:(Press release). Boeing. March 27, 2007. Archived from
1181:"How to store liquid hydrogen for zero-emission flight"
958:
242:
1753:
1526:(Press release). Boeing. April 3, 2008. Archived from
1150:
1148:
1146:
1144:
529:. In July 2010, Boeing unveiled its hydrogen powered
258:
1789:
1636:
1634:
771:, a 10 m (33 ft) longer fuselage than the
491:
engines rather than jet fuel. On 15 April 1988, the
237:
to replace conventional aircraft engines powered by
1826:"Airbus reveals new zero-emission concept aircraft"
1466:"Will Contrails Be Hydrogen Fuel's Achilles' Heel?"
1429:"Studying Earth's Stratospheric Water Vapor - NASA"
1164:. Revision 0. College of the Desert. December 2001.
1141:
903:
799:, underwing engines and tanks in front of the wing.
1559:"Boeing Unveils Unmanned Phantom Eye Demonstrator"
1135:"Decarbonizing aviation: Making net zero possible"
2009:"Airbus looks to the future with hydrogen planes"
1970:
1968:
1631:
1621:"Vil ha kortdistanse flytrafikk over på hydrogen"
1299:The Scramjet Engine Processes and Characteristics
1267:
1265:
1263:
1261:
1222:
1220:
1117:"Boeing and Airbus: A Stark Contrast on Hydrogen"
146:. Cylindrical tanks minimise surface for minimal
27:prototype made its first flight on 15 April 1988.
2138:
1175:
1173:
1171:
418:on earth is due to water vapor. However, in the
1890:
1524:"Boeing Flies First Fuel Cell-Powered Airplane"
1226:
842:architecture with its Hydrogen Steam Injected,
763:has rear-mounted hydrogen-burning turbofans, a
487:flew on hydrogen for 20 min for one of its two
1965:
1258:
1217:
158:in conventional aircraft. Airplane volume and
2118:"How does a green hydrogen aircraft operate?"
1974:
1926:
1589:(Press release). AeroVironment. Jan 11, 2011.
1330:
1328:
1326:
1196:
1194:
1192:
1190:
1168:
679:with a 3,500 nmi (6,500 km) range,
578:Institute of Engineering Thermodynamics, the
2103:
1799:. H2 Expo at Hamburg. Airbus. Archived from
1754:G.D. Brewer; R.E. Morris (January 1, 1976).
1644:(Press release). ZeroAvia. January 19, 2023.
1601:"Fuel cell aircraft HY4 makes maiden flight"
1348:
1068:(fuel-cell powered Piper PA-46 demonstrator)
795:, a 52 m (171 ft) wingspan within
521:DLR-H2 is a hydrogen-powered aeroplane from
2090:
2075:Flight Testing Hydrogen-Electric Powerplant
1828:(Press release). Airbus. 21 September 2020.
1997:(Press release). Airbus. 22 February 2022.
1463:
1323:
1245:
1187:
694:In September 2020, Airbus presented three
375:If hydrogen is available in quantity from
86:acknowledges the technology potential and
1838:
1301:. Cambridge University Press. p. 4.
1114:
1832:
1790:Andreas Westenberger (11 October 2003).
1735:. Monterey County Herald. East Bay Times
1229:"Opinion: Leave Hydrogen For Dirigibles"
863:Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy
466:
454:
101:
18:
1730:
1561:(Press release). Boeing. July 12, 2010.
1489:"Design of Hydrogen Passenger Aircraft"
118:, 2.8 times higher. However, it has an
2139:
1844:"The hydrogen revolution in the skies"
1679:
1485:Hamburg University of Applied Sciences
1338:(Report). Heathrow Airport. July 2022.
803:
517:. It first flew on April 3, 2008. The
97:
1871:
1704:
1296:
1254:(Report). Washington, DC. p. 21.
1096:Aviation fuel#Emerging aviation fuels
861:through the OPEN21 scheme run by its
663:Between April 2000 and May 2002, the
544:concluded six flight tests fueled by
150:weight, leading towards tanks in the
70:Hydrogen, which can be produced from
1995:"The ZEROe demonstrator has arrived"
1654:
1415:"Aviation and the Global Atmosphere"
1227:Alan H. Epstein (January 13, 2021).
1039:, antipodal hypersonic jet airliner.
896:, mounted on a fuselage pylon on an
647:
1048:, a student project retrofitting a
241:. The findings suggest that in the
13:
2122:Australian Renewable Energy Agency
1872:Tidey, Alice (21 September 2020).
1547:(Press release). DLR. 7 July 2009.
1349:Mike Menzies (23 September 2019).
917:, 1950's concept, dropped for the
259:Emissions and environmental impact
130:
14:
2168:
2132:. Aerospace Technology Institute.
2084:
1895:. Aerospace Technology Institute.
1705:Weiss, Chris C. (July 11, 2024).
1361:Institution of Chemical Engineers
621:with their hydrogen powertrains.
450:
2091:Bjorn Fehrm (February 7, 2020).
1731:Herrera, James (July 24, 2024).
1351:"Hydrogen: The Burning Question"
1246:Le Bris, G; et al. (2022).
904:Proposed aircraft and prototypes
877:as an intercooler, and into the
80:environmental impact of aviation
2068:
2056:
2044:
2026:
2001:
1987:
1939:
1927:Dominic Perry (11 March 2022).
1920:
1899:
1884:
1865:
1818:
1783:
1769:
1747:
1724:
1698:
1673:
1648:
1613:
1593:
1579:
1565:
1551:
1534:
1516:
1498:
1476:
1457:
1446:
1435:
1421:
1407:
1396:
1367:
1342:
1286:2 Joint Undertakings. May 2020.
471:the hydrogen fuel cell-powered
1975:Dominic Perry (1 March 2022).
1891:Nathan Harrison (6 Dec 2021).
1464:Guy Norris (October 1, 2020).
1290:
1239:
1127:
1115:Patterson, Thom (2022-07-05).
1108:
1078:fuel-cell powered Dornier 228x
963:Delft University of Technology
930:, cancelled during development
822:Aerospace Technology Institute
707:Aerospace Technology Institute
475:made its first flight in 2016.
463:UAV first flew on 1 June 2012.
180:of the Maximum Takeoff Weight
1:
1793:Cryoplane – Hydrogen Aircraft
1252:Transportation Research Board
1101:
1052:17E and 17EII with a gaseous
940:AeroVironment Global Observer
908:
569:AeroVironment Global Observer
533:UAV, that uses two converted
2157:Aviation and the environment
2104:Dan Thisdell (9 July 2020).
1655:Doll, Scooter (2023-03-02).
783:FZM-1G is comparable to the
290:which contributes to global
55:, or can be used to power a
7:
1084:
1056:electric propulsion system.
1029:, orbital hydrogen fuelled
952:
926:, 1986–1993 concept with a
824:in partnership with the UK
556:project coordinated by the
10:
2173:
1137:. McKinsey. July 15, 2022.
445:
277:internal combustion engine
263:Hydrogen aircraft using a
53:internal combustion engine
47:can either be burned in a
2147:Hydrogen-powered aircraft
1273:Hydrogen-powered aviation
705:In December 2021, the UK
33:hydrogen-powered aircraft
1307:10.1017/CBO9780511627019
1003:; based on the previous
999:, two seat experimental
924:National Aerospace Plane
812:Solutions announced the
567:On January 11, 2011, an
139:will be used, requiring
2152:Aircraft configurations
1284:Fuel Cells and Hydrogen
1027:Reaction Engines Skylon
1021:Britten-Norman Islander
981:, a student project at
859:US Department of Energy
855:reduce fuel consumption
838:wants to associate its
818:Britten-Norman Islander
574:Developed by Germany's
562:lithium polymer battery
527:German aerospace center
392:Fuel Cells and Hydrogen
386:A 2020 study by the EU
1907:"UK Hydrogen Strategy"
1779:. European Commission.
961:, a student team from
915:Lockheed CL-400 Suntan
853:emissions by 80%, and
513:designed and built by
476:
464:
279:are zero emission for
107:
92:McKinsey & Company
28:
1680:Airbus (2023-11-08).
1356:The Chemical Engineer
1297:Segal, Corin (2010).
1183:. Airbus. 2021-12-09.
558:Politecnico di Torino
505:converted a two-seat
470:
459:The hydrogen powered
458:
248:green liquid hydrogen
203:precooled jet engines
105:
23:The hydrogen-powered
22:
2040:. 19 September 2023.
1609:. 30 September 2016.
1487:(19 November 2020).
985:building a modified
709:(ATI) presented its
624:On 8 November 2023,
586:On 19 January 2023,
479:In February 1957, a
396:short-range aircraft
1806:on 1 September 2022
1375:"Hydrogen aircraft"
1158:Hydrogen Properties
1037:Reaction Engines A2
836:Pratt & Whitney
810:Cranfield Aerospace
804:Propulsion projects
797:airport gate limits
747:the 75-seat FZR-1E
713:study of cryogenic
667:funded half of the
665:European Commission
600:lithium-ion battery
250:relative to fossil
226:Cranfield Aerospace
207:hypersonic aircraft
98:Hydrogen properties
51:or another kind of
43:as a power source.
2124:. 24 January 2022.
2077:, January 19, 2023
1060:Universal Hydrogen
1054:hydrogen fuel cell
993:propulsion system.
991:hydrogen fuel cell
946:Boeing Phantom Eye
884:In February 2022,
607:Universal Hydrogen
535:Ford Motor Company
515:Intelligent Energy
477:
465:
461:Boeing Phantom Eye
370:particulate matter
164:skin friction drag
148:thermal insulation
108:
29:
2130:"FlyZero Reports"
1840:Henderson, Caspar
1765:– via NASA.
1512:on 29 April 2007.
1431:. 17 August 2021.
1091:Electric aircraft
979:Cellsius H2-Sling
890:CFM International
767:and nose-mounted
749:regional airliner
700:blended wing body
681:regional airliner
648:Aircraft projects
635:On 24 June 2024,
605:On 2 March 2023,
436:supersonic flight
432:cruising altitude
416:greenhouse effect
166:due to the extra
78:, can reduce the
2164:
2133:
2125:
2113:
2100:
2078:
2072:
2066:
2060:
2054:
2048:
2042:
2041:
2030:
2024:
2023:
2021:
2020:
2005:
1999:
1998:
1991:
1985:
1984:
1972:
1963:
1962:
1960:
1958:
1953:on 2 August 2021
1943:
1937:
1936:
1924:
1918:
1917:
1911:
1903:
1897:
1896:
1888:
1882:
1881:
1869:
1863:
1862:
1860:
1858:
1842:(7 April 2021).
1836:
1830:
1829:
1822:
1816:
1815:
1813:
1811:
1805:
1798:
1787:
1781:
1780:
1773:
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1728:
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1696:
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1677:
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1668:
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1652:
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1645:
1638:
1629:
1628:
1623:(in Norwegian).
1617:
1611:
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1597:
1591:
1590:
1583:
1577:
1576:
1569:
1563:
1562:
1555:
1549:
1548:
1546:
1538:
1532:
1531:
1530:on 6 April 2008.
1520:
1514:
1513:
1502:
1496:
1495:
1493:
1480:
1474:
1473:
1461:
1455:
1450:
1444:
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1433:
1432:
1425:
1419:
1418:
1411:
1405:
1400:
1394:
1393:
1391:
1390:
1381:. Archived from
1371:
1365:
1364:
1346:
1340:
1339:
1332:
1321:
1320:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1277:
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1224:
1215:
1214:
1206:
1198:
1185:
1184:
1177:
1166:
1165:
1163:
1152:
1139:
1138:
1131:
1125:
1124:
1112:
1066:ZeroAvia HyFlyer
785:Boeing 767-200ER
628:flew a modified
615:Connect Airlines
555:
546:gaseous hydrogen
537:piston engines.
381:greenhouse gases
377:low-carbon power
367:
358:
356:
355:
345:
344:
343:
333:
332:
331:
317:
303:
214:Heathrow Airport
192:general aviation
74:and can produce
72:low-carbon power
16:Type of airplane
2172:
2171:
2167:
2166:
2165:
2163:
2162:
2161:
2137:
2136:
2128:
2116:
2087:
2082:
2081:
2073:
2069:
2065:, June 23, 2020
2061:
2057:
2053:, March 7, 2023
2049:
2045:
2032:
2031:
2027:
2018:
2016:
2007:
2006:
2002:
1993:
1992:
1988:
1973:
1966:
1956:
1954:
1945:
1944:
1940:
1925:
1921:
1909:
1905:
1904:
1900:
1889:
1885:
1870:
1866:
1856:
1854:
1837:
1833:
1824:
1823:
1819:
1809:
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1803:
1796:
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1738:
1736:
1729:
1725:
1715:
1713:
1703:
1699:
1690:
1688:
1678:
1674:
1665:
1663:
1653:
1649:
1640:
1639:
1632:
1627:. 21 June 2017.
1625:Teknisk Ukeblad
1619:
1618:
1614:
1599:
1598:
1594:
1585:
1584:
1580:
1571:
1570:
1566:
1557:
1556:
1552:
1544:
1540:
1539:
1535:
1522:
1521:
1517:
1504:
1503:
1499:
1491:
1483:Dieter Scholz,
1481:
1477:
1462:
1458:
1451:
1447:
1440:
1436:
1427:
1426:
1422:
1413:
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1244:
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1225:
1218:
1204:
1200:
1199:
1188:
1179:
1178:
1169:
1161:
1154:
1153:
1142:
1133:
1132:
1128:
1121:FLYING Magazine
1113:
1109:
1104:
1087:
1050:Valentin Taifun
1046:
1017:Project Fresson
955:
911:
906:
851:
840:geared turbofan
814:Project Fresson
808:In March 2021,
806:
715:liquid hydrogen
650:
453:
448:
409:
405:
366:
360:
354:
351:
350:
349:
347:
342:
339:
338:
337:
335:
330:
327:
326:
325:
323:
316:
310:
302:
296:
284:
261:
190:make sense for
137:liquid hydrogen
133:
131:Aircraft design
125:liquid hydrogen
112:specific energy
110:Hydrogen has a
100:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2170:
2160:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2135:
2134:
2126:
2114:
2101:
2086:
2085:External links
2083:
2080:
2079:
2067:
2055:
2043:
2025:
2000:
1986:
1964:
1938:
1919:
1916:. August 2021.
1898:
1883:
1864:
1831:
1817:
1782:
1768:
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1723:
1697:
1672:
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1612:
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1515:
1497:
1475:
1456:
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1434:
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1406:
1395:
1366:
1341:
1336:Project NAPKIN
1322:
1315:
1289:
1257:
1238:
1216:
1213:. August 2019.
1186:
1167:
1140:
1126:
1106:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1099:
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1024:
1014:
1008:
994:
976:
970:
954:
951:
950:
949:
943:
937:
934:Tupolev Tu-155
931:
921:
910:
907:
905:
902:
881:as a coolant.
871:heat exchanger
849:
805:
802:
801:
800:
777:
773:Airbus A320neo
757:
731:Mott MacDonald
649:
646:
617:to convert 75
550:European Union
523:Lange Aviation
452:
451:Demonstrations
449:
447:
444:
440:residence time
407:
403:
362:
352:
340:
328:
321:
312:
298:
294:) but not for
292:climate change
288:greenhouse gas
282:
260:
257:
141:cryogenic fuel
132:
129:
120:energy density
99:
96:
76:zero emissions
65:hydrogen tanks
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2169:
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2071:
2064:
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2029:
2014:
2010:
2004:
1996:
1990:
1982:
1978:
1971:
1969:
1952:
1948:
1942:
1934:
1930:
1923:
1915:
1914:UK Government
1908:
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1471:
1470:Aviation Week
1467:
1460:
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1438:
1430:
1424:
1416:
1410:
1404:
1399:
1385:on 2012-06-18
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1316:9780511627019
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1278:(Report). EU
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1234:
1233:Aviation Week
1230:
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1035:
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1018:
1015:
1012:
1009:
1006:
1002:
998:
997:DLR Smartfish
995:
992:
988:
984:
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977:
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968:
964:
960:
957:
956:
947:
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746:
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741:
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728:
724:
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697:
692:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
661:
659:
655:
645:
642:
638:
637:Joby Aviation
633:
631:
630:Schempp-Hirth
627:
622:
620:
616:
612:
608:
603:
601:
597:
593:
589:
584:
581:
577:
572:
570:
565:
563:
559:
551:
547:
543:
540:In 2010, the
538:
536:
532:
528:
524:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
498:
494:
490:
486:
482:
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417:
412:
401:
397:
393:
389:
384:
382:
378:
373:
371:
365:
319:
315:
308:
307:air pollutant
304:
301:
293:
289:
285:
278:
274:
270:
269:zero emission
266:
256:
253:
249:
244:
240:
236:
232:
227:
223:
222:GKN Aerospace
219:
215:
210:
208:
204:
199:
197:
193:
189:
185:
183:
179:
178:fuel fraction
174:
171:
169:
165:
161:
157:
153:
149:
145:
142:
138:
128:
126:
121:
117:
113:
104:
95:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
68:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
41:hydrogen fuel
38:
34:
26:
21:
2110:Flightglobal
2109:
2096:
2070:
2058:
2046:
2037:
2028:
2017:. Retrieved
2015:. 2020-09-21
2012:
2003:
1989:
1981:Flightglobal
1980:
1955:. Retrieved
1951:the original
1941:
1933:FlightGlobal
1932:
1922:
1913:
1901:
1886:
1877:
1867:
1855:. Retrieved
1847:
1834:
1820:
1808:. Retrieved
1801:the original
1792:
1785:
1771:
1749:
1737:. Retrieved
1726:
1714:. Retrieved
1711:newatlas.com
1710:
1700:
1689:. Retrieved
1685:
1675:
1664:. Retrieved
1660:
1650:
1615:
1606:The Engineer
1604:
1595:
1581:
1567:
1553:
1536:
1528:the original
1518:
1510:the original
1500:
1478:
1469:
1459:
1448:
1437:
1423:
1409:
1398:
1387:. Retrieved
1383:the original
1378:
1369:
1354:
1344:
1298:
1292:
1251:
1241:
1232:
1208:
1157:
1155:"Module 1".
1129:
1120:
1110:
1001:lifting body
883:
844:Inter‐Cooled
834:
807:
742:
739:
710:
704:
695:
693:
677:business jet
672:
662:
651:
634:
623:
604:
585:
573:
566:
539:
509:to run on a
507:Diamond DA20
501:
478:
428:stratosphere
413:
385:
374:
363:
313:
299:
262:
239:fossil fuels
235:gas turbines
211:
200:
196:gas turbines
186:
175:
172:
154:rather than
134:
116:liquid fuels
109:
69:
32:
30:
2097:Leeham News
2038:www.msn.com
1573:"ENFICA-FC"
1379:H2 Vehicles
894:GE Passport
830:Innovate UK
759:its FZN-1E
592:Dornier 228
542:Rapid 200FC
531:Phantom Eye
481:Martin B-57
424:water cycle
420:troposphere
267:design are
218:Rolls-Royce
168:wetted area
2141:Categories
2019:2022-11-26
1810:24 January
1761:(Report).
1691:2024-07-09
1666:2023-03-03
1389:2016-05-06
1102:References
1043:Taifun 17H
1031:spaceplane
983:ETH Zürich
909:Historical
875:compressor
779:the small
761:narrowbody
685:narrowbody
619:ATR 72-600
596:fuel cells
499:airliner.
489:Wright J65
273:jet engine
231:fuel cells
188:Fuel cells
49:jet engine
39:that uses
1280:Clean Sky
1023:retrofit.
959:AeroDelft
867:combustor
673:Cryoplane
652:In 1975,
590:flew its
554:ENFICA-FC
511:fuel cell
483:B of the
400:Fuel cell
388:Clean Sky
305:(a local
265:fuel cell
156:wet wings
57:fuel cell
37:aeroplane
2013:BBC News
1957:2 August
1878:euronews
1857:5 August
1763:Lockheed
1716:July 24,
1661:Electrek
1085:See also
1074:ZeroAvia
987:Sling HW
953:Projects
928:scramjet
869:and the
781:widebody
733:and the
689:widebody
654:Lockheed
588:ZeroAvia
525:and the
252:kerosene
152:fuselage
61:wet wing
45:Hydrogen
1848:bbc.com
1739:24 July
1011:DLR HY4
989:with a
967:Sling 4
879:turbine
776:cruise;
769:canards
711:FlyZero
609:flew a
580:DLR HY4
519:Antares
446:History
1686:Airbus
1313:
1282:2 and
1007:model.
1005:Hyfish
973:Airbus
886:Airbus
765:T-tail
756:range;
753:ATR 72
723:Belcan
669:Airbus
639:'s S4
626:Airbus
611:Dash 8
598:and a
564:pack.
503:Boeing
497:Tu-154
493:Tu-155
390:2 and
322:, the
275:or an
224:, and
88:Airbus
84:Boeing
63:, and
35:is an
25:Tu-155
1910:(PDF)
1804:(PDF)
1797:(PDF)
1759:(PDF)
1545:(PDF)
1492:(PDF)
1276:(PDF)
1205:(PDF)
1162:(PDF)
919:SR-71
727:Eaton
696:ZEROe
671:-led
641:eVTOL
144:tanks
1959:2021
1859:2021
1812:2023
1741:2024
1718:2024
1311:ISBN
1210:IATA
1019:, a
898:A380
828:and
793:777X
789:A350
719:NATS
658:NASA
485:NACA
320:i.e.
233:and
182:MTOW
160:drag
1852:BBC
1303:doi
791:or
735:MTC
576:DLR
552:'s
473:HY4
334:+ ½
286:(a
2143::
2120:.
2108:.
2095:.
2036:.
2011:.
1979:.
1967:^
1931:.
1912:.
1876:.
1850:.
1846:.
1709:.
1684:.
1659:.
1633:^
1603:.
1468:.
1377:.
1359:.
1353:.
1325:^
1309:.
1260:^
1250:.
1231:.
1219:^
1207:.
1189:^
1170:^
1143:^
1119:.
848:NO
832:.
737:.
729:,
725:,
721:,
372:.
361:NO
346:→
318:,
311:NO
297:NO
281:CO
243:UK
220:,
216:,
82:.
31:A
2112:.
2099:.
2022:.
1983:.
1961:.
1935:.
1880:.
1861:.
1814:.
1743:.
1720:.
1694:.
1669:.
1575:.
1494:.
1472:.
1417:.
1392:.
1363:.
1319:.
1305::
1235:.
1123:.
1080:)
1076:(
1045:2
1033:.
969:.
850:x
408:2
404:2
364:x
357:O
353:2
348:H
341:2
336:O
329:2
324:H
314:x
300:x
283:2
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