1245:
1190:) that are responsible for the T cell's activation. Helper T cells have a weaker association with the MHC:antigen complex than observed for killer T cells, meaning many receptors (around 200–300) on the helper T cell must be bound by an MHC:antigen to activate the helper cell, while killer T cells can be activated by engagement of a single MHC:antigen molecule. Helper T cell activation also requires longer duration of engagement with an antigen-presenting cell. The activation of a resting helper T cell causes it to release cytokines that influence the activity of many cell types. Cytokine signals produced by helper T cells enhance the microbicidal function of macrophages and the activity of killer T cells. In addition, helper T cell activation causes an upregulation of molecules expressed on the T cell's surface, such as CD40 ligand (also called
2173:
996:
1349:
2028:
2912:
33:
2315:
1168:
1340:
recognize pathogens by small protein-based infection signals, called antigens, that bind to directly to T-cell surface receptors. B-cells use the protein, immunoglobulin, to recognize pathogens by their antigens. This is "adaptive" because it occurs during the lifetime of an individual as an adaptation to infection with that pathogen and prepares the immune system for future challenges. Immunological memory can be in the form of either passive short-term memory or active long-term memory.
1843:
604:
12884:
1604:
12908:
12896:
7437:
523:, which recognize components that are conserved among broad groups of microorganisms, or when damaged, injured or stressed cells send out alarm signals, many of which are recognized by the same receptors as those that recognize pathogens. Innate immune defenses are non-specific, meaning these systems respond to pathogens in a generic way. This system does not confer long-lasting
1072:(such as penicillin) attached to carrier molecule. Each lineage of B cell expresses a different antibody, so the complete set of B cell antigen receptors represent all the antibodies that the body can manufacture. When B or T cells encounter their related antigens they multiply and many "clones" of the cells are produced that target the same antigen. This is called
1550:. During this time of a slowly evolving adaptive immune response, there is a peak in undifferentiated or less differentiated cells, like naïve and central memory T cells. In addition to these effects, the milieu of hormones produced at this time (leptin, pituitary growth hormone, and prolactin) supports the interactions between APCs and T-cells, a shift of the
831:(NK cells) are lymphocytes and a component of the innate immune system that does not directly attack invading microbes. Rather, NK cells destroy compromised host cells, such as tumor cells or virus-infected cells, recognizing such cells by a condition known as "missing self". This term describes cells with low levels of a cell-surface marker called MHC I (
2400:. Computational methods have been developed to predict the immunogenicity of peptides and proteins, which are particularly useful in designing therapeutic antibodies, assessing likely virulence of mutations in viral coat particles, and validation of proposed peptide-based drug treatments. Early techniques relied mainly on the observation that
1205:(γδ T cells) possess an alternative T-cell receptor (TCR) as opposed to CD4+ and CD8+ (αβ) T cells and share the characteristics of helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells and NK cells. The conditions that produce responses from γδ T cells are not fully understood. Like other 'unconventional' T cell subsets bearing invariant TCRs, such as
1011:. Antigen specificity allows for the generation of responses that are tailored to specific pathogens or pathogen-infected cells. The ability to mount these tailored responses is maintained in the body by "memory cells". Should a pathogen infect the body more than once, these specific memory cells are used to quickly eliminate it.
2345:
Some tumors evade the immune system and go on to become cancers. Tumor cells often have a reduced number of MHC class I molecules on their surface, thus avoiding detection by killer T cells. Some tumor cells also release products that inhibit the immune response; for example by secreting the cytokine
1084:
Both B cells and T cells carry receptor molecules that recognize specific targets. T cells recognize a "non-self" target, such as a pathogen, only after antigens (small fragments of the pathogen) have been processed and presented in combination with a "self" receptor called a major histocompatibility
689:
is an important feature of cellular innate immunity performed by cells called phagocytes that engulf pathogens or particles. Phagocytes generally patrol the body searching for pathogens, but can be called to specific locations by cytokines. Once a pathogen has been engulfed by a phagocyte, it becomes
2755:
The success of any pathogen depends on its ability to elude host immune responses. Therefore, pathogens evolved several methods that allow them to successfully infect a host, while evading detection or destruction by the immune system. Bacteria often overcome physical barriers by secreting enzymes
2337:
are presented on MHC class I molecules in a similar way to viral antigens. This allows killer T cells to recognize the tumor cell as abnormal. NK cells also kill tumorous cells in a similar way, especially if the tumor cells have fewer MHC class I molecules on their surface than normal; this is a
2200:
against that particular pathogen without causing disease associated with that organism. This deliberate induction of an immune response is successful because it exploits the natural specificity of the immune system, as well as its inducibility. With infectious disease remaining one of the leading
1509:
In addition to the negative consequences of sleep deprivation, sleep and the intertwined circadian system have been shown to have strong regulatory effects on immunological functions affecting both innate and adaptive immunity. First, during the early slow-wave-sleep stage, a sudden drop in blood
1178:
regulate both the innate and adaptive immune responses and help determine which immune responses the body makes to a particular pathogen. These cells have no cytotoxic activity and do not kill infected cells or clear pathogens directly. They instead control the immune response by directing other
1339:
When B cells and T cells are activated and begin to replicate, some of their offspring become long-lived memory cells. Throughout the lifetime of an animal, these memory cells remember each specific pathogen encountered and can mount a strong response if the pathogen is detected again. T-cells
2892:
uses a similar strategy, constantly switching one type of surface protein for another, allowing it to stay one step ahead of the antibody response. Masking antigens with host molecules is another common strategy for avoiding detection by the immune system. In HIV, the envelope that covers the
1594:
Physical exercise has a positive effect on the immune system and depending on the frequency and intensity, the pathogenic effects of diseases caused by bacteria and viruses are moderated. Immediately after intense exercise there is a transient immunodepression, where the number of circulating
835:)—a situation that can arise in viral infections of host cells. Normal body cells are not recognized and attacked by NK cells because they express intact self MHC antigens. Those MHC antigens are recognized by killer cell immunoglobulin receptors, which essentially put the brakes on NK cells.
2374:
and thereby assists spread of cancer cells. Anti-tumor M1 macrophages are recruited in early phases to tumor development but are progressively differentiated to M2 with pro-tumor effect, an immunosuppressor switch. The hypoxia reduces the cytokine production for the anti-tumor response and
2949:
bout protected its survivors from future infections. Although he explained the immunity in terms of "excess moisture" being expelled from the blood—therefore preventing a second occurrence of the disease—this theory explained many observations about smallpox known during this time.
1159:. T cell killing of host cells is particularly important in preventing the replication of viruses. T cell activation is tightly controlled and generally requires a very strong MHC/antigen activation signal, or additional activation signals provided by "helper" T cells (see below).
1715:(Tregs), are also important. The plasticity of immune cells and the balance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory signals are crucial aspects of efficient tissue repair. Immune components and pathways are involved in regeneration as well, for example in
915:
are multiprotein complexes (consisting of an NLR, the adaptor protein ASC, and the effector molecule pro-caspase-1) that form in response to cytosolic PAMPs and DAMPs, whose function is to generate active forms of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18.
250:, which is activated by the innate response. Here, the immune system adapts its response during an infection to improve its recognition of the pathogen. This improved response is then retained after the pathogen has been eliminated, in the form of an
1122:
are a sub-group of T cells that kill cells that are infected with viruses (and other pathogens), or are otherwise damaged or dysfunctional. As with B cells, each type of T cell recognizes a different antigen. Killer T cells are activated when their
910:
and cytotoxic factors may also be released. These cytokines and other chemicals recruit immune cells to the site of infection and promote the healing of any damaged tissue following the removal of pathogens. The pattern-recognition receptors called
718:, but this role was extended in phagocytes to include engulfment of pathogens as a defense mechanism. Phagocytosis probably represents the oldest form of host defense, as phagocytes have been identified in both vertebrate and invertebrate animals.
1924:
when cross-linked by antigen. Type II hypersensitivity occurs when antibodies bind to antigens on the individual's own cells, marking them for destruction. This is also called antibody-dependent (or cytotoxic) hypersensitivity, and is mediated by
2254:
that are not found on normal cells. To the immune system, these antigens appear foreign, and their presence causes immune cells to attack the transformed tumor cells. The antigens expressed by tumors have several sources; some are derived from
1573:
During wake periods, differentiated effector cells, such as cytotoxic natural killer cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes, peak to elicit an effective response against any intruding pathogens. Anti-inflammatory molecules, such as cortisol and
2601:
Many species, however, use mechanisms that appear to be precursors of these aspects of vertebrate immunity. Immune systems appear even in the structurally simplest forms of life, with bacteria using a unique defense mechanism, called the
1907:
is an immune response that damages the body's own tissues. It is divided into four classes (Type I – IV) based on the mechanisms involved and the time course of the hypersensitive reaction. Type I hypersensitivity is an immediate or
956:
activation of complement molecules, which are also proteases. After complement proteins initially bind to the microbe, they activate their protease activity, which in turn activates other complement proteases, and so on. This produces a
2391:
that counteract the action of the drugs, particularly if the drugs are administered repeatedly, or in larger doses. This limits the effectiveness of drugs based on larger peptides and proteins (which are typically larger than 6000
1506:, can be affected through the disturbance of natural light and dark cycles through instances of sleep deprivation. These disruptions can lead to an increase in chronic conditions such as heart disease, chronic pain, and asthma.
849:
Inflammation is one of the first responses of the immune system to infection. The symptoms of inflammation are redness, swelling, heat, and pain, which are caused by increased blood flow into tissue. Inflammation is produced by
2369:
that nurture tumor development or promote stem-cell-like plasticity. In addition, a combination of hypoxia in the tumor and a cytokine produced by macrophages induces tumor cells to decrease production of a protein that blocks
3489:"Antibacterial properties of the sperm-binding proteins and peptides of human epididymis 2 (HE2) family; salt sensitivity, structural dependence and their interaction with outer and cytoplasmic membranes of Escherichia coli"
2667:
Unlike animals, plants lack phagocytic cells, but many plant immune responses involve systemic chemical signals that are sent through a plant. Individual plant cells respond to molecules associated with pathogens known as
1320:
does not actually make any memory cells or antibodies—it only borrows them. This passive immunity is usually short-term, lasting from a few days up to several months. In medicine, protective passive immunity can also be
744:
Dendritic cells are phagocytes in tissues that are in contact with the external environment; therefore, they are located mainly in the skin, nose, lungs, stomach, and intestines. They are named for their resemblance to
1299:
Newborn infants have no prior exposure to microbes and are particularly vulnerable to infection. Several layers of passive protection are provided by the mother. During pregnancy, a particular type of antibody, called
1578:, also peak during awake active times. Inflammation would cause serious cognitive and physical impairments if it were to occur during wake times, and inflammation may occur during sleep times due to the presence of
1063:
is necessary for its thymus development and activity. In contrast, the B cell antigen-specific receptor is an antibody molecule on the B cell surface and recognizes native (unprocessed) antigen without any need for
1937:(aggregations of antigens, complement proteins, and IgG and IgM antibodies) deposited in various tissues trigger Type III hypersensitivity reactions. Type IV hypersensitivity (also known as cell-mediated or
663:). These cells identify and eliminate pathogens, either by attacking larger pathogens through contact or by engulfing and then killing microorganisms. The other cells involved in the innate response include
387:
are examples of mechanical barriers that are the first line of defense against infection. Organisms cannot be completely sealed from their environments, so systems act to protect body openings such as the
6330:"The roles of prolactin, growth hormone, insulin-like growth factor-I, and thyroid hormones in lymphocyte development and function: insights from genetic models of hormone and hormone receptor deficiency"
2018:
and cytotoxic factors may also be released. These cytokines and other chemicals recruit immune cells to the site of infection and promote healing of any damaged tissue following the removal of pathogens.
1217:
to produce receptor diversity and can also develop a memory phenotype. On the other hand, the various subsets are also part of the innate immune system, as restricted TCR or NK receptors may be used as
519:
Microorganisms or toxins that successfully enter an organism encounter the cells and mechanisms of the innate immune system. The innate response is usually triggered when microbes are identified by
1007:, where each pathogen is "remembered" by a signature antigen. The adaptive immune response is antigen-specific and requires the recognition of specific "non-self" antigens during a process called
1595:
lymphocytes decreases and antibody production declines. This may give rise to a window of opportunity for infection and reactivation of latent virus infections, but the evidence is inconclusive.
4291:
12281:
3281:
8543:"A malignant flame. Understanding chronic inflammation, which contributes to heart disease, Alzheimer's and a variety of other ailments, may be a key to unlocking the mysteries of cancer"
2764:, they may insert a hollow tube into the host cell, providing a direct route for proteins to move from the pathogen to the host. These proteins are often used to shut down host defenses.
1570:
cell proliferation, and naïve T cell migration to lymph nodes. This is also thought to support the formation of long-lasting immune memory through the initiation of Th1 immune responses.
6984:
Minari AL, Thomatieli-Santos RV (January 2022). "From skeletal muscle damage and regeneration to the hypertrophy induced by exercise: what is the role of different macrophage subsets?".
4062:
1862:
and non-self, and attacks part of the body. Under normal circumstances, many T cells and antibodies react with "self" peptides. One of the functions of specialized cells (located in the
147:, including humans, have even more sophisticated defense mechanisms, including the ability to adapt to recognize pathogens more efficiently. Adaptive (or acquired) immunity creates an
1498:
may have a diminished effect and may result in lower antibody production, and a lower immune response, than would be noted in a well-rested individual. Additionally, proteins such as
1352:
The time-course of an immune response begins with the initial pathogen encounter, (or initial vaccination) and leads to the formation and maintenance of active immunological memory.
733:
and are usually the first cells to arrive at the scene of infection. Macrophages are versatile cells that reside within tissues and produce an array of chemicals including enzymes,
3865:
Beutler B, Jiang Z, Georgel P, Crozat K, Croker B, Rutschmann S, Du X, Hoebe K (2006). "Genetic analysis of host resistance: Toll-like receptor signaling and immunity at large".
6208:
Cutolo M, Sulli A, Capellino S, Villaggio B, Montagna P, Seriolo B, Straub RH (2004). "Sex hormones influence on the immune system: basic and clinical aspects in autoimmunity".
1264:. The B cell then displays these antigenic peptides on its surface MHC class II molecules. This combination of MHC and antigen attracts a matching helper T cell, which releases
6957:
Simpson RJ, Campbell JP, Gleeson M, Krüger K, Nieman DC, Pyne DB, Turner JE, Walsh NP (2020). "Can exercise affect immune function to increase susceptibility to infection?".
9053:
Barrangou R, Fremaux C, Deveau H, Richards M, Boyaval P, Moineau S, Romero DA, Horvath P (March 2007). "CRISPR provides acquired resistance against viruses in prokaryotes".
5460:
1756:
occur when one or more of the components of the immune system are inactive. The ability of the immune system to respond to pathogens is diminished in both the young and the
1312:
also contains antibodies that are transferred to the gut of the infant and protect against bacterial infections until the newborn can synthesize its own antibodies. This is
2648:
are an evolutionarily conserved component of the innate immune response found in all animals and plants, and represent the main form of invertebrate systemic immunity. The
587:
Cells in the innate immune system have pattern recognition receptors, which detect infection or cell damage, inside. Three major classes of these "cytosolic" receptors are
2365:
Paradoxically, macrophages can promote tumor growth when tumor cells send out cytokines that attract macrophages, which then generate cytokines and growth factors such as
3012:; his contributions to the understanding of humoral immunity were recognized by the award of a joint Nobel Prize in 1908, along with the founder of cellular immunology,
1296:. Antibodies can also neutralize challenges directly, by binding to bacterial toxins or by interfering with the receptors that viruses and bacteria use to infect cells.
2778:
inside host cells, where it is shielded from direct contact with immune cells, antibodies and complement. Some examples of intracellular pathogens include viruses, the
2626:
sequences to retain fragments of the genomes of phage that they have come into contact with in the past, which allows them to block virus replication through a form of
1135:. The T cell then travels throughout the body in search of cells where the MHC I receptors bear this antigen. When an activated T cell contacts such cells, it releases
7634:
2897:
is formed from the outermost membrane of the host cell; such "self-cloaked" viruses make it difficult for the immune system to identify them as "non-self" structures.
2321:
have identified a cancer cell (the large, spiky mass). Upon fusing with the cancer cell, the macrophages (smaller white cells) inject toxins that kill the tumor cell.
6772:
584:
and activation of other host defense programs that are necessary for both innate or adaptive immune responses. Ten toll-like receptors have been described in humans.
12274:
174:
occurs when the immune system is less active than normal, resulting in recurring and life-threatening infections. In humans, immunodeficiency can be the result of a
2212:
components. Since many antigens derived from acellular vaccines do not strongly induce the adaptive response, most bacterial vaccines are provided with additional
2937:
noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time. In the 18th century,
1256:
identifies pathogens when antibodies on its surface bind to a specific foreign antigen. This antigen/antibody complex is taken up by the B cell and processed by
7769:
2423:. A publicly accessible database has been established for the cataloguing of epitopes from pathogens known to be recognizable by B cells. The emerging field of
1182:
Helper T cells express T cell receptors that recognize antigen bound to Class II MHC molecules. The MHC:antigen complex is also recognized by the helper cell's
501:
serve as biological barriers by competing with pathogenic bacteria for food and space and, in some cases, changing the conditions in their environment, such as
2287:, while others are the organism's own proteins that occur at low levels in normal cells but reach high levels in tumor cells. One example is an enzyme called
1356:
The immune system is involved in many aspects of physiological regulation in the body. The immune system interacts intimately with other systems, such as the
6127:
5566:
4207:
928:
that attacks the surfaces of foreign cells. It contains over 20 different proteins and is named for its ability to "complement" the killing of pathogens by
12267:
9754:
7660:
Taylor AL, Watson CJ, Bradley JA (October 2005). "Immunosuppressive agents in solid organ transplantation: Mechanisms of action and therapeutic efficacy".
7644:
5689:
4974:
752:, as both have many spine-like projections. Dendritic cells serve as a link between the bodily tissues and the innate and adaptive immune systems, as they
2094:. Their use is tightly controlled. Lower doses of anti-inflammatory drugs are often used in conjunction with cytotoxic or immunosuppressive drugs such as
940:. In humans, this response is activated by complement binding to antibodies that have attached to these microbes or the binding of complement proteins to
10712:
2333:
The main response of the immune system to tumors is to destroy the abnormal cells using killer T cells, sometimes with the assistance of helper T cells.
647:(white blood cells) act like independent, single-celled organisms and are the second arm of the innate immune system. The innate leukocytes include the
11456:
1941:) usually takes between two and three days to develop. Type IV reactions are involved in many autoimmune and infectious diseases, but may also involve
5865:
Wick G, Hu Y, Schwarz S, Kroemer G (October 1993). "Immunoendocrine communication via the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis in autoimmune diseases".
2828:
to protect themselves from the cells and proteins of the immune system. Such biofilms are present in many successful infections, such as the chronic
766:
are leukocytes that have granules in their cytoplasm. In this category are neutrophils, mast cells, basophils, and eosinophils. Mast cells reside in
8109:
Guevara-Patiño JA, Turk MJ, Wolchok JD, Houghton AN (2003). "Immunity to cancer through immune recognition of altered self: studies with melanoma".
3723:
6857:
721:
Neutrophils and macrophages are phagocytes that travel throughout the body in pursuit of invading pathogens. Neutrophils are normally found in the
4782:
Platnich JM, Muruve DA (February 2019). "NOD-like receptors and inflammasomes: A review of their canonical and non-canonical signaling pathways".
1248:
An antibody is made up of two heavy chains and two light chains. The unique variable region allows an antibody to recognize its matching antigen.
1127:
binds to this specific antigen in a complex with the MHC Class I receptor of another cell. Recognition of this MHC:antigen complex is aided by a
5559:
6246:"Presence of secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor in human endometrium and first trimester decidua suggests an antibacterial protective role"
2882:
that are essential for entry into its host target cell are constantly changing. These frequent changes in antigens may explain the failures of
1047:
molecules. These two mechanisms of antigen presentation reflect the different roles of the two types of T cell. A third, minor subtype are the
12662:
4538:
1308:, so human babies have high levels of antibodies even at birth, with the same range of antigen specificities as their mother. Breast milk or
973:(coat) the surface of a pathogen, marking it for destruction. This deposition of complement can also kill cells directly by disrupting their
8019:
Castelli C, Rivoltini L, Andreola G, Carrabba M, Renkvist N, Parmiani G (March 2000). "T-cell recognition of melanoma-associated antigens".
2396:). In some cases, the drug itself is not immunogenic, but may be co-administered with an immunogenic compound, as is sometimes the case for
2201:
causes of death in the human population, vaccination represents the most effective manipulation of the immune system mankind has developed.
1796:
or surgical removal results in severe immunodeficiency and a high susceptibility to infection. Immunodeficiencies can also be inherited or '
1213:, γδ T cells straddle the border between innate and adaptive immunity. On one hand, γδ T cells are a component of adaptive immunity as they
12667:
5900:
Kroemer G, Brezinschek HP, Faessler R, Schauenstein K, Wick G (June 1988). "Physiology and pathology of an immunoendocrine feedback loop".
2941:
experimented with scorpion venom and observed that certain dogs and mice were immune to this venom. In the 10th century, Persian physician
6908:"Debunking the Myth of Exercise-Induced Immune Suppression: Redefining the Impact of Exercise on Immunological Health Across the Lifespan"
5828:
Sauls RS, McCausland C, Taylor BN. Histology, T-Cell
Lymphocyte. In: StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing; 2023. Accessed November 15, 2023.
10142:
4905:
9114:
Brouns SJ, Jore MM, Lundgren M, Westra ER, Slijkhuis RJ, Snijders AP, Dickman MJ, Makarova KS, Koonin EV, van der Oost J (August 2008).
8542:
8032:
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198:
results from a hyperactive immune system attacking normal tissues as if they were foreign organisms. Common autoimmune diseases include
12748:
12743:
12675:
4369:
Guermonprez P, Valladeau J, Zitvogel L, Théry C, Amigorena S (2002). "Antigen presentation and T cell stimulation by dendritic cells".
2866:
The mechanisms used to evade the adaptive immune system are more complicated. The simplest approach is to rapidly change non-essential
2767:
An evasion strategy used by several pathogens to avoid the innate immune system is to hide within the cells of their host (also called
1686:
4548:
4304:
12793:
12773:
12763:
12758:
12728:
11153:
351:
molecules are those recognized as foreign molecules. One class of non-self molecules are called antigens (originally named for being
8506:
Frumento G, Piazza T, Di Carlo E, Ferrini S (September 2006). "Targeting tumor-related immunosuppression for cancer immunotherapy".
7573:
151:
leading to an enhanced response to subsequent encounters with that same pathogen. This process of acquired immunity is the basis of
12836:
12715:
2184:
memory is acquired following infection by activation of B and T cells. Active immunity can also be generated artificially, through
527:
against a pathogen. The innate immune system is the dominant system of host defense in most organisms, and the only one in plants.
347:
molecules are components of an organism's body that can be distinguished from foreign substances by the immune system. Conversely,
1912:
reaction, often associated with allergy. Symptoms can range from mild discomfort to death. Type I hypersensitivity is mediated by
12803:
10705:
10273:
5840:
Althwaiqeb SA, Bordoni B. Histology, B Cell
Lymphocyte. In: StatPearls. StatPearls Publishing; 2023. Accessed November 15, 2023.
1784:. Diets lacking sufficient protein are associated with impaired cell-mediated immunity, complement activity, phagocyte function,
1643:") is similar to that seen during bacterial infections, after exercise the cell population returns to normal by around 24 hours.
1051:
that recognize intact antigens that are not bound to MHC receptors. The double-positive T cells are exposed to a wide variety of
4156:
1044:
725:
and are the most abundant type of phagocyte, representing 50% to 60% of total circulating leukocytes. During the acute phase of
12589:
11449:
2669:
1739:
Failures of host defense occur and fall into three broad categories: immunodeficiencies, autoimmunity, and hypersensitivities.
1040:
932:. Complement is the major humoral component of the innate immune response. Many species have complement systems, including non-
548:
10158:
4554:
952:
triggers a rapid killing response. The speed of the response is a result of signal amplification that occurs after sequential
10552:
10533:
10499:
10472:
10445:
10358:
10331:
10302:
10283:
8390:
8130:
8082:
7822:
6455:
5372:
5170:
4949:
3362:
2974:
1966:
6776:
2338:
common phenomenon with tumors. Sometimes antibodies are generated against tumor cells allowing for their destruction by the
547:, such as dendritic cells, macrophages, monocytes, neutrophils, and epithelial cells, to identify two classes of molecules:
6075:
Wilcox SM, Arora H, Munro L, Xin J, Fenninger F, Johnson LA, Pfeifer CG, Choi KB, Hou J, Hoodless PA, Jefferies WA (2017).
4915:
556:
9222:"Evolution of RNA- and DNA-guided antivirus defense systems in prokaryotes and eukaryotes: common ancestry vs convergence"
4459:
Spits H, Cupedo T (2012). "Innate lymphoid cells: emerging insights in development, lineage relationships, and function".
2824:
by complement. Many pathogens secrete compounds that diminish or misdirect the host's immune response. Some bacteria form
2158:
to be able to stimulate or "boost" the immune system generally lack meaningful explanation and evidence of effectiveness.
2108:
inhibit the immune response by killing dividing cells such as activated T cells. This killing is indiscriminate and other
1673:. These cells differentiate into two types: proliferative macrophages, which are responsible for increasing the number of
505:
or available iron. As a result, the probability that pathogens will reach sufficient numbers to cause illness is reduced.
10665:
6800:"Physical exercise as a tool to help the immune system against COVID-19: an integrative review of the current literature"
2684:
is a type of defensive response used by plants that renders the entire plant resistant to a particular infectious agent.
2375:
progressively macrophages acquire pro-tumor M2 functions driven by the tumor microenvironment, including IL-4 and IL-10.
1439:
Although cellular studies indicate that vitamin D has receptors and probable functions in the immune system, there is no
100:
provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered. Both use
8907:
Kanduc D (September 2019). "From hepatitis C virus immunoproteomics to rheumatology via cross-reactivity in one table".
1534:. These signals induce a pro-inflammatory state through the production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1,
12259:
10698:
6285:
Fimmel S, Zouboulis CC (2005). "Influence of physiological androgen levels on wound healing and immune status in men".
5598:
Sproul TW, Cheng PC, Dykstra ML, Pierce SK (2000). "A role for MHC class II antigen processing in B cell development".
978:
339:
Both innate and adaptive immunity depend on the ability of the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self
12407:
11442:
11401:
10651:
10588:
10418:
10391:
7783:
6176:"Secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI) concentrations in cervical mucus of women with normal menstrual cycle"
5118:
1971:
Inflammation is one of the first responses of the immune system to infection, but it can appear without known cause.
1586:
and the presence of melatonin during sleep times could actively counteract free radical production during this time.
371:
Several barriers protect organisms from infection, including mechanical, chemical, and biological barriers. The waxy
254:, and allows the adaptive immune system to mount faster and stronger attacks each time this pathogen is encountered.
10579:
Wira CR, Crane-Godreau M, Grant K (2004). Ogra PL, Mestecky J, Lamm ME, Strober W, McGhee JR, Bienenstock J (eds.).
6442:. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by the National Institutes of Health. National Academies Press.
4416:
Kariyawasam HH, Robinson DS (April 2006). "The eosinophil: the cell and its weapons, the cytokines, its locations".
2735:(VLRs) that, like the antigen receptors of jawed vertebrates, are produced from only a small number (one or two) of
12552:
11044:
8425:
Syn NL, Teng MW, Mok TS, Soo RA (December 2017). "De-novo and acquired resistance to immune checkpoint targeting".
1808:
characterized by the disturbed development of functional T cells and B cells caused by numerous genetic mutations.
1801:
832:
179:
9710:
Kobayashi H (2005). "Airway biofilms: implications for pathogenesis and therapy of respiratory tract infections".
6487:
Bryant PA, Trinder J, Curtis N (June 2004). "Sick and tired: Does sleep have a vital role in the immune system?".
4747:
Martin P, Leibovich SJ (November 2005). "Inflammatory cells during wound repair: the good, the bad and the ugly".
2630:. Prokaryotes also possess other defense mechanisms. Offensive elements of the immune systems are also present in
1487:) sleep. Thus the immune response to infection may result in changes to the sleep cycle, including an increase in
1244:
559:(DAMPs), which are associated with components of host's cells that are released during cell damage or cell death.
11274:
10605:
7309:
Joos L, Tamm M (2005). "Breakdown of pulmonary host defense in the immunocompromised host: cancer chemotherapy".
4246:
2844:. Other bacteria generate surface proteins that bind to antibodies, rendering them ineffective; examples include
2603:
9793:
5728:
5013:
2992:
Immunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century, through rapid developments in the study of
2929:
and early studies on the causes of immunity to disease. The earliest known reference to immunity was during the
2041:
The immune response can be manipulated to suppress unwanted responses resulting from autoimmunity, allergy, and
1459:, and infections ... could not be linked reliably with calcium or vitamin D intake and were often conflicting."
11409:
11039:
8786:
Söllner J, Mayer B (2006). "Machine learning approaches for prediction of linear B-cell epitopes on proteins".
6174:
Moriyama A, Shimoya K, Ogata I, Kimura T, Nakamura T, Wada H, Ohashi K, Azuma C, Saji F, Murata Y (July 1999).
5269:
4120:
Langermans JA, Hazenbos WL, van Furth R (September 1994). "Antimicrobial functions of mononuclear phagocytes".
17:
2450:
1797:
11950:
11928:
11146:
10982:
6798:
da
Silveira MP, da Silva Fagundes KK, Bizuti MR, Starck É, Rossi RC, de Resende E, Silva DT (February 2021).
2942:
1809:
1654:) decreases during intense exercise but returns to normal after 4 to 6 hours. Although up to 2% of the cells
1003:
The adaptive immune system evolved in early vertebrates and allows for a stronger immune response as well as
822:
737:, and cytokines. They can also act as scavengers that rid the body of worn-out cells and other debris and as
520:
246:. If pathogens successfully evade the innate response, vertebrates possess a second layer of protection, the
4494:
Gabrielli S, Ortolani C, Del Zotto G, Luchetti F, Canonico B, Buccella F, Artico M, Papa S, Zamai L (2016).
11477:
11339:
5355:
McHeyzer-Williams LJ, Malherbe LP, McHeyzer-Williams MG (2006). "Helper T cell-regulated B cell immunity".
2732:
2681:
2637:
2542:
1887:
1483:
produced in response to infection, appear to also play a role in the regulation of non-rapid eye movement (
1219:
608:
536:
211:
37:
7262:"Educational paper: The expanding clinical and immunological spectrum of severe combined immunodeficiency"
5267:
Radoja S, Frey AB, Vukmanovic S (2006). "T-cell receptor signaling events triggering granule exocytosis".
2874:
and/or sugars) on the surface of the pathogen, while keeping essential epitopes concealed. This is called
12704:
6077:"The role of the innate immune response regulatory gene ABCF1 in mammalian embryogenesis and development"
3673:
3452:
Fair WR, Couch J, Wehner N (February 1976). "Prostatic antibacterial factor. Identity and significance".
2700:
2366:
8322:"Molecular mechanisms of HLA class I antigen abnormalities following viral infection and transformation"
5229:
Harty JT, Tvinnereim AR, White DW (2000). "CD8+ T cell effector mechanisms in resistance to infection".
12874:
12294:
12178:
10868:
10629:
6530:
Krueger JM, Majde JA (May 2003). "Humoral links between sleep and the immune system: research issues".
4184:
2816:
1875:
1322:
806:
199:
5570:
1691:
The immune system, particularly the innate component, plays a decisive role in tissue repair after an
1480:
1194:), which provide extra stimulatory signals typically required to activate antibody-producing B cells.
12138:
11220:
8598:
Cervantes-Villagrana RD, Albores-García D, Cervantes-Villagrana AR, García-Acevez SJ (18 June 2020).
7829:
3009:
2761:
2109:
1546:. These cytokines then stimulate immune functions such as immune cell activation, proliferation, and
10690:
7522:
Farhy LS, McCall AL (July 2015). "Glucagon - the new 'insulin' in the pathophysiology of diabetes".
5410:"Human CD8+ T cells do not require the polarization of lipid rafts for activation and proliferation"
3538:"The role of gastric acid in preventing foodborne disease and how bacteria overcome acid conditions"
2419:
techniques using databases of existing known epitopes, usually on well-studied virus proteins, as a
2045:, and to stimulate protective responses against pathogens that largely elude the immune system (see
12146:
11367:
11139:
10619:
8597:
3067:
3051:
2962:
2836:
2757:
1883:
1817:
790:
are related to neutrophils. They secrete chemical mediators that are involved in defending against
207:
3064:– when the immune system uses immunological memory upon encountering a slightly different pathogen
1628:
11206:
11188:
11171:
11048:
10806:
6410:
2938:
2673:
2388:
2217:
1440:
1068:. Such antigens may be large molecules found on the surfaces of pathogens, but can also be small
1024:
738:
576:
311:
301:
191:
9591:
Cianciotto NP (December 2005). "Type II secretion: a protein secretion system for all seasons".
5097:
Holtmeier W, Kabelitz D (2005). "gammadelta T cells link innate and adaptive immune responses".
3025:
2112:
and their organs are affected, which causes toxic side effects. Immunosuppressive drugs such as
12928:
12072:
11977:
11829:
11070:
10788:
10724:
10205:
9626:
Winstanley C, Hart CA (February 2001). "Type III secretion systems and pathogenicity islands".
9273:"Origins and evolutionary relationships between the innate and adaptive arms of immune systems"
5669:
3761:
Kumar H, Kawai T, Akira S (February 2011). "Pathogen recognition by the innate immune system".
3061:
2997:
2958:
2925:
is a science that examines the structure and function of the immune system. It originates from
2830:
2641:
2057:
2032:
1373:
1280:
millions of copies of the antibody that recognizes this antigen. These antibodies circulate in
1094:
1036:
990:
672:
432:
421:
307:
297:
247:
132:
105:
97:
12316:
10139:
9956:
9869:
Taylor JE, Rudenko G (November 2006). "Switching trypanosome coats: what's in the wardrobe?".
8600:"Tumor-induced Neurogenesis and Immune Evasion as Targets of Innovative Anti-Cancer Therapies"
6136:, Chapter: Endocrine regulation of the mucosal immune system in the female reproductive tract.
4930:
4828:
Rus H, Cudrici C, Niculescu F (2005). "The role of the complement system in innate immunity".
3387:
12468:
12290:
11879:
11017:
10873:
10851:
10517:
8581:
7446:
7205:
Miller JF (July 2002). "The discovery of thymus function and of thymus-derived lymphocytes".
5043:
4382:
4085:
Ryter A (1985). "Relationship between ultrastructure and specific functions of macrophages".
3878:
3021:
2961:. Pasteur's theory was in direct opposition to contemporary theories of disease, such as the
2906:
2852:
2775:
2468:
do not generate lymphocytes or an antibody-based humoral response. Immune systems evolved in
2387:
Some drugs can cause a neutralizing immune response, meaning that the immune system produces
1636:
1452:
1210:
1019:
The cells of the adaptive immune system are special types of leukocytes, called lymphocytes.
966:
648:
563:
230:
with layered defenses of increasing specificity. Physical barriers prevent pathogens such as
12378:
12345:
9753:
Housden NG, Harrison S, Roberts SE, Beckingham JA, Graille M, Stura E, Gore MG (June 2003).
9365:
8957:"Origin and evolution of the adaptive immune system: genetic events and selective pressures"
8880:
Flower DR, Doytchinova IA (2002). "Immunoinformatics and the prediction of immunogenicity".
5408:
Kovacs B, Maus MV, Riley JL, Derimanov GS, Koretzky GA, June CH, Finkel TH (November 2002).
5304:
Abbas AK, Murphy KM, Sher A (October 1996). "Functional diversity of helper T lymphocytes".
3345:
Agerberth B, Gudmundsson GH (2006). "Host antimicrobial defence peptides in human disease".
2362:
may develop against tumor antigens, so the immune system no longer attacks the tumor cells.
12368:
12108:
12054:
11844:
11245:
11034:
10967:
10878:
10802:
9823:
9503:
9448:
9403:
9127:
9062:
8557:
8226:
6539:
6088:
5944:
5421:
5313:
3688:
3628:
2970:
2945:(also known as Rhazes) wrote the first recorded theory of acquired immunity, noting that a
2640:
are proteins used by nearly all organisms to identify molecules associated with pathogens.
2376:
2260:
2213:
2143:
2042:
2011:
1921:
1879:
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leave the blood circulation and migrate to the muscles where they differentiate and become
1651:
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1444:
1313:
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1008:
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903:
828:
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676:
664:
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397:
251:
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148:
93:
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molecules, while helper T cells and regulatory T cells only recognize antigens coupled to
8:
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11626:
11289:
11094:
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11012:
10846:
10764:
7565:
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1855:
1495:
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1214:
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680:
592:
571:
431:
Chemical barriers also protect against infection. The skin and respiratory tract secrete
242:
provides an immediate, but non-specific response. Innate immune systems are found in all
12289:
10455:
Rajalingam R (2012). "Overview of the Killer Cell
Immunoglobulin-Like Receptor System".
10175:
9827:
9507:
9452:
9407:
9177:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
9131:
9066:
8561:
8230:
8182:
8155:
7449:. Office on Women's Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 12 June 2017.
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6092:
5948:
5654:
5425:
5317:
3692:
3632:
965:. The cascade results in the production of peptides that attract immune cells, increase
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11682:
11673:
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9930:
9905:
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9811:
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9313:
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1942:
1854:
Overactive immune responses form the other end of immune dysfunction, particularly the
1781:
1704:
1502:, which have been shown to be closely intertwined with both T-cell differentiation and
1448:
1334:
1202:
1108:
1065:
722:
567:
524:
159:
57:
45:
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9662:
9030:
9005:
8569:
8438:
8382:
8122:
8074:
7743:
7492:
7393:
Miller JF (1993). "Self-nonself discrimination and tolerance in T and B lymphocytes".
7370:
7345:
5935:
Trakhtenberg EF, Goldberg JL (October 2011). "Immunology. Neuroimmune communication".
5758:
5444:
5409:
4941:
4276:
3959:"Toll-like receptors in immunity and inflammatory diseases: Past, present, and future"
12694:
12248:
12238:
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10184:
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10049:
9987:
9935:
9921:
9886:
9851:
9777:
9727:
9723:
9692:
9643:
9608:
9565:
9544:"Anti-immunology: evasion of the host immune system by bacterial and viral pathogens"
9521:
9464:
9421:
9343:
9294:
9253:
9202:
9153:
9088:
9035:
8986:
8936:
8924:
8889:
8862:
8803:
8768:
8763:
8746:
8727:
8698:"Immunogenicity of protein therapeutics: The key causes, consequences and challenges"
8678:
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5159:
5124:
5114:
5047:
4997:
4955:
4945:
4894:
4845:
4799:
4764:
4726:
4712:"Chemokines and chemokine receptors: their manifold roles in homeostasis and disease"
4689:
4645:
4641:
4599:
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4348:
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3386:
Moreau JM, Girgis DO, Hume EB, Dajcs JJ, Austin MS, O'Callaghan RJ (September 2001).
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3005:
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405:
140:
89:
9789:
9739:
9577:
8815:
8369:
Hayakawa Y, Smyth MJ (2006). "Innate immune recognition and suppression of tumors".
8303:
8215:"Cancer Regression in Patients After Transfer of Genetically Engineered Lymphocytes"
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7234:
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7531:
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7402:
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most migrate from the blood to the tissues, mainly the intestines and lungs, where
1620:
1608:
1583:
1527:
1503:
1396:
1388:
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1357:
1301:
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101:
81:
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6986:
American
Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology
6639:
5797:
3388:"Phospholipase A(2) in rabbit tears: a host defense against Staphylococcus aureus"
2918:(1854–1915) was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1908 for his contributions to immunology.
2688:
mechanisms are particularly important in this systemic response as they can block
2672:
or PAMPs. When a part of a plant becomes infected, the plant produces a localized
12900:
12580:
12443:
12297:
12223:
12171:
12123:
12044:
11641:
11469:
11419:
11379:
11319:
11314:
11279:
11131:
10977:
10641:
10464:
10379:
10146:
8920:
7826:
7708:
7535:
7044:
6413:. Office of Dietary Supplements, US National Institutes of Health. 17 August 2021
6101:
4296:
4294:
4008:"Pattern recognition receptors and the innate immune response to viral infection"
3974:
3774:
3017:
2841:
2712:
2590:
2501:
2291:
that, when expressed at high levels, transforms certain skin cells (for example,
2264:
2129:
2083:
1488:
1124:
818:
814:
771:
360:
175:
96:
provides a preconfigured response to broad groups of situations and stimuli. The
10410:
9906:"Plunder and stowaways: incorporation of cellular proteins by enveloped viruses"
5359:. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Vol. 311. pp. 59–83.
4319:"Elucidation of monocyte/macrophage dynamics and function by intravital imaging"
3554:
3537:
3349:. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. Vol. 306. pp. 67–90.
2460:
It is likely that a multicomponent, adaptive immune system arose with the first
2379:
covers the medical ways to stimulate the immune system to attack cancer tumors.
2251:
1788:
antibody concentrations, and cytokine production. Additionally, the loss of the
1677:
and restorative macrophages, which are involved their maturing to muscle cells.
12912:
12888:
12353:
12100:
11990:
11834:
11812:
11785:
11631:
11486:
11004:
10949:
10890:
10810:
10783:
10525:
9816:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
9639:
9560:
9543:
9490:
Alder MN, Rogozin IB, Iyer LM, Glazko GV, Cooper MD, Pancer Z (December 2005).
8519:
7473:
6997:
6815:
6688:
6599:
6582:
6437:
6433:
6221:
6159:
6003:
5841:
5829:
5470:
5414:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4684:
4667:
4226:
3822:
3805:
3736:
3728:
3726:
2981:. Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901, with the discovery of the
2879:
2708:
2424:
2272:
2221:
2079:
2075:
1934:
1816:
have a reduced ability to destroy pathogens, is an example of an inherited, or
1535:
1519:
1424:
1399:
of both adaptive and innate immune responses. Some autoimmune diseases such as
1361:
1119:
949:
899:
660:
616:
574:, which give them a curved shape. Toll-like receptors were first discovered in
167:
77:
32:
10679:
10661:
10562:
10401:
Krishnaswamy G, Ajitawi O, Chi DS (2006). "The human mast cell: an overview".
10341:
10244:
9882:
9604:
9329:
9238:
9083:
8615:
8287:
7322:
7277:
6740:
6298:
5611:
5155:
4841:
4795:
4760:
4628:
Miller SB (August 2006). "Prostaglandins in health and disease: an overview".
4334:
3925:
3593:
3189:
2707:. Many of the classical molecules of the adaptive immune system (for example,
1994:
that attract certain white blood cells (leukocytes). Common cytokines include
1760:, with immune responses beginning to decline at around 50 years of age due to
1720:
1222:. For example, large numbers of human Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells respond within hours to
1167:
12922:
12334:
12243:
12083:
11938:
11867:
11621:
11556:
11389:
11262:
11240:
10972:
10861:
10509:
10045:
9492:"Diversity and function of adaptive immune receptors in a jawless vertebrate"
7441:
7182:
7165:
6924:
6262:
6245:
6192:
6175:
2954:
2846:
2804:
2768:
2607:
2393:
2334:
2326:
2322:
2300:
2133:
2087:
2035:
2015:
1983:
1773:
1624:
1619:
of all types. This is caused by the frictional force of blood flowing on the
1575:
1476:
1365:
1269:
1206:
1175:
1144:
1104:
974:
907:
859:
810:
706:. The pathogen is killed by the activity of digestive enzymes or following a
703:
425:
400:. In the lungs, coughing and sneezing mechanically eject pathogens and other
372:
331:
120:
10351:
Pharmacology in
Rehabilitation (Contemporary Perspectives in Rehabilitation)
10032:
Doherty M, Robertson MJ (December 2004). "Some early Trends in
Immunology".
9978:
Retief FP, Cilliers L (January 1998). "The epidemic of Athens, 430–426 BC".
9836:
9516:
9491:
9139:
9074:
8238:
5956:
5364:
3700:
3417:
Hankiewicz J, Swierczek E (December 1974). "Lysozyme in human body fluids".
3354:
1419:. Other hormones appear to regulate the immune system as well, most notably
1288:, bind to pathogens expressing the antigen and mark them for destruction by
995:
774:
and regulate the inflammatory response. They are most often associated with
12562:
12228:
11551:
11499:
11434:
11329:
10939:
10924:
10919:
10856:
10754:
10482:
10428:
10126:
10053:
9939:
9890:
9855:
9781:
9731:
9647:
9612:
9569:
9525:
9468:
9425:
9347:
9298:
9289:
9272:
9257:
9206:
9188:
9157:
9092:
8990:
8928:
8893:
8866:
8847:
8807:
8731:
8713:
8682:
8633:
8577:
8527:
8484:
8446:
8400:
8347:
8295:
8256:
8191:
8140:
8092:
8040:
8005:
7921:
7912:
7895:
7869:
7765:
7751:
7716:
7681:
7543:
7500:
7330:
7295:
7226:
7147:
7062:
7005:
6970:
6943:
6884:
6833:
6758:
6706:
6657:
6608:
6559:
6508:
6465:
6396:
6355:
6346:
6329:
6306:
6271:
6229:
6201:
6167:
6120:
6061:
6021:
5964:
5815:
5766:
5716:
5619:
5545:
5536:
5519:
5453:
5434:
5382:
5290:
5250:
5163:
5128:
5051:
5001:
4898:
4849:
4803:
4768:
4730:
4693:
4649:
4603:
4563:, Chapter: Overview of the killer cell immunoglobulin-like receptor system.
4531:
4512:
4480:
4437:
4390:
4352:
4284:
4234:
4180:
4172:
4043:
3992:
3943:
3886:
3831:
3782:
3708:
3650:
3563:
3522:
3403:
3372:
3331:
3242:
3207:
3146:
3001:
2982:
2915:
2771:
2653:
2555:
2497:
2479:
2469:
2465:
2420:
2314:
2276:
2268:
2189:
2147:
2105:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2061:
1987:
1871:
1867:
1859:
1837:
1777:
1640:
1412:
1281:
1273:
1136:
1052:
941:
937:
912:
871:
844:
726:
686:
539:
to recognize molecular structures that are produced by pathogens. They are
495:
488:
195:
163:
128:
10574:. Computing Centre, Slovak Academy of Sciences: Academic Electronic Press.
10018:
9991:
9755:"Immunoglobulin-binding domains: Protein L from Peptostreptococcus magnus"
9696:
9039:
8772:
8172:
7970:
7952:
7414:
7379:
7191:
5921:
5886:
5878:
5708:
5662:
5504:
5483:
Grewal IS, Flavell RA (1998). "CD40 and CD154 in cell-mediated immunity".
5354:
5333:
4959:
4429:
4141:
4106:
3601:
3438:
2953:
These and other observations of acquired immunity were later exploited by
2027:
729:, neutrophils migrate toward the site of inflammation in a process called
12609:
12557:
12453:
12391:
12307:
12156:
12005:
11985:
11800:
11795:
11735:
11384:
11180:
8745:
Welling GW, Weijer WJ, van der Zee R, Welling-Wester S (September 1985).
8033:
10.1002/(SICI)1097-4652(200003)182:3<323::AID-JCP2>3.0.CO;2-#
6387:
6370:
3322:
3305:
3046:
2986:
2966:
2518:
2505:
2307:
and survival, that commonly mutate into cancer inducing molecules called
2304:
2280:
2238:
Another important role of the immune system is to identify and eliminate
2185:
2167:
2155:
2137:
2113:
1995:
1991:
1909:
1870:
produced throughout the body and to eliminate those cells that recognize
1632:
1515:
1257:
1128:
1028:
953:
883:
875:
867:
779:
763:
456:
376:
152:
9980:
South African Medical Journal = Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Geneeskunde
9460:
9416:
9391:
7035:. Innate immune pathways in wound healing/Peromyscus as a model system.
6797:
4711:
3641:
3616:
3487:
Yenugu S, Hamil KG, Birse CE, Ruben SM, French FS, Hall SH (June 2003).
3473:
12064:
11933:
11903:
11852:
11757:
11465:
11349:
11269:
11062:
10815:
10721:
9773:
7406:
5142:
Venturi S, Venturi M (September 2009). "Iodine, thymus, and immunity".
4993:
4397:
3504:
2934:
2922:
2871:
2809:
2798:
2784:
2716:
2652:
and phagocytic cells are also used by most forms of invertebrate life.
2611:
2493:
2461:
2438:
2412:
2404:
2401:
2397:
2371:
2355:
2351:
2318:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2151:
2064:
when excessive tissue damage occurs, and to prevent rejection after an
2007:
2003:
1982:, which are released by injured or infected cells. Eicosanoids include
1975:
1954:
1842:
1731:) could be less immunocompetent than organisms that cannot regenerate.
1700:
1696:
1674:
1670:
1647:
1616:
1265:
1227:
1152:
895:
891:
858:, which are released by injured or infected cells. Eicosanoids include
851:
791:
787:
730:
656:
652:
644:
632:
624:
460:
401:
238:
from entering the organism. If a pathogen breaches these barriers, the
215:
41:
8744:
8338:
8321:
5899:
5745:
Van de Perre P (July 2003). "Transfer of antibody via mother's milk".
5110:
5092:
5090:
4889:
4872:
4496:"The Memories of NK Cells: Innate-Adaptive Immune Intrinsic Crosstalk"
4263:
Zen K, Parkos CA (October 2003). "Leukocyte-epithelial interactions".
12621:
12027:
11822:
11603:
11120:
10825:
10720:
10682:
are only online.) A popular science explanation of the immune system.
8664:
8649:"Cancer immunotherapy: harnessing the immune system to battle cancer"
6624:"Is Insomnia a Risk Factor for Decreased Influenza Vaccine Response?"
5782:"Passive immunity in prevention and treatment of infectious diseases"
5325:
4024:
3617:"Recognition of microorganisms and activation of the immune response"
2789:
2677:
2661:
2256:
1999:
1917:
1813:
1716:
1655:
1579:
1543:
1539:
1531:
1484:
1472:
1428:
1420:
1309:
1293:
1277:
1156:
958:
887:
714:
into the phagolysosome. Phagocytosis evolved as a means of acquiring
695:
668:
552:
498:
393:
227:
124:
11561:
10272:
Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walters P (2002).
8972:
8799:
8271:
6500:
6052:
6035:
4928:
Liszewski MK, Farries TC, Lublin DM, Rooney IA, Atkinson JP (1996).
4006:
Thompson MR, Kaminski JJ, Kurt-Jones EA, Fitzgerald KA (June 2011).
4005:
3234:
3128:
2911:
2664:, and are thought to play a role in the immune response to viruses.
1471:
is detrimental to immune function. Complex feedback loops involving
1023:
and T cells are the major types of lymphocytes and are derived from
12883:
12671:
12625:
12203:
12166:
12161:
12088:
11960:
11541:
11526:
11504:
11252:
11110:
10895:
10883:
10841:
10795:
10759:
10108:
6447:
5087:
4594:
4577:
2946:
2926:
2878:. An example is HIV, which mutates rapidly, so the proteins on its
2744:
2645:
2615:
2347:
2308:
2296:
2116:
prevent T cells from responding to signals correctly by inhibiting
2078:
are the most powerful of these drugs and can have many undesirable
1979:
1950:
1793:
1666:
1659:
1551:
1511:
1455:
report stated that "outcomes related to ... immune functioning and
1408:
1348:
1305:
1140:
929:
855:
783:
749:
715:
699:
636:
628:
581:
468:
444:
436:
380:
340:
231:
136:
112:
92:. Many species have two major subsystems of the immune system. The
85:
69:
65:
61:
12324:
7894:
Andersen MH, Schrama D, Thor Straten P, Becker JC (January 2006).
7860:
7843:
5030:
Pancer Z, Cooper MD (2006). "The evolution of adaptive immunity".
4493:
2680:
to prevent the spread of the disease to other parts of the plant.
1998:
that are responsible for communication between white blood cells;
1635:
in the blood increases and remains raised for up to six hours and
1403:
strike women preferentially, and their onset often coincides with
886:
that are responsible for communication between white blood cells;
603:
12788:
12783:
12778:
12768:
12753:
12738:
12733:
12723:
12233:
12151:
12128:
12032:
12022:
12017:
11955:
11891:
11596:
11546:
11521:
11115:
10929:
10778:
10749:
10643:
Immune: A Journey into the Mysterious System that Keeps You Alive
10459:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 882. pp. 391–414.
8213:
Morgan RA, Dudley ME, Wunderlich JR, et al. (October 2006).
8108:
8018:
7893:
7820:
Death and DALY estimates for 2002 by cause for WHO Member States.
7440:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
4368:
3419:
Clinica Chimica Acta; International Journal of Clinical Chemistry
3041:
2883:
2867:
2825:
2793:
2740:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2631:
2532:
2408:
2193:
1769:
1757:
1728:
1404:
1384:
1268:
and activates the B cell. As the activated B cell then begins to
1261:
1186:
co-receptor, which recruits molecules inside the T cell (such as
999:
Overview of the processes involved in the primary immune response
970:
945:
775:
540:
484:
281:
127:
and remain in their modern descendants. These mechanisms include
10188:
9752:
7114:"Immunosenescence: emerging challenges for an ageing population"
1858:. Here, the immune system fails to properly distinguish between
1776:, and drug use are common causes of poor immune function, while
12861:
12856:
12851:
12846:
12841:
12831:
12826:
12821:
12816:
12811:
12544:
12535:
12428:
12188:
12183:
12118:
12113:
12059:
11995:
11943:
11862:
11752:
11740:
11695:
11654:
11649:
11591:
11516:
11374:
11362:
11306:
11229:
11198:
11087:
11075:
10820:
10771:
10405:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 315. pp. 13–34.
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5520:"Immunosurveillance and immunoregulation by gammadelta T cells"
2623:
2619:
1946:
1863:
1825:
1789:
1523:
1253:
1151:, water and toxins to enter. The entry of another toxin called
1069:
1060:
1056:
1020:
933:
795:
757:
746:
562:
Recognition of extracellular or endosomal PAMPs is mediated by
464:
452:
440:
243:
116:
9052:
7695:
Barnes PJ (March 2006). "Corticosteroids: the drugs to beat".
7604:"Immunology – Chapter Seventeen: Hypersensitivity States"
3221:
Kurosaki T, Kometani K, Ise W (March 2015). "Memory B cells".
1874:, preventing autoimmunity. Common autoimmune diseases include
1723:. According to one hypothesis, organisms that can regenerate (
1603:
1391:, altering the sensitivity of the immune system. For example,
12516:
12512:
12198:
12193:
12078:
11805:
11712:
11613:
11571:
11510:
10161:
Walter Reed Army Medical Center. Retrieved on 8 January 2007.
8696:
Baker MP, Reynolds HM, Lumicisi B, Bryson CJ (October 2010).
8505:
8154:
Renkvist N, Castelli C, Robbins PF, Parmiani G (March 2001).
6718:
6716:
6207:
2894:
2821:
2622:) also possess acquired immunity, through a system that uses
2239:
2209:
2074:
drugs are often used to control the effects of inflammation.
1499:
1317:
1191:
863:
813:. These cells are defined by the absence of antigen-specific
612:
476:
417:
413:
409:
359:
erators) and are defined as substances that bind to specific
235:
123:
infections. Other basic immune mechanisms evolved in ancient
73:
12907:
10646:. Philip Laibacher (illustrations). New York: Random House.
7346:"T helper cell activation and human retroviral pathogenesis"
7093:
7081:
7069:
6956:
5690:"Dynamics of immunoglobulins at the feto-maternal interface"
4927:
4087:
Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases
2977:
in 1905, that microorganisms were confirmed as the cause of
1226:
produced by microbes, and highly restricted Vδ1+ T cells in
12657:
12652:
12599:
12594:
12584:
12520:
12492:
12476:
12472:
12386:
12363:
12358:
12330:
11965:
11700:
11576:
11494:
8695:
7984:
Ljubojevic S, Skerlev M (2014). "HPV-associated diseases".
7622:
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Lang TJ (December 2004). "Estrogen as an immunomodulator".
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2736:
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from a pathogen to stimulate the immune system and develop
1821:
760:, one of the key cell types of the adaptive immune system.
480:
472:
389:
384:
187:
9366:"Innate Immunity – Lecture 4: Plant immune responses"
9116:"Small CRISPR RNAs guide antiviral defense in prokaryotes"
8069:. Advances in Immunology. Vol. 92. pp. 187–224.
6713:
6436:. In Ross AC, Taylor CL, Yaktine AL, Del Valle HB (eds.).
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4936:. Advances in Immunology. Vol. 61. pp. 201–283.
3580:(February 1990). "Lactic acid bacteria and human health".
3292:"Pathogens Cross Protective Barriers to Colonize the Host"
2731:. These animals possess a large array of molecules called
1304:, is transported from mother to baby directly through the
12631:
12617:
12000:
11817:
11581:
10569:
10278:(Fourth ed.). New York and London: Garland Science.
10072:
10060:
9439:
Baulcombe D (September 2004). "RNA silencing in plants".
8156:"A listing of human tumor antigens recognized by T cells"
7029:"Chasing the recipe for a pro-regenerative immune system"
6855:
5687:
4300:
3864:
1187:
1183:
1148:
1132:
825:. ILCs do not express myeloid or dendritic cell markers.
698:, which subsequently fuses with another vesicle called a
491:
serves as a chemical defense against ingested pathogens.
183:
9113:
8747:"Prediction of sequential antigenic regions in proteins"
8508:
Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders Drug Targets
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Seliger B (2005). "Strategies of tumor immune evasion".
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7801:
7524:
Current Opinion in Clinical Nutrition and Metabolic Care
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Parker DC (1993). "T cell-dependent B cell activation".
5597:
5407:
5210:
5186:
4050:
1364:
systems. The immune system also plays a crucial role in
1079:
961:
cascade that amplifies the initial signal by controlled
27:
Biological system protecting an organism against disease
10271:
10183:. Translated by Binnie FG. Cambridge University Press.
6983:
6856:
Peake JM, Neubauer O, Walsh NP, Simpson RJ (May 2017).
5846:
5466:
5058:
4873:"Humoral pattern recognition and the complement system"
4068:
3846:
3732:
3287:
3269:
2676:, whereby cells at the site of infection undergo rapid
2415:
amino acids; however, more recent developments rely on
502:
10578:
10400:
10007:
Revue d'histoire des sciences et de leurs applications
9489:
8212:
8064:
6133:
5389:
5077:
5075:
5073:
4403:
4073:"Phagocytic Cells Seek, Engulf, and Destroy Pathogens"
3257:
1866:
and bone marrow) is to present young lymphocytes with
494:
Within the genitourinary and gastrointestinal tracts,
218:
covers the study of all aspects of the immune system.
111:
Nearly all organisms have some kind of immune system.
88:, distinguishing them from the organism's own healthy
12872:
10367:
9809:
7798:
7241:
6431:
5985:
5567:
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases
5176:
4205:
3486:
3385:
3174:"Lineage relationship of effector and memory T cells"
3153:
3089:
2695:
1467:
The immune system is affected by sleep and rest, and
9903:
9812:"Antibody vs. HIV in a clash of evolutionary titans"
9663:"Common themes in microbial pathogenicity revisited"
7471:
7026:
6621:
6368:
5934:
5864:
5688:
Saji F, Samejima Y, Kamiura S, Koyama M (May 1999).
5266:
5228:
3344:
2010:
that have anti-viral effects, such as shutting down
1639:
are present. Although the increase in neutrophils ("
1615:
During exercise there is an increase in circulating
1447:
increases the risk for immune diseases or vitamin D
1039:. Killer T cells only recognize antigens coupled to
9810:Burton DR, Stanfield RL, Wilson IA (October 2005).
7934:
7659:
6722:
6486:
6439:
Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium and Vitamin D
6371:"Noncalcemic actions of vitamin D receptor ligands"
6074:
5070:
4827:
4709:
4415:
4208:"Innate immunity in lophotrochozoans: the annelids"
3742:
3416:
3306:"Pulmonary defences to acute respiratory infection"
3220:
3113:"Reconstructing immune phylogeny: new perspectives"
2957:in his development of vaccination and his proposed
2719:-derived molecule has been discovered in primitive
2606:to protect themselves from viral pathogens, called
2427:-based studies of immunogenicity is referred to as
2046:
1171:
Activation of macrophage or B cell by T helper cell
570:(TLRs). TLRs share a typical structural motif, the
11161:
10293:Bertok L, Chow D (2005). Bertok L, Chow D (eds.).
8319:
7937:"Human tumor antigens recognized by T lymphocytes"
7166:"Nutrition and the immune system: an introduction"
7027:Godwin JW, Pinto AR, Rosenthal NA (January 2017).
6583:"Links between the innate immune system and sleep"
6243:
4929:
4418:Seminars in Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine
3110:
2739:. These molecules are believed to bind pathogenic
2208:components of micro-organisms, including harmless
8879:
8828:
7983:
7610:. University of South Carolina School of Medicine
7566:"Handout on Health: Systemic Lupus Erythematosus"
7472:Smolen JS, Aletaha D, McInnes IB (October 2016).
6411:"Vitamin D - Fact Sheet for Health Professionals"
6327:
6244:King AE, Critchley HO, Kelly RW (February 2000).
5096:
4742:
4740:
4705:
4703:
4668:"The role of leukotrienes in airway inflammation"
4661:
4659:
4623:
4621:
4571:
4569:
3111:Litman GW, Cannon JP, Dishaw LJ (November 2005).
2820:, live inside a protective capsule that prevents
2756:that digest the barrier, for example, by using a
2634:, but studies of their roles in defense are few.
2455:
2444:
2142:Claims made by marketers of various products and
1451:lowers immune disease risk. A 2011 United States
1111:which have a role in modulating immune response.
741:(APCs) that activate the adaptive immune system.
593:RIG (retinoic acid-inducible gene)-like receptors
467:secretions serve as a chemical barrier following
12920:
10297:. Vol. 5 (1st ed.). Elsevier Science.
10031:
9957:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1908"
9170:
8950:
8948:
8946:
7841:
6851:
6849:
6847:
6845:
6843:
4710:Le Y, Zhou Y, Iribarren P, Wang J (April 2004).
3907:
3392:Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science
3171:
2188:. The principle behind vaccination (also called
1780:is the most common cause of immunodeficiency in
1598:
1155:(a protease) induces the target cell to undergo
383:and membranes of externally deposited eggs, and
115:have a rudimentary immune system in the form of
9173:"CRISPR-Cas: biology, mechanisms and relevance"
8954:
6284:
5988:"Neuro-Immune Interactions at Barrier Surfaces"
5560:"Understanding the Immune System: How it Works"
5303:
4746:
3910:"The structural biology of Toll-like receptors"
3803:
3760:
3451:
2303:are proteins normally important for regulating
794:and play a role in allergic reactions, such as
292:Lag time between exposure and maximal response
68:. It detects and responds to a wide variety of
48:(orange/left) – scale bar is 5 μm (false color)
10140:The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905
10005:Ostoya P (1954). "Maupertuis et la biologie".
9977:
9625:
9541:
9311:
8269:
8067:The Human T Cell Response to Melanoma Antigens
7343:
6905:
6858:"Recovery of the immune system after exercise"
6723:Besedovsky L, Lange T, Born J (January 2012).
6622:Taylor DJ, Kelly K, Kohut ML, Song KS (2017).
6587:The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology
6369:Nagpal S, Na S, Rathnachalam R (August 2005).
5141:
4972:
4781:
4737:
4700:
4672:The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology
4656:
4618:
4578:"Innate immune recognition of viral infection"
4566:
4364:
4362:
3303:
2715:) exist only in jawed vertebrates. A distinct
2451:Innate immune system § Beyond vertebrates
1734:
1522:causes increased blood levels of the hormones
12275:
11450:
11147:
10706:
10025:
9951:
9949:
9904:Cantin R, Méthot S, Tremblay MJ (June 2005).
9868:
8943:
8900:
8640:
8424:
8368:
8320:Seliger B, Ritz U, Ferrone S (January 2006).
7770:"How You Can Really Boost Your Immune System"
7159:
7157:
7111:
6977:
6950:
6899:
6840:
6791:
6773:"Can Better Sleep Mean Catching fewer Colds?"
6664:
5482:
1099:There are two major subtypes of T cells: the
551:(PAMPs), which are associated with microbial
11464:
10570:Stvrtinová V, Jakubovský J, Hulín I (1995).
10494:. Frenchs Forest, N.S.W: Pearson Australia.
10435:
9660:
9003:
8785:
8420:
8418:
8416:
8414:
8412:
8410:
7889:
7887:
7311:Proceedings of the American Thoracic Society
7033:Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology
6615:
6580:
6529:
6068:
5842:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK560905/
5830:http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK535433/
5779:
5744:
5675:
5357:From Innate Immunity to Immunological Memory
5135:
5029:
4665:
4487:
3858:
3665:
3608:
3214:
2750:
2382:
2060:are used to control autoimmune disorders or
1562:cytokine balance towards one that supports T
801:Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are a group of
289:Exposure leads to immediate maximal response
10516:
10170:
10159:Major Walter Reed, Medical Corps, U.S. Army
10149:Nobelprize.org Retrieved on 8 January 2009.
10078:
10066:
9314:"Inhibition of viruses by RNA interference"
8315:
8313:
8104:
8102:
8065:Romero P, Cerottini JC, Speiser DE (2006).
7521:
7515:
7465:
7259:
6673:"The role of cytokines in sleep regulation"
4458:
4359:
4316:
4154:
3908:Botos I, Segal DM, Davies DR (April 2011).
3674:"The danger model: a renewed sense of self"
3165:
3032:for theories related to the immune system.
2747:, and with the same degree of specificity.
2022:
1368:(development of the embryo), as well as in
1343:
580:and trigger the synthesis and secretion of
270:
158:Dysfunction of the immune system can cause
12282:
12268:
11457:
11443:
11154:
11140:
10713:
10699:
10454:
10292:
9946:
9667:Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews
9590:
9537:
9535:
9389:
8689:
8060:
8058:
7655:
7653:
7170:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
7154:
6532:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
5678:, Chapter 10: The Humoral Immune Response.
5471:"Helper T Cells and Lymphocyte Activation"
4911:
4575:
4560:
4544:
3754:
1960:
1687:Immune system contribution to regeneration
1680:
1233:
416:also mechanically expels pathogens, while
10542:
10368:Janeway CA, Travers P, Walport M (2001).
10321:
10252:
10116:
9929:
9845:
9835:
9709:
9686:
9559:
9515:
9438:
9415:
9359:
9357:
9337:
9288:
9247:
9237:
9196:
9147:
9082:
9029:
8980:
8856:
8846:
8762:
8721:
8672:
8623:
8458:
8456:
8407:
8337:
8246:
8181:
8171:
7960:
7911:
7884:
7859:
7628:
7369:
7285:
7181:
7137:
7099:
7087:
7075:
7052:
6933:
6923:
6823:
6748:
6696:
6647:
6598:
6425:
6386:
6345:
6261:
6191:
6110:
6100:
6051:
6011:
5852:
5805:
5593:
5591:
5535:
5443:
5433:
5395:
5262:
5260:
5216:
5204:
5192:
5064:
4888:
4870:
4864:
4683:
4593:
4521:
4511:
4342:
4262:
4157:"Phagocytosis and the actin cytoskeleton"
4056:
4033:
4023:
3982:
3933:
3852:
3821:
3671:
3640:
3614:
3553:
3512:
3321:
3275:
3263:
3197:
3159:
3136:
3095:
3000:. Particularly important was the work of
2220:of the innate immune system and maximize
1846:Joints of a hand swollen and deformed by
1088:
1014:
984:
265:
226:The immune system protects its host from
9171:Hille F, Charpentier E (November 2016).
8779:
8738:
8310:
8099:
7935:Boon T, van der Bruggen P (March 1996).
7900:The Journal of Investigative Dermatology
7597:
7595:
7593:
7591:
7558:
7429:
7344:Copeland KF, Heeney JL (December 1996).
7308:
7112:Aw D, Silva AB, Palmer DB (April 2007).
5986:Veiga-Fernandes H, Mucida D (May 2016).
5524:The Journal of Investigative Dermatology
5044:10.1146/annurev.immunol.24.021605.090542
4973:Sim RB, Tsiftsoglou SA (February 2004).
4383:10.1146/annurev.immunol.20.100301.064828
4310:
4206:Salzet M, Tasiemski A, Cooper E (2006).
3879:10.1146/annurev.immunol.24.021605.090552
3347:Antimicrobial Peptides and Human Disease
3172:Restifo NP, Gattinoni L (October 2013).
3106:
3104:
2910:
2900:
2437:is the study of large sets of proteins (
2313:
2171:
2026:
1841:
1602:
1347:
1243:
1166:
1143:, which form pores in the target cell's
994:
602:
31:
10639:
10378:
10348:
10264:
10226:
10090:
9542:Finlay BB, McFadden G (February 2006).
9532:
8955:Flajnik MF, Kasahara M (January 2010).
8873:
8831:"Bcipep: a database of B-cell epitopes"
8462:
8055:
7977:
7662:Critical Reviews in Oncology/Hematology
7650:
7640:
7601:
7163:
6670:
5517:
5081:
4784:Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics
4301:Stvrtinová, Jakubovský & Hulín 1995
3576:
3024:; he shared a Nobel Prize in 1984 with
2774:). Here, a pathogen spends most of its
2701:Evolution of the adaptive immune system
1703:, but other cellular actors, including
1328:
882:(leukocytes). Common cytokines include
508:
322:Exposure leads to immunological memory
14:
12921:
10572:Pathophysiology: Principles of Disease
10164:
10004:
9354:
9219:
8906:
8453:
7694:
7392:
7204:
6581:Majde JA, Krueger JM (December 2005).
6434:"8, Implications and Special Concerns"
6328:Dorshkind K, Horseman ND (June 2000).
5773:
5640:
5588:
5257:
4823:
4821:
4627:
2670:pathogen-associated molecular patterns
2329:is an active area of medical research.
1582:. Inflammation causes a great deal of
1230:respond to stressed epithelial cells.
1197:
598:
549:pathogen-associated molecular patterns
535:Cells in the innate immune system use
12263:
11438:
11135:
10694:
10668:from the original on 24 November 2021
10489:
10311:
10181:(Full Text Version: Internet Archive)
9363:
9270:
8829:Saha S, Bhasin M, Raghava GP (2005).
8822:
8653:The Journal of Clinical Investigation
7807:
7729:
7588:
7253:
7247:
5780:Keller MA, Stiehm ER (October 2000).
5552:
4473:10.1146/annurev-immunol-020711-075053
4317:Rua R, McGavern DB (September 2015).
4084:
3956:
3748:
3535:
3101:
2886:directed at this virus. The parasite
1967:Immune-mediated inflammatory diseases
1742:
1080:Antigen presentation to T lymphocytes
10353:(5th ed.). F.A. Davis Company.
10093:"Vaccines: past, present and future"
9390:Jones JD, Dangl JL (November 2006).
8646:
8540:
8276:Springer Seminars in Immunopathology
7941:The Journal of Experimental Medicine
7842:Singh M, O'Hagan D (November 1999).
7764:
6145:
6134:Wira, Crane-Godreau & Grant 2004
4975:"Proteases of the complement system"
4666:Ogawa Y, Calhoun WJ (October 2006).
4630:Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism
4404:Krishnaswamy, Ajitawi & Chi 2006
3804:Schroder K, Tschopp J (March 2010).
2123:
2052:
1589:
557:damage-associated molecular patterns
7608:Microbiology and Immunology On-line
6403:
5655:10.1146/annurev.iy.11.040193.001555
5600:International Reviews of Immunology
5177:Janeway, Travers & Walport 2001
4818:
4719:Cellular & Molecular Immunology
3763:International Reviews of Immunology
2441:) involved in the immune response.
2350:, which suppresses the activity of
2227:
2031:Skeletal structural formula of the
1893:
1662:are most likely to be encountered.
919:
543:expressed, mainly, by cells of the
366:
24:
10599:
9712:Treatments in Respiratory Medicine
9312:Stram Y, Kuzntzova L (June 2006).
9004:Bickle TA, Krüger DH (June 1993).
8270:Gerloni M, Zanetti M (June 2005).
7998:10.1016/j.clindermatol.2013.08.007
6804:Clinical and Experimental Medicine
6552:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2003.tb03133.x
4877:Scandinavian Journal of Immunology
4576:Kawai T, Akira S (February 2006).
4155:May RC, Machesky LM (March 2001).
3008:to explain the specificity of the
2696:Alternative adaptive immune system
1990:associated with inflammation, and
1945:. These reactions are mediated by
1916:, which triggers degranulation of
1494:In people with sleep deprivation,
1035:, whereas T cells are involved in
611:image of normal circulating human
221:
25:
12940:
12408:Polymeric immunoglobulin receptor
10686:
10386:(6th ed.). Garland Science.
9661:Finlay BB, Falkow S (June 1997).
8570:10.1038/scientificamerican0707-60
7576:from the original on 17 June 2016
7453:from the original on 28 July 2017
2939:Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis
2660:pathway are conserved across all
2566:V(D)J adaptive immunity
1828:cause acquired immunodeficiency.
1462:
1292:or for uptake and destruction by
1162:
1114:
874:associated with inflammation and
530:
327:Found in nearly all forms of life
12906:
12894:
12882:
10547:. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
10374:(5th ed.). Garland Science.
10220:
10198:
10152:
10133:
10084:
9998:
9971:
9922:10.1128/JVI.79.11.6577-6587.2005
9897:
9862:
9803:
9762:Biochemical Society Transactions
9746:
9724:10.2165/00151829-200504040-00003
9703:
9654:
9619:
9584:
9483:
9432:
9383:
9305:
9264:
9213:
9164:
9107:
9046:
8997:
8788:Journal of Molecular Recognition
8591:
8534:
8499:
8477:10.2165/00063030-200519060-00002
8362:
8263:
8206:
8160:Cancer Immunology, Immunotherapy
8147:
8012:
7928:
7835:
7813:
7758:
7723:
7697:European Journal of Pharmacology
7688:
7674:10.1016/j.critrevonc.2005.03.012
7435:
7386:
7337:
7302:
7219:10.1034/j.1600-065X.2002.18502.x
7198:
7130:10.1111/j.1365-2567.2007.02555.x
7105:
7020:
6765:
5497:10.1146/annurev.immunol.16.1.111
5283:10.1615/CritRevImmunol.v26.i3.40
5243:10.1146/annurev.immunol.18.1.275
4982:Biochemical Society Transactions
4932:Control of the Complement System
4871:Degn SE, Thiel S (August 2013).
4642:10.1016/j.semarthrit.2006.03.005
4122:Journal of Immunological Methods
1802:Severe combined immunodeficiency
1325:from one individual to another.
833:major histocompatibility complex
420:secreted by the respiratory and
180:severe combined immunodeficiency
11275:Periarteriolar lymphoid sheaths
10440:(9 ed.). Garland Science.
9628:Journal of Medical Microbiology
8909:Current Opinion in Rheumatology
8326:International Journal of Cancer
8272:"CD4 T cells in tumor immunity"
7844:"Advances in vaccine adjuvants"
6906:Campbell JP, Turner JE (2018).
6877:10.1152/japplphysiol.00622.2016
6574:
6523:
6480:
6362:
6321:
6278:
6139:
6028:
5979:
5928:
5893:
5858:
5834:
5822:
5738:
5681:
5634:
5511:
5476:
5401:
5348:
5297:
5222:
5099:Chemical Immunology and Allergy
5023:
4966:
4921:
4775:
4452:
4409:
4265:Current Opinion in Cell Biology
4256:
4199:
4148:
4113:
4078:
3999:
3950:
3901:
3797:
3570:
3529:
3480:
3445:
3410:
3379:
3338:
3304:Boyton RJ, Openshaw PJ (2002).
2703:occurred in an ancestor of the
2604:restriction modification system
2543:VLR adaptive immunity
1831:
902:effects, such as shutting down
838:
363:and elicit an immune response.
259:Components of the immune system
12620:(with two glycoprotein chains
11040:Immunoglobulin class switching
10323:10.3390/books978-3-03897-581-6
10177:Immunity in Infective Diseases
9679:10.1128/mmbr.61.2.136-169.1997
9022:10.1128/MMBR.57.2.434-450.1993
8021:Journal of Cellular Physiology
7832:. Retrieved on 1 January 2007.
7362:10.1128/MMBR.60.4.722-742.1996
6432:Institute of Medicine (2011).
5270:Critical Reviews in Immunology
4500:Journal of Immunology Research
3297:
2456:Evolution of the immune system
2445:Evolution and other mechanisms
2161:
1179:cells to perform these tasks.
1031:. B cells are involved in the
182:, acquired conditions such as
13:
1:
12716:Killer-cell IG-like receptors
10275:Molecular Biology of the Cell
8439:10.1016/s1470-2045(17)30607-1
8383:10.1016/S0065-230X(06)95008-8
8123:10.1016/S0065-230X(03)90005-4
8075:10.1016/S0065-2776(06)92005-7
7744:10.1016/S0161-5890(03)00075-0
7493:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30173-8
6865:Journal of Applied Physiology
6677:Current Pharmaceutical Design
6640:10.1080/15402002.2015.1126596
5798:10.1128/CMR.13.4.602-614.2000
5786:Clinical Microbiology Reviews
5759:10.1016/S0264-410X(03)00336-0
4942:10.1016/S0065-2776(08)60868-8
4277:10.1016/S0955-0674(03)00103-0
4215:Current Pharmaceutical Design
3178:Current Opinion in Immunology
3078:
2973:, for which he was awarded a
2840:infections characteristic of
2733:Variable lymphocyte receptors
2638:Pattern recognition receptors
2299:. A third possible source of
2263:, which causes cancer of the
1939:delayed type hypersensitivity
1810:Chronic granulomatous disease
1599:Changes at the cellular level
1220:pattern recognition receptors
1037:cell-mediated immune response
823:recombination activating gene
821:(TCR) because of the lack of
635:, and many small disc-shaped
595:, and cytosolic DNA sensors.
537:pattern recognition receptors
521:pattern recognition receptors
10630:Resources in other libraries
10465:10.1007/978-1-61779-842-9_23
10227:Yewdell J (4 October 2003).
10193:history of humoral immunity.
9006:"Biology of DNA restriction"
8921:10.1097/BOR.0000000000000606
8764:10.1016/0014-5793(85)80374-4
8604:Signal Transduct Target Ther
7709:10.1016/j.ejphar.2005.12.052
7536:10.1097/mco.0000000000000192
7045:10.1016/j.semcdb.2016.08.008
6250:Molecular Human Reproduction
6180:Molecular Human Reproduction
6102:10.1371/journal.pone.0175918
5914:10.1016/0167-5699(88)91289-3
4323:Journal of Leukocyte Biology
4134:10.1016/0022-1759(94)90021-3
4099:10.1016/0147-9571(85)90039-6
3975:10.1016/j.intimp.2018.03.002
3775:10.3109/08830185.2010.529976
3615:Medzhitov R (October 2007).
3466:10.1016/0090-4295(76)90305-8
3431:10.1016/0009-8981(74)90398-2
3083:
2682:Systemic acquired resistance
2144:alternative health providers
1974:Inflammation is produced by
1888:systemic lupus erythematosus
1818:congenital, immunodeficiency
1434:
936:like plants, fish, and some
805:cells that are derived from
690:trapped in an intracellular
609:scanning electron microscope
471:, when they become slightly
424:serves to trap and entangle
212:systemic lupus erythematosus
192:immunosuppressive medication
108:to perform their functions.
38:scanning electron microscope
7:
12804:Leukocyte IG-like receptors
10583:. San Francisco: Elsevier.
10545:How the immune system works
10436:Murphy K, Weaver C (2016).
10229:"He put the Id in Idiotype"
9220:Koonin EV (February 2017).
8371:Advances in Cancer Research
8111:Advances in Cancer Research
7260:Burg M, Gennery AR (2011).
6725:"Sleep and immune function"
6036:"Neuroimmune communication"
5643:Annual Review of Immunology
5485:Annual Review of Immunology
5231:Annual Review of Immunology
5032:Annual Review of Immunology
4678:(4): 789–98, quiz 799–800.
4461:Annual Review of Immunology
4371:Annual Review of Immunology
3867:Annual Review of Immunology
3555:10.4315/0362-028X-66.7.1292
3035:
2814:). Other bacteria, such as
2472:as shown in the cladogram.
2367:tumor-necrosis factor alpha
2204:Many vaccines are based on
1986:that produce fever and the
1735:Disorders of human immunity
1566:1, an increase in overall T
1379:
924:The complement system is a
572:leucine rich repeats (LRRs)
10:
12945:
12295:immunoglobulin superfamily
10869:Polyclonal B cell response
9640:10.1099/0022-1317-50-2-116
9561:10.1016/j.cell.2006.01.034
8520:10.2174/187153006778250019
7164:Chandra RK (August 1997).
6998:10.1152/ajpregu.00038.2021
6959:Exercise Immunology Review
6816:10.1007/s10238-020-00650-3
6689:10.2174/138161208786549281
6600:10.1016/j.jaci.2005.08.005
6489:Nature Reviews. Immunology
6222:10.1191/0961203304lu1094oa
6160:10.1016/j.clim.2004.05.011
6004:10.1016/j.cell.2016.04.041
5518:Girardi M (January 2006).
4685:10.1016/j.jaci.2006.08.009
4227:10.2174/138161206777947551
3823:10.1016/j.cell.2010.01.040
3672:Matzinger P (April 2002).
3223:Nature Reviews. Immunology
3117:Nature Reviews. Immunology
2904:
2817:Mycobacterium tuberculosis
2556:Jawed fishes and tetrapods
2448:
2231:
2176:Polio vaccination in Egypt
2165:
2127:
1964:
1897:
1835:
1746:
1684:
1646:The number of circulating
1332:
1237:
1092:
988:
842:
807:common lymphoid progenitor
512:
483:to kill pathogens. In the
44:(yellow/right), engulfing
12802:
12714:
12693:
12640:
12608:
12573:
12543:
12534:
12505:
12485:
12461:
12452:
12436:
12427:
12420:
12400:
12377:
12344:
12315:
12304:
12214:
12137:
12099:
11976:
11919:
11878:
11843:
11784:
11721:
11681:
11672:
11640:
11612:
11485:
11476:
11400:
11348:
11340:Waldeyer's tonsillar ring
11305:
11228:
11219:
11197:
11179:
11170:
11103:
11061:
11003:
10904:
10834:
10742:
10735:
10625:Resources in your library
10411:10.1385/1-59259-967-2:013
10314:Plant Innate Immunity 2.0
10245:10.1038/sj.embor.embor951
10091:Plotkin SA (April 2005).
9883:10.1016/j.tig.2006.08.003
9605:10.1016/j.tim.2005.09.005
9392:"The plant immune system"
9330:10.1007/s11262-005-6914-0
9239:10.1186/s13062-017-0177-2
8647:Yang Y (September 2015).
8616:10.1038/s41392-020-0205-z
8288:10.1007/s00281-004-0193-z
7830:World Health Organization
7323:10.1513/pats.200508-097JS
7278:10.1007/s00431-011-1452-3
6741:10.1007/s00424-011-1044-0
6628:Behavioral Sleep Medicine
6299:10.1080/13685530500233847
6046:(2): 127. February 2017.
5612:10.3109/08830180009088502
5156:10.1016/j.nut.2009.06.002
4796:10.1016/j.abb.2019.02.008
4761:10.1016/j.tcb.2005.09.002
4335:10.1189/jlb.4RI0115-006RR
3926:10.1016/j.str.2011.02.004
3594:10.3109/07853899009147239
3190:10.1016/j.coi.2013.09.003
3010:antigen-antibody reaction
2762:type III secretion system
2760:. Alternatively, using a
2751:Manipulation by pathogens
2552:
2529:
2522:
2490:
2483:
2383:Predicting immunogenicity
2110:constantly dividing cells
1988:dilation of blood vessels
1721:axolotl limb regeneration
649:"professional" phagocytes
408:. The flushing action of
269:
264:
84:and objects such as wood
11368:High endothelial venules
10145:10 December 2006 at the
10046:10.1016/j.it.2004.10.008
8961:Nature Reviews. Genetics
6925:10.3389/fimmu.2018.00648
5676:Murphy & Weaver 2016
3310:British Medical Bulletin
3068:Plant disease resistance
3052:List of human cell types
2837:Burkholderia cenocepacia
2758:type II secretion system
2218:antigen-presenting cells
2023:Manipulation in medicine
1884:diabetes mellitus type 1
1850:, an autoimmune disorder
1792:at an early age through
1528:pituitary growth hormone
1344:Physiological regulation
1323:transferred artificially
1107:. In addition there are
1085:complex (MHC) molecule.
1025:hematopoietic stem cells
739:antigen-presenting cells
277:Response is non-specific
208:diabetes mellitus type 1
12291:Transmembrane receptors
11189:Hematopoietic stem cell
10522:A History of Immunology
9837:10.1073/pnas.0505126102
9517:10.1126/science.1119420
9140:10.1126/science.1159689
9075:10.1126/science.1138140
9010:Microbiological Reviews
8239:10.1126/science.1129003
7825:21 October 2008 at the
7350:Microbiological Reviews
6912:Frontiers in Immunology
5957:10.1126/science.1213099
5697:Reviews of Reproduction
5569:(NIAID). Archived from
5365:10.1007/3-540-32636-7_3
4161:Journal of Cell Science
3701:10.1126/science.1071059
3493:The Biochemical Journal
3355:10.1007/3-540-29916-5_3
2674:hypersensitive response
2407:are overrepresented in
2389:neutralizing antibodies
2360:immunological tolerance
2058:Immunosuppressive drugs
1961:Idiopathic inflammation
1876:Hashimoto's thyroiditis
1681:Repair and regeneration
1491:relative to REM sleep.
1481:tumor necrosis factor-α
1234:Humoral immune response
1033:humoral immune response
979:membrane attack complex
977:via the formation of a
479:contains defensins and
319:No immunological memory
200:Hashimoto's thyroiditis
11909:Lymphoid immune system
11478:Musculoskeletal system
10983:Tolerance in pregnancy
10725:adaptive immune system
9593:Trends in Microbiology
9189:10.1098/rstb.2015.0496
8882:Applied Bioinformatics
8848:10.1186/1471-2164-6-79
8714:10.4161/self.1.4.13904
7986:Clinics in Dermatology
7913:10.1038/sj.jid.5700001
7474:"Rheumatoid arthritis"
7183:10.1093/ajcn/66.2.460S
6347:10.1210/edrv.21.3.0397
6263:10.1093/molehr/6.2.191
6193:10.1093/molehr/5.7.656
5537:10.1038/sj.jid.5700003
5435:10.1073/pnas.232058599
4912:Bertok & Chow 2005
4749:Trends in Cell Biology
4545:Bertok & Chow 2005
4305:Inflammation and Fever
4173:10.1242/jcs.114.6.1061
3062:Original antigenic sin
2959:germ theory of disease
2919:
2831:Pseudomonas aeruginosa
2642:Antimicrobial peptides
2632:unicellular eukaryotes
2330:
2177:
2038:
2033:immunosuppressive drug
1851:
1631:(βARs). The number of
1629:β-adrenergic receptors
1612:
1607:Four neutrophils in a
1353:
1249:
1211:natural killer T cells
1172:
1131:on the T cell, called
1095:Cell-mediated immunity
1089:Cell mediated immunity
1015:Recognition of antigen
1000:
991:Adaptive immune system
985:Adaptive immune system
640:
564:transmembrane proteins
433:antimicrobial peptides
422:gastrointestinal tract
271:Adaptive immune system
248:adaptive immune system
133:antimicrobial peptides
98:adaptive immune system
49:
11897:Myeloid immune system
11683:Cardiovascular system
11018:Somatic hypermutation
10852:Polyclonal antibodies
10847:Monoclonal antibodies
10019:10.3406/rhs.1954.3379
8173:10.1007/s002620000169
7953:10.1084/jem.183.3.725
7778:. Amherst, New York:
7447:"Hashimoto's disease"
7207:Immunological Reviews
5879:10.1210/edrv-14-5-539
5709:10.1530/ror.0.0040081
4430:10.1055/s-2006-939514
3957:Vijay K (June 2018).
3022:immune network theory
2914:
2907:History of immunology
2905:Further information:
2901:History of immunology
2853:Staphylococcus aureus
2792:parasites that cause
2449:Further information:
2325:for the treatment of
2317:
2295:) into tumors called
2232:Further information:
2192:) is to introduce an
2175:
2166:Further information:
2030:
1965:Further information:
1898:Further information:
1845:
1836:Further information:
1747:Further information:
1709:innate lymphoid cells
1695:. Key actors include
1606:
1453:Institute of Medicine
1351:
1333:Further information:
1290:complement activation
1247:
1238:Further information:
1170:
1093:Further information:
998:
989:Further information:
967:vascular permeability
878:that attract certain
843:Further information:
665:innate lymphoid cells
606:
513:Further information:
164:inflammatory diseases
119:that protect against
35:
12249:Islets of Langerhans
12109:Genitourinary system
11845:Integumentary system
11207:Hassall's corpuscles
11035:Junctional diversity
10803:Antigen presentation
10543:Sompayrac L (2019).
10265:General bibliography
10034:Trends in Immunology
9290:10.1093/icb/43.2.293
8541:Stix G (July 2007).
8427:The Lancet. Oncology
7848:Nature Biotechnology
7768:(July–August 2020).
7732:Molecular Immunology
7487:(10055): 2023–2038.
7395:Immunologic Research
6388:10.1210/er.2004-0002
4830:Immunologic Research
4513:10.1155/2016/1376595
3026:Georges J. F. Köhler
2743:in a similar way to
2591:innate immunity
2377:Cancer immunotherapy
2261:human papillomavirus
2043:transplant rejection
1880:rheumatoid arthritis
1848:rheumatoid arthritis
1782:developing countries
1652:natural killer cells
1496:active immunizations
1457:autoimmune disorders
1445:vitamin D deficiency
1329:Immunological memory
1009:antigen presentation
1005:immunological memory
829:Natural killer cells
681:natural killer cells
545:innate immune system
515:Innate immune system
509:Innate immune system
375:of most leaves, the
266:Innate immune system
252:immunological memory
240:innate immune system
204:rheumatoid arthritis
149:immunological memory
94:innate immune system
12641:Accessory molecules
12506:Accessory molecules
12139:Reproductive system
11858:Subcutaneous tissue
11627:Cartilaginous joint
11290:Trabecular arteries
11030:V(D)J recombination
11013:Affinity maturation
10765:Antigenic variation
10349:Ciccone CD (2015).
9910:Journal of Virology
9828:2005PNAS..10214943B
9508:2005Sci...310.1970A
9461:10.1038/nature02874
9453:2004Natur.431..356B
9417:10.1038/nature05286
9408:2006Natur.444..323J
9132:2008Sci...321..960B
9067:2007Sci...315.1709B
8562:2007SciAm.297a..60S
8550:Scientific American
8231:2006Sci...314..126M
7896:"Cytotoxic T cells"
6671:Krueger JM (2008).
6544:2003NYASA.992....9K
6148:Clinical Immunology
6093:2017PLoSO..1275918W
6040:Nature Neuroscience
5949:2011Sci...334...47T
5734:on 30 January 2021.
5467:Alberts et al. 2002
5426:2002PNAS...9915006K
5318:1996Natur.383..787A
4842:10.1385/IR:33:2:103
4069:Alberts et al. 2002
3963:Int Immunopharmacol
3806:"The inflammasomes"
3733:Alberts et al. 2002
3693:2002Sci...296..301M
3642:10.1038/nature06246
3633:2007Natur.449..819M
3288:Alberts et al. 2002
3073:Polyclonal response
3004:, who proposed the
2965:. It was not until
2876:antigenic variation
2721:jawless vertebrates
2244:immune surveillance
2118:signal transduction
1856:autoimmune diseases
1766:developed countries
1401:lupus erythematosus
1393:female sex hormones
1215:rearrange TCR genes
1203:Gamma delta T cells
1198:Gamma delta T cells
948:. This recognition
944:on the surfaces of
926:biochemical cascade
735:complement proteins
599:Innate immune cells
568:toll-like receptors
398:genitourinary tract
261:
160:autoimmune diseases
12705:cytokine receptors
12305:Antibody receptor:
11921:Respiratory system
11674:Circulatory system
10640:Dettmer P (2021).
10581:Mucosal Immunology
10103:(4 Suppl): S5–11.
9871:Trends in Genetics
9774:10.1042/BST0310716
9277:Integr. Comp. Biol
9183:(1707): 20150496.
9084:20.500.11794/38902
7786:on 21 January 2021
7780:Center for Inquiry
7775:Skeptical Inquirer
7738:(17–18): 1073–77.
7602:Ghaffar A (2006).
7407:10.1007/BF02918299
7102:, pp. 111–14.
7090:, pp. 114–18.
7078:, pp. 120–24.
4994:10.1042/BST0320021
3582:Annals of Medicine
3505:10.1042/BJ20030225
3323:10.1093/bmb/61.1.1
3057:Neuroimmune system
2979:infectious disease
2920:
2889:Trypanosoma brucei
2859:Peptostreptococcus
2331:
2250:of tumors express
2216:that activate the
2178:
2039:
2014:in the host cell.
1943:contact dermatitis
1852:
1824:and some types of
1754:Immunodeficiencies
1743:Immunodeficiencies
1713:regulatory T cells
1613:
1354:
1335:Immunity (medical)
1250:
1173:
1109:regulatory T cells
1066:antigen processing
1001:
906:in the host cell.
809:and belong to the
768:connective tissues
641:
589:NOD–like receptors
284:specific response
257:
125:plants and animals
58:biological systems
50:
40:image of a single
12870:
12869:
12695:Cytokine receptor
12689:
12688:
12685:
12684:
12530:
12529:
12501:
12500:
12416:
12415:
12257:
12256:
11780:
11779:
11770:Glymphatic system
11668:
11667:
11432:
11431:
11428:
11427:
11258:Cords of Billroth
11215:
11214:
11129:
11128:
11057:
11056:
10807:professional APCs
10606:Library resources
10554:978-1-119-54212-4
10535:978-0-08-092583-7
10501:978-1-4425-3176-5
10474:978-1-61779-841-2
10447:978-0-8153-4505-3
10360:978-0-80364-029-0
10333:978-3-03897-580-9
10304:978-0-44451-755-5
10285:978-0-8153-3218-3
10208:. The Nobel Prize
9959:. The Nobel Prize
9502:(5756): 1970–73.
9271:Bayne CJ (2003).
9061:(5819): 1709–12.
8433:(12): e731–e741.
8392:978-0-12-006695-7
8339:10.1002/ijc.21312
8132:978-0-12-006690-2
8084:978-0-12-373636-9
7631:, pp. 83–85.
7572:. February 2015.
7570:www.niams.nih.gov
6457:978-0-309-16394-1
6375:Endocrine Reviews
6334:Endocrine Reviews
5867:Endocrine Reviews
5576:on 3 January 2007
5374:978-3-540-32635-9
5207:, pp. 51–53.
5111:10.1159/000086659
4951:978-0-12-022461-6
4890:10.1111/sji.12070
4582:Nature Immunology
4406:, pp. 13–34.
4252:on 31 March 2020.
4167:(Pt 6): 1061–77.
3737:"Innate Immunity"
3536:Smith JL (2003).
3364:978-3-540-29915-8
3006:side-chain theory
2998:cellular immunity
2856:(protein A), and
2705:jawed vertebrates
2690:virus replication
2650:complement system
2598:
2597:
2582:
2581:
2573:
2572:
2430:immunoinformatics
2340:complement system
2285:mouth, and throat
2248:transformed cells
2242:. This is called
2234:Cancer immunology
2198:specific immunity
2124:Immunostimulation
2072:Anti-inflammatory
2053:Immunosuppression
2012:protein synthesis
1617:white blood cells
1590:Physical exercise
1504:circadian rhythms
1469:sleep deprivation
1441:clinical evidence
1417:immunosuppressive
1409:male sex hormones
1397:immunostimulators
1272:, its offspring (
963:positive feedback
904:protein synthesis
880:white blood cells
708:respiratory burst
621:white blood cells
619:, several knobby
406:respiratory tract
343:. In immunology,
337:
336:
332:jawed vertebrates
145:Jawed vertebrates
141:complement system
60:that protects an
16:(Redirected from
12936:
12911:
12910:
12899:
12898:
12897:
12887:
12886:
12878:
12574:Antigen receptor
12541:
12540:
12459:
12458:
12437:Antigen receptor
12434:
12433:
12425:
12424:
12421:Antigen receptor
12379:Alpha (α)/mu (μ)
12313:
12312:
12298:immune receptors
12284:
12277:
12270:
12261:
12260:
12216:Endocrine system
11978:Digestive system
11723:Lymphatic system
11706:Lymphatic vessel
11679:
11678:
11483:
11482:
11459:
11452:
11445:
11436:
11435:
11358:Lymphatic vessel
11335:Tonsillar crypts
11295:Trabecular veins
11226:
11225:
11221:Secondary organs
11177:
11176:
11164:lymphatic system
11156:
11149:
11142:
11133:
11132:
11023:Clonal selection
10995:Immune privilege
10990:Immunodeficiency
10945:Cross-reactivity
10935:Hypersensitivity
10740:
10739:
10715:
10708:
10701:
10692:
10691:
10677:
10675:
10673:
10594:
10575:
10566:
10539:
10513:
10492:Campbell biology
10490:Reece J (2011).
10486:
10451:
10432:
10397:
10375:
10364:
10345:
10325:
10312:Iriti M (2019).
10308:
10295:Natural Immunity
10289:
10259:
10258:
10256:
10224:
10218:
10217:
10215:
10213:
10206:"Niels K. Jerne"
10202:
10196:
10195:
10182:
10168:
10162:
10156:
10150:
10137:
10131:
10130:
10120:
10088:
10082:
10079:Silverstein 1989
10076:
10070:
10067:Silverstein 1989
10064:
10058:
10057:
10029:
10023:
10022:
10002:
9996:
9995:
9975:
9969:
9968:
9966:
9964:
9953:
9944:
9943:
9933:
9901:
9895:
9894:
9866:
9860:
9859:
9849:
9839:
9822:(42): 14943–48.
9807:
9801:
9800:
9799:on 2 March 2019.
9798:
9792:. Archived from
9768:(Pt 3): 716–18.
9759:
9750:
9744:
9743:
9707:
9701:
9700:
9690:
9658:
9652:
9651:
9623:
9617:
9616:
9588:
9582:
9581:
9563:
9539:
9530:
9529:
9519:
9487:
9481:
9480:
9447:(7006): 356–63.
9436:
9430:
9429:
9419:
9402:(7117): 323–29.
9387:
9381:
9380:
9378:
9376:
9370:
9361:
9352:
9351:
9341:
9309:
9303:
9302:
9292:
9268:
9262:
9261:
9251:
9241:
9217:
9211:
9210:
9200:
9168:
9162:
9161:
9151:
9126:(5891): 960–64.
9111:
9105:
9104:
9086:
9050:
9044:
9043:
9033:
9001:
8995:
8994:
8984:
8952:
8941:
8940:
8904:
8898:
8897:
8877:
8871:
8870:
8860:
8850:
8826:
8820:
8819:
8783:
8777:
8776:
8766:
8742:
8736:
8735:
8725:
8693:
8687:
8686:
8676:
8665:10.1172/JCI83871
8644:
8638:
8637:
8627:
8595:
8589:
8588:
8587:on 16 July 2011.
8586:
8580:. Archived from
8547:
8538:
8532:
8531:
8503:
8497:
8496:
8460:
8451:
8450:
8422:
8405:
8404:
8366:
8360:
8359:
8341:
8317:
8308:
8307:
8267:
8261:
8260:
8250:
8225:(5796): 126–29.
8210:
8204:
8203:
8185:
8175:
8151:
8145:
8144:
8106:
8097:
8096:
8062:
8053:
8052:
8016:
8010:
8009:
7981:
7975:
7974:
7964:
7932:
7926:
7925:
7915:
7891:
7882:
7881:
7863:
7839:
7833:
7817:
7811:
7805:
7796:
7795:
7793:
7791:
7782:. Archived from
7762:
7756:
7755:
7727:
7721:
7720:
7692:
7686:
7685:
7657:
7648:
7638:
7632:
7626:
7620:
7619:
7617:
7615:
7599:
7586:
7585:
7583:
7581:
7562:
7556:
7555:
7519:
7513:
7512:
7478:
7469:
7463:
7462:
7460:
7458:
7439:
7438:
7433:
7427:
7426:
7390:
7384:
7383:
7373:
7341:
7335:
7334:
7306:
7300:
7299:
7289:
7257:
7251:
7245:
7239:
7238:
7202:
7196:
7195:
7185:
7161:
7152:
7151:
7141:
7109:
7103:
7097:
7091:
7085:
7079:
7073:
7067:
7066:
7056:
7024:
7018:
7017:
6981:
6975:
6974:
6954:
6948:
6947:
6937:
6927:
6903:
6897:
6896:
6871:(5): 1077–1087.
6862:
6853:
6838:
6837:
6827:
6795:
6789:
6788:
6786:
6784:
6775:. Archived from
6769:
6763:
6762:
6752:
6720:
6711:
6710:
6700:
6668:
6662:
6661:
6651:
6619:
6613:
6612:
6602:
6578:
6572:
6571:
6527:
6521:
6520:
6484:
6478:
6477:
6429:
6423:
6422:
6420:
6418:
6407:
6401:
6400:
6390:
6366:
6360:
6359:
6349:
6325:
6319:
6318:
6282:
6276:
6275:
6265:
6241:
6205:
6195:
6171:
6143:
6137:
6131:
6125:
6124:
6114:
6104:
6072:
6066:
6065:
6055:
6032:
6026:
6025:
6015:
5983:
5977:
5976:
5932:
5926:
5925:
5902:Immunology Today
5897:
5891:
5890:
5862:
5856:
5850:
5844:
5838:
5832:
5826:
5820:
5819:
5809:
5777:
5771:
5770:
5742:
5736:
5735:
5733:
5727:. Archived from
5694:
5685:
5679:
5673:
5667:
5666:
5638:
5632:
5631:
5595:
5586:
5585:
5583:
5581:
5575:
5564:
5556:
5550:
5549:
5539:
5515:
5509:
5508:
5480:
5474:
5464:
5458:
5457:
5447:
5437:
5420:(23): 15006–11.
5405:
5399:
5393:
5387:
5386:
5352:
5346:
5345:
5326:10.1038/383787a0
5312:(6603): 787–93.
5301:
5295:
5294:
5264:
5255:
5254:
5226:
5220:
5214:
5208:
5202:
5196:
5190:
5184:
5174:
5168:
5167:
5139:
5133:
5132:
5094:
5085:
5079:
5068:
5062:
5056:
5055:
5027:
5021:
5020:
5019:on 2 March 2019.
5018:
5012:. Archived from
4979:
4970:
4964:
4963:
4935:
4925:
4919:
4909:
4903:
4902:
4892:
4868:
4862:
4861:
4825:
4816:
4815:
4779:
4773:
4772:
4744:
4735:
4734:
4716:
4707:
4698:
4697:
4687:
4663:
4654:
4653:
4625:
4616:
4615:
4597:
4573:
4564:
4558:
4552:
4542:
4536:
4535:
4525:
4515:
4491:
4485:
4484:
4456:
4450:
4449:
4413:
4407:
4401:
4395:
4394:
4366:
4357:
4356:
4346:
4314:
4308:
4298:
4289:
4288:
4260:
4254:
4253:
4251:
4245:. Archived from
4212:
4203:
4197:
4196:
4194:
4192:
4187:on 31 March 2020
4183:. Archived from
4152:
4146:
4145:
4117:
4111:
4110:
4082:
4076:
4066:
4060:
4054:
4048:
4047:
4037:
4027:
4025:10.3390/v3060920
4003:
3997:
3996:
3986:
3954:
3948:
3947:
3937:
3905:
3899:
3898:
3862:
3856:
3850:
3844:
3843:
3825:
3801:
3795:
3794:
3758:
3752:
3746:
3740:
3730:
3721:
3720:
3687:(5566): 301–05.
3678:
3669:
3663:
3662:
3644:
3627:(7164): 819–26.
3612:
3606:
3605:
3574:
3568:
3567:
3557:
3548:(7): 1292–1303.
3533:
3527:
3526:
3516:
3499:(Pt 2): 473–83.
3484:
3478:
3477:
3449:
3443:
3442:
3414:
3408:
3407:
3383:
3377:
3376:
3342:
3336:
3335:
3325:
3301:
3295:
3285:
3279:
3273:
3267:
3261:
3255:
3254:
3218:
3212:
3211:
3201:
3169:
3163:
3157:
3151:
3150:
3140:
3108:
3099:
3093:
3014:Elie Metchnikoff
2994:humoral immunity
2931:plague of Athens
2713:T-cell receptors
2658:RNA interference
2628:RNA interference
2525:
2524:
2502:cephalochordates
2486:
2485:
2476:
2475:
2435:Immunoproteomics
2417:machine learning
2228:Tumor immunology
2066:organ transplant
1935:Immune complexes
1905:Hypersensitivity
1900:Hypersensitivity
1894:Hypersensitivity
1806:genetic disorder
1794:genetic mutation
1762:immunosenescence
1749:Immunodeficiency
1621:endothelial cell
1584:oxidative stress
1389:immunomodulators
1314:passive immunity
1240:Humoral immunity
1224:common molecules
1074:clonal selection
920:Humoral defenses
811:lymphoid lineage
772:mucous membranes
754:present antigens
449:phospholipase A2
379:of insects, the
367:Surface barriers
361:immune receptors
262:
256:
190:, or the use of
172:Immunodeficiency
56:is a network of
46:anthrax bacteria
21:
12944:
12943:
12939:
12938:
12937:
12935:
12934:
12933:
12919:
12918:
12917:
12905:
12895:
12893:
12881:
12873:
12871:
12866:
12798:
12710:
12681:
12636:
12604:
12569:
12526:
12497:
12481:
12448:
12412:
12396:
12373:
12340:
12306:
12300:
12288:
12258:
12253:
12210:
12172:Seminal vesicle
12133:
12095:
12045:Small intestine
11972:
11915:
11874:
11839:
11776:
11717:
11664:
11642:Muscular system
11636:
11608:
11487:Skeletal system
11472:
11463:
11433:
11424:
11420:Germinal center
11396:
11380:Germinal center
11344:
11301:
11280:Germinal center
11211:
11193:
11166:
11160:
11130:
11125:
11099:
11053:
10999:
10978:Clonal deletion
10906:
10900:
10830:
10731:
10719:
10689:
10671:
10669:
10654:
10636:
10635:
10634:
10614:
10613:
10609:
10602:
10600:Further reading
10597:
10591:
10555:
10536:
10502:
10475:
10448:
10421:
10394:
10361:
10334:
10316:. Basel: MDPI.
10305:
10286:
10267:
10262:
10235:(Book review).
10225:
10221:
10211:
10209:
10204:
10203:
10199:
10180:
10169:
10165:
10157:
10153:
10147:Wayback Machine
10138:
10134:
10097:Nature Medicine
10089:
10085:
10077:
10073:
10065:
10061:
10030:
10026:
10003:
9999:
9976:
9972:
9962:
9960:
9955:
9954:
9947:
9916:(11): 6577–87.
9902:
9898:
9867:
9863:
9808:
9804:
9796:
9757:
9751:
9747:
9708:
9704:
9659:
9655:
9624:
9620:
9589:
9585:
9540:
9533:
9488:
9484:
9437:
9433:
9388:
9384:
9374:
9372:
9368:
9362:
9355:
9310:
9306:
9269:
9265:
9218:
9214:
9169:
9165:
9112:
9108:
9051:
9047:
9002:
8998:
8973:10.1038/nrg2703
8953:
8944:
8905:
8901:
8878:
8874:
8827:
8823:
8800:10.1002/jmr.771
8784:
8780:
8743:
8739:
8694:
8690:
8645:
8641:
8596:
8592:
8584:
8545:
8539:
8535:
8504:
8500:
8461:
8454:
8423:
8408:
8393:
8367:
8363:
8318:
8311:
8268:
8264:
8211:
8207:
8152:
8148:
8133:
8107:
8100:
8085:
8063:
8056:
8017:
8013:
7982:
7978:
7933:
7929:
7892:
7885:
7854:(11): 1075–81.
7840:
7836:
7827:Wayback Machine
7818:
7814:
7806:
7799:
7789:
7787:
7763:
7759:
7728:
7724:
7693:
7689:
7658:
7651:
7639:
7635:
7627:
7623:
7613:
7611:
7600:
7589:
7579:
7577:
7564:
7563:
7559:
7520:
7516:
7476:
7470:
7466:
7456:
7454:
7445:
7436:
7434:
7430:
7391:
7387:
7342:
7338:
7307:
7303:
7258:
7254:
7246:
7242:
7203:
7199:
7176:(2): 460S–63S.
7162:
7155:
7110:
7106:
7098:
7094:
7086:
7082:
7074:
7070:
7025:
7021:
6982:
6978:
6955:
6951:
6904:
6900:
6860:
6854:
6841:
6796:
6792:
6782:
6780:
6771:
6770:
6766:
6729:Pflügers Archiv
6721:
6714:
6683:(32): 3408–16.
6669:
6665:
6620:
6616:
6579:
6575:
6528:
6524:
6501:10.1038/nri1369
6485:
6481:
6458:
6430:
6426:
6416:
6414:
6409:
6408:
6404:
6367:
6363:
6326:
6322:
6293:(3–4): 166–74.
6283:
6279:
6242:
6206:
6172:
6144:
6140:
6132:
6128:
6087:(5): e0175918.
6073:
6069:
6053:10.1038/nn.4496
6034:
6033:
6029:
5984:
5980:
5933:
5929:
5898:
5894:
5863:
5859:
5851:
5847:
5839:
5835:
5827:
5823:
5778:
5774:
5753:(24): 3374–76.
5743:
5739:
5731:
5692:
5686:
5682:
5674:
5670:
5639:
5635:
5606:(2–3): 139–55.
5596:
5589:
5579:
5577:
5573:
5562:
5558:
5557:
5553:
5516:
5512:
5481:
5477:
5465:
5461:
5406:
5402:
5394:
5390:
5375:
5353:
5349:
5302:
5298:
5265:
5258:
5227:
5223:
5219:, pp. 7–8.
5215:
5211:
5203:
5199:
5195:, pp. 5–6.
5191:
5187:
5175:
5171:
5140:
5136:
5121:
5095:
5088:
5080:
5071:
5063:
5059:
5028:
5024:
5016:
4988:(Pt 1): 21–27.
4977:
4971:
4967:
4952:
4926:
4922:
4910:
4906:
4869:
4865:
4826:
4819:
4780:
4776:
4755:(11): 599–607.
4745:
4738:
4714:
4708:
4701:
4664:
4657:
4626:
4619:
4574:
4567:
4561:Rajalingam 2012
4559:
4555:
4543:
4539:
4492:
4488:
4457:
4453:
4414:
4410:
4402:
4398:
4367:
4360:
4315:
4311:
4299:
4292:
4261:
4257:
4249:
4221:(24): 3043–50.
4210:
4204:
4200:
4190:
4188:
4153:
4149:
4128:(1–2): 185–94.
4118:
4114:
4083:
4079:
4067:
4063:
4059:, pp. 1–4.
4055:
4051:
4004:
4000:
3955:
3951:
3906:
3902:
3863:
3859:
3851:
3847:
3802:
3798:
3759:
3755:
3747:
3743:
3731:
3724:
3676:
3670:
3666:
3613:
3609:
3575:
3571:
3534:
3530:
3485:
3481:
3450:
3446:
3415:
3411:
3398:(10): 2347–54.
3384:
3380:
3365:
3343:
3339:
3302:
3298:
3286:
3282:
3274:
3270:
3262:
3258:
3235:10.1038/nri3802
3219:
3215:
3170:
3166:
3158:
3154:
3129:10.1038/nri1712
3109:
3102:
3094:
3090:
3086:
3081:
3038:
3018:Niels Kaj Jerne
2909:
2903:
2842:cystic fibrosis
2753:
2709:immunoglobulins
2698:
2599:
2583:
2574:
2458:
2453:
2447:
2385:
2358:. In addition,
2236:
2230:
2170:
2164:
2140:
2130:Immunostimulant
2128:Main articles:
2126:
2106:Cytotoxic drugs
2084:central obesity
2076:Glucocorticoids
2055:
2025:
1969:
1963:
1902:
1896:
1840:
1834:
1751:
1745:
1737:
1689:
1683:
1601:
1592:
1569:
1565:
1559:
1555:
1548:differentiation
1489:slow-wave sleep
1465:
1449:supplementation
1437:
1407:. By contrast,
1382:
1346:
1337:
1331:
1242:
1236:
1200:
1165:
1145:plasma membrane
1125:T-cell receptor
1117:
1097:
1091:
1082:
1017:
993:
987:
975:plasma membrane
922:
847:
841:
819:T-cell receptor
661:dendritic cells
617:red blood cells
601:
533:
517:
511:
369:
224:
222:Layered defense
176:genetic disease
78:parasitic worms
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
12942:
12932:
12931:
12916:
12915:
12903:
12891:
12868:
12867:
12865:
12864:
12859:
12854:
12849:
12844:
12839:
12834:
12829:
12824:
12819:
12814:
12808:
12806:
12800:
12799:
12797:
12796:
12791:
12786:
12781:
12776:
12771:
12766:
12761:
12756:
12751:
12746:
12741:
12736:
12731:
12726:
12720:
12718:
12712:
12711:
12709:
12708:
12699:
12697:
12691:
12690:
12687:
12686:
12683:
12682:
12680:
12679:
12665:
12660:
12655:
12650:
12644:
12642:
12638:
12637:
12635:
12634:
12629:
12614:
12612:
12606:
12605:
12603:
12602:
12597:
12592:
12587:
12577:
12575:
12571:
12570:
12568:
12567:
12566:
12565:
12560:
12549:
12547:
12538:
12532:
12531:
12528:
12527:
12525:
12524:
12509:
12507:
12503:
12502:
12499:
12498:
12496:
12495:
12489:
12487:
12483:
12482:
12480:
12479:
12465:
12463:
12456:
12450:
12449:
12447:
12446:
12440:
12438:
12431:
12422:
12418:
12417:
12414:
12413:
12411:
12410:
12404:
12402:
12398:
12397:
12395:
12394:
12389:
12383:
12381:
12375:
12374:
12372:
12371:
12366:
12361:
12356:
12350:
12348:
12342:
12341:
12339:
12338:
12327:
12321:
12319:
12310:
12302:
12301:
12287:
12286:
12279:
12272:
12264:
12255:
12254:
12252:
12251:
12246:
12241:
12236:
12231:
12226:
12220:
12218:
12212:
12211:
12209:
12208:
12207:
12206:
12201:
12196:
12191:
12186:
12176:
12175:
12174:
12169:
12164:
12159:
12154:
12143:
12141:
12135:
12134:
12132:
12131:
12126:
12121:
12116:
12111:
12105:
12103:
12101:Urinary system
12097:
12096:
12094:
12093:
12092:
12091:
12086:
12081:
12069:
12068:
12067:
12062:
12057:
12052:
12047:
12037:
12036:
12035:
12030:
12025:
12023:Laryngopharynx
12020:
12010:
12009:
12008:
12003:
11998:
11993:
11991:Salivary gland
11982:
11980:
11974:
11973:
11971:
11970:
11969:
11968:
11963:
11958:
11948:
11947:
11946:
11941:
11936:
11925:
11923:
11917:
11916:
11914:
11913:
11912:
11911:
11901:
11900:
11899:
11888:
11886:
11884:immune systems
11880:Haematopoietic
11876:
11875:
11873:
11872:
11871:
11870:
11860:
11855:
11849:
11847:
11841:
11840:
11838:
11837:
11832:
11830:Somatic system
11827:
11826:
11825:
11820:
11813:Sensory system
11810:
11809:
11808:
11803:
11798:
11790:
11788:
11786:Nervous system
11782:
11781:
11778:
11777:
11775:
11774:
11773:
11772:
11765:CNS equivalent
11762:
11761:
11760:
11755:
11745:
11744:
11743:
11738:
11727:
11725:
11719:
11718:
11716:
11715:
11710:
11709:
11708:
11703:
11698:
11687:
11685:
11676:
11670:
11669:
11666:
11665:
11663:
11662:
11657:
11652:
11646:
11644:
11638:
11637:
11635:
11634:
11632:Synovial joint
11629:
11624:
11618:
11616:
11610:
11609:
11607:
11606:
11601:
11600:
11599:
11594:
11589:
11584:
11579:
11574:
11569:
11564:
11559:
11554:
11549:
11544:
11539:
11534:
11529:
11524:
11519:
11514:
11508:
11502:
11491:
11489:
11480:
11474:
11473:
11462:
11461:
11454:
11447:
11439:
11430:
11429:
11426:
11425:
11423:
11422:
11417:
11412:
11406:
11404:
11398:
11397:
11395:
11394:
11393:
11392:
11387:
11382:
11372:
11371:
11370:
11360:
11354:
11352:
11346:
11345:
11343:
11342:
11337:
11332:
11327:
11322:
11317:
11311:
11309:
11303:
11302:
11300:
11299:
11298:
11297:
11292:
11286:Blood vessels
11284:
11283:
11282:
11277:
11267:
11266:
11265:
11260:
11250:
11249:
11248:
11243:
11234:
11232:
11223:
11217:
11216:
11213:
11212:
11210:
11209:
11203:
11201:
11195:
11194:
11192:
11191:
11185:
11183:
11174:
11172:Primary organs
11168:
11167:
11162:Organs of the
11159:
11158:
11151:
11144:
11136:
11127:
11126:
11124:
11123:
11118:
11113:
11107:
11105:
11101:
11100:
11098:
11097:
11092:
11091:
11090:
11080:
11079:
11078:
11067:
11065:
11059:
11058:
11055:
11054:
11052:
11051:
11042:
11037:
11032:
11027:
11026:
11025:
11020:
11009:
11007:
11005:Immunogenetics
11001:
11000:
10998:
10997:
10992:
10987:
10986:
10985:
10980:
10975:
10970:
10965:
10953:
10952:
10950:Co-stimulation
10947:
10942:
10937:
10932:
10927:
10922:
10917:
10910:
10908:
10902:
10901:
10899:
10898:
10893:
10891:Immune complex
10887:
10886:
10881:
10876:
10871:
10866:
10865:
10864:
10859:
10854:
10849:
10838:
10836:
10832:
10831:
10829:
10828:
10823:
10818:
10813:
10811:Dendritic cell
10799:
10798:
10793:
10792:
10791:
10789:Conformational
10786:
10775:
10774:
10769:
10768:
10767:
10762:
10757:
10746:
10744:
10737:
10733:
10732:
10718:
10717:
10710:
10703:
10695:
10688:
10687:External links
10685:
10684:
10683:
10652:
10633:
10632:
10627:
10622:
10616:
10615:
10604:
10603:
10601:
10598:
10596:
10595:
10589:
10576:
10567:
10553:
10540:
10534:
10526:Academic Press
10518:Silverstein AM
10514:
10500:
10487:
10473:
10457:Immunogenetics
10452:
10446:
10433:
10419:
10398:
10392:
10376:
10365:
10359:
10346:
10332:
10309:
10303:
10290:
10284:
10268:
10266:
10263:
10261:
10260:
10219:
10197:
10163:
10151:
10132:
10109:10.1038/nm1209
10083:
10071:
10059:
10040:(12): 623–31.
10024:
9997:
9970:
9945:
9896:
9877:(11): 614–20.
9861:
9802:
9745:
9702:
9653:
9618:
9599:(12): 581–88.
9583:
9531:
9482:
9431:
9382:
9353:
9324:(3): 299–306.
9304:
9263:
9226:Biology Direct
9212:
9163:
9106:
9045:
8996:
8942:
8915:(5): 488–492.
8899:
8872:
8821:
8778:
8737:
8708:(4): 314–322.
8688:
8639:
8590:
8533:
8498:
8452:
8406:
8391:
8361:
8309:
8262:
8205:
8146:
8131:
8098:
8083:
8054:
8011:
7976:
7927:
7883:
7834:
7812:
7810:, p. 965.
7797:
7757:
7722:
7687:
7649:
7633:
7629:Sompayrac 2019
7621:
7587:
7557:
7514:
7464:
7428:
7385:
7336:
7301:
7272:(5): 561–571.
7252:
7250:, p. 967.
7240:
7197:
7153:
7104:
7100:Sompayrac 2019
7092:
7088:Sompayrac 2019
7080:
7076:Sompayrac 2019
7068:
7019:
6992:(1): R41–R54.
6976:
6949:
6898:
6839:
6790:
6764:
6712:
6663:
6634:(4): 270–287.
6614:
6593:(6): 1188–98.
6573:
6522:
6479:
6456:
6448:10.17226/13050
6424:
6402:
6361:
6340:(3): 292–312.
6320:
6287:The Aging Male
6277:
6138:
6126:
6067:
6027:
5978:
5943:(6052): 47–8.
5927:
5892:
5857:
5853:Sompayrac 2019
5845:
5833:
5821:
5772:
5737:
5680:
5668:
5633:
5587:
5551:
5510:
5475:
5459:
5400:
5396:Sompayrac 2019
5388:
5373:
5347:
5296:
5256:
5237:(1): 275–308.
5221:
5217:Sompayrac 2019
5209:
5205:Sompayrac 2019
5197:
5193:Sompayrac 2019
5185:
5169:
5134:
5119:
5086:
5069:
5065:Sompayrac 2019
5057:
5038:(1): 497–518.
5022:
4965:
4950:
4920:
4904:
4863:
4817:
4774:
4736:
4699:
4655:
4617:
4595:10.1038/ni1303
4565:
4553:
4537:
4486:
4451:
4408:
4396:
4358:
4309:
4290:
4255:
4198:
4147:
4112:
4077:
4061:
4057:Sompayrac 2019
4049:
3998:
3949:
3900:
3857:
3853:Sompayrac 2019
3845:
3796:
3753:
3741:
3722:
3664:
3607:
3569:
3528:
3479:
3444:
3409:
3378:
3363:
3337:
3296:
3280:
3278:, p. 146.
3276:Sompayrac 2019
3268:
3264:Sompayrac 2019
3256:
3213:
3164:
3160:Sompayrac 2019
3152:
3123:(11): 866–79.
3100:
3096:Sompayrac 2019
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3076:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3037:
3034:
3030:César Milstein
3020:developed the
2902:
2899:
2880:viral envelope
2780:food poisoning
2752:
2749:
2723:, such as the
2697:
2694:
2608:bacteriophages
2596:
2595:
2585:
2584:
2580:
2579:
2576:
2575:
2571:
2570:
2560:
2559:
2551:
2548:
2547:
2537:
2536:
2533:Jawless fishes
2528:
2523:
2521:
2514:
2513:
2510:
2509:
2489:
2484:
2482:
2474:
2457:
2454:
2446:
2443:
2425:bioinformatics
2384:
2381:
2335:Tumor antigens
2301:tumor antigens
2229:
2226:
2222:immunogenicity
2163:
2160:
2156:acupuncturists
2125:
2122:
2054:
2051:
2024:
2021:
2016:Growth factors
1984:prostaglandins
1962:
1959:
1895:
1892:
1833:
1830:
1744:
1741:
1736:
1733:
1685:Main article:
1682:
1679:
1637:immature forms
1625:catecholamines
1609:Giemsa-stained
1600:
1597:
1591:
1588:
1576:catecholamines
1567:
1563:
1557:
1553:
1536:interleukin-12
1520:norepinephrine
1464:
1463:Sleep and rest
1461:
1443:to prove that
1436:
1433:
1425:growth hormone
1381:
1378:
1345:
1342:
1330:
1327:
1235:
1232:
1199:
1196:
1176:Helper T cells
1164:
1163:Helper T cells
1161:
1120:Killer T cells
1116:
1115:Killer T cells
1113:
1090:
1087:
1081:
1078:
1016:
1013:
986:
983:
921:
918:
908:Growth factors
860:prostaglandins
840:
837:
710:that releases
615:. One can see
600:
597:
532:
531:Immune sensing
529:
510:
507:
461:antibacterials
435:such as the β-
426:microorganisms
368:
365:
335:
334:
330:Found only in
328:
324:
323:
320:
316:
315:
305:
294:
293:
290:
286:
285:
278:
274:
273:
268:
223:
220:
26:
18:Immune systems
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
12941:
12930:
12929:Immune system
12927:
12926:
12924:
12914:
12909:
12904:
12902:
12892:
12890:
12885:
12880:
12879:
12876:
12863:
12860:
12858:
12855:
12853:
12850:
12848:
12845:
12843:
12840:
12838:
12835:
12833:
12830:
12828:
12825:
12823:
12820:
12818:
12815:
12813:
12810:
12809:
12807:
12805:
12801:
12795:
12792:
12790:
12787:
12785:
12782:
12780:
12777:
12775:
12772:
12770:
12767:
12765:
12762:
12760:
12757:
12755:
12752:
12750:
12747:
12745:
12742:
12740:
12737:
12735:
12732:
12730:
12727:
12725:
12722:
12721:
12719:
12717:
12713:
12707:
12706:
12701:
12700:
12698:
12696:
12692:
12677:
12673:
12670:(also called
12669:
12666:
12664:
12661:
12659:
12656:
12654:
12651:
12649:
12646:
12645:
12643:
12639:
12633:
12630:
12627:
12623:
12619:
12616:
12615:
12613:
12611:
12607:
12601:
12598:
12596:
12593:
12591:
12588:
12586:
12582:
12579:
12578:
12576:
12572:
12564:
12561:
12559:
12556:
12555:
12554:
12551:
12550:
12548:
12546:
12542:
12539:
12537:
12533:
12522:
12518:
12514:
12511:
12510:
12508:
12504:
12494:
12491:
12490:
12488:
12484:
12478:
12474:
12470:
12467:
12466:
12464:
12460:
12457:
12455:
12451:
12445:
12442:
12441:
12439:
12435:
12432:
12430:
12426:
12423:
12419:
12409:
12406:
12405:
12403:
12399:
12393:
12390:
12388:
12385:
12384:
12382:
12380:
12376:
12370:
12367:
12365:
12362:
12360:
12357:
12355:
12352:
12351:
12349:
12347:
12343:
12336:
12335:C-type lectin
12332:
12328:
12326:
12323:
12322:
12320:
12318:
12314:
12311:
12309:
12303:
12299:
12296:
12292:
12285:
12280:
12278:
12273:
12271:
12266:
12265:
12262:
12250:
12247:
12245:
12242:
12240:
12237:
12235:
12232:
12230:
12227:
12225:
12222:
12221:
12219:
12217:
12213:
12205:
12202:
12200:
12197:
12195:
12192:
12190:
12187:
12185:
12182:
12181:
12180:
12177:
12173:
12170:
12168:
12165:
12163:
12160:
12158:
12155:
12153:
12150:
12149:
12148:
12145:
12144:
12142:
12140:
12136:
12130:
12127:
12125:
12122:
12120:
12117:
12115:
12112:
12110:
12107:
12106:
12104:
12102:
12098:
12090:
12087:
12085:
12084:Biliary tract
12082:
12080:
12077:
12076:
12075:
12074:
12070:
12066:
12063:
12061:
12058:
12056:
12053:
12051:
12048:
12046:
12043:
12042:
12041:
12038:
12034:
12031:
12029:
12026:
12024:
12021:
12019:
12016:
12015:
12014:
12011:
12007:
12004:
12002:
11999:
11997:
11994:
11992:
11989:
11988:
11987:
11984:
11983:
11981:
11979:
11975:
11967:
11964:
11962:
11959:
11957:
11954:
11953:
11952:
11949:
11945:
11942:
11940:
11937:
11935:
11932:
11931:
11930:
11927:
11926:
11924:
11922:
11918:
11910:
11907:
11906:
11905:
11902:
11898:
11895:
11894:
11893:
11890:
11889:
11887:
11885:
11881:
11877:
11869:
11868:Mammary gland
11866:
11865:
11864:
11861:
11859:
11856:
11854:
11851:
11850:
11848:
11846:
11842:
11836:
11833:
11831:
11828:
11824:
11821:
11819:
11816:
11815:
11814:
11811:
11807:
11804:
11802:
11799:
11797:
11794:
11793:
11792:
11791:
11789:
11787:
11783:
11771:
11768:
11767:
11766:
11763:
11759:
11756:
11754:
11751:
11750:
11749:
11746:
11742:
11739:
11737:
11734:
11733:
11732:
11729:
11728:
11726:
11724:
11720:
11714:
11711:
11707:
11704:
11702:
11699:
11697:
11694:
11693:
11692:
11689:
11688:
11686:
11684:
11680:
11677:
11675:
11671:
11661:
11658:
11656:
11653:
11651:
11648:
11647:
11645:
11643:
11639:
11633:
11630:
11628:
11625:
11623:
11622:Fibrous joint
11620:
11619:
11617:
11615:
11611:
11605:
11602:
11598:
11595:
11593:
11590:
11588:
11585:
11583:
11580:
11578:
11575:
11573:
11570:
11568:
11565:
11563:
11560:
11558:
11555:
11553:
11550:
11548:
11545:
11543:
11540:
11538:
11535:
11533:
11530:
11528:
11525:
11523:
11520:
11518:
11515:
11512:
11509:
11506:
11503:
11501:
11498:
11497:
11496:
11493:
11492:
11490:
11488:
11484:
11481:
11479:
11475:
11471:
11467:
11466:Human systems
11460:
11455:
11453:
11448:
11446:
11441:
11440:
11437:
11421:
11418:
11416:
11415:Peyer's patch
11413:
11411:
11408:
11407:
11405:
11403:
11399:
11391:
11390:Marginal zone
11388:
11386:
11383:
11381:
11378:
11377:
11376:
11373:
11369:
11366:
11365:
11364:
11361:
11359:
11356:
11355:
11353:
11351:
11347:
11341:
11338:
11336:
11333:
11331:
11328:
11326:
11323:
11321:
11318:
11316:
11313:
11312:
11310:
11308:
11304:
11296:
11293:
11291:
11288:
11287:
11285:
11281:
11278:
11276:
11273:
11272:
11271:
11268:
11264:
11263:Marginal zone
11261:
11259:
11256:
11255:
11254:
11251:
11247:
11244:
11242:
11239:
11238:
11236:
11235:
11233:
11231:
11227:
11224:
11222:
11218:
11208:
11205:
11204:
11202:
11200:
11196:
11190:
11187:
11186:
11184:
11182:
11178:
11175:
11173:
11169:
11165:
11157:
11152:
11150:
11145:
11143:
11138:
11137:
11134:
11122:
11119:
11117:
11114:
11112:
11109:
11108:
11106:
11102:
11096:
11093:
11089:
11086:
11085:
11084:
11081:
11077:
11074:
11073:
11072:
11069:
11068:
11066:
11064:
11060:
11050:
11046:
11043:
11041:
11038:
11036:
11033:
11031:
11028:
11024:
11021:
11019:
11016:
11015:
11014:
11011:
11010:
11008:
11006:
11002:
10996:
10993:
10991:
10988:
10984:
10981:
10979:
10976:
10974:
10973:Clonal anergy
10971:
10969:
10966:
10964:
10961:
10960:
10959:
10955:
10954:
10951:
10948:
10946:
10943:
10941:
10938:
10936:
10933:
10931:
10928:
10926:
10923:
10921:
10918:
10916:
10912:
10911:
10909:
10903:
10897:
10894:
10892:
10889:
10888:
10885:
10882:
10880:
10877:
10875:
10872:
10870:
10867:
10863:
10862:Microantibody
10860:
10858:
10855:
10853:
10850:
10848:
10845:
10844:
10843:
10840:
10839:
10837:
10833:
10827:
10824:
10822:
10819:
10817:
10814:
10812:
10808:
10804:
10801:
10800:
10797:
10794:
10790:
10787:
10785:
10782:
10781:
10780:
10777:
10776:
10773:
10770:
10766:
10763:
10761:
10758:
10756:
10753:
10752:
10751:
10748:
10747:
10745:
10741:
10738:
10734:
10730:
10726:
10723:
10716:
10711:
10709:
10704:
10702:
10697:
10696:
10693:
10681:
10667:
10663:
10659:
10655:
10653:9780593241318
10649:
10645:
10644:
10638:
10637:
10631:
10628:
10626:
10623:
10621:
10618:
10617:
10612:
10611:Immune system
10607:
10592:
10590:0-12-491543-4
10586:
10582:
10577:
10573:
10568:
10564:
10560:
10556:
10550:
10546:
10541:
10537:
10531:
10527:
10523:
10519:
10515:
10511:
10507:
10503:
10497:
10493:
10488:
10484:
10480:
10476:
10470:
10466:
10462:
10458:
10453:
10449:
10443:
10439:
10438:Immunobiology
10434:
10430:
10426:
10422:
10420:1-59259-967-2
10416:
10412:
10408:
10404:
10399:
10395:
10393:0-443-07310-4
10389:
10385:
10384:Immunobiology
10381:
10377:
10373:
10372:
10371:Immunobiology
10366:
10362:
10356:
10352:
10347:
10343:
10339:
10335:
10329:
10324:
10319:
10315:
10310:
10306:
10300:
10296:
10291:
10287:
10281:
10277:
10276:
10270:
10269:
10255:
10250:
10246:
10242:
10238:
10234:
10230:
10223:
10207:
10201:
10194:
10190:
10186:
10179:
10178:
10173:
10172:Metchnikoff E
10167:
10160:
10155:
10148:
10144:
10141:
10136:
10128:
10124:
10119:
10114:
10110:
10106:
10102:
10098:
10094:
10087:
10080:
10075:
10068:
10063:
10055:
10051:
10047:
10043:
10039:
10035:
10028:
10020:
10016:
10012:
10008:
10001:
9993:
9989:
9985:
9981:
9974:
9958:
9952:
9950:
9941:
9937:
9932:
9927:
9923:
9919:
9915:
9911:
9907:
9900:
9892:
9888:
9884:
9880:
9876:
9872:
9865:
9857:
9853:
9848:
9843:
9838:
9833:
9829:
9825:
9821:
9817:
9813:
9806:
9795:
9791:
9787:
9783:
9779:
9775:
9771:
9767:
9763:
9756:
9749:
9741:
9737:
9733:
9729:
9725:
9721:
9718:(4): 241–53.
9717:
9713:
9706:
9698:
9694:
9689:
9684:
9680:
9676:
9673:(2): 136–69.
9672:
9668:
9664:
9657:
9649:
9645:
9641:
9637:
9634:(2): 116–26.
9633:
9629:
9622:
9614:
9610:
9606:
9602:
9598:
9594:
9587:
9579:
9575:
9571:
9567:
9562:
9557:
9554:(4): 767–82.
9553:
9549:
9545:
9538:
9536:
9527:
9523:
9518:
9513:
9509:
9505:
9501:
9497:
9493:
9486:
9478:
9474:
9470:
9466:
9462:
9458:
9454:
9450:
9446:
9442:
9435:
9427:
9423:
9418:
9413:
9409:
9405:
9401:
9397:
9393:
9386:
9367:
9364:Schneider D.
9360:
9358:
9349:
9345:
9340:
9335:
9331:
9327:
9323:
9319:
9315:
9308:
9300:
9296:
9291:
9286:
9283:(2): 293–99.
9282:
9278:
9274:
9267:
9259:
9255:
9250:
9245:
9240:
9235:
9231:
9227:
9223:
9216:
9208:
9204:
9199:
9194:
9190:
9186:
9182:
9178:
9174:
9167:
9159:
9155:
9150:
9145:
9141:
9137:
9133:
9129:
9125:
9121:
9117:
9110:
9102:
9098:
9094:
9090:
9085:
9080:
9076:
9072:
9068:
9064:
9060:
9056:
9049:
9041:
9037:
9032:
9027:
9023:
9019:
9016:(2): 434–50.
9015:
9011:
9007:
9000:
8992:
8988:
8983:
8978:
8974:
8970:
8966:
8962:
8958:
8951:
8949:
8947:
8938:
8934:
8930:
8926:
8922:
8918:
8914:
8910:
8903:
8895:
8891:
8888:(4): 167–76.
8887:
8883:
8876:
8868:
8864:
8859:
8854:
8849:
8844:
8840:
8836:
8832:
8825:
8817:
8813:
8809:
8805:
8801:
8797:
8794:(3): 200–08.
8793:
8789:
8782:
8774:
8770:
8765:
8760:
8757:(2): 215–18.
8756:
8752:
8748:
8741:
8733:
8729:
8724:
8719:
8715:
8711:
8707:
8703:
8699:
8692:
8684:
8680:
8675:
8670:
8666:
8662:
8659:(9): 3335–7.
8658:
8654:
8650:
8643:
8635:
8631:
8626:
8621:
8617:
8613:
8609:
8605:
8601:
8594:
8583:
8579:
8575:
8571:
8567:
8563:
8559:
8555:
8551:
8544:
8537:
8529:
8525:
8521:
8517:
8513:
8509:
8502:
8494:
8490:
8486:
8482:
8478:
8474:
8471:(6): 347–54.
8470:
8466:
8459:
8457:
8448:
8444:
8440:
8436:
8432:
8428:
8421:
8419:
8417:
8415:
8413:
8411:
8402:
8398:
8394:
8388:
8384:
8380:
8376:
8372:
8365:
8357:
8353:
8349:
8345:
8340:
8335:
8332:(1): 129–38.
8331:
8327:
8323:
8316:
8314:
8305:
8301:
8297:
8293:
8289:
8285:
8281:
8277:
8273:
8266:
8258:
8254:
8249:
8244:
8240:
8236:
8232:
8228:
8224:
8220:
8216:
8209:
8201:
8197:
8193:
8189:
8184:
8179:
8174:
8169:
8165:
8161:
8157:
8150:
8142:
8138:
8134:
8128:
8124:
8120:
8116:
8112:
8105:
8103:
8094:
8090:
8086:
8080:
8076:
8072:
8068:
8061:
8059:
8050:
8046:
8042:
8038:
8034:
8030:
8027:(3): 323–31.
8026:
8022:
8015:
8007:
8003:
7999:
7995:
7992:(2): 227–34.
7991:
7987:
7980:
7972:
7968:
7963:
7958:
7954:
7950:
7947:(3): 725–29.
7946:
7942:
7938:
7931:
7923:
7919:
7914:
7909:
7905:
7901:
7897:
7890:
7888:
7879:
7875:
7871:
7867:
7862:
7861:10.1038/15058
7857:
7853:
7849:
7845:
7838:
7831:
7828:
7824:
7821:
7816:
7809:
7804:
7802:
7785:
7781:
7777:
7776:
7771:
7767:
7761:
7753:
7749:
7745:
7741:
7737:
7733:
7726:
7718:
7714:
7710:
7706:
7703:(1–3): 2–14.
7702:
7698:
7691:
7683:
7679:
7675:
7671:
7667:
7663:
7656:
7654:
7646:
7642:
7637:
7630:
7625:
7609:
7605:
7598:
7596:
7594:
7592:
7575:
7571:
7567:
7561:
7553:
7549:
7545:
7541:
7537:
7533:
7530:(4): 407–14.
7529:
7525:
7518:
7510:
7506:
7502:
7498:
7494:
7490:
7486:
7482:
7475:
7468:
7452:
7448:
7443:
7442:public domain
7432:
7424:
7420:
7416:
7412:
7408:
7404:
7401:(2): 115–30.
7400:
7396:
7389:
7381:
7377:
7372:
7367:
7363:
7359:
7356:(4): 722–42.
7355:
7351:
7347:
7340:
7332:
7328:
7324:
7320:
7317:(5): 445–48.
7316:
7312:
7305:
7297:
7293:
7288:
7283:
7279:
7275:
7271:
7267:
7266:Eur J Pediatr
7263:
7256:
7249:
7244:
7236:
7232:
7228:
7224:
7220:
7216:
7212:
7208:
7201:
7193:
7189:
7184:
7179:
7175:
7171:
7167:
7160:
7158:
7149:
7145:
7140:
7135:
7131:
7127:
7124:(4): 435–46.
7123:
7119:
7115:
7108:
7101:
7096:
7089:
7084:
7077:
7072:
7064:
7060:
7055:
7050:
7046:
7042:
7038:
7034:
7030:
7023:
7015:
7011:
7007:
7003:
6999:
6995:
6991:
6987:
6980:
6972:
6968:
6964:
6960:
6953:
6945:
6941:
6936:
6931:
6926:
6921:
6917:
6913:
6909:
6902:
6894:
6890:
6886:
6882:
6878:
6874:
6870:
6866:
6859:
6852:
6850:
6848:
6846:
6844:
6835:
6831:
6826:
6821:
6817:
6813:
6809:
6805:
6801:
6794:
6779:on 9 May 2014
6778:
6774:
6768:
6760:
6756:
6751:
6746:
6742:
6738:
6735:(1): 121–37.
6734:
6730:
6726:
6719:
6717:
6708:
6704:
6699:
6694:
6690:
6686:
6682:
6678:
6674:
6667:
6659:
6655:
6650:
6645:
6641:
6637:
6633:
6629:
6625:
6618:
6610:
6606:
6601:
6596:
6592:
6588:
6584:
6577:
6569:
6565:
6561:
6557:
6553:
6549:
6545:
6541:
6537:
6533:
6526:
6518:
6514:
6510:
6506:
6502:
6498:
6495:(6): 457–67.
6494:
6490:
6483:
6475:
6471:
6467:
6463:
6459:
6453:
6449:
6445:
6441:
6440:
6435:
6428:
6412:
6406:
6398:
6394:
6389:
6384:
6381:(5): 662–87.
6380:
6376:
6372:
6365:
6357:
6353:
6348:
6343:
6339:
6335:
6331:
6324:
6316:
6312:
6308:
6304:
6300:
6296:
6292:
6288:
6281:
6273:
6269:
6264:
6259:
6256:(2): 191–96.
6255:
6251:
6247:
6239:
6235:
6231:
6227:
6223:
6219:
6216:(9): 635–38.
6215:
6211:
6203:
6199:
6194:
6189:
6186:(7): 656–61.
6185:
6181:
6177:
6169:
6165:
6161:
6157:
6154:(3): 224–30.
6153:
6149:
6142:
6135:
6130:
6122:
6118:
6113:
6108:
6103:
6098:
6094:
6090:
6086:
6082:
6078:
6071:
6063:
6059:
6054:
6049:
6045:
6041:
6037:
6031:
6023:
6019:
6014:
6009:
6005:
6001:
5998:(4): 801–11.
5997:
5993:
5989:
5982:
5974:
5970:
5966:
5962:
5958:
5954:
5950:
5946:
5942:
5938:
5931:
5923:
5919:
5915:
5911:
5907:
5903:
5896:
5888:
5884:
5880:
5876:
5873:(5): 539–63.
5872:
5868:
5861:
5855:, p. 98.
5854:
5849:
5843:
5837:
5831:
5825:
5817:
5813:
5808:
5803:
5799:
5795:
5792:(4): 602–14.
5791:
5787:
5783:
5776:
5768:
5764:
5760:
5756:
5752:
5748:
5741:
5730:
5726:
5722:
5718:
5714:
5710:
5706:
5702:
5698:
5691:
5684:
5677:
5672:
5664:
5660:
5656:
5652:
5648:
5644:
5637:
5629:
5625:
5621:
5617:
5613:
5609:
5605:
5601:
5594:
5592:
5572:
5568:
5561:
5555:
5547:
5543:
5538:
5533:
5529:
5525:
5521:
5514:
5506:
5502:
5498:
5494:
5491:(1): 111–35.
5490:
5486:
5479:
5472:
5468:
5463:
5455:
5451:
5446:
5441:
5436:
5431:
5427:
5423:
5419:
5415:
5411:
5404:
5397:
5392:
5384:
5380:
5376:
5370:
5366:
5362:
5358:
5351:
5343:
5339:
5335:
5331:
5327:
5323:
5319:
5315:
5311:
5307:
5300:
5292:
5288:
5284:
5280:
5277:(3): 265–90.
5276:
5272:
5271:
5263:
5261:
5252:
5248:
5244:
5240:
5236:
5232:
5225:
5218:
5213:
5206:
5201:
5194:
5189:
5182:
5178:
5173:
5165:
5161:
5157:
5153:
5150:(9): 977–79.
5149:
5145:
5138:
5130:
5126:
5122:
5120:3-8055-7862-8
5116:
5112:
5108:
5104:
5100:
5093:
5091:
5083:
5078:
5076:
5074:
5067:, p. 38.
5066:
5061:
5053:
5049:
5045:
5041:
5037:
5033:
5026:
5015:
5011:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4995:
4991:
4987:
4983:
4976:
4969:
4961:
4957:
4953:
4947:
4943:
4939:
4934:
4933:
4924:
4917:
4913:
4908:
4900:
4896:
4891:
4886:
4883:(2): 181–93.
4882:
4878:
4874:
4867:
4859:
4855:
4851:
4847:
4843:
4839:
4836:(2): 103–12.
4835:
4831:
4824:
4822:
4813:
4809:
4805:
4801:
4797:
4793:
4789:
4785:
4778:
4770:
4766:
4762:
4758:
4754:
4750:
4743:
4741:
4732:
4728:
4725:(2): 95–104.
4724:
4720:
4713:
4706:
4704:
4695:
4691:
4686:
4681:
4677:
4673:
4669:
4662:
4660:
4651:
4647:
4643:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4624:
4622:
4613:
4609:
4605:
4601:
4596:
4591:
4588:(2): 131–37.
4587:
4583:
4579:
4572:
4570:
4562:
4557:
4550:
4546:
4541:
4533:
4529:
4524:
4519:
4514:
4509:
4505:
4501:
4497:
4490:
4482:
4478:
4474:
4470:
4466:
4462:
4455:
4447:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4424:(2): 117–27.
4423:
4419:
4412:
4405:
4400:
4392:
4388:
4384:
4380:
4377:(1): 621–67.
4376:
4372:
4365:
4363:
4354:
4350:
4345:
4340:
4336:
4332:
4329:(3): 319–32.
4328:
4324:
4320:
4313:
4306:
4302:
4297:
4295:
4286:
4282:
4278:
4274:
4271:(5): 557–64.
4270:
4266:
4259:
4248:
4244:
4240:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4209:
4202:
4186:
4182:
4178:
4174:
4170:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4151:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4131:
4127:
4123:
4116:
4108:
4104:
4100:
4096:
4093:(2): 119–33.
4092:
4088:
4081:
4074:
4070:
4065:
4058:
4053:
4045:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4026:
4021:
4018:(6): 920–40.
4017:
4013:
4009:
4002:
3994:
3990:
3985:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3968:
3964:
3960:
3953:
3945:
3941:
3936:
3931:
3927:
3923:
3920:(4): 447–59.
3919:
3915:
3911:
3904:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3861:
3855:, p. 20.
3854:
3849:
3841:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3824:
3819:
3816:(6): 821–32.
3815:
3811:
3807:
3800:
3792:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3757:
3751:, p. xi.
3750:
3745:
3738:
3734:
3729:
3727:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3706:
3702:
3698:
3694:
3690:
3686:
3682:
3675:
3668:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3618:
3611:
3603:
3599:
3595:
3591:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3573:
3565:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3532:
3524:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3483:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3460:(2): 169–77.
3459:
3455:
3448:
3440:
3436:
3432:
3428:
3425:(3): 205–09.
3424:
3420:
3413:
3405:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3389:
3382:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3341:
3333:
3329:
3324:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3300:
3293:
3289:
3284:
3277:
3272:
3266:, p. 11.
3265:
3260:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3240:
3236:
3232:
3229:(3): 149–59.
3228:
3224:
3217:
3209:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3184:(5): 556–63.
3183:
3179:
3175:
3168:
3161:
3156:
3148:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3107:
3105:
3097:
3092:
3088:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3039:
3033:
3031:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3007:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2990:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2963:miasma theory
2960:
2956:
2955:Louis Pasteur
2951:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2917:
2913:
2908:
2898:
2896:
2891:
2890:
2885:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2864:
2863:(protein L).
2862:
2860:
2855:
2854:
2850:(protein G),
2849:
2848:
2847:Streptococcus
2843:
2839:
2838:
2833:
2832:
2827:
2823:
2819:
2818:
2813:
2811:
2806:
2805:leishmaniasis
2802:
2800:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2786:
2781:
2777:
2773:
2770:
2769:intracellular
2765:
2763:
2759:
2748:
2746:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2693:
2691:
2687:
2686:RNA silencing
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2665:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2654:Ribonucleases
2651:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2594:
2593:
2592:
2587:
2586:
2578:
2577:
2569:
2568:
2567:
2562:
2561:
2558:
2557:
2550:
2549:
2546:
2545:
2544:
2539:
2538:
2535:
2534:
2527:
2526:
2520:
2516:
2515:
2512:
2511:
2508:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2498:hemichordates
2495:
2488:
2487:
2481:
2480:Deuterostomes
2478:
2477:
2473:
2471:
2470:deuterostomes
2467:
2466:invertebrates
2463:
2452:
2442:
2440:
2436:
2432:
2431:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2411:regions than
2410:
2406:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2390:
2380:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2343:
2341:
2336:
2328:
2324:
2323:Immunotherapy
2320:
2316:
2312:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2262:
2259:viruses like
2258:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2235:
2225:
2223:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2202:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2187:
2183:
2174:
2169:
2159:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2148:chiropractors
2145:
2139:
2135:
2134:Immunotherapy
2131:
2121:
2119:
2115:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2088:hyperglycemia
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2050:
2049:) or cancer.
2048:
2044:
2037:
2036:dexamethasone
2034:
2029:
2020:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2002:that promote
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1972:
1968:
1958:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1891:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1872:self-antigens
1869:
1868:self antigens
1865:
1861:
1857:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1829:
1827:
1823:
1819:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1750:
1740:
1732:
1730:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1688:
1678:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1663:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1644:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1610:
1605:
1596:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1571:
1561:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1507:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1492:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1477:interleukin-1
1474:
1470:
1460:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1442:
1432:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1377:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1366:embryogenesis
1363:
1359:
1350:
1341:
1336:
1326:
1324:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1297:
1295:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1246:
1241:
1231:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1195:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1180:
1177:
1169:
1160:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1130:
1126:
1121:
1112:
1110:
1106:
1105:helper T cell
1102:
1101:killer T cell
1096:
1086:
1077:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1053:self-antigens
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1012:
1010:
1006:
997:
992:
982:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
955:
951:
947:
943:
942:carbohydrates
939:
938:invertebrates
935:
931:
927:
917:
914:
913:inflammasomes
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
890:that promote
889:
885:
881:
877:
873:
872:blood vessels
869:
865:
862:that produce
861:
857:
853:
846:
836:
834:
830:
826:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
803:innate immune
799:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
765:
761:
759:
755:
751:
748:
742:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
719:
717:
713:
712:free radicals
709:
705:
704:phagolysosome
701:
697:
693:
688:
684:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
638:
634:
630:
626:
622:
618:
614:
610:
605:
596:
594:
590:
585:
583:
579:
578:
573:
569:
565:
560:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
528:
526:
522:
516:
506:
504:
500:
497:
492:
490:
486:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
462:
458:
455:, tears, and
454:
450:
446:
442:
438:
434:
429:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
386:
382:
378:
374:
364:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
333:
329:
326:
325:
321:
318:
317:
313:
309:
308:Cell-mediated
306:
303:
299:
298:Cell-mediated
296:
295:
291:
288:
287:
283:
280:Pathogen and
279:
276:
275:
272:
267:
263:
260:
255:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
219:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
161:
156:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
114:
109:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
80:, as well as
79:
75:
71:
67:
63:
59:
55:
54:immune system
47:
43:
39:
34:
30:
19:
12702:
12610:Co-receptors
12563:MHC class II
12071:
12039:
12012:
11908:
11896:
11883:
11764:
11747:
11730:
11690:
10940:Inflammation
10925:Alloimmunity
10920:Autoimmunity
10905:Immunity vs.
10857:Autoantibody
10755:Superantigen
10678:(The book's
10670:. Retrieved
10642:
10620:Online books
10610:
10580:
10571:
10544:
10521:
10491:
10456:
10437:
10402:
10383:
10370:
10350:
10313:
10294:
10274:
10236:
10233:EMBO Reports
10232:
10222:
10210:. Retrieved
10200:
10192:
10176:
10166:
10154:
10135:
10100:
10096:
10086:
10081:, p. 7.
10074:
10069:, p. 6.
10062:
10037:
10033:
10027:
10013:(1): 60–78.
10010:
10006:
10000:
9986:(1): 50–53.
9983:
9979:
9973:
9961:. Retrieved
9913:
9909:
9899:
9874:
9870:
9864:
9819:
9815:
9805:
9794:the original
9765:
9761:
9748:
9715:
9711:
9705:
9670:
9666:
9656:
9631:
9627:
9621:
9596:
9592:
9586:
9551:
9547:
9499:
9495:
9485:
9444:
9440:
9434:
9399:
9395:
9385:
9373:. Retrieved
9321:
9317:
9307:
9280:
9276:
9266:
9229:
9225:
9215:
9180:
9176:
9166:
9123:
9119:
9109:
9058:
9054:
9048:
9013:
9009:
8999:
8967:(1): 47–59.
8964:
8960:
8912:
8908:
8902:
8885:
8881:
8875:
8838:
8835:BMC Genomics
8834:
8824:
8791:
8787:
8781:
8754:
8751:FEBS Letters
8750:
8740:
8705:
8702:Self/Nonself
8701:
8691:
8656:
8652:
8642:
8607:
8603:
8593:
8582:the original
8556:(1): 60–67.
8553:
8549:
8536:
8514:(3): 233–7.
8511:
8507:
8501:
8468:
8464:
8430:
8426:
8374:
8370:
8364:
8329:
8325:
8282:(1): 37–48.
8279:
8275:
8265:
8222:
8218:
8208:
8163:
8159:
8149:
8114:
8110:
8066:
8024:
8020:
8014:
7989:
7985:
7979:
7944:
7940:
7930:
7906:(1): 32–41.
7903:
7899:
7851:
7847:
7837:
7815:
7788:. Retrieved
7784:the original
7773:
7760:
7735:
7731:
7725:
7700:
7696:
7690:
7668:(1): 23–46.
7665:
7661:
7641:Ciccone 2015
7636:
7624:
7612:. Retrieved
7607:
7578:. Retrieved
7569:
7560:
7527:
7523:
7517:
7484:
7480:
7467:
7455:. Retrieved
7431:
7398:
7394:
7388:
7353:
7349:
7339:
7314:
7310:
7304:
7269:
7265:
7255:
7243:
7210:
7206:
7200:
7173:
7169:
7121:
7117:
7107:
7095:
7083:
7071:
7036:
7032:
7022:
6989:
6985:
6979:
6962:
6958:
6952:
6915:
6911:
6901:
6868:
6864:
6810:(1): 15–28.
6807:
6803:
6793:
6781:. Retrieved
6777:the original
6767:
6732:
6728:
6680:
6676:
6666:
6631:
6627:
6617:
6590:
6586:
6576:
6535:
6531:
6525:
6492:
6488:
6482:
6438:
6427:
6415:. Retrieved
6405:
6378:
6374:
6364:
6337:
6333:
6323:
6290:
6286:
6280:
6253:
6249:
6213:
6209:
6183:
6179:
6151:
6147:
6141:
6129:
6084:
6080:
6070:
6043:
6039:
6030:
5995:
5991:
5981:
5940:
5936:
5930:
5908:(6): 163–5.
5905:
5901:
5895:
5870:
5866:
5860:
5848:
5836:
5824:
5789:
5785:
5775:
5750:
5746:
5740:
5729:the original
5703:(2): 81–89.
5700:
5696:
5683:
5671:
5646:
5642:
5636:
5603:
5599:
5578:. Retrieved
5571:the original
5554:
5530:(1): 25–31.
5527:
5523:
5513:
5488:
5484:
5478:
5462:
5417:
5413:
5403:
5398:, p. 8.
5391:
5356:
5350:
5309:
5305:
5299:
5274:
5268:
5234:
5230:
5224:
5212:
5200:
5188:
5172:
5147:
5143:
5137:
5102:
5098:
5082:Janeway 2005
5060:
5035:
5031:
5025:
5014:the original
4985:
4981:
4968:
4931:
4923:
4907:
4880:
4876:
4866:
4833:
4829:
4787:
4783:
4777:
4752:
4748:
4722:
4718:
4675:
4671:
4636:(1): 37–49.
4633:
4629:
4585:
4581:
4556:
4540:
4503:
4499:
4489:
4464:
4460:
4454:
4421:
4417:
4411:
4399:
4374:
4370:
4326:
4322:
4312:
4268:
4264:
4258:
4247:the original
4218:
4214:
4201:
4189:. Retrieved
4185:the original
4164:
4160:
4150:
4125:
4121:
4115:
4090:
4086:
4080:
4064:
4052:
4015:
4011:
4001:
3966:
3962:
3952:
3917:
3913:
3903:
3870:
3866:
3860:
3848:
3813:
3809:
3799:
3769:(1): 16–34.
3766:
3762:
3756:
3744:
3684:
3680:
3667:
3624:
3620:
3610:
3588:(1): 37–41.
3585:
3581:
3572:
3545:
3541:
3531:
3496:
3492:
3482:
3457:
3453:
3447:
3422:
3418:
3412:
3395:
3391:
3381:
3346:
3340:
3313:
3309:
3299:
3283:
3271:
3259:
3226:
3222:
3216:
3181:
3177:
3167:
3162:, p. 4.
3155:
3120:
3116:
3098:, p. 1.
3091:
3002:Paul Ehrlich
2991:
2983:yellow fever
2952:
2921:
2916:Paul Ehrlich
2887:
2865:
2857:
2851:
2845:
2835:
2829:
2815:
2808:
2797:
2783:
2772:pathogenesis
2766:
2754:
2699:
2666:
2636:
2600:
2589:
2588:
2564:
2553:
2541:
2540:
2530:
2517:
2506:urochordates
2491:
2459:
2428:
2421:training set
2386:
2364:
2344:
2332:
2247:
2243:
2237:
2203:
2190:immunization
2181:
2179:
2141:
2104:
2100:azathioprine
2096:methotrexate
2092:osteoporosis
2080:side effects
2070:
2062:inflammation
2056:
2047:immunization
2040:
1996:interleukins
1992:leukotrienes
1973:
1970:
1938:
1933:antibodies.
1910:anaphylactic
1903:
1853:
1838:Autoimmunity
1832:Autoimmunity
1778:malnutrition
1752:
1738:
1724:
1711:(ILCs), and
1690:
1664:
1645:
1641:neutrophilia
1623:surface and
1614:
1593:
1572:
1508:
1493:
1466:
1438:
1413:testosterone
1383:
1374:regeneration
1355:
1338:
1316:because the
1298:
1282:blood plasma
1274:plasma cells
1251:
1209:-restricted
1201:
1181:
1174:
1118:
1098:
1083:
1045:Class II MHC
1018:
1002:
923:
884:interleukins
876:leukotrienes
848:
845:Inflammation
839:Inflammation
827:
800:
764:Granulocytes
762:
743:
727:inflammation
720:
687:Phagocytosis
685:
642:
623:, including
586:
575:
561:
534:
518:
493:
489:gastric acid
430:
370:
356:
352:
348:
344:
338:
258:
225:
196:Autoimmunity
157:
129:phagocytosis
110:
82:cancer cells
53:
51:
29:
12558:MHC class I
12454:Co-receptor
12317:Epsilon (ε)
12308:Fc receptor
12239:Parathyroid
11939:Nasopharynx
11801:Spinal cord
11736:Bone marrow
11505:Collar bone
11385:Mantle zone
11350:Lymph nodes
11181:Bone marrow
11063:Lymphocytes
10722:Lymphocytic
10239:(10): 931.
10212:27 November
9318:Virus Genes
8377:: 293–322.
8166:(1): 3–15.
7213:(1): 7–14.
6538:(1): 9–20.
5469:, Chapter.
4914:, pp.
4506:: 1376595.
4303:, Chapter:
3969:: 391–412.
3735:, Chapter:
3542:J Food Prot
3316:(1): 1–12.
3047:Fc receptor
3016:. In 1974,
2987:Walter Reed
2975:Nobel Prize
2967:Robert Koch
2933:in 430 BC.
2872:amino acids
2612:Prokaryotes
2519:Vertebrates
2494:Echinoderms
2462:vertebrates
2413:hydrophobic
2405:amino acids
2402:hydrophilic
2356:lymphocytes
2352:macrophages
2319:Macrophages
2305:cell growth
2293:melanocytes
2186:vaccination
2168:Vaccination
2162:Vaccination
2138:Vaccination
2114:cyclosporin
2008:interferons
1976:eicosanoids
1955:macrophages
1719:such as in
1701:neutrophils
1697:macrophages
1671:macrophages
1648:lymphocytes
1633:neutrophils
1516:epinephrine
1415:seem to be
1387:can act as
1372:repair and
1266:lymphokines
1258:proteolysis
1147:, allowing
1129:co-receptor
1059:, in which
1041:Class I MHC
1029:bone marrow
954:proteolytic
896:interferons
852:eicosanoids
788:eosinophils
780:anaphylaxis
723:bloodstream
673:eosinophils
657:neutrophils
653:macrophages
625:lymphocytes
457:breast milk
377:exoskeleton
314:components
153:vaccination
12462:stimulate:
12018:Oropharynx
11758:Lymph node
11691:peripheral
11537:Metatarsus
11532:Metacarpus
11511:Thigh bone
11507:(clavicle)
11325:Pharyngeal
11270:White pulp
11246:Trabeculae
11104:Substances
10968:Peripheral
10956:Inaction:
10835:Antibodies
10816:Macrophage
10729:complement
10662:1263845194
10563:1083261548
10403:Mast Cells
10380:Janeway CA
10342:1105775088
8117:: 157–77.
7808:Reece 2011
7790:21 January
7643:, Chapter
7248:Reece 2011
7118:Immunology
5649:: 331–60.
5105:: 151–83.
4547:, p.
4467:: 647–75.
4191:6 November
3873:: 353–89.
3749:Iriti 2019
3578:Gorbach SL
3079:References
2935:Thucydides
2923:Immunology
2810:Leishmania
2799:Plasmodium
2790:eukaryotic
2785:Salmonella
2782:bacterium
2776:life-cycle
2745:antibodies
2717:lymphocyte
2662:eukaryotes
2439:proteomics
2372:metastasis
2289:tyrosinase
2180:Long-term
2152:homeopaths
2146:, such as
2120:pathways.
2082:, such as
2004:chemotaxis
2000:chemokines
1918:mast cells
1814:phagocytes
1804:is a rare
1774:alcoholism
1717:amphibians
1705:γδ T cells
1675:stem cells
1627:affecting
1611:blood film
1510:levels of
1475:, such as
1395:are known
1294:phagocytes
1153:granulysin
1139:, such as
1137:cytotoxins
1049:γδ T cells
930:antibodies
898:that have
892:chemotaxis
888:chemokines
731:chemotaxis
702:to form a
669:mast cells
645:leukocytes
633:neutrophil
577:Drosophila
396:, and the
394:intestines
304:components
216:Immunology
139:, and the
42:neutrophil
12401:Secretory
12346:Gamma (γ)
12224:Pituitary
12073:accessory
12028:Esophagus
11748:secondary
11660:Diaphragm
11604:Cartilage
11552:Phalanges
11121:Cytolysin
11111:Cytokines
10958:Tolerance
10907:tolerance
10826:Immunogen
10672:4 January
10510:712136178
9963:8 January
9375:1 January
8937:198982175
8610:(1): 99.
8049:196590144
7039:: 71–79.
7014:244369441
5580:1 January
5144:Nutrition
4446:260317790
3914:Structure
3084:Citations
2985:virus by
2678:apoptosis
2646:defensins
2309:oncogenes
2297:melanomas
2257:oncogenic
2214:adjuvants
2206:acellular
1980:cytokines
1951:monocytes
1922:basophils
1667:monocytes
1660:pathogens
1580:melatonin
1544:IFN-gamma
1540:TNF-alpha
1532:prolactin
1473:cytokines
1435:Vitamin D
1429:vitamin D
1421:prolactin
1358:endocrine
1310:colostrum
1228:epithelia
1157:apoptosis
959:catalytic
900:antiviral
856:cytokines
792:parasites
784:Basophils
750:dendrites
716:nutrients
696:phagosome
694:called a
677:basophils
637:platelets
582:cytokines
566:known as
553:pathogens
496:commensal
459:are also
437:defensins
404:from the
402:irritants
341:molecules
228:infection
137:defensins
102:molecules
86:splinters
70:pathogens
12923:Category
12901:Medicine
12749:KIR2DL5B
12744:KIR2DL5A
12486:inhibit:
12369:Neonatal
12204:Placenta
12167:Testicle
12162:Prostate
12089:Pancreas
12050:Appendix
12040:lower GI
12013:upper GI
11961:Bronchus
11904:Lymphoid
11587:Vertebra
11542:Ossicles
11527:Mandible
11315:Palatine
11253:Red pulp
11071:Cellular
10915:Immunity
10913:Action:
10896:Paratope
10884:Idiotype
10874:Allotype
10842:Antibody
10796:Mimotope
10760:Allergen
10743:Antigens
10736:Lymphoid
10666:Archived
10520:(1989).
10483:22665247
10429:16110146
10382:(2005).
10189:68025143
10174:(1905).
10143:Archived
10127:15812490
10054:15530829
9940:15890896
9891:16908087
9856:16219699
9790:10322322
9782:12773190
9740:31788349
9732:16086598
9648:11211218
9613:16216510
9578:15418509
9570:16497587
9526:16373579
9469:15372043
9426:17108957
9348:16732482
9299:21680436
9258:28187792
9232:(1): 5.
9207:27672148
9158:18703739
9093:17379808
8991:19997068
8929:31356379
8894:15130835
8867:15921533
8816:18197810
8808:16598694
8732:21487506
8683:26325031
8634:32555170
8578:17695843
8528:17017974
8485:16392887
8465:BioDrugs
8447:29208439
8401:16860661
8348:16003759
8304:25182066
8296:15965712
8257:16946036
8200:42681479
8192:11315507
8183:11036832
8141:14710950
8093:17145305
8041:10653598
8006:24559558
7922:16417215
7878:21346647
7870:10545912
7823:Archived
7752:12835079
7717:16436275
7682:16039869
7574:Archived
7552:19872862
7544:26049639
7509:37973054
7501:27156434
7451:Archived
7423:32476323
7331:16322598
7296:21479529
7235:12108587
7227:12190917
7148:17313487
7063:27521522
7006:34786967
6971:32139352
6965:: 8–22.
6944:29713319
6885:27909225
6834:32728975
6783:28 April
6759:22071480
6707:19075717
6658:27077395
6609:16337444
6568:24508121
6560:12794042
6517:29318345
6509:15173834
6474:58721779
6466:21796828
6417:31 March
6397:15798098
6356:10857555
6307:16390741
6272:10655462
6238:23941507
6230:15485092
6202:10381821
6168:15507385
6121:28542262
6081:PLOS ONE
6062:28092662
6022:27153494
5973:36504684
5965:21980100
5816:11023960
5767:12850343
5725:31099552
5717:10357095
5620:10763706
5546:16417214
5454:12419850
5383:17048705
5291:16928189
5251:10837060
5164:19647627
5129:15976493
5052:16551257
5010:24505041
5002:14748705
4899:23672641
4858:46096567
4850:16234578
4812:73464235
4804:30772258
4790:: 4–14.
4769:16202600
4731:16212895
4694:17030228
4650:16887467
4604:16424890
4532:28078307
4481:22224763
4438:16612762
4391:11861614
4353:26162402
4285:14519390
4243:28520695
4235:16918433
4181:11228151
4044:21994762
3993:29730580
3944:21481769
3895:20991617
3887:16551253
3840:16916572
3832:20303873
3791:42000671
3783:21235323
3717:13615808
3709:11951032
3651:17943118
3564:12870767
3523:12628001
3404:11527949
3373:16909918
3332:11997295
3251:20825732
3243:25677494
3208:24148236
3147:16261174
3036:See also
2969:'s 1891
2947:smallpox
2927:medicine
2884:vaccines
2868:epitopes
2826:biofilms
2788:and the
2741:antigens
2656:and the
2616:bacteria
2252:antigens
1812:, where
1798:acquired
1729:axolotls
1650:(mainly
1512:cortisol
1411:such as
1385:Hormones
1380:Hormones
1360:and the
1306:placenta
1262:peptides
1141:perforin
1103:and the
971:opsonize
946:microbes
868:dilation
866:and the
747:neuronal
700:lysosome
631:, and a
629:monocyte
541:proteins
525:immunity
475:, while
469:menarche
445:lysozyme
443:such as
349:non-self
232:bacteria
178:such as
113:Bacteria
66:diseases
62:organism
12913:Viruses
12889:Biology
12875:Portals
12794:KIR3DS1
12789:KIR3DL3
12784:KIR3DL2
12779:KIR3DL1
12774:KIR2DS5
12769:KIR2DS4
12764:KIR2DS3
12759:KIR2DS2
12754:KIR2DS1
12739:KIR2DL4
12734:KIR2DL3
12729:KIR2DL2
12724:KIR2DL1
12668:ζ-chain
12545:Ligands
12536:T cells
12429:B cells
12364:FcγRIII
12244:Adrenal
12234:Thyroid
12152:Scrotum
12129:Urethra
12124:Bladder
12033:Stomach
11956:Trachea
11892:Myeloid
11731:primary
11597:Sternum
11547:Patella
11522:Humerus
11513:(femur)
11375:B cells
11363:T cells
11320:Lingual
11307:Tonsils
11116:Opsonin
11095:NK cell
11083:Humoral
10963:Central
10930:Allergy
10879:Isotype
10779:Epitope
10750:Antigen
10680:sources
10254:1326409
10118:7095920
9992:9539938
9931:1112128
9847:1257708
9824:Bibcode
9697:9184008
9504:Bibcode
9496:Science
9477:4421274
9449:Bibcode
9404:Bibcode
9339:7088519
9249:5303251
9198:5052741
9149:5898235
9128:Bibcode
9120:Science
9101:3888761
9063:Bibcode
9055:Science
9040:8336674
8982:3805090
8858:1173103
8773:2411595
8723:3062386
8674:4588312
8625:7303203
8558:Bibcode
8493:1838144
8356:5655726
8248:2267026
8227:Bibcode
8219:Science
7971:8642276
7962:2192342
7580:12 June
7457:17 July
7415:8254222
7380:8987361
7287:3078321
7192:9250133
7139:2265901
7054:5338634
6935:5911985
6918:: 648.
6893:3521624
6825:7387807
6750:3256323
6698:2692603
6649:5554442
6540:Bibcode
6315:1021367
6112:5438103
6089:Bibcode
6013:4871617
5945:Bibcode
5937:Science
5922:3256322
5887:8262005
5747:Vaccine
5663:8476565
5628:6550357
5505:9597126
5422:Bibcode
5342:4319699
5334:8893001
5314:Bibcode
5179:, sec.
4960:8834497
4916:112–113
4612:9567407
4523:5204097
4344:4763596
4142:8083520
4107:3910340
4071:, sec.
4035:3186011
4012:Viruses
3984:7106078
3935:3075535
3689:Bibcode
3681:Science
3659:4392839
3629:Bibcode
3602:2109988
3514:1223422
3454:Urology
3439:4434640
3290:, sec.
3199:3858177
3138:3683834
3042:Disgust
2943:al-Razi
2794:malaria
2729:hagfish
2725:lamprey
2644:called
2554:
2531:
2492:
2409:epitope
2194:antigen
1947:T cells
1770:obesity
1758:elderly
1405:puberty
1362:nervous
1278:secrete
1070:haptens
1055:in the
1027:in the
1021:B cells
934:mammals
776:allergy
758:T cells
692:vesicle
485:stomach
465:Vaginal
441:Enzymes
373:cuticle
312:humoral
302:humoral
282:antigen
244:animals
236:viruses
135:called
117:enzymes
74:viruses
72:, from
12862:LILRB5
12857:LILRB4
12852:LILRB3
12847:LILRB2
12842:LILRB1
12837:LILRA6
12832:LILRA5
12827:LILRA4
12822:LILRA3
12817:LILRA2
12812:LILRA1
12392:Fcα/μR
12359:FcγRII
12331:FcεRII
12229:Pineal
12189:Vagina
12184:Uterus
12179:Female
12119:Ureter
12114:Kidney
12060:Rectum
11996:Tongue
11944:Larynx
11863:Breast
11835:Tissue
11753:Spleen
11741:Thymus
11696:Artery
11655:Tendon
11650:Muscle
11614:Joints
11592:Pelvis
11567:Tarsus
11557:Radius
11517:Fibula
11500:Carpus
11470:organs
11237:Parts
11230:Spleen
11199:Thymus
11088:B cell
11076:T cell
10821:B cell
10784:Linear
10772:Hapten
10660:
10650:
10608:about
10587:
10561:
10551:
10532:
10508:
10498:
10481:
10471:
10444:
10427:
10417:
10390:
10357:
10340:
10330:
10301:
10282:
10251:
10187:
10125:
10115:
10052:
9990:
9938:
9928:
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9854:
9844:
9788:
9780:
9738:
9730:
9695:
9688:232605
9685:
9646:
9611:
9576:
9568:
9524:
9475:
9467:
9441:Nature
9424:
9396:Nature
9346:
9336:
9297:
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9246:
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9195:
9156:
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9099:
9091:
9038:
9031:372918
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8927:
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8855:
8841:: 79.
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7920:
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7766:Hall H
7750:
7715:
7680:
7614:29 May
7550:
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7507:
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5332:
5306:Nature
5289:
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3649:
3621:Nature
3600:
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3472:
3437:
3402:
3371:
3361:
3330:
3249:
3241:
3206:
3196:
3145:
3135:
2971:proofs
2895:virion
2861:magnus
2803:) and
2624:CRISPR
2620:archea
2563:
2327:cancer
2273:vagina
2265:cervix
2246:. The
2240:tumors
2182:active
2154:, and
2136:, and
2090:, and
2006:; and
1953:, and
1886:, and
1864:thymus
1826:cancer
1790:thymus
1693:insult
1530:, and
1524:leptin
1518:, and
1370:tissue
1270:divide
1254:B cell
1061:iodine
1057:thymus
969:, and
950:signal
894:; and
796:asthma
679:, and
659:, and
555:, and
473:acidic
453:saliva
381:shells
210:, and
168:cancer
90:tissue
12387:FcαRI
12354:FcγRI
12325:FcεRI
12199:Ovary
12194:Vulva
12157:Penis
12079:Liver
12055:Colon
12006:Tooth
11986:Mouth
11951:Lower
11929:Upper
11806:Nerve
11796:Brain
11713:Heart
11572:Tibia
11562:Skull
11330:Tubal
11241:Hilum
9797:(PDF)
9786:S2CID
9758:(PDF)
9736:S2CID
9574:S2CID
9473:S2CID
9369:(PDF)
9097:S2CID
8933:S2CID
8812:S2CID
8585:(PDF)
8546:(PDF)
8489:S2CID
8352:S2CID
8300:S2CID
8196:S2CID
8045:S2CID
7874:S2CID
7548:S2CID
7505:S2CID
7477:(PDF)
7419:S2CID
7231:S2CID
7010:S2CID
6889:S2CID
6861:(PDF)
6564:S2CID
6513:S2CID
6470:S2CID
6311:S2CID
6234:S2CID
6210:Lupus
5969:S2CID
5807:88952
5732:(PDF)
5721:S2CID
5693:(PDF)
5624:S2CID
5574:(PDF)
5563:(PDF)
5338:S2CID
5181:12-10
5017:(PDF)
5006:S2CID
4978:(PDF)
4854:S2CID
4808:S2CID
4715:(PDF)
4608:S2CID
4442:S2CID
4250:(PDF)
4239:S2CID
4211:(PDF)
3891:S2CID
3836:S2CID
3787:S2CID
3713:S2CID
3677:(PDF)
3655:S2CID
3474:54972
3247:S2CID
2822:lysis
2737:genes
2464:, as
2398:Taxol
2348:TGF-β
2277:penis
2269:vulva
2210:toxin
1764:. In
1665:Some
1500:NFIL3
1318:fetus
1286:lymph
1260:into
1192:CD154
864:fever
643:Some
613:blood
499:flora
477:semen
418:mucus
414:urine
410:tears
390:lungs
355:body
121:viral
106:cells
64:from
12703:see
12676:TCRζ
12674:and
12672:CD3ζ
12663:CD3ε
12658:CD3δ
12653:CD3γ
12626:CD8β
12624:and
12622:CD8α
12600:TRG@
12595:TRD@
12590:TRB@
12585:TRA@
12521:CD79
12517:Ig-β
12513:Ig-α
12493:CD22
12477:CD81
12473:CD19
12469:CD21
12147:Male
12065:Anus
11966:Lung
11934:Nose
11882:and
11853:Skin
11701:Vein
11577:Ulna
11495:Bone
11468:and
11410:GALT
11402:MALT
10727:and
10674:2022
10658:OCLC
10648:ISBN
10585:ISBN
10559:OCLC
10549:ISBN
10530:ISBN
10506:OCLC
10496:ISBN
10479:PMID
10469:ISBN
10442:ISBN
10425:PMID
10415:ISBN
10388:ISBN
10355:ISBN
10338:OCLC
10328:ISBN
10299:ISBN
10280:ISBN
10214:2020
10185:LCCN
10123:PMID
10050:PMID
9988:PMID
9965:2007
9936:PMID
9887:PMID
9852:PMID
9778:PMID
9728:PMID
9693:PMID
9644:PMID
9609:PMID
9566:PMID
9548:Cell
9522:PMID
9465:PMID
9422:PMID
9377:2007
9344:PMID
9295:PMID
9254:PMID
9203:PMID
9154:PMID
9089:PMID
9036:PMID
8987:PMID
8925:PMID
8890:PMID
8863:PMID
8804:PMID
8769:PMID
8728:PMID
8679:PMID
8630:PMID
8574:PMID
8524:PMID
8481:PMID
8443:PMID
8397:PMID
8387:ISBN
8344:PMID
8292:PMID
8253:PMID
8188:PMID
8137:PMID
8127:ISBN
8089:PMID
8079:ISBN
8037:PMID
8002:PMID
7967:PMID
7918:PMID
7866:PMID
7792:2021
7748:PMID
7713:PMID
7678:PMID
7616:2016
7582:2016
7540:PMID
7497:PMID
7459:2017
7411:PMID
7376:PMID
7327:PMID
7292:PMID
7223:PMID
7188:PMID
7144:PMID
7059:PMID
7002:PMID
6967:PMID
6940:PMID
6881:PMID
6830:PMID
6785:2014
6755:PMID
6703:PMID
6654:PMID
6605:PMID
6556:PMID
6505:PMID
6462:PMID
6452:ISBN
6419:2022
6393:PMID
6352:PMID
6303:PMID
6268:PMID
6226:PMID
6198:PMID
6164:PMID
6117:PMID
6058:PMID
6018:PMID
5992:Cell
5961:PMID
5918:PMID
5883:PMID
5812:PMID
5763:PMID
5713:PMID
5659:PMID
5616:PMID
5582:2007
5542:PMID
5501:PMID
5450:PMID
5379:PMID
5369:ISBN
5330:PMID
5287:PMID
5247:PMID
5160:PMID
5125:PMID
5115:ISBN
5048:PMID
4998:PMID
4956:PMID
4946:ISBN
4895:PMID
4846:PMID
4800:PMID
4765:PMID
4727:PMID
4690:PMID
4646:PMID
4600:PMID
4528:PMID
4504:2016
4477:PMID
4434:PMID
4387:PMID
4349:PMID
4281:PMID
4231:PMID
4193:2009
4177:PMID
4138:PMID
4103:PMID
4040:PMID
3989:PMID
3940:PMID
3883:PMID
3828:PMID
3810:Cell
3779:PMID
3705:PMID
3647:PMID
3598:PMID
3560:PMID
3519:PMID
3470:PMID
3435:PMID
3400:PMID
3369:PMID
3359:ISBN
3328:PMID
3239:PMID
3204:PMID
3143:PMID
3028:and
2996:and
2834:and
2812:spp.
2801:spp.
2727:and
2711:and
2618:and
2354:and
2281:anus
1978:and
1929:and
1920:and
1860:self
1822:AIDS
1725:e.g.
1699:and
1542:and
1479:and
1427:and
1284:and
1207:CD1d
1149:ions
854:and
786:and
778:and
770:and
627:, a
481:zinc
447:and
412:and
385:skin
353:anti
345:self
310:and
300:and
234:and
188:AIDS
166:and
104:and
52:The
12648:CD3
12632:CD4
12618:CD8
12581:TCR
12553:MHC
12444:BCR
12333:is
12001:Lip
11823:Eye
11818:Ear
11582:Rib
11049:HLA
11045:MHC
10461:doi
10407:doi
10318:doi
10249:PMC
10241:doi
10113:PMC
10105:doi
10042:doi
10015:doi
9926:PMC
9918:doi
9879:doi
9842:PMC
9832:doi
9820:102
9770:doi
9720:doi
9683:PMC
9675:doi
9636:doi
9601:doi
9556:doi
9552:124
9512:doi
9500:310
9457:doi
9445:431
9412:doi
9400:444
9334:PMC
9326:doi
9285:doi
9244:PMC
9234:doi
9193:PMC
9185:doi
9181:371
9144:PMC
9136:doi
9124:321
9079:hdl
9071:doi
9059:315
9026:PMC
9018:doi
8977:PMC
8969:doi
8917:doi
8853:PMC
8843:doi
8796:doi
8759:doi
8755:188
8718:PMC
8710:doi
8669:PMC
8661:doi
8657:125
8620:PMC
8612:doi
8566:doi
8554:297
8516:doi
8473:doi
8435:doi
8379:doi
8334:doi
8330:118
8284:doi
8243:PMC
8235:doi
8223:314
8178:PMC
8168:doi
8119:doi
8071:doi
8029:doi
8025:182
7994:doi
7957:PMC
7949:doi
7945:183
7908:doi
7904:126
7856:doi
7740:doi
7705:doi
7701:533
7670:doi
7532:doi
7489:doi
7485:388
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7358:doi
7319:doi
7282:PMC
7274:doi
7270:170
7215:doi
7211:185
7178:doi
7134:PMC
7126:doi
7122:120
7049:PMC
7041:doi
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6990:322
6930:PMC
6920:doi
6873:doi
6869:122
6820:PMC
6812:doi
6745:PMC
6737:doi
6733:463
6693:PMC
6685:doi
6644:PMC
6636:doi
6595:doi
6591:116
6548:doi
6536:992
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6444:doi
6383:doi
6342:doi
6295:doi
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6218:doi
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6152:113
6107:PMC
6097:doi
6048:doi
6008:PMC
6000:doi
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5953:doi
5941:334
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5875:doi
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5794:doi
5755:doi
5705:doi
5651:doi
5608:doi
5532:doi
5528:126
5493:doi
5440:PMC
5430:doi
5361:doi
5322:doi
5310:383
5279:doi
5239:doi
5152:doi
5107:doi
5040:doi
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4938:doi
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4838:doi
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4788:670
4757:doi
4680:doi
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4638:doi
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4518:PMC
4508:doi
4469:doi
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4030:PMC
4020:doi
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3922:doi
3875:doi
3818:doi
3814:140
3771:doi
3697:doi
3685:296
3637:doi
3625:449
3590:doi
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3509:PMC
3501:doi
3497:372
3462:doi
3427:doi
3351:doi
3318:doi
3231:doi
3194:PMC
3186:doi
3133:PMC
3125:doi
2098:or
1931:IgM
1927:IgG
1914:IgE
1800:'.
1786:IgA
1656:die
1556:1/T
1485:REM
1302:IgG
1188:Lck
1184:CD4
1133:CD8
870:of
817:or
756:to
451:in
357:gen
184:HIV
76:to
12925::
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