1207:
although not exclusive, source of our knowledge of
Persian-period Aramaic is a large number of papyri discovered on the island of Elephantine⊠All of the Egyptian Aramaic texts have been collected and reedited in the Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt⊠This is now the standard text edition⊠Outside of Egypt, Aramaic texts written primarily on hard media such as stone or pottery have been discovered, including texts from Palestine, Arabia, Asia Minor, Iraq (Babylon), and Iran (Persepolis). A recent discovery, of uncertain provenance, is a relatively large collection of documents, now in a private collection, consisting mainly of the correspondence of the official Akhvamazda of Bactria dating from 354 to 324 BCE (Nave & Shaked 2012). They are similar in some ways to the Arshama archive published by Driver; the find-spot was no doubt Afghanistan.
496:
539:. The former Phoenician-derived alphabets arose around the 8th century BC, and the latter Aramaic-derived alphabets evolved from the Imperial Aramaic script around the 6th century BC. After the fall of the Achaemenid Empire, the unity of the Imperial Aramaic script was lost, diversifying into a number of descendant cursives. Aramaic script and, as ideograms, Aramaic vocabulary would survive as the essential characteristics of the
34:
436:
in 539 BC, the
Achaemenids continued the use of Aramaic as the language of the region, further extending its prevalence by making it the imperial standard (thus "Imperial" Aramaic) so it may be the "vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast empire with its different
292:
Some scholars use the term as a designation for a distinctive, socially prominent phase in the history of
Aramaic language, that lasted from the middle of the 8th century BCE to the end of the 4th century BCE and was marked by the use of Aramaic as a language of public life and administration in the
1206:
Imperial
Aramaic (IA) ⊠As noted, the documentation of IA is significantly greater than that of Old Aramaic; the hot and dry climate of Egypt has been particularly favorable to the preservation of antiquities, including Aramaic texts written on soft media such as papyrus or leather. The primary,
550:
The orthography of
Imperial Aramaic was based more on its own historical roots than on any spoken dialect, leading to a high standardization of the language across the expanse of the Achaemenid Empire. Of the Imperial Aramaic glyphs extant from its era, there are two main styles: the
1317:, âNp. ÄÄÄ«na âFreitagâ,â Ungarische JahrbĂŒcher 7, 1927, pp. 91: "In der Bedeutung 'bestimmte (kommende, zukĂŒnftige) Zeitâ ist das Wort zaman schon ins ReichsaramĂ€ische und von da ins aramaisierende HebrĂ€isch und ins NabatĂ€ische und aus diesem spĂ€ter ins Arabische ĂŒbergegangen. "
559:
form. The
Achaemenid Empire used both of these styles, but the cursive became much more prominent than the lapidary, causing the latter to eventually disappear by the 3rd century BC. In remote regions, the cursive versions of Aramaic evolved into the creation of the
437:
peoples and languages." The adoption of a single official language for the various regions of the empire has been cited as a reason for the at the time unprecedented success of the
Achaemenids in maintaining the expanse of their empire for a period of centuries.
313:
in a narrower sense, reduced only to the
Achaemenid period, basing that reduction on several strictly linguistic distinctions between the previous (Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian) phase and later (more prominent) Achaemenid phase.
333:(for the later phase), thus avoiding the use of the polysemic "imperial" label, and its primarily sociolinguistic implications. Similar issues have arisen in relation to the uses of some alternative terms, like
483:. The leather parchment contains texts written in Imperial Aramaic, reflecting the use of the language for Achaemenid administrative purposes during the fourth century in regions such as Bactria and
802:, as well as writing the major Manichaean texts himself. The writing system evolved from the Imperial Aramaic alphabet, which was still in use during the age of Mani, i.e. the early years of the
740:
centuries later. Influences from Arabic were present in the
Nabataean Aramaic, such as a few Arabic loanwords and how "l" is often turned into "n". After Nabataea was annexed by the
475:(i.e., 2:4b-7:28) written in Aramaic as an example of Imperial Aramaic. In November 2006, an analysis was published of thirty newly discovered Aramaic documents from
1560:
2189:
400:
used in the territories of the
Achaemenid Empire, further suggesting that the language's use was more prevalent in these areas than initially thought.
350:
394:" to any particular language, causing him to question the classification of Imperial Aramaic. Frye went on to reclassify Imperial Aramaic as the
480:
363:
1364:
1520:
1374:
1199:
1602:
620:. The mass-prevalence of Imperial Aramaic in the region resulted in the eventual use of the Aramaic alphabet for writing
1438:
645:
Late Old Western Aramaic, also known as Jewish Old Palestinian, is a well-attested language used by the communities of
446:
355:
348:, as well as other Egyptian texts, are the largest group of extant records in the language, collected in the standard
2134:
2113:
2064:
2040:
2019:
1996:
1973:
1950:
1924:
1901:
1878:
1857:
1777:
1610:
1327:
Frye, Richard N.; Driver, G. R. (1955). "Review of G. R. Driver's "Aramaic Documents of the Fifth Century B. C."".
970:
862:
2050:
2174:
1628:
1568:
1502:
345:
285:). Since most surviving examples of the language have been found in Egypt, the language is also referred to as
779:
2169:
1501:
Kara, György (1996). "Aramaic Scripts for Altaic Languages". In Daniels, Peter T.; Bright, William (eds.).
508:
341:, that were also criticized as unspecific. All of those terms continue to be used differently by scholars.
212:
358:
spread across a wide geographic area. More recently a group of leather and wooden documents were found in
2194:
1457:; Kuhn, Ernst (2002). "Grundriss der iranischen Philologie: Band I. Abteilung 1". Boston: Adamant: 249ff.
716:, the Nabataeans would use Imperial Aramaic for their written communications, causing the development of
507:
The evolution of alphabets from the Mediterranean region is commonly split into two major divisions: the
138:
2184:
2179:
2154:
2159:
960:
585:
133:
1475:
2164:
1647:. The Hebrew and Aramaic languages. In The Biblical World (2002), Volume 2 (John Barton, ed.). P.19
596:
brought the borders of the Persian Empire all the way to the edge of the Indian subcontinent, with
321:
labelled as "imperial", some scholars opt for the use of more specific and unambiguous terms, like
1508:
654:
632:. Hebrew and Aramaic heavily influenced one another, with mostly religious Hebrew words (such as
737:
128:
1740:
1593:
1462:
625:
449:, of which there are about five hundred. Other extant examples of Imperial Aramaic come from
425:
298:
266:
118:
1189:
495:
1710:
1589:
799:
609:
1791:
1512:
572:, which themselves formed the basis of many historical Central Asian scripts, such as the
305:, also adding to that some later (Post-Imperial) uses that persisted throughout the early
8:
1934:
1670:
629:
597:
544:
536:
421:
294:
2090:
1843:
1831:
1787:
1344:
721:
565:
454:
433:
306:
2074:
245:
2130:
2109:
2060:
2036:
2015:
1992:
1969:
1946:
1920:
1897:
1874:
1853:
1773:
1606:
1516:
1434:
1370:
1195:
823:
815:
757:
729:
717:
707:
650:
520:
500:
464:
417:
391:
302:
123:
38:
2126:
A Political History of the Arameans: From Their Origins to the End of Their Polities
936:
1823:
1752:
1336:
872:
819:
803:
577:
573:
569:
468:
270:
191:
86:
50:
445:
One of the most extensive collections of texts written in Imperial Aramaic is the
2124:
2103:
2054:
2030:
2007:
1984:
1961:
1938:
1912:
1889:
1868:
1847:
1807:
1767:
1632:
1391:
787:
733:
725:
713:
613:
593:
561:
540:
459:
387:
282:
278:
262:
110:
101:
46:
975:
1644:
1454:
1314:
811:
807:
795:
783:
638:"wood") transferring into Aramaic and more general Aramaic vocabulary (such as
472:
375:
184:
90:
42:
1870:
The Aramaic Language in the Achaemenid Period: A Study in Linguistic Variation
1595:
Aramaic, the Death of Written Hebrew, and Language Shift in the Persian Period
2148:
956:
806:. Along with other writing systems, the Manichaean alphabet evolved into the
669:
662:
581:
396:
1757:
932:
390:
noted that no extant edict expressly or ambiguously accorded the status of "
771:
741:
532:
318:
1812:"The Aramaic of Daniel in the Light of Old Aramaic, by Zdravko Stefanovic"
1536:
229:
2032:
A Cultural History of Aramaic: From the Beginnings to the Advent of Islam
1890:"Imperial Aramaic as an Administrative Language of the Achaemenid Period"
791:
775:
745:
658:
174:
2094:
2078:
1945:. Vol. 2. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 698â713.
1835:
1811:
1741:"Aramaic as a Lingua Franca During the Persian Empire (538-333 B.C.E.)"
1348:
827:
589:
428:. The massive influx of settlers led to the adoption of Aramaic as the
258:
720:
out of Imperial Aramaic. The standardized cursive and Aramaic-derived
1669:
Durkin-Meisterernst, Desmond (October 14, 2005). "Manichean script".
1398:. Vol. 2. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 251â252
767:
624:. Before the adoption of Imperial Aramaic, Hebrew was written in the
555:
form, often inscribed on hard surfaces like stone monuments, and the
413:
274:
238:
222:
204:
67:
1827:
1625:
1340:
1913:"Old Aramaic and Neo-Aramaic: Some Reflections on Language History"
1135:
1132:
814:, and other languages which were influenced by Manichaean include:
512:
409:
1433:. Studies in the Khalili Collection. Oxford: Khalili Collections.
1272:
1129:
617:
476:
359:
143:
54:
665:(c. 170 BC) is written in the Late Old Western Aramaic dialect.
592:), most likely descends from Imperial Aramaic, as the empire of
523:), and the Aramaic-derived alphabets of the East, including the
1686:
621:
528:
524:
516:
484:
33:
661:
for commerce and administration. The oldest manuscript of the
1482:
1126:
1080:
1071:
1047:
763:
694:
646:
503:, showing the regions heavily influenced by Imperial Aramaic.
450:
1582:
1120:
1111:
1094:
1056:
1044:
1038:
600:
and his successors further linking the lands through trade.
1103:
1100:
1097:
1083:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1041:
511:
alphabets of the West, including the Mediterranean region (
1962:"Aramaic in the Parthian Period: The Arsacid Inscriptions"
1410:
1123:
1117:
1114:
1106:
1077:
1074:
1053:
782:. Its presence in Central Asia lead to influence from the
1429:
Naveh, Joseph; Shaked, Shaul (2006). Joseph Naveh (ed.).
1147:
1091:
1050:
744:
in 106 AD, the influence of Aramaic declined in favor of
657:
still used Aramaic as their primary language, along with
1260:
672:
has several non-Greek terms of Aramaic origin, such as:
2083:
Zeitschrift der Deutschen MorgenlÀndischen Gesellschaft
2056:
The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion
1769:
The Aramaic Language: Its Distribution and Subdivisions
1588:
2014:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 598â609.
1991:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 574â586.
1896:. Berlin-Boston: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 587â598.
1191:
Biblical Aramaic and Related Dialects: An Introduction
681:
633:
1650:
1561:"Cyrus the Great: History's most merciful conqueror?"
1248:
1236:
1224:
1212:
959:
containing characters for writing Aramaic during the
628:, which, along with Aramaic, directly descended from
1968:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 107â130.
1296:
1668:
1284:
471:. Scholarly consensus regards the portions of the
2105:The Aramaic of Daniel in the Light of Old Aramaic
1919:. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 1â10.
378:in 1927, calling the language by the German name
2146:
2012:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
1989:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
1966:Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting
1917:Aramaic in its Historical and Linguistic Setting
1894:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
374:The term "Imperial Aramaic" was first coined by
351:Textbook of Aramaic Documents from Ancient Egypt
2079:"Die Namen der aramÀischen Nation und Sprache"
354:. Outside of Egypt, most texts are known from
1849:A Wandering Aramean: Collected Aramaic Essays
1711:"Enumerated Versions of The Unicode Standard"
642:"wealth") entering the local Hebrew lexicon.
1792:"Three Thousand Years of Aramaic Literature"
380:
265:in order to designate a specific historical
1605:. University of Chicago. pp. 137â147.
1428:
1194:. Cambridge University Press. p. 3-7.
1159:Grey area indicates non-assigned code point
2190:Languages attested from the 8th century BC
2101:
1933:
1488:
1453:
1326:
697:" in both Hebrew and Aramaic (John 20:16).
369:
32:
1772:. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
1756:
2049:
1842:
1494:
1230:
1155:
724:became the standardized form of writing
494:
277:, with two distinctive meanings, wider (
2122:
2108:. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press.
2073:
2005:
1982:
1910:
1806:
1603:Margins of Writing, Origins of Cultures
1416:
1362:
1254:
653:. By the 1st century CE, the people of
490:
481:Khalili Collection of Aramaic Documents
2147:
2028:
1959:
1887:
1866:
1656:
1431:Ancient Aramaic Documents from Bactria
1389:
1302:
1290:
1278:
1266:
1242:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1177:
976:Official Unicode Consortium code chart
649:, probably originating in the area of
432:of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. After the
1786:
1765:
1218:
790:branch of Aramaic. The traditions of
679:(ÏαλÎčΞα) that can represent the noun
457:. Egyptian examples also include the
1500:
701:
408:The native speakers of Aramaic, the
309:period. Other scholars use the term
1939:"Aramaic in the Achaemenian Empire"
1738:
1174:
447:Fortification Tablets of Persepolis
13:
1626:The Online Critical Pseudepigrapha
1366:Near Eastern Archaeology: A Reader
1329:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
794:allege that its founding prophet,
434:Achaemenid conquest of Mesopotamia
14:
2206:
786:, which itself descends from the
317:Since all of those phases can be
2123:Younger, Kenneth Lawson (2016).
102:Old Syriac then Classical Syriac
1703:
1679:
1662:
1637:
1619:
1592:(2006). Seth L. Sanders (ed.).
1553:
1529:
1447:
1422:
1383:
1356:
1320:
1308:
766:writing system spread from the
732:, evolving on its own into the
693:(ΥαÎČÎČÎżÏ
ΜΔÎč), which stands for "
2059:. Leuven: Peeters Publishers.
1873:. Leuven: Peeters Publishers.
1816:Journal of Biblical Literature
1109:
800:invented the Manichaean script
712:Instead of using their native
412:, settled in great numbers in
346:Elephantine papyri and ostraca
297:and its successor states, the
1:
1943:The Cambridge History of Iran
1745:Journal of Universal Language
1167:
751:
543:, itself developing from the
356:stone or pottery inscriptions
94:
77:
2102:Stefanovic, Zdravko (1992).
1731:
1687:"Unicode character database"
1567:. 2019-05-06. Archived from
1281:, p. 54, 105, 155, 158.
682:
634:
329:(for the older phases), and
7:
1888:Folmer, Margaretha (2012).
1867:Folmer, Margaretha (1995).
1504:The World's Writing Systems
774:, travelling as far as the
748:for written communication.
695:my master/great one/teacher
10:
2211:
1852:. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
1151:As of Unicode version 16.0
1140:
968:
961:Achaemenid Persian Empires
833:
780:People's Republic of China
755:
705:
440:
403:
1537:"BrÄhmÄ« | writing system"
1363:Richard, Suzanne (2003).
942:
931:
926:
922:
911:
907:
902:
894:
886:
878:
868:
858:
848:
843:
603:
586:Brahmic family of scripts
479:which now constitute the
381:
364:Bactria Aramaic documents
236:
220:
202:
197:
181:
167:
107:
73:
62:
31:
27:Official/Standard Aramaic
26:
21:
2035:. Leiden-Boston: Brill.
2006:Gzella, Holger (2012b).
1983:Gzella, Holger (2012a).
2029:Gzella, Holger (2015).
2008:"Late Imperial Aramaic"
1960:Gzella, Holger (2008).
1758:10.22425/jul.2004.5.1.1
1739:Bae, Chul-hyun (2004).
1590:William M. Schniedewind
1541:Encyclopedia Britannica
1509:Oxford University Press
903:Unicode version history
838:Unicode character block
420:during the ages of the
370:Name and classification
261:term, coined by modern
2129:. Atlanta: SBL Press.
1911:Jastrow, Otto (2008).
1643:Huehnergard, John and
1470:Cite journal requires
898:1 reserved code points
810:and was used to write
584:, of which the entire
504:
426:Neo-Babylonian Empires
327:Neo-Babylonian Aramaic
2175:Neo-Babylonian Empire
1766:Beyer, Klaus (1986).
1390:Shaked, Saul (1987).
1188:Cook, Edward (2022).
927:Unicode documentation
756:Further information:
706:Further information:
626:Paleo-Hebrew alphabet
498:
299:Neo-Babylonian Empire
1935:Greenfield, Jonas C.
1715:The Unicode Standard
1691:The Unicode Standard
1672:Encyclopedia Iranica
1396:EncyclopĂŠdia Iranica
610:Babylonian captivity
491:Legacy and influence
323:Neo-Assyrian Aramaic
2170:Neo-Assyrian Empire
1844:Fitzmyer, Joseph A.
1788:Brock, Sebastian P.
778:in what is now the
598:Alexander the Great
588:derives (including
545:Manichaean alphabet
537:Indian subcontinent
467:reminiscent of the
295:Neo-Assyrian Empire
2195:Languages of Egypt
1985:"Imperial Aramaic"
1631:2007-12-31 at the
1491:, p. 709â710.
1419:, p. 710-712.
1269:, p. 587-588.
734:alphabet of Arabic
722:Nabataean alphabet
509:Phoenician-derived
505:
455:Elephantine papyri
331:Achaemenid Aramaic
2185:Ancient languages
2180:Achaemenid Empire
2155:Aramaic languages
1522:978-0-19-507993-7
1376:978-1-57506-083-5
1201:978-1-108-78788-8
1165:
1164:
950:
949:
758:Manichaean script
730:Arabian Peninsula
718:Nabataean Aramaic
708:Nabataean Aramaic
702:Nabataean Aramaic
651:Caesarea Philippi
570:Mandaic alphabets
521:Italian peninsula
501:Achaemenid Empire
465:wisdom literature
418:Upper Mesopotamia
392:official language
303:Achaemenid Empire
252:
251:
139:Northwest Semitic
57:, 4th century BC.
39:Letoon Trilingual
2202:
2160:Aramaic alphabet
2140:
2119:
2098:
2089:(1â2): 113â131.
2075:Nöldeke, Theodor
2070:
2051:LipiĆski, Edward
2046:
2025:
2002:
1979:
1956:
1930:
1907:
1884:
1863:
1839:
1808:Collins, John J.
1803:
1783:
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1724:
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1721:
1707:
1701:
1700:
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1697:
1683:
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1335:(3/4): 456â461.
1324:
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1252:
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1234:
1228:
1222:
1221:, p. 10-11.
1216:
1210:
1209:
1185:
1158:
1150:
971:Imperial Aramaic
966:
965:
953:Imperial Aramaic
915:
873:Imperial Aramaic
854:(32 code points)
852:U+10840..U+1085F
844:Imperial Aramaic
841:
840:
804:Sassanian Empire
685:
637:
469:Book of Proverbs
384:
383:
339:Standard Aramaic
335:Official Aramaic
311:Imperial Aramaic
287:Egyptian Aramaic
281:) and narrower (
271:Aramaic language
255:Imperial Aramaic
248:
232:
225:
216:
215:
207:
192:Aramaic alphabet
187:
149:Imperial Aramaic
113:
99:
96:
89:then split into
87:Biblical Aramaic
82:
79:
36:
22:Imperial Aramaic
19:
18:
16:Ancient language
2210:
2209:
2205:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2200:
2199:
2165:Persian scripts
2145:
2144:
2143:
2137:
2116:
2067:
2043:
2022:
1999:
1976:
1953:
1927:
1904:
1881:
1860:
1828:10.2307/3267414
1796:ARAM Periodical
1780:
1734:
1729:
1728:
1719:
1717:
1709:
1708:
1704:
1695:
1693:
1685:
1684:
1680:
1667:
1663:
1655:
1651:
1642:
1638:
1633:Wayback Machine
1624:
1620:
1613:
1598:
1587:
1583:
1574:
1572:
1571:on May 13, 2019
1559:
1558:
1554:
1545:
1543:
1535:
1534:
1530:
1523:
1499:
1495:
1489:Greenfield 1985
1487:
1483:
1471:
1469:
1460:
1459:
1455:Geiger, Wilhelm
1452:
1448:
1441:
1427:
1423:
1415:
1411:
1401:
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1388:
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1377:
1369:. EISENBRAUNS.
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1341:10.2307/2718444
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1301:
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1289:
1285:
1277:
1273:
1265:
1261:
1253:
1249:
1245:, p. 8-13.
1241:
1237:
1229:
1225:
1217:
1213:
1202:
1187:
1186:
1175:
1170:
974:
913:
879:Major alphabets
853:
839:
836:
762:The Manichaean
760:
754:
738:spread of Islam
736:by the time of
710:
704:
614:Cyrus the Great
606:
594:Cyrus the Great
580:alphabets. The
541:Pahlavi scripts
499:Expanse of the
493:
460:Words of Ahikar
443:
406:
388:Richard N. Frye
382:ReichsaramÀisch
372:
362:, known as the
283:dialectological
279:sociolinguistic
244:
228:
221:
211:
210:
203:
188:
183:
177:
170:
163:
134:Central Semitic
114:
111:Language family
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2020:
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1980:
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1864:
1858:
1840:
1822:(4): 710â712.
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1784:
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1735:
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1730:
1727:
1726:
1702:
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1661:
1659:, p. 213.
1649:
1645:Jo Ann Hackett
1636:
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1295:
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1257:, p. 574.
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890:31 code points
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492:
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473:Book of Daniel
453:, such as the
442:
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376:Josef Markwart
371:
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273:. The term is
250:
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1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1926:9783447057875
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1233:, p. 59.
1232:
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663:Book of Enoch
660:
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1569:the original
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1412:
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1395:
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680:
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655:Roman Judaea
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639:
612:ended after
607:
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533:Central Asia
506:
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422:Neo-Assyrian
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338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
319:semantically
316:
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286:
254:
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129:West Semitic
119:Afro-Asiatic
1802:(1): 11â23.
1657:Gzella 2015
1511:. pp.
1303:Gzella 2015
1291:Folmer 1995
1279:Gzella 2015
1267:Folmer 2012
1243:Folmer 1995
792:Manichaeism
776:Tarim Basin
746:Koine Greek
659:Koine Greek
386:. In 1955,
307:Hellenistic
175:Old Aramaic
100:â1200), or
2149:Categories
1720:2023-07-26
1696:2023-07-26
1575:2020-09-07
1546:2020-05-29
1402:10 October
1219:Beyer 1986
1168:References
1136:𐡟
1133:𐡞
1130:𐡝
1127:𐡜
1124:𐡛
1121:𐡚
1118:𐡙
1115:𐡘
1112:𐡗
1107:𐡕
1104:𐡔
1101:𐡓
1098:𐡒
1095:𐡑
1092:𐡐
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1081:𐡎
1078:𐡍
1075:𐡌
1072:𐡋
1069:𐡊
1066:𐡉
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1060:𐡇
1057:𐡆
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1042:𐡁
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933:Code chart
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770:over into
752:Manichaean
630:Phoenician
616:conquered
590:Devanagari
535:, and the
519:, and the
259:linguistic
169:Early form
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1392:"Aramaic"
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275:polysemic
239:Glottolog
223:ISO 639-3
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1937:(1985).
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728:for the
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513:Anatolia
410:Arameans
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263:scholars
246:impe1235
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1565:Culture
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869:Scripts
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683:áčalyÄáčŻÄ
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618:Babylon
574:Sogdian
557:cursive
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404:History
360:Bactria
267:variety
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