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1801:. Light bulbs using coiled coil filaments are sometimes referred to as 'double-coil bulbs'. For a 60-watt 120-volt lamp, the uncoiled length of the tungsten filament is usually 580 millimetres (22.8 in), and the filament diameter is 0.046 millimetres (0.0018 in). The advantage of the coiled coil is that evaporation of the tungsten filament is at the rate of a tungsten cylinder having a diameter equal to that of the coiled coil. The coiled-coil filament evaporates more slowly than a straight filament of the same surface area and light-emitting power. As a result, the filament can then run hotter, which results in a more efficient light source while lasting longer than a straight filament at the same temperature.
1706:, heated in a furnace, and then blown by precisely aligned air nozzles through holes in the conveyor belt into molds. Thus the glass bulbs or envelopes are created. A typical machine of this sort can produce anywhere from 50,000 to 120,000 bulbs per hour, depending on the size of the bulb. By the 1970s, 15 ribbon machines installed in factories around the world produced the entire supply of incandescent bulbs. The filament and its supports are assembled on a glass stem, which is then fused to the bulb. The air is pumped out of the bulb, and the evacuation tube in the stem press is sealed by a flame. The bulb is then inserted into the lamp base, and the whole assembly tested. The 2016 closing of
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emit less light as they age; this may be an inconvenience, or may reduce effective lifetime due to lamp replacement before total failure. A comparison of incandescent lamp operating cost with other light sources must include illumination requirements, cost of the lamp and labor cost to replace lamps (taking into account effective lamp lifetime), cost of electricity used, effect of lamp operation on heating and air conditioning systems. When used for lighting in houses and commercial buildings, the energy lost to heat can significantly increase the energy required by a building's
1845:
1818:
732:, employed at the time by Edison, developed an improved method of heat-treating carbon filaments which reduced breakage and allowed them to be molded into novel shapes, such as the characteristic "M" shape of Maxim filaments. On 17 January 1882, Latimer received a patent for the "Process of Manufacturing Carbons", an improved method for the production of light bulb filaments, which was purchased by the United States Electric Light Company. Latimer patented other improvements such as a better way of attaching filaments to their wire supports.
638:
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1287:, many governments have introduced measures to ban their use, by setting minimum efficacy standards higher than can be achieved by incandescent lamps. Measures to ban light bulbs have been implemented in the European Union, the United States, Russia, Brazil, Argentina, Canada and Australia, among others. The European Commission has calculated that the ban contributes 5 to 10 billion euros to the economy and saves 40 TWh of electricity every year, translating in CO
1963:
in the thermal convection currents of the gas, and is deposited preferentially on the uppermost part of the envelope, blackening just that portion of the envelope. An incandescent lamp that gives 93% or less of its initial light output at 75% of its rated life is regarded as unsatisfactory, when tested according to IEC Publication 60064. Light loss is due to filament evaporation and bulb blackening. Study of the problem of bulb blackening led to the discovery of
536:. Heating this platinum at high temperatures leaves behind thin filaments of platinum coated with pure graphite. By September 1881 he had achieved a successful version of this the first synthetic filament. The light bulb invented by Cruto lasted five hundred hours as opposed to the forty of Edison's original version. In 1882 Munich Electrical Exhibition in Bavaria, Germany Cruto's lamp was more efficient than the Edison's one and produced a better, white light.
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1916:. While inert gas reduces filament evaporation, it also conducts heat from the filament, thereby cooling the filament and reducing efficiency. At constant pressure and temperature, the thermal conductivity of a gas depends upon the molecular weight of the gas and the cross sectional area of the gas molecules. Higher molecular weight gases have lower thermal conductivity, because both the molecular weight and cross sectional area are higher.
325:
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33:
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585:(1828–1914) was a British physicist and chemist. In 1850, he began working with carbonized paper filaments in an evacuated glass bulb. By 1860, he was able to demonstrate a working device but the lack of a good vacuum and an adequate supply of electricity resulted in a short lifetime for the bulb and an inefficient source of light. By the mid-1870s better pumps had become available, and Swan returned to his experiments.
1054:
565:
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1810:
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lamps used for general illumination. Theatrical, photographic, and projection lamps may have a useful life of only a few hours, trading life expectancy for high output in a compact form. Long-life general service lamps have lower efficiency, but prior to the development of compact fluorescent and LED lamps they were useful in applications where the bulb was difficult to change.
1237:. Their light has bands of characteristic wavelengths, without the "tail" of invisible infrared emissions, instead of the continuous spectrum produced by a thermal source. By careful selection of fluorescent phosphor coatings or filters which modify the spectral distribution, the spectrum emitted can be tuned to mimic the appearance of incandescent sources, or other different
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shortened in use; the filaments were installed with large slack loops. Lamps used for several hundred hours became quite fragile. Metal filaments had the property of breaking and re-welding, though this would usually decrease resistance and shorten the life of the filament. General
Electric bought the rights to use tantalum filaments and produced them in the US until 1913.
1066:
1699:, Pennsylvania, factory. The Ribbon Machine surpassed any previous attempts to automate bulb production and was used to produce incandescent bulbs into the 21st century. The inventor, William Woods, along with his colleague at Corning Glass Works, David E. Gray, had created a machine that by 1939 was turning out 1,000 bulbs per minute.
1307:
1779:, and then wire drawing. It was found that very pure tungsten formed filaments that sagged in use, and that a very small "doping" treatment with potassium, silicon, and aluminium oxides at the level of a few hundred parts per million (so-called AKS tungsten) greatly improved the life and durability of the tungsten filaments.
701:. Weeks later the United States Electric Lighting Company was organized. This company did not make their first commercial installation of incandescent lamps until the fall of 1880, at the Mercantile Safe Deposit Company in New York City, about six months after the Edison incandescent lamps had been installed on the
676:... to platina contact wires." Although the patent described several ways of creating the carbon filament including using "cotton and linen thread, wood splints, papers coiled in various ways," Edison and his team later discovered that a carbonized bamboo filament could last more than 1200 hours. In 1880, the
1326:(HEI) lamp project, which they claimed would ultimately be as much as four times more efficient than current incandescents, although their initial production goal was to be approximately twice as efficient. The HEI program was terminated in 2008 due to slow progress. US Department of Energy research at
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is desirable. The presence of gas molecules knocks the liberated tungsten atoms back to the filament, reducing its evaporation and allowing it to be operated at higher temperature without reducing its life (or, for operating at the same temperature, prolongs the filament life). On the other hand, the
1259:
The initial cost of an incandescent bulb is small compared to the cost of the energy it uses over its lifetime. Incandescent bulbs have a shorter life than most other lighting, an important factor if replacement is inconvenient or expensive. Some types of lamp, including incandescent and fluorescent,
1038:
Consumption of incandescent light bulbs grew rapidly in the US. In 1885, an estimated 300,000 general lighting service lamps were sold, all with carbon filaments. When tungsten filaments were introduced, about 50 million lamp sockets existed in the US. In 1914, 88.5 million lamps were used, (only 15%
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and other metals, in the end Edison returned to a carbon filament. The first successful test was on 22 October 1879, and lasted 13.5 hours. Edison continued to improve this design and by 4 November 1879, filed for a US patent for an electric lamp using "a carbon filament or strip coiled and connected
573:
4167:
The
Consolidated Company was the successor of the Electro-Dynamic Light Company of New York, the first company organized in the United States for the manufacture and sale of electric incandescent lamps, and the owner of a large number of patents of date prior to those upon which rival companies were
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increases the lifetime of the bulb and prevents its darkening by redepositing tungsten from the inside of the bulb back onto the filament. The halogen lamp can operate its filament at a higher temperature than a standard gas filled lamp of similar power without loss of operating life. Such bulbs are
1930:
along the filament cause "hot spots" to form at points of higher resistivity; a variation of diameter of only 1% will cause a 25% reduction in service life. Since filament resistance is highly temperature-dependent, spots with higher temperature will have higher resistance, causing them to dissipate
1675:
Early bulbs were laboriously assembled by hand. After automatic machinery was developed, the cost of bulbs fell. Until 1910, when Libbey's
Westlake machine went into production, bulbs were generally produced by a team of three workers (two gatherers and a master gaffer) blowing the bulbs into wooden
1404:
clay blown in and electrostatically deposited on the interior of the bulb. The powder layer diffuses the light from the filament. Pigments may be added to the clay to adjust the color of the light emitted. Kaolin diffused bulbs are used extensively in interior lighting because of their comparatively
1379:
An electric current heats the filament to typically 2,000 to 3,300 K (1,730 to 3,030 °C; 3,140 to 5,480 °F), well below tungsten's melting point of 3,695 K (3,422 °C; 6,191 °F). Filament temperatures depend on the filament type, shape, size, and amount of current drawn.
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is passed. Contact wires and a base with two (or more) conductors provide electrical connections to the filament. Incandescent light bulbs usually contain a stem or glass mount anchored to the bulb's base that allows the electrical contacts to run through the envelope without air or gas leaks. Small
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into a practical means of lighting. The carbon arc itself was dim and violet in color, emitting most of its energy in the ultraviolet, but the positive electrode was heated to just below the melting point of carbon and glowed very brightly with incandescence very close to that of sunlight. Arc lamps
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Very low voltages are inefficient since the lead wires would conduct too much heat away from the filament, so the practical lower limit for incandescent lamps is 1.5 volts. Very long filaments for high voltages are fragile, and lamp bases become more difficult to insulate, so lamps for illumination
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Lamps of the same power rating but designed for different voltages have different luminous efficacy. For example, a 100-watt, 1000 hour, 120-volt lamp will produce about 17.1 lumens per watt. A similar lamp designed for 230 V would produce only around 12.8 lumens per watt, and one designed for
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used for photographic lighting favor light output over life, with some lasting only two hours. The upper temperature limit for the filament is the melting point of the metal. Tungsten is the metal with the highest melting point, 3,695 K (3,422 °C; 6,191 °F). A 50-hour-life projection
2062:
A variation of the incandescent lamp did not use a hot wire filament, but instead used an arc struck on a spherical bead electrode to produce heat. The electrode then became incandescent, with the arc contributing little to the light produced. Such lamps were used for projection or illumination for
1962:
In a conventional lamp, the evaporated tungsten eventually condenses on the inner surface of the glass envelope, darkening it. For bulbs that contain a vacuum, the darkening is uniform across the entire surface of the envelope. When a filling of inert gas is used, the evaporated tungsten is carried
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on 3 February 1879. These lamps used a carbon rod from an arc lamp rather than a slender filament. Thus they had low resistance and required very large conductors to supply the necessary current, so they were not commercially practical, although they did furnish a demonstration of the possibilities
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tube and passed an electric current through it. The design was based on the concept that the high melting point of platinum would allow it to operate at high temperatures and that the evacuated chamber would contain fewer gas molecules to react with the platinum, improving its longevity. Although a
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can be used to control brightness. Electrical contacts may carry a "T" rating symbol indicating that they are designed to control circuits with the high inrush current characteristic of tungsten lamps. For a 100-watt, 120-volt general-service lamp, the current stabilizes in about 0.10 seconds, and
479:
invented an incandescent light bulb and obtained a
Russian patent in 1874. He used as a burner two carbon rods of diminished section in a glass receiver, hermetically sealed, and filled with nitrogen, electrically arranged so that the current could be passed to the second carbon when the first had
2809:
A 5% reduction in voltage will double the life of the bulb, but reduce its light output by about 16%. Long-life bulbs take advantage of this trade-off in applications such as traffic signal lamps. Since electric energy they use costs more than the cost of the bulb, general service lamps emphasize
2006:
Some old, high-powered lamps used in theater, projection, searchlight, and lighthouse service with heavy, sturdy filaments contained loose tungsten powder within the envelope. From time to time, the operator would remove the bulb and shake it, allowing the tungsten powder to scrub off most of the
1897:
During ordinary operation, the tungsten of the filament evaporates; hotter, more-efficient filaments evaporate faster. Because of this, the lifetime of a filament lamp is a trade-off between efficiency and longevity. The trade-off is typically set to provide a lifetime of 1,000 to 2,000 hours for
1349:
incandescents can produce about 23 lm/W; about 30 percent more efficient than traditional incandescents, by using a reflective capsule to reflect formerly wasted infrared radiation back to the filament from which some is re-emitted as visible light. This concept was pioneered by Duro-Test in
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Swan then turned his attention to producing a better carbon filament and the means of attaching its ends. He devised a method of treating cotton to produce 'parchmentised thread' in the early 1880s and obtained
British Patent 4933 that same year. From this year he began installing light bulbs in
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accommodated by diffusional creep. During operation, the tungsten wire is stressed under the load of its own weight and because of the diffusion that can occur at high temperatures, grains begin to rotate and slide. This stress, because of variations in the filament, causes the filament to sag
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lamp filament that was more efficient than even graphitized carbon filaments since they could operate at higher temperature. Since tantalum metal has a lower resistivity than carbon, the tantalum lamp filament was quite long and required multiple internal supports. The metal filament gradually
864:
US575002A patent on 01.Dec.1897 to
Alexander Lodyguine (Lodygin, Russia) describes filament made of rare metals, amongst them was tungsten. Lodygin invented a process where rare metals such as tungsten can be chemically treated and heat-vaporized onto an electrically heated thread-like wire
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1723:
1751:—as they get hotter, their electrical resistance decreases. This made the lamp sensitive to fluctuations in the power supply, since a small increase of voltage would cause the filament to heat up, reducing its resistance and causing it to draw even more power and heat even further.
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Corazza, Alessio & Giorgi, S. & Boffito, Claudio & Massaro, Vincenzo & Caccia, Debora. (2006). Characteristics of the getter materials used in High
Intensity Discharge Lamps. Conference Record - IAS Annual Meeting (IEEE Industry Applications Society). 4. 1801-1807.
2340:, of standard 120 volt incandescent light bulbs at various powers. Light output of similar 230 V bulbs is slightly less. The lower current (higher voltage) filament is thinner and has to be operated at a slightly lower temperature for the same life expectancy, which reduces
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burned up their carbon rods very rapidly, expelled dangerous carbon monoxide, and tended to produce outputs in the tens of kilowatts. Therefore, they were only practical for lighting large areas, so researchers continued to search for a way to make lamps suitable for home use.
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The filament in a tungsten light bulb is not easy to break when the bulb is cold, but filaments are more vulnerable when they are hot because the incandescent metal is less rigid. An impact on the outside of the bulb may cause the filament to break or experience a surge in
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system. During the heating season heat produced by the bulbs is not wasted, although in most cases it is more cost effective to obtain heat from the heating system. Regardless, over the course of a year a more efficient lighting system saves energy in nearly all climates.
268:, the Edison main and feeder, and the parallel-distribution system. Other inventors with generators and incandescent lamps, and with comparable ingenuity and excellence, have long been forgotten because their creators did not preside over their introduction in a system of
600:
With the help of
Charles Stearn, an expert on vacuum pumps, in 1878, Swan developed a method of processing that avoided the early bulb blackening. This received a British Patent in 1880. On 18 December 1878, a lamp using a slender carbon rod was shown at a meeting of the
192:
Incandescent bulbs typically have short lifetimes compared with other types of lighting; around 1,000 hours for home light bulbs versus typically 10,000 hours for compact fluorescents and 20,000–30,000 hours for lighting LEDs. Most incandescent bulbs can be replaced by
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Reflective coating inside the bulb directs light forward. Flood types (FL) spread light. Spot types (SP) concentrate the light. Reflector (R) bulbs put approximately double the amount of light (foot-candles) on the front central area as
General Service (A) of same
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1102:
is used, incandescent lamps' heat output increases load on the air conditioning system. While heat from lights will reduce the need to run a building's heating system, the latter can usually produce the same amount of heat at lower cost than incandescent lights.
1358:
can theoretically result in higher efficiency, up to a limit of about 270 lm/W (40% of the maximum efficacy possible). Laboratory proof-of-concept experiments have produced as much as 45 lm/W, approaching the efficacy of compact fluorescent bulbs.
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Lamps intended for use in optical systems have bases with alignment features so that the filament is positioned accurately within the optical system. A screw-base lamp may have a random orientation of the filament when the lamp is installed in the socket.
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The relationships above are valid for only a few percent change of voltage around standard rated conditions, but they indicate that a lamp operated at low voltage could last much longer than at rated voltage, albeit with greatly reduced light output. The
398:
Over the first three-quarters of the 19th century, many experimenters worked with various combinations of platinum or iridium wires, carbon rods, and evacuated or semi-evacuated enclosures. Many of these devices were demonstrated and some were patented.
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into hydrogen and oxygen at the hot filament. The oxygen attacks the tungsten metal, and the resulting tungsten oxide particles travel to cooler parts of the lamp. Hydrogen from water vapor reduces the oxide, reforming water vapor and continuing this
1069:
Thermal image of an incandescent bulb. 22–175 °C (72–347 °F). Most of the mid and far-IR is absorbed by the glass, heating it to scorching temperatures. This heats the surrounding air, which rises, helping cool the bulb from the bottom
885:. The metal was so expensive that used lamps could be returned for partial credit. It could not be made for 110 V or 220 V so several lamps were wired in series for use on standard voltage circuits. These were primarily sold in Europe.
626:, London was lit by Swan incandescent lightbulbs, which was the first theatre, and the first public building in the world, to be lit entirely by electricity. The first street in the world to be lit by an incandescent lightbulb was Mosley Street,
2607:(PAR) bulbs control light more precisely. They produce about four times the concentrated light intensity of general service (A), and are used in recessed and track lighting. Weatherproof casings are available for outdoor spot and flood fixtures.
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of a source is defined as the ratio of its luminous efficacy to the maximum possible luminous efficacy, which is 683 lm/W. An ideal white light source could produce about 250 lumens per watt, corresponding to a luminous efficiency of 37%.
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Bulb shape and size designations are given in national standards. Some designations are one or more letters followed by one or more numbers, e.g. A55 or PAR38, where the letters identify the shape and the numbers some characteristic size.
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The wires used to support the filament make it mechanically stronger, but remove heat, creating another tradeoff between efficiency and long life. Many general-service 120-volt lamps use no additional support wires, but lamps designed for
1607:, which is more advantageous than argon due to its higher atomic weight and lower thermal conductivity (which also allows use of smaller bulbs), but its use is hindered by much higher cost, confining it mostly to smaller-size bulbs.
1754:
Carbon filaments were "flashed" by heating in a hydrocarbon vapor (usually gasoline), to improve their strength and uniformity. Metallized or "graphitized" filaments were first heated to high temperature to transform them into
1503:
The glass bulb of a general service lamp can reach temperatures between 200 and 260 °C (392 and 500 °F). Lamps intended for high power operation or used for heating purposes will have envelopes made of hard glass or
743:). Edison was initially against this combination, but Edison was eventually forced to cooperate and the merger was made. Eventually, Edison acquired all of Swan's interest in the company. Swan sold his US patent rights to the
1034:
By 1964, improvements in efficiency and production of incandescent lamps had reduced the cost of providing a given quantity of light by a factor of thirty, compared with the cost at introduction of Edison's lighting system.
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and wire contacts, and some automotive and special purpose lamps have screw terminals for connection to wires. Very small lamps may have the filament support wires extended through the base of the lamp for connections. A
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30 volts (train lighting) would produce as much as 19.8 lumens per watt. Lower voltage lamps have a thicker filament, for the same power rating. They can run hotter for the same lifetime before the filament evaporates.
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The United States
Electric Lighting Company was organized in 1878 a few weeks after the Electro-Dynamic company, and was the successor of the oldest company in the United States for the manufacture of electric power
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began serious research into developing a practical incandescent lamp in 1878. Edison filed his first patent application for "Improvement in Electric Lights" on 14 October 1878. After many experiments, first with
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Metal filaments were tried in 1897 and started to displace carbon starting around 1904. Tungsten has the highest available melting point, but brittleness was a big obstacle. By 1910, a process was developed by
775:
and were invalid. Litigation continued for a number of years. Eventually on 6 October 1889, a judge ruled that Edison's electric light improvement claim for "a filament of carbon of high resistance" was valid.
2836:, since 1901. However, the bulb emits the equivalent light of a four watt bulb. A similar story can be told of a 40-watt bulb in Texas that has been illuminated since 21 September 1908. It once resided in an
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The resistance of the filament is temperature dependent. The cold resistance of tungsten-filament lamps is about 1/15 the resistance when operating. For example, a 100-watt, 120-volt lamp has a resistance of
1633:
The gas layer close to the filament (called the Langmuir layer) is stagnant, with heat transfer occurring only by conduction. Only at some distance does convection occur to carry heat to the bulb's envelope.
709:
was the chief engineer at the United States Electric Lighting Company. After the great success in the United States, the incandescent light bulb patented by Edison also began to gain widespread popularity in
525:) to Thomas Edison in 1879. (Edison needed ownership of the novel claim of lamps connected in a parallel circuit). The government of Canada maintains that it is Woodward and Evans who invented the lightbulb.
1935:
loop. These hot spots evaporate faster than the rest of the filament, permanently increasing the resistance at that point. The process ends in the familiar tiny gap in an otherwise healthy-looking filament.
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bulb, for instance, is designed to operate only 50 °C (122 °F) below that melting point. Such a lamp may achieve up to 22 lumens per watt, compared with 17.5 for a 750-hour general service lamp.
1074:
Less than 5% of the power consumed by a typical incandescent light bulb is converted into visible light, with most of the rest being emitted as invisible infrared radiation. Light bulbs are rated by their
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of an inch. Therefore, a PAR 16 is 51 mm (2 in) in diameter, a PAR 20 is 64 mm (2.5 in) in diameter, PAR 30 is 95 mm (3.75 in) and a PAR 38 is 121 mm (4.75 in) in
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1614:, where xenon improves the gas properties further due to its higher atomic weight. Its use is however limited by its very high cost. The improvements by using xenon are modest in comparison to its cost.
1570:
Early lamps used only a vacuum to protect the filament from oxygen. The vacuum increases evaporation of the filament but eliminates two modes of heat loss. Some small modern lamps use vacuum as well.
551:, but there was never a decision in a final hearing due to the expiration of Edison's patent. A research work published in 2007 concluded that the story of the Göbel lamps in the 1850s is fictitious.
4367:"2yr.net - Antique & Vintage Light Bulb Collection Museum - History of the Incandescent Lamp - by John W. Howell and Henry Schroeder (1927) Chapter 4: The Vacuum, Getters and the Gas Filled Lamp"
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before reaching its melting point depending on pressure, which led to rapid blackening of vacuumed bulbs. The first commercially successful light bulb filaments were made from carbonized paper or
1720:
802:(1865–1939), who lacked these pumps, discovered that phosphorus vapours did the job of chemically binding the remaining amounts of water and oxygen. In 1896 he patented a process of introducing
383:. It was not bright enough nor did it last long enough to be practical, but it was the precedent behind the efforts of scores of experimenters over the next 75 years. Davy also demonstrated the
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nonuniformly, which ultimately introduces further torque on the filament. It is this sagging that inevitably results in a rupture of the filament, rendering the incandescent lightbulb useless.
461:
built an electric incandescent light bulb using a platinum filament. Thomas Edison later saw one of these bulbs in a shop in Boston, and asked Farmer for advice on the electric light business.
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Objections to banning the use of incandescent light bulbs include the higher initial cost of alternatives and lower quality of light of fluorescent lamps. Some people have concerns about the
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of white light. When used for tasks sensitive to color, such as motion picture lighting, these sources may require particular techniques to duplicate the appearance of incandescent lighting.
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5357:
1939:
Lamps operated on direct current develop random stairstep irregularities on the filament surface which may cut lifespan in half compared to AC operation; different alloys of tungsten and
1637:
The orientation of the filament influences efficiency. Gas flow parallel to the filament, e.g., a vertically oriented bulb with vertical (or axial) filament, reduces convective losses.
146:
Incandescent bulbs are much less efficient than other types of electric lighting. Less than 5% of the energy they consume is converted into visible light; the rest is lost as heat. The
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allow the electric current to pass through the base to the filament. The socket provides electrical connections and mechanical support, and allows changing the lamp when it burns out.
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and did not require enclosure in a vacuum or inert gas. Twice as efficient as carbon filament lamps, Nernst lamps were briefly popular until overtaken by lamps using metal filaments.
532:
created his first incandescent lamp. Cruto produced a filament by deposition of graphite on thin platinum filaments, by heating it with an electric current in the presence of gaseous
1904:
found that an inert gas, instead of vacuum, would retard evaporation. General service incandescent light bulbs over about 25 watts in rating are now filled with a mixture of mostly
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1550:
The gas reduces evaporation of the filament, but the fill must be chosen carefully to avoid introducing significant heat losses. For these properties, chemical inertness and high
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vapor. However, carbon filaments operate at lower temperatures than tungsten ones, so the effect of the fill gas was not significant as the heat losses offset any benefits.
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are not made with rated voltages over 300 volts. Some infrared heating elements are made for higher voltages, but these use tubular bulbs with widely separated terminals.
602:
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filled lamps with krypton gas rather than argon, and designed a process to obtain krypton from air. Production of krypton filled lamps based on his invention started at
519:
for a lamp consisting of carbon rods mounted in a nitrogen-filled glass cylinder. They were unsuccessful at commercializing their lamp, and sold rights to their patent (
253:
that made power distribution from a centralized source economically viable, and the development of the associated components required for a large-scale lighting system.
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efficiency over long operating life. The objective is to minimize the cost of light, not the cost of lamps. Early bulbs had a life of up to 2500 hours, but in 1924 the
1950:, which may spread between the terminals and draw very heavy current, intentionally thin lead-in wires or more elaborate protection devices are therefore often used as
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606:
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or in vacuum tubes to heat an electron-emitting electrode. When used as a source of electrons, they may have a special coating that increases electron production.
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at the same temperature. The basis for light sources used as the standard for color perception is a tungsten incandescent lamp operating at a defined temperature.
1601:
Nitrogen, used in some higher-power lamps, e.g. projection lamps, and where higher breakdown voltage is needed due to proximity of filament parts or lead-in wires
112:. Electric current is supplied to the filament by terminals or wires embedded in the glass. A bulb socket provides mechanical support and electrical connections.
2814:
agreed to limit life to 1000 hours. When this was exposed in 1953, General Electric and other leading American manufacturers were banned from limiting the life.
2709:, with one or more contacts on the base. The shell may serve as an electrical contact or only as a mechanical support. Bayonet base lamps are frequently used in
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1640:
The efficiency of the lamp increases with a larger filament diameter. Thin-filament, low-power bulbs benefit less from a fill gas, so are often only evacuated.
312:
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1098:
For a given quantity of light, an incandescent light bulb consumes more power and emits more heat than most other types of electric light. In buildings where
991:). At the time, machinery to mass-produce coiled coil filaments did not exist. Hakunetsusha developed a method to mass-produce coiled coil filaments by 1936.
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filament of high resistance, platinum lead-in wires in an all-glass envelope, and a high vacuum. Judges of four courts raised doubts about the alleged Göbel
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been consumed. Later he lived in the US, changed his name to Alexander de Lodyguine and applied for and obtained patents for incandescent lamps having
2859:" or "vibration service" may have as many as five. Low-voltage lamps have filaments made of heavier wire and do not require additional support wires.
4539:
931:
slows down the evaporation of the tungsten filament compared to operating it in a vacuum. This allows for greater temperatures and therefore greater
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of the filament but does not protect against its evaporation. Used also in larger lamps where the outer bulb surface temperature has to be limited.
297:
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or cast-iron molds, coated with a paste. Around 150 bulbs per hour were produced by the hand-blowing process in the 1880s at Corning Glass Works.
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980:
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865:(platinum, carbon, gold) acting as a temporary base or skeletal form. (US patent 575,002). Lodygin later sold the patent rights to GE. In 1902,
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Incandescent lamps are very sensitive to changes in the supply voltage. These characteristics are of great practical and economic importance.
1995:. The equivalent of a drop of water distributed over 500,000 lamps will significantly increase darkening. Small amounts of substances such as
7737:
135:. As a result, the incandescent bulb became widely used in household and commercial lighting, for portable lighting such as table lamps, car
4454:
4224:
301:
7828:
4191:
3669:
308:
306:
264:
The lamp was a small component in his system of electric lighting, and no more critical to its effective functioning than the Edison Jumbo
4912:
4553:
Briant and, C.L.; Bewlay, Bernard P. (1995). "The Coolidge Process for Making Tungsten Ductile: The Foundation of Incandescent Lighting".
3850:
2357:
when lit, but the cold resistance is much lower (about 9.5 ohms). Since incandescent lamps are resistive loads, simple phase-control
8122:
6231:
4783:
3378:
3299:
2666:
designation for a lamp with an infrared reflective coating. Since less heat escapes, the filament burns hotter and more efficiently. The
410:. He stated that he could "read a book at a distance of one and a half feet". However he did not develop the electric light any further.
6088:
5704:
4154:
4121:
1775:
for production of a ductile form of tungsten. The process required pressing tungsten powder into bars, then several steps of sintering,
3057:
610:
of incandescent lighting with relatively high vacuum, a carbon conductor, and platinum lead-in wires. This bulb lasted about 40 hours.
6492:
5532:
911:
filament lamp that lasted longer and gave brighter light than the carbon filament. Tungsten filament lamps were first marketed by the
5309:
5109:
768:
305:
5027:
4393:
4326:
Consol. Elec. Light Co v. McKeesport Light Co, 40 F. 21 (C.C.W.D. Pa. 1889) aff'd, 159 U.S. 465, 16 S. Ct. 75, 40 L. Ed. 221 (1895).
605:, and Swan gave a working demonstration at their meeting on 17 January 1879. It was also shown to 700 who attended a meeting of the
450:
publicly demonstrated incandescent light bulbs on his estate in Blois, France. His light bulbs are on display in the museum of the
5518:
1920:
gas improves efficiency because of its high molecular weight, but is also more expensive, so its use is limited to smaller lamps.
7843:
7590:
1759:, which further strengthened and smoothed the filament. These filaments have a positive temperature coefficient, like a metallic
736:
1687:
soon began developing competing automated bulb-blowing machines, the first of which to be used in production was the E-Machine.
7833:
7732:
6543:
5045:
4938:
4168:
depending. ... The United States Electric Lighting Company was organized in 1878, a few weeks after the Electro-Dynamic Company
1748:
677:
309:
307:
5979:
310:
296:
6281:
6120:
4599:
4260:
3728:
3686:
3237:
3051:
3034:
of possible lamp filament materials and worked extensively during the period 1878–1879 on devising an automatic regulator or
3031:
1274:
206:
7289:
2575:
Types: candle (B), twisted candle, bent-tip candle (CA & BA), flame (F), globe (G), lantern chimney (H), fancy round (P)
2383:
that causes part of it to melt or vaporize. In most modern incandescent bulbs, part of the wire inside the bulb acts like a
1795:
To improve the efficiency of the lamp, the filament usually consists of multiple coils of coiled fine wire, also known as a
8074:
7848:
2736:
Lamp bases may be secured to the bulb with a cement, or by mechanical crimping to indentations molded into the glass bulb.
2616:
Available in numerous spot and flood beam spreads. Like all light bulbs, the number represents the diameter of the bulb in
2604:
298:
237:
was the first practical implementation, able to outstrip the others because of a combination of four factors: an effective
5324:
4627:
2713:
to resist loosening by vibration. Some tubular lamps have an electrical contact at either end. Miniature lamps may have a
2046:
much smaller than normal incandescent bulbs, and are widely used where intense illumination is needed in a limited space.
1710:'s Wellsboro, Pennsylvania plant meant that one of the last remaining ribbon machines in the United States was shut down.
1598:
and low cost, and the nitrogen is added to increase the breakdown voltage and prevent arcing between parts of the filament
7257:
5430:
3114:
304:
6363:
4476:
810:
inside the bulb ), which allowed obtaining economic bulbs lasting 800 hours; his patent was acquired by Edison in 1898.
300:
299:
7012:
6241:
5600:
3647:
3548:
3449:
3354:
1559:
presence of the gas leads to heat loss from the filament—and therefore efficiency loss due to reduced incandescence—by
41:
17:
6312:
4204:
The United States Electric Lighting Company was organized in 1878, a few weeks after the Electro-Dynamic Light Company
2391:
inside the bulb, the fusible section of wire will melt and cut the current off to prevent damage to the supply lines.
1739:
it had been demonstrated to produce incandescence fairly close to that of sunlight. However, carbon has a tendency to
1620:, in special flashing lamps where rapid filament cooling is required; its high thermal conductivity is exploited here.
303:
10447:
10221:
6536:
6478:
6183:
6166:
6013:
5957:
5930:
5906:
5879:
5722:
4869:
4533:
4315:
4115:
4059:
4031:
3983:
3673:
3572:
3533:
3404:
3293:
3266:
2007:
tungsten that had condensed on the interior of the envelope, removing the blackening and brightening the lamp again.
1626:, a small amount mixed with inert gas. This is used in halogen lamps, which are a distinct type of incandescent lamp.
1106:
The chart below lists the luminous efficacy and efficiency for several types of incandescent bulb. A longer chart in
1039:
with carbon filaments), and by 1945, annual sales of lamps were 795 million (more than 5 lamps per person per year).
1009:
the inside of lamp bulbs without weakening them. In 1947, he patented a process for coating the inside of lamps with
7311:
5132:
4505:
10457:
8980:
8089:
8049:
7294:
6697:
6305:
2344:. The lumen values for "soft white" bulbs will generally be slightly lower than for clear bulbs at the same power.
1410:
618:, was the first in the world to be lit by a lightbulb. In the early 1880s he had started his company. In 1881, the
6393:
5242:
3458:
2922:
436:
for an incandescent lamp, with a design using platinum wires contained within a vacuum bulb. He also used carbon.
10209:
8115:
7909:
7555:
7452:
7427:
7190:
7057:
4672:
3747:
2895:. Upper left: fluorescent lamp, upper right: incandescent bulb, lower left: white LED, lower right: candle flame.
302:
6512:
3863:
R.C. Chirnside. Sir Joseph Wilson Swan FRS – The Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne 1979.
3486:
1217:
10184:
7853:
7787:
7772:
7762:
7282:
7067:
5680:
5642:
5192:"Frequently asked questions about the regulation on ecodesign requirements for non-directional household lamps"
5096:
5075:
4437:
2824:
2395:
2037:
reduces uneven evaporation of the filament and eliminates darkening of the envelope by filling the lamp with a
1740:
1405:
gentle light. Other kinds of colored bulbs are also made, including the various colors used for "party bulbs",
1107:
615:
593:
476:
5371:
5220:
1986:
A very small amount of water vapor inside a light bulb can significantly increase lamp darkening. Water vapor
1954:
built into the light bulb. More nitrogen is used in higher-voltage lamps to reduce the possibility of arcing.
1695:
Corning continued developing automated bulb-production machines, installing the Ribbon Machine in 1926 in its
8002:
7813:
7277:
7077:
6984:
6027:
5415:
Energy Efficient Incandescent Lamp: Final Report (Report). Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. April 1982.
4407:
2431:
1254:
1226:
694:
686:, became the first application for Edison's incandescent electric lamps (it was also the first ship to use a
198:
120:
5567:
5302:"GE Announces Advancement in Incandescent Technology; New High-Efficiency Lamps Targeted for Market by 2010"
4809:
3708:
1367:
Incandescent light bulbs consist of an air-tight glass enclosure (the envelope, or bulb) with a filament of
7978:
7951:
7752:
7447:
6608:
5375:
1849:
1822:
1327:
1295:
443:
patented an incandescent light bulb using carbon filaments. His invention was never produced commercially.
53:
6515:
60 W-100 W Incandescent light bulb spectra, from Cornell University Program of Computer Graphics
6425:
3188:
3038:
to stabilize current. It was not until 1879 that it was realized a self-limiting lamp could be built. See
447:
10467:
10452:
10233:
7959:
7742:
7625:
7583:
7339:
7107:
3621:
3140:
2966:
260:
has attributed Edison's success to his development of an entire, integrated system of electric lighting.
9230:
6741:
4308:
Black Inventors in the Age of Segregation: Granville T. Woods, Lewis H. Latimer, and Shelby J. Davidson.
2333:
of the filament. For two bulbs of the same voltage, and type, the higher-powered bulb gives more light.
1511:
If a light bulb envelope leaks, the hot tungsten filament reacts with air, yielding an aerosol of brown
8108:
7823:
7797:
7757:
3346:
7316:
5755:
5393:
4366:
1318:
Some research has been carried out to improve the efficacy of commercial incandescent lamps. In 2007,
10367:
10226:
10167:
9349:
7459:
7020:
7007:
6603:
5278:
3320:
by Robert Friedel, Paul Israel, Bernard S. Finn – Johns Hopkins University Press 2010 Page 6--7
2394:
A hot glass bulb may fracture on contact with cold objects. When the glass envelope breaks, the bulb
1630:
The gas fill must be free of traces of water, which greatly accelerates bulb blackening (see below).
919:
in 1904. This type is often called Tungsram-bulbs in many European countries. Filling a bulb with an
548:
512:
5191:
3625:
10362:
10216:
10192:
10157:
10050:
8465:
7994:
7520:
6735:
6709:
6273:
4591:
The Fundamentals and Applications of Light-Emitting Diodes: The Revolution in the Lighting Industry
4076:
1972:
1280:
155:
3942:
953:. By 1911 General Electric had begun selling incandescent light bulbs with ductile tungsten wire.
10085:
10067:
10032:
10000:
9888:
9826:
9000:
8970:
8428:
8084:
7818:
7701:
7681:
7380:
5169:
4450:
4216:
3013:
1696:
1425:(green). Neodymium-containing glass is sometimes used to provide a more natural-appearing light.
375:
of Great Britain, to create an incandescent light by passing the current through a thin strip of
218:
5165:
Banning the bulb: Institutional evolution and the phased ban of incandescent lighting in Germany
4183:
3965:
2840:
where notable celebrities stopped to take in its glow, and was moved to an area museum in 1977.
10472:
10150:
10117:
10008:
8889:
7875:
7727:
7615:
7576:
7137:
7062:
5672:
5666:
4908:
3842:
3514:, Cincinnati Historical Society Bulletin 34 (Summer 1976): 102–120. Retrieved 16 February 2010.
2643:
2590:
Types: Standard reflector (R), bulged reflector (BR), elliptical reflector (ER), crown-silvered
2519:
2398:, exposing the filament to ambient air. The air then usually destroys the hot filament through
1927:
1783:
1760:
1350:
1980 with a commercial product that produced 29.8 lm/W. More advanced reflectors based on
882:
744:
576:
6066:
5590:
4767:
4023:
3562:
3329:
3283:
2067:. These arc lamps ran on relatively low voltages and incorporated tungsten filaments to start
1763:, which stabilized the lamps operating properties against minor variations in supply voltage.
833:
44:
base. The filament is visible as the mostly horizontal line between the vertical supply wires.
10411:
10204:
10122:
10107:
10090:
9871:
8694:
8487:
8010:
7550:
6322:
5708:
4523:
4146:
4105:
3468:
3041:
2961:
2833:
2710:
2330:
2075:
but were easier to operate. Developed around 1915, these lamps were displaced by mercury and
440:
368:
250:
3496:
1844:
10372:
10162:
10137:
9920:
9593:
9467:
8817:
8775:
8729:
8059:
7986:
7747:
7655:
7262:
6765:
6496:
6452:
5829:
5634:
5628:
5445:
4979:
4703:
3938:
2725:
In the late 19th century, manufacturers introduced a multitude of incompatible lamp bases.
2341:
1817:
1595:
1551:
1245:
describes the effect of different light spectrum distributions on the perception of color.
1182:
Photographic and projection lamps with very high filament temperatures and short lifetimes
1057:
Spectrum of an incandescent lamp at 2200 K, showing most of its emission as invisible
983:
created the first double-coil bulb using a coiled coil tungsten filament while working for
784:
403:
344:. However such wires tended to melt or oxidize very rapidly (burn) in the presence of air.
265:
998:
attempted to fix prices and sales quotas for bulb manufacturers outside of North America.
543:
claimed he had designed the first incandescent light bulb in 1854, with a thin carbonized
8:
10399:
10197:
9670:
9339:
9334:
8948:
8921:
8069:
8054:
7706:
7676:
7390:
7249:
6714:
6692:
5372:"Revolutionary tungsten photonic crystal could provide more power for electrical devices"
5031:
4381:
3082:
2976:
2941:
2892:
2544:
2470:
1964:
1768:
1684:
1351:
1211:
1065:
964:
instead of a vacuum resulted in twice the luminous efficacy and reduced bulb blackening.
939:
797:
788:
719:
627:
623:
337:
128:
5833:
5785:
5510:
5449:
5248:. Director-General for Health and Consumers, European Commission. 2008. pp. 26–27.
4983:
3932:
3007:
1334:
filament. However, later work indicated that initially promising results were in error.
451:
10062:
9866:
9796:
9695:
9665:
9620:
9576:
9509:
9482:
9115:
9061:
8958:
8953:
8672:
8359:
8033:
7540:
7212:
6997:
6940:
6932:
5853:
5243:"Light Sensitivity, Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks"
4995:
4969:
4570:
4341:
3958:
3788:
2730:
2051:
1581:
1520:
1242:
845:
740:
681:
657:
124:
5431:"Tailoring high-temperature radiation and the resurrection of the incandescent source"
1671:
filament light bulb was the first one to have a metal filament. This one is from 1908.
1210:
The spectrum of light produced by an incandescent lamp closely approximates that of a
417:
invented an incandescent light bulb with a vacuum atmosphere using a carbon filament.
10423:
10419:
10357:
9945:
9831:
9690:
9324:
8985:
8859:
8741:
7924:
7838:
7620:
7082:
7030:
7002:
6922:
6760:
6748:
6704:
6632:
6578:
6277:
6237:
6162:
6116:
6052:
IEC 60064 Tungsten filament lamps for domestic and similar general lighting purposes.
6009:
5926:
5902:
5875:
5857:
5845:
5686:
5676:
5648:
5638:
5596:
5479:
5471:
5092:
5071:
5013:
4865:
4775:
4595:
4574:
4529:
4311:
4111:
4055:
4027:
4016:
3780:
3724:
3682:
3568:
3529:
3445:
3400:
3350:
3289:
3262:
3233:
3173:
3047:
2971:
2384:
1951:
1932:
1652:
1524:
1238:
1076:
1048:
932:
772:
698:
468:
372:
357:
234:
147:
6105:
5053:
3255:
2572:
lamps used in chandeliers, etc. Smaller candle-sized bulbs may use a smaller socket.
2021:
2003:
to react with any oxygen that may bake out of the lamp components during operation.
1804:
Manufacturers designate different forms of lamp filament with an alphanumeric code.
540:
10294:
10055:
9950:
9883:
9717:
9556:
9519:
9149:
9098:
9091:
8844:
8790:
8677:
8554:
7893:
7782:
7365:
7299:
7229:
7180:
6912:
6731:
6620:
6615:
6335:
6217:
6201:
6078:
5837:
5461:
5453:
5174:
4999:
4987:
4562:
3792:
3770:
3762:
3508:
3178:
3164:
3017:
2876:
2819:
2744:
2726:
2680:
2654:
Left to right: MR16 with GU10 base, MR16 with GU5.3 base, MR11 with GU4 or GZ4 base
2523:
2388:
2380:
1980:
1878:
1772:
1516:
1512:
1372:
1355:
1331:
1319:
1261:
1099:
950:
783:
when the lamp was lit, with resulting oxygen attacking the filament. In the 1880s,
771:
gave a ruling 8 October 1883, that Edison's patents were based on the prior art of
723:
715:
529:
421:
414:
407:
257:
230:
194:
8100:
1337:
Prompted by legislation in various countries mandating increased bulb efficiency,
779:
The main difficulty with evacuating the lamps was moisture inside the bulb, which
429:
workable design, the cost of the platinum made it impractical for commercial use.
10266:
10145:
9685:
9675:
9361:
9344:
9074:
9069:
8943:
8904:
8829:
8800:
8780:
8763:
8684:
8215:
7916:
7901:
7525:
7484:
7442:
7437:
7272:
7092:
6869:
6598:
6573:
3198:
2981:
2631:
2427:
1901:
1736:
1644:
1564:
1560:
957:
780:
458:
391:
186:
170:
5178:
1306:
637:
115:
Incandescent bulbs are manufactured in a wide range of sizes, light output, and
10112:
10013:
9965:
9913:
9856:
9808:
9712:
9680:
9561:
9487:
9299:
9277:
9125:
9103:
9086:
8916:
8894:
8716:
8403:
8188:
8176:
8079:
7943:
7869:
7777:
7767:
7413:
7304:
7195:
7159:
7132:
7102:
6969:
6588:
6583:
6062:
5894:
4960:
Murphy, Thomas W. (2012). "Maximum spectral luminous efficacy of white light".
4635:
3370:
2956:
2928:
2811:
2326:
2318:
2076:
1853:
1826:
1707:
1555:
1406:
995:
904:
814:
803:
706:
653:
631:
349:
182:
132:
85:
6523:
6518:
6179:
4658:
4566:
4310:) (Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore & London, 2003, pp. 115–116.
3118:
2646:
bulbs are usually smaller in size and run at a lower voltage, often 12 V.
2317:
of 1. Unlike discharge lamps or LED lamps, the power consumed is equal to the
1330:
initially indicated the potential for dramatically improved efficiency from a
897:
852:-bulb from 1906. This was the first light bulb that used a filament made from
588:
10441:
10172:
10127:
10042:
9786:
9771:
9749:
9732:
9571:
9527:
9460:
9319:
9311:
9282:
9252:
9210:
9166:
9144:
9120:
9049:
8689:
8649:
8610:
8578:
8460:
8166:
8064:
7635:
7599:
7494:
7224:
7127:
7122:
7044:
6945:
6852:
6830:
6656:
6637:
6593:
6357:
6200:, Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd. London, 1920 pp. 73–74, available from the
5849:
5305:
4779:
4708:
4484:
4290:
4000:
3917:
3784:
3766:
3600:
3418:
by Herman Goodman - American Journal of Clinical Medicine, 1928, Page 159-161
2914:
2856:
2756:
2706:
2047:
2042:
1703:
1385:
1080:
1006:
1002:
760:
755:
729:
663:
645:
619:
533:
521:
380:
353:
341:
329:
246:
226:
178:
97:
93:
5690:
5652:
3668:
3655:
2540:
Light emitted in (nearly) all directions. Available either clear or frosted.
1400:
Most light bulbs have either clear or coated glass. Coated glass bulbs have
1376:
wires embedded in the stem in turn support the filament and its lead wires.
1020:
975:, in which a coiled filament is then itself wrapped into a coil by use of a
10284:
10279:
10100:
9908:
9903:
9781:
9625:
9537:
9504:
9492:
9267:
9154:
9132:
8734:
8699:
8494:
8420:
8337:
8332:
8227:
7696:
7630:
7504:
7400:
7395:
7370:
7360:
7321:
7142:
7097:
6974:
6825:
6790:
6726:
6684:
6669:
6625:
6083:
5483:
5457:
5329:
3182:
2986:
2829:
2702:
2474:
2410:
2337:
2314:
2117:
2107:
2034:
2026:
2016:
1947:
1680:
1505:
1311:
1234:
1084:
984:
516:
384:
364:
238:
151:
37:
5953:
3979:
2490:⌀35 mm (~⌀11/8 in) candle-flame shape, ⌀12 mm Edison screw
1813:
Coiled coil filament of a 200-watt incandescent lightbulb highly magnified
1432:
1027:
in 1937, in a factory co-designed by Polányi and Hungarian-born physicist
371:
of immense size", consisting of 2,000 cells housed in the basement of the
245:
higher than other implementations which was achieved through the use of a
189:
are used for industrial processes such as paint curing and space heating.
10289:
10025:
9960:
9955:
9876:
9851:
9764:
9739:
9705:
9657:
9598:
9240:
9161:
9044:
9032:
8657:
8470:
8315:
8161:
7711:
7686:
7640:
7545:
7499:
7375:
7234:
6962:
6957:
6917:
6889:
6884:
6815:
6810:
6795:
6753:
6674:
6474:
6112:
6067:"On a peculiar behaviour of glow lamps when raised to high incandescence"
5466:
5139:
3775:
3709:
https://ilglobo.com/news/alessandro-crutos-incandescent-light-bulb-33135/
3141:"High Efficiency Incandescent Lighting | MIT Technology Licensing Office"
2837:
1987:
1968:
1882:
1874:
1863:
1836:
1702:
The Ribbon Machine works by passing a continuous ribbon of glass along a
1683:, was based on an adaptation of the Owens-Libbey bottle-blowing machine.
1540:
1279:
Since incandescent light bulbs use more energy than alternatives such as
1028:
841:
818:
582:
222:
7154:
6297:
3046:(Revised ed.). The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 29–31.
2685:
2071:
within the envelope. They provided the intense concentrated light of an
1782:
The predominant mechanism for failure in tungsten filaments even now is
10334:
10319:
9801:
9776:
9645:
9581:
9549:
9497:
9455:
9383:
9376:
9371:
9366:
9225:
9022:
9017:
9012:
8931:
8899:
8622:
8615:
8600:
8566:
8438:
8408:
8381:
8364:
8310:
8239:
8131:
7792:
7650:
7645:
7489:
7355:
7350:
7239:
7202:
7185:
7117:
7112:
7087:
6782:
5841:
2951:
2936:
2843:
2714:
2068:
2064:
1381:
501:
140:
5568:"Argon (Ar) Properties, Uses, Applications Argon Gas and Liquid Argon"
5475:
4991:
4415:
4107:
A Long, Dangerous Coastline: Shipwreck Tales from Alaska to California
3211:
Hughes, Thomas P. (1977). "Edison's method". In Pickett, W. B. (ed.).
2365:
the lamp reaches 90% of its full brightness after about 0.13 seconds.
2029:. The two ring-shaped structures left and right are filament supports.
1858:
1831:
1663:
1527:
that then gets deposited on the nearby surfaces or the bulb interior.
464:
10352:
10347:
10324:
10304:
9744:
9640:
9635:
9586:
9472:
9443:
9438:
9428:
9411:
9329:
9272:
9108:
9027:
8995:
8881:
8822:
8662:
8637:
8605:
8595:
8514:
8260:
8028:
7660:
7535:
7432:
7385:
6950:
6879:
6859:
5817:
5350:"The Incandescent Bulb Heads Offstage After Century-Long Performance"
3874:
3230:
American Genesis: A Century of Invention and Technological Enthusiasm
2946:
2693:
2399:
2322:
1996:
1544:
1536:
1083:) to the electrical power consumed. Luminous efficacy is measured in
961:
920:
572:
493:
345:
324:
174:
166:
165:
The heat produced by filaments is used in some applications, such as
119:
ratings, from 1.5 volts to about 300 volts. They require no external
109:
105:
6161:, Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, New York, 1981
6008:, Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, New York, 1981
5925:, Illuminating Engineering Society of North America, New York, 1981
4382:"The Nernst Lamp. Electrical Conductivity in Non-Metallic Materials"
2689:
40-watt light bulbs with standard E10, E14 and E27 Edison screw base
837:
Hanaman (left) and Just (right), the inventors of the tungsten bulbs
634:. It was lit by Joseph Swan's incandescent lamp on 3 February 1879.
48:
32:
10309:
10299:
10274:
9935:
9930:
9925:
9898:
9818:
9759:
9754:
9433:
9403:
9356:
9191:
9178:
9137:
9039:
8936:
8849:
8807:
8758:
8583:
8549:
8537:
8532:
8527:
8522:
8455:
8347:
8325:
8244:
8183:
8171:
7267:
7207:
6904:
6874:
6835:
6800:
6770:
6559:
6216:, McMillan and Co., Ltd., London 1920, pp. 97–98, available at the
5113:
3826:
Sir Joseph Swan and the Invention of the Incandescent Electric Lamp
3819:
3817:
3421:
3285:
Copper Wire and Electrical Conductors – The Shaping of a Technology
2504:⌀95 mm (~⌀30/8 in) flood light, ⌀26 mm Edison screw
2072:
1909:
1886:
1756:
1668:
1648:
1617:
1591:
1464:
1450:
1422:
1389:
1368:
1284:
1230:
1221:
Spectral power distribution of a 25 W incandescent light bulb.
1058:
946:
943:
928:
916:
908:
870:
853:
849:
672:
505:
481:
376:
269:
202:
159:
136:
57:
6336:"IS 14897 (2000): Glass Bulb Designation System for Lamps — Guide"
4974:
4862:
Revolution in lamps: a chronicle of 50 years of progress (2nd ed.)
3330:
APS News - November 9, 1825: Public Demonstration of the Limelight
1926:
is due to uneven evaporation of the filament. Small variations in
64:
10020:
9477:
9393:
9388:
9289:
9262:
9220:
9198:
8926:
8768:
8706:
8667:
8627:
8559:
8544:
8388:
8232:
8195:
7219:
7164:
6864:
6842:
5575:
5133:"Benchmarking Home Energy Savings from Energy-Efficient Lighting"
4935:"The Energy Efficiency of Light Bulbs Today Compared to the Past"
4846:, General Electric Company, Nela Park, Cleveland, OH (1964) pg. 3
4249:
The National Cyclopedia of American Biography, Vol VI 1896, p. 34
3648:"Henry Woodward and Mathew Evans Lamp retrieved 2010 February 16"
3588:
Edison Electric Light Co. vs. United States Electric Lighting Co.
2908:
2038:
1940:
1913:
1776:
1623:
1604:
1489:
1454:
1342:
1053:
1017:
988:
976:
912:
894:
866:
714:
as well; among other places, the first Edison light bulbs in the
564:
489:
485:
116:
7568:
3814:
2650:
1547:. The gas is at a pressure of about 70 kPa (0.7 atm).
1233:
have higher luminous efficiency. These devices produce light by
10342:
10314:
10095:
9700:
9603:
9566:
9235:
9186:
8990:
8911:
8864:
8795:
8785:
8571:
8504:
8450:
8320:
8287:
8275:
8270:
8249:
8210:
6847:
6805:
3891:. Newcastle University Library. 23 October 2013. Archived from
3675:
Discover Canada: The Rights and Responsibilities of Citizenship
2361:
2000:
1976:
1744:
1732:
1577:
1418:
1414:
1401:
1010:
901:
878:
822:
807:
711:
687:
668:
544:
497:
433:
432:
In 1841, Frederick de Moleyns of England was granted the first
425:
242:
101:
1193:
Theoretical maximum for a tungsten filament incandescent bulb
406:
demonstrated a constant electric light at a public meeting in
295:
150:
of a typical incandescent bulb for 120 V operation is 16
9893:
9846:
9791:
9630:
9615:
9532:
9257:
9245:
9215:
9203:
8975:
8839:
8834:
8812:
8753:
8746:
8588:
8475:
8433:
8342:
8280:
8265:
8205:
7530:
6894:
6820:
6475:"Tests shine light on the secret of the Livermore light bulb"
5818:"Life Prediction of Tungsten Filaments in Incandescent Lamps"
3721:
Die Göbel-Legende – Der Kampf um die Erfindung der Glühlampe.
3399:
Davis, L.J. "Fleet Fire." Arcade Publishing, New York, 2003.
2719:
2667:
2466:
2414:
Incandescent light bulbs come in a range of shapes and sizes.
2358:
1917:
1905:
1821:
Filament of a burnt-out 50-watt incandescent lightbulb in an
1611:
1587:
1458:
1446:
1079:, which is the ratio of the amount of visible light emitted (
924:
750:
528:
On 4 March 1880, just five months after Edison's light bulb,
390:
For the next 40 years much research was given to turning the
5899:
Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, Eleventh Edition
5872:
Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers, Eleventh Edition
5671:. Corning, New York: Corning Museum of Glass. 1999. p.
4223:. Electrician Publishing Company. 19 July 1890. p. 36.
3906:
Sir Joseph William Swan FRS (RSC National Chemical Landmark)
3474:
1476:
Support wires (one end embedded in stem; conduct no current)
9608:
9544:
9416:
9294:
9079:
9007:
8963:
8871:
8854:
8724:
8632:
8499:
8445:
8393:
8376:
8352:
8256:
8220:
8200:
6528:
5012:
Peter Lund, Helsinki University of Technology, on p. C5 in
3343:
The Royal Institution: Its Founder and Its First Professors
2423:
1946:
Since a filament breaking in a gas-filled bulb can form an
1809:
1409:
lights and other decorative lighting. These are created by
1024:
994:
Between 1924 and the outbreak of the Second World War, the
27:
Electric light bulb with a resistively heated wire filament
2313:
Incandescent lamps are nearly pure resistive loads with a
1149:
100 W tungsten incandescent (120 V, general service)
739:(later known as Ediswan, and ultimately incorporated into
735:
In Britain, the Edison and Swan companies merged into the
387:, by passing high current between two pieces of charcoal.
100:. The filament is enclosed in a glass bulb that is either
9940:
9861:
9841:
9836:
9727:
9448:
9423:
8482:
8398:
8371:
8292:
5511:"New development could lead to more effective lightbulbs"
5138:. Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. Archived from
3444:. Hauppauge NY: Barrons Educational Series. p. 305.
3004:
Many of the above lamps are illustrated and described in
2354:
1138:
60 W tungsten incandescent (120 V, general service)
1127:
40 W tungsten incandescent (120 V, general service)
607:
Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne
5942:
Burgin. Lighting Research and Technology 1984 16.2 61–72
4673:"Trial Production of the World's First Double-Coil Bulb"
2547:(A), elliptical (E), mushroom (M), sign (S), tubular (T)
2434:
C 7710:1988 cover a common terminology for bulb shapes.
6519:
Slow-motion video of an incandescent lightbulb filament
3030:
Edison's research team was aware of the large negative
2733:" standard base sizes were soon adopted across the US.
2663:
36:
A 230-volt incandescent light bulb with a medium-sized
6338:. New Delhi: Bureau of Indian Standards. pp. 1, 4
6093:
Preece coins the term the "Edison effect" on page 229.
3232:(2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
2697:
The double-contact bayonet cap on an incandescent bulb
1314:
with an E27 base, which can replace a non-halogen bulb
6524:
Ribbon machine in operation at Osram-Sylvania in 2016
5533:"Lamp Material Information Sheet – Incandescent Lamp"
3980:"Thomas Edison: Original Letters and Primary Sources"
2321:
in the circuit. Incandescent light bulbs are usually
1866:
glasses are recommended to view this image correctly.
1839:
glasses are recommended to view this image correctly.
1735:
has the highest melting point of any element, and in
949:
which could be made into filaments while working for
942:
developed a method of making "ductile tungsten" from
5800:
The Potassium Secret Behind Tungsten Wire Production
5110:"Efficient lighting equals higher heat bills: study"
5025:
4937:. kse-lights.co.uk. 13 February 2017. Archived from
4295:
by Lewis H. Latimer. Application on 19 February 1881
3843:"Dec. 18, 1878: Let There Be Light — Electric Light"
3217:. San Francisco: San Francisco Press. pp. 5–22.
2904:
1380:
The heated filament emits light that approximates a
8130:
5723:"Running the ribbon machine: Stories from the team"
5627:Graham, Margaret B. W.; Shuldiner, Alec T. (2001).
5218:
5038:
4953:
3618:"Patent no. 3738. Filing year 1874: Electric Light"
2722:base is often used for halogen or reflector lamps.
2336:The table shows the approximate typical output, in
1848:Filament of a 50-watt incandescent lightbulb in an
1388:, but most energy is given off as heat in the near-
6104:
4895:IEEE Standard 100: definition of luminous efficacy
4743:. New York City: Bonnier Corporation. p. 24.
4588:Nair, Govind B.; Dhoble, Sanjay J. (9 July 2020).
4015:
3957:
3748:"Switching the Light: From Chemical to Electrical"
3254:
2041:gas at low pressure, along with an inert gas. The
1643:Early light bulbs with carbon filaments also used
907:were granted a Hungarian patent (No. 34541) for a
821:, a form of incandescent lamp that used a ceramic
289:Timeline of the early evolution of the light bulb
154:per watt (lm/W), compared with 60 lm/W for a
6028:"Glass Blowing for Vacuum Devices – Lamp Autopsy"
5982:. Toshiba Lighting & Technology Corporation.
5574:. Universal Industrial Gases, Inc. Archived from
4153:. Electrical Engineer. 16 July 1890. p. 72.
4110:. Heritage House Publishing Company. p. 63.
3605:by A. de Lodyguine. Application on 4 January 1893
3012:. New York: The W. J. Johnston Company. pp.
1594:(7%), where argon is used for its inertness, low
641:Comparison of Edison, Maxim, and Swan bulbs, 1885
379:, chosen because the metal had an extremely high
352:in the early 19th century, by heating a piece of
10439:
6350:
4701:
4552:
4436:I. C. S. Reference Library Volume 4B, Scranton,
3741:
3739:
3737:
2828:as having been burning almost continuously at a
1892:
568:Carbon filament lamps, showing darkening of bulb
511:On 24 July 1874, a Canadian patent was filed by
319:
6220:, good schematic diagram of the Pointolite lamp
5792:
5626:
5221:"Incandescent Bulbs Return to the Cutting Edge"
4261:"A history of continuous change and innovation"
3006:Houston, Edwin J. & Kennely, A. E. (1896).
2879:is the longest-lasting light bulb in the world.
2613:230 V sizes: PAR 16, 20, 30, 38, 56 and 64
2610:120 V sizes: PAR 16, 20, 30, 38, 56 and 64
2329:consumed. This depends mainly on the operating
143:, and for decorative and advertising lighting.
6328:
6229:
4528:. New Delhi: I. K. International. p. 25.
3590:, Federal Reporter, F1, Vol. 47, 1891, p. 457.
3480:
3427:
3282:Blake-Coleman, B. C. (Barrie Charles) (1992).
3199:https://books.google.com/books?id=8U-Naf4DuzMC
3108:
3106:
3104:
3102:
3100:
3005:
2537:General Service/General Lighting Service (GLS)
1301:
1005:, an American chemist, patented a process for
763:for an improved electric lamp, 27 January 1880
596:, the first house to be lit by electric lights
221:list inventors of incandescent lamps prior to
8116:
7738:Edison Gower-Bell Telephone Company of Europe
7584:
6544:
6318:
6138:By D. M. Mattox – Springer 2004 Page 37
5890:
5888:
5633:. Oxford : Oxford University Press. pp.
5582:
4884:by Vincent Pegoraro - CRC Press 2017 Page 690
4844:Incandescent Lamps, Publication Number TP-110
4451:"GE Tantalum Filament 25W of American Design"
4018:Really useful: the origins of everyday things
3734:
3567:. New York: Seaview Books. pp. 120–121.
3523:
3492:
3464:
3318:Edison's Electric Light: The Art of Invention
3281:
3194:
3077:
3075:
3043:Edison's Electric Light: The Art of Invention
3039:
2784:consumption is approximately proportional to
2082:
881:was also used as a filament in lamps made by
559:
6182:. Museum of Electric Lamp Technology. 2004.
6136:The Foundations of Vacuum Coating Technology
5592:The Chemistry of Artificial Lighting Devices
5285:. Timeless Communications Corp. p. 46.
5028:"The Great Internet Light Bulb Book, Part I"
4765:
3995:
3993:
3670:Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada
3313:
3311:
3309:
3288:. Harwood Academic Publishers. p. 127.
2750:
1431:
1110:compares a broader array of light sources.
858:wire lamp with a drawn wire – indestructible
828:
697:in 1878 to exploit his patents and those of
6159:IES Lighting Handbook 1981 Reference Volume
6006:IES Lighting Handbook 1981 Reference Volume
5923:IES Lighting Handbook 1981 Reference Volume
5917:
5915:
5272:
5270:
5235:
5130:
4856:
4854:
4852:
4839:
4728:
4336:
4334:
4332:
3169:Light: A Very Peculiar Reactant and Product
3097:
3040:Friedel, Robert & Israel, Paul (2010).
2670:designation for a similar coating is "IRC".
2368:
1384:. The useful part of the emitted energy is
1341:incandescent bulbs have been introduced by
614:homes and landmarks in England. His house,
8123:
8109:
7591:
7577:
6551:
6537:
6223:
6096:
6071:Proceedings of the Royal Society of London
5885:
5562:
5560:
4837:
4835:
4833:
4831:
4829:
4827:
4825:
4823:
4821:
4819:
4587:
4521:
3072:
2822:" is a light bulb that is accepted by the
1291:emission reductions of 15 million tonnes.
1042:
856:instead of carbon. The inscription reads:
718:were installed at the weaving hall of the
6450:
6272:(in German) (25 ed.). Haan-Gruiten:
6102:
6082:
6025:
5465:
5196:European Commission - European Commission
5068:Colorimetry: Understanding the CIE System
5019:
4973:
4695:
4361:
4359:
4178:
4176:
4141:
4139:
3990:
3828:. Longmans, Green and Co. pp. 21–25.
3774:
3745:
3512:J.W. Starr: Cincinnati's Forgotten Genius
3439:
3433:
3306:
3252:
2347:
2057:
2025:Close-up of a tungsten filament inside a
1225:Light sources such as fluorescent lamps,
649:Edison carbon filament lamps, early 1880s
424:enclosed a coiled platinum filament in a
6493:"Watts Up? – A parting look at lighting"
6268:Häberle, Gregor D.; et al. (2013).
6214:An Introduction to Technical Electricity
5980:"Miniature Lamps: Technical Information"
5912:
5325:"Why the brightest idea needs tinkering"
5322:
5267:
4849:
4329:
4258:
3837:
3835:
3371:"Popular Science Monthly (Mar-Apr 1879)"
2891:Various lighting spectra as viewed in a
2775:output is approximately proportional to
2692:
2684:
2649:
2630:
2409:
2020:
1843:
1816:
1808:
1717:
1662:
1305:
1216:
1064:
1052:
840:
832:
791:. However, about 1893, Italian inventor
749:
652:
644:
636:
587:
571:
563:
463:
323:
158:bulb or 100 lm/W for typical white
63:
47:
31:
7052:
6451:Krajewski, Markus (24 September 2014).
6267:
5815:
5557:
5508:
5424:
5422:
5299:
4816:
3416:Clinical Medicine and Surgery Volume 35
3174:Angewandte Chemie International Edition
3081:Size measured in millimetres. See also
1790:
1371:wire inside the bulb, through which an
787:was used in combination with expensive
737:Edison and Swan United Electric Company
14:
10440:
8144:
7733:Edison and Swan Electric Light Company
6432:from the original on 19 September 2013
6061:
5811:
5809:
5807:
5750:
5748:
5622:
5620:
5618:
5616:
5404:from the original on 23 December 2015.
5398:Smithsonian Museum of American History
5382:from the original on 21 February 2013.
5214:
5212:
5120:from the original on 14 February 2011.
4959:
4806:"Ganz and Tungsram – the 20th century"
4702:Markus Krajewski (24 September 2014).
4453:. Museum of Electric Lamp Technology.
4356:
4300:
4209:
4173:
4136:
4103:
4097:
3955:
3524:Derry, T.K.; Williams, Trevor (1960).
3442:1001 Inventions That Changed The World
3381:from the original on 10 September 2015
3227:
3210:
1943:can be used to counteract the effect.
1873:Electrical filaments are also used in
1852:in stereoscopic mode, presented as an
1825:in stereoscopic mode, presented as an
1268:
935:with less reduction in filament life.
813:In 1897, German physicist and chemist
693:Albon Man, a New York lawyer, started
678:Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company
60:filament of an incandescent light bulb
10463:Discovery and invention controversies
10254:
9988:
8143:
8104:
7572:
6532:
6463:from the original on 6 November 2014.
6366:from the original on 11 November 2016
5986:from the original on 26 February 2019
5609:from the original on 6 December 2017.
5521:from the original on 13 January 2016.
5490:from the original on 14 February 2022
5394:"Prototype Heat-Mirror Tungsten Lamp"
5347:
5283:Projection, Lights & Staging News
5276:
5255:from the original on 12 November 2008
4734:
4683:from the original on 19 February 2017
4457:from the original on 13 November 2012
4379:
4052:Great Shipwrecks of the Pacific Coast
4049:
3986:from the original on 19 January 2012.
3930:
3866:
3853:from the original on 21 October 2016.
3832:
3802:from the original on 14 February 2022
3560:
3440:Challoner, Jack; et al. (2009).
3393:
3340:
3302:from the original on 6 December 2017.
3112:
3032:temperature coefficient of resistance
2635:A package of four 60-watt light bulbs
2531:
1749:temperature coefficient of resistance
1580:, used in small lamps. Provides best
1535:Most modern bulbs are filled with an
1275:Phase-out of incandescent light bulbs
207:phase-out of incandescent light bulbs
205:(LED). Some governments have begun a
10255:
7849:General Electric Research Laboratory
5960:from the original on 11 October 2011
5951:
5816:Raj, R.; King, G. W. (1 July 1978).
5733:from the original on 8 February 2019
5589:Ropp, Richard C. (22 October 2013).
5588:
5428:
5419:
5163:Nicholas A. A.Howarth, Jan Rosenow:
5124:
4786:from the original on 4 February 2021
4747:from the original on 4 February 2021
4716:from the original on 29 October 2017
4542:from the original on 2 January 2016.
4271:from the original on 9 December 2021
4227:from the original on 27 January 2017
4194:from the original on 27 January 2017
4157:from the original on 26 January 2017
4074:
4013:
3823:
3755:IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine
3060:from the original on 6 December 2017
2992:
2768:near the rated voltage of the lamp:
2601:Parabolic aluminized reflector (PAR)
2596:230 V sizes: R50, 63, 80 and 95
2593:120 V sizes: R16, 20, 25 and 30
1931:more energy, making them hotter – a
888:
554:
6481:from the original on 10 March 2012.
6250:from the original on 17 August 2021
6186:from the original on 1 August 2013.
5804:
5766:from the original on 1 January 2018
5756:"The machine that lit up the world"
5745:
5705:"Light Bulb: How Products are Made"
5630:Corning and the craft of innovation
5613:
5219:Leora Broydo Vestel (6 July 2009).
5209:
4911:. yuvaengineers.com. 23 June 2012.
4882:Handbook of Digital Image Synthesis
4608:from the original on 17 August 2021
4594:. Woodhead Publishing. p. 22.
4259:Kautonen, Mika (18 November 2015).
4217:"The Westinghouse Electric Company"
4190:. Delano. 19 July 1890. p. 9.
4085:from the original on 3 January 2021
4081:. Edison's institute. p. 564.
4038:bamboo filament edison patent 1200.
4022:. New York: Firefly Books. p.
3177:54, Issue 39, (2015), 11320–11337,
3167:, Giacomo Bergamini, Paola Ceroni,
2387:: if a broken filament produces an
1747:. Carbon filaments have a negative
1679:The Westlake machine, developed by
1248:
328:Original carbon-filament bulb from
68:Elaborate light in Denver, Colorado
24:
6308:from the original on 20 July 2013.
6091:from the original on 26 June 2014.
6034:from the original on 11 March 2007
5572:Gas Properties, Uses, Applications
5337:from the original on 20 June 2013.
5289:from the original on 6 March 2014.
5279:"Incandescent's Not-So-Dim Future"
4396:from the original on 17 July 2013.
4078:Menlo Park reminiscences, Volume 2
1957:
1573:The most commonly used fills are:
1205:
127:, and work equally well on either
25:
10484:
10222:Social construction of technology
7598:
6506:
6236:, Cengage Learning, p. 163,
5870:Donald G. Fink, H. Wayne Beatty,
5509:McGrath, Matt (12 January 2016).
5360:from the original on 18 May 2013.
5323:Hamilton, Tyler (22 April 2009).
5300:Freeman, Kim (23 February 2007).
5231:from the original on 12 May 2011.
5089:Motion Picture and Video Lighting
4915:from the original on 7 March 2017
4293:Process OF Manufacturing Carbons.
3982:. Shapell Manuscript Foundation.
3603:Illuminant for Incandescent Lamps
2802:is approximately proportional to
2793:is approximately proportional to
1690:
1122:Overall luminous efficacy (lm/W)
671:in the early 1880s and then with
10418:
10406:
10395:
10394:
9989:
8090:Thomas Alva Edison silver dollar
8050:Thomas Edison in popular culture
7844:Storage Battery Company Building
6485:
6467:
6453:"The Great Lightbulb Conspiracy"
6444:
6418:
6400:
6378:
6290:
6261:
6206:
6190:
6172:
6151:
6141:
6129:
6055:
6046:
6019:
5998:
5972:
5945:
5936:
5864:
5778:
5715:
5697:
5659:
5545:from the original on 21 May 2013
5525:
5502:
4909:"End of Incandescent Light Bulb"
4864:, The Fairmont Press, Inc. 2001
4704:"The Great Lightbulb Conspiracy"
4124:from the original on 22 May 2020
3024:
2921:
2907:
2884:
2868:
2550:120 V sizes: A17, 19 and 21
2522:, 5.33 mm-spaced 12 V
2088:Comparison of efficacy by power
2010:
1999:are placed within the lamp as a
1857:
1830:
1658:
1543:of the filament and prevent its
10407:
10210:Timeline of historic inventions
7910:The Wizard of Evergreen Terrace
7068:Parabolic aluminized reflector
6359:JIS C 7710:1988 電球類ガラス管球の形式の表し方
5901:, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1978,
5408:
5386:
5364:
5341:
5316:
5293:
5277:Daley, Dan (27 February 2008).
5184:
5157:
5102:
5081:
5060:
5006:
4927:
4901:
4887:
4875:
4798:
4759:
4665:
4650:
4620:
4581:
4546:
4515:
4491:
4469:
4443:
4430:
4400:
4373:
4320:
4283:
4252:
4243:
4068:
4043:
4007:
3972:
3949:
3931:Burns, Elmer Ellsworth (1910).
3924:
3910:
3899:
3881:
3857:
3713:
3702:
3662:
3640:
3610:
3593:
3581:
3554:
3542:
3517:
3502:
3409:
3363:
3334:
3323:
3214:Technology at the Turning Point
2998:
2063:scientific instruments such as
1728:How a tungsten filament is made
1482:Contact wire (goes out of stem)
1473:Contact wire (goes out of stem)
1362:
960:found that filling a lamp with
340:demonstrated heating a wire to
279:Technology at the Turning Point
7788:Motion Picture Patents Company
7773:Edison Storage Battery Company
7763:Edison Portland Cement Company
7013:Hydrargyrum medium-arc iodide
6298:"Light and Lighting Fun Facts"
5070:, John Wiley & Sons, 2007
4735:Payne, Kenneth Wilcox (1927).
4438:International Textbook Company
4151:Electrical Engineer, Volume 10
3275:
3246:
3221:
3204:
3158:
3133:
3009:Electric Incandescent Lighting
2825:Guinness Book of World Records
2605:Parabolic aluminized reflector
2405:
1417:; which is often a metal like
1227:high-intensity discharge lamps
616:Underhill, Low Fell, Gateshead
413:In 1838, Belgian lithographer
217:Historians Robert Friedel and
209:to reduce energy consumption.
199:high-intensity discharge lamps
13:
1:
5348:Rahim, Saqib (28 June 2010).
5026:Klipstein, Donald L. (1996).
4659:US patent 1247068: "Filament"
3934:The story of great inventions
3551:. Retrieved 16 February 2010.
3526:A Short History of Technology
3091:
2674:
2561:Lamps greater than 200 watts.
2518:⌀50 mm (~⌀16/8 in)
1893:Reducing filament evaporation
1470:Contact wire (goes into stem)
1255:Architectural lighting design
971:was granted a patent for the
695:Electro-Dynamic Light Company
367:used what he described as "a
320:Early pre-commercial research
185:toy. Quartz envelope halogen
108:to protect the filament from
89:
7979:The Execution of Mary Stuart
7753:Edison Manufacturing Company
6558:
6426:"Single-Ended Halogen Bases"
5822:Metallurgical Transactions A
5376:Sandia National Laboratories
5131:Anil Parekh (January 2008).
4774:. Bonnier Corporation: 125.
4188:Electrical Review, Volume 16
3481:Houston & Kennely (1896)
3428:Houston & Kennely (1896)
2558:High Wattage General Service
2553:230 V sizes: A55 and 60
2469:60 mm (~⌀19/8 in)
2054:is one typical application.
1328:Sandia National Laboratories
1324:high efficiency incandescent
54:scanning electron microscope
7:
10234:Technology acceptance model
7960:Tales from the Bully Pulpit
7743:Edison Illuminating Company
7258:Automotive light bulb types
7108:Intelligent street lighting
6319:Friedel & Israel (2010)
6270:Tabellenbuch Elektrotechnik
5179:10.1016/j.enpol.2013.11.060
4772:The Popular Science Monthly
4766:Bonnier Corp (March 1949).
4408:"Walther Nernst Chronology"
3960:Edison: a Life of Invention
3622:Library and Archives Canada
3528:. Oxford University Press.
3493:Friedel & Israel (2010)
3465:Friedel & Israel (2010)
3253:Josephson, Matthew (1959).
3195:Friedel & Israel (2010)
2967:Longest-lasting light bulbs
2900:
2640:Multifaceted reflector (MR)
2422:National standards such as
1713:
1530:
1427:
1302:Efforts to improve efficacy
1119:Overall luminous efficiency
769:United States Patent Office
471:on 1951 Soviet postal stamp
420:In 1840, British scientist
10:
10489:
7798:Oriental Telephone Company
7758:Edison Ore-Milling Company
7021:Hydrargyrum quartz iodide
6198:The Electric Lamp Industry
6026:Hunt, Robert (2001–2006).
4962:Journal of Applied Physics
4522:Giridharan, M. K. (2010).
4477:"The Osmium Filament Lamp"
4380:Mills, Allan (June 2013).
3723:Zu Klampen, Springe 2007,
3347:Cambridge University Press
3228:Hughes, Thomas P. (2004).
2754:
2678:
2578:230 V sizes: P45, G95
2083:Electrical characteristics
2014:
1272:
1252:
1046:
877:From 1898 to around 1905,
603:Newcastle Chemical Society
560:Carbon filament and vacuum
212:
203:light-emitting diode lamps
10389:
10368:Technological convergence
10333:
10265:
10261:
10250:
10227:Technological determinism
10183:
10168:Technological singularity
10136:
10078:
10041:
9999:
9995:
9984:
9817:
9656:
9518:
9402:
9310:
9177:
9060:
8880:
8715:
8648:
8513:
8419:
8303:
8154:
8150:
8139:
8042:
8021:
7970:
7952:Edison's Conquest of Mars
7935:
7885:
7862:
7829:Memorial Tower and Museum
7806:
7720:
7669:
7606:
7513:
7468:
7460:Stage lighting instrument
7409:
7332:
7248:
7173:
7043:
6983:
6931:
6903:
6781:
6683:
6655:
6646:
6566:
6390:GE Lighting North America
4860:Raymond Kane, Heinz Sell
4567:10.1557/S0883769400045164
4525:Electrical Systems Design
4499:"The History of Tungsram"
4050:Belyk, Robert C. (2001).
2751:Light output and lifetime
2373:
2097:
2094:
829:Metal filament, inert gas
448:Jean Eugène Robert-Houdin
356:to incandescence with an
348:became a popular form of
281:, edited by W. B. Pickett
10448:Incandescent light bulbs
10363:Research and development
10193:Diffusion of innovations
10158:Technological utopianism
10051:Environmental technology
7834:National Historical Park
7626:Edison's Phonograph Doll
7521:Battlefield illumination
7278:high-intensity discharge
6710:Electrochemiluminescence
6358:
6274:Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel
6180:"Incandescent Arc Lamps"
6148:10.1109/IAS.2006.256780.
4104:Dalton, Anthony (2011).
3767:10.1109/MIE.2015.2454038
2509:Halogen track-light bulb
2369:Physical characteristics
2308:
1445:Low pressure inert gas (
1395:
951:General Electric Company
82:incandescent light globe
10458:19th-century inventions
10086:Government by algorithm
10068:Sustainable engineering
10033:Precautionary principle
9827:Artificial intelligence
8085:Statue of Thomas Edison
7692:Incandescent light bulb
7381:Electroluminescent wire
6410:. Osram. Archived from
6230:Wells, Quentin (2012),
6196:G. Arncliffe Percival,
5786:"Tungsten Wire History"
4968:(10): 104909–104909–6.
4265:Smart Tampere Ecosystem
4004:granted 27 January 1880
3549:"John Wellington Starr"
2701:Large lamps may have a
2564:Types: Pear-shaped (PS)
1967:, the invention of the
1043:Efficacy and efficiency
74:incandescent light bulb
10151:Technology forecasting
10118:Strategy of Technology
10009:Appropriate technology
8890:Agricultural machinery
7876:Theodore Miller Edison
7793:Mine Safety Appliances
7728:Thomas A. Edison, Inc.
7616:List of Edison patents
7063:Multifaceted reflector
6408:"IRC Saver calculator"
6103:Josephson, M. (1959).
6084:10.1098/rspl.1884.0093
5458:10.1038/nnano.2015.309
4662:, filed 4 October 1913
4147:"Reports of Companies"
4075:Jehl, Francis (1936).
3746:Guarnieri, M. (2015).
3731:(german, dissertation)
3719:Hans-Christian Rohde:
3561:Conot, Robert (1979).
3183:10.1002/anie.201502325
2698:
2690:
2655:
2644:Multifaceted reflector
2636:
2520:multifaceted reflector
2415:
2348:Current and resistance
2058:Incandescent arc lamps
2030:
1973:evaporation deposition
1868:
1841:
1814:
1784:grain boundary sliding
1729:
1672:
1436:
1315:
1298:of fluorescent lamps.
1222:
1071:
1062:
883:Carl Auer von Welsbach
861:
838:
764:
745:Brush Electric Company
722:'s textile factory in
660:
650:
642:
597:
579:
577:Sir Joseph Wilson Swan
569:
472:
333:
284:
69:
61:
45:
10123:Technology assessment
10108:Persuasive technology
10091:Intellectual property
10079:Policy & politics
8695:Interchangeable parts
7453:ellipsoidal reflector
7058:Ellipsoidal reflector
6742:Fluorescent induction
6720:field-induced polymer
6063:Preece, William Henry
5954:"Premium Fill Gasses"
5711:on 14 September 2010.
5438:Nature Nanotechnology
5429:Ilic, Ognjen (2016).
5173:67, (2014), 737–746,
4737:"A $ 10,000 Accident"
4291:U.S. Patent 252, 386
4184:"Electric Light News"
4001:U.S. patent 0,223,898
3956:Israel, Paul (1998).
3939:Harper & Brothers
3918:U.S. patent 0,214,636
3872:"The Savoy Theatre",
3341:Jones, Bence (2011).
3115:"The Nature of Light"
2962:List of light sources
2834:Livermore, California
2764:For a supply voltage
2696:
2688:
2653:
2634:
2413:
2024:
1847:
1820:
1812:
1727:
1666:
1442:Outline of Glass bulb
1435:
1347:Halogena Energy Saver
1309:
1220:
1068:
1056:
1047:Further information:
893:On 13 December 1904,
844:
836:
756:U.S. patent 0,223,898
753:
656:
648:
640:
592:Historical plaque at
591:
575:
567:
467:
332:'s shop in Menlo Park
327:
277:Thomas P. Hughes, in
262:
233:. They conclude that
67:
51:
35:
10373:Technology lifecycle
10163:Technocracy movement
9921:Programming language
9594:Particle accelerator
9468:Laboratory glassware
8134:and related concepts
8060:Pearl Street Station
7748:Edison Machine Works
7656:Quadruplex telegraph
7290:Rear position lights
7263:Daytime running lamp
7191:Mechanically powered
7078:Aviation obstruction
6513:Light Source Spectra
6414:on 23 December 2008.
6386:"Lighting Resources"
6157:John Kaufman (ed.),
6077:(235–238): 219–230.
6004:John Kaufman (ed.),
5921:John Kaufman (ed.),
5897:and H. Wayne Beaty,
5874:, McGraw Hill, 1978
5668:Innovations in glass
5595:. Elsevier Science.
5066:Janos Schanda (ed),
5050:edisontechcenter.org
5046:"Incandescent Lamps"
3849:. 18 December 2009.
3658:on 19 February 2005.
3601:U.S. Patent 575,002
3113:Keefe, T.J. (2007).
2457:"Standard" lightbulb
1791:Coiled coil filament
1596:thermal conductivity
1352:interference filters
973:coiled coil filament
789:mercury vacuum pumps
785:phosphoric anhydride
404:James Bowman Lindsay
121:regulating equipment
40:(Edison 27 mm)
10198:Technology transfer
9889:Client–server model
9340:CRISPR gene editing
9335:Genetic engineering
8922:Internal combustion
8070:Thomas Edison House
8055:War of the currents
7707:Thermionic emission
7702:Nickel–iron battery
7682:Edison–Lalande cell
7677:Consolidated Edison
6698:Electron-stimulated
6499:on 7 February 2009.
6477:. 6 February 2011.
5834:1978MTA.....9..941R
5762:. 27 January 2017.
5578:on 4 February 2012.
5450:2016NatNa..11..320I
5091:, Routledge, 2018,
4984:2012JAP...111j4909M
4628:"Burnie Lee Benbow"
4487:on 12 October 2008.
4418:on 22 February 2015
4221:Western Electrician
4054:. New York: Wiley.
4014:Levy, Joel (2002).
3889:"Electric lighting"
3257:Edison: a biography
3083:A-series light bulb
2977:Photometry (optics)
2942:Flash (photography)
2893:diffraction grating
2439:
2089:
1965:thermionic emission
1769:William D. Coolidge
1685:Corning Glass Works
1610:Krypton mixed with
1382:continuous spectrum
1269:Measures to ban use
1212:black body radiator
940:William D. Coolidge
848:advertising of the
628:Newcastle upon Tyne
624:City of Westminster
522:U.S. patent 181,613
338:Ebenezer Kinnersley
156:compact fluorescent
129:alternating current
125:manufacturing costs
10468:English inventions
10453:1878 introductions
10063:Sustainable design
9797:Integrated circuit
9621:Telecommunications
9577:Optical instrument
8673:Injection moulding
8360:Musical instrument
8145:Major technologies
8034:Edisonian approach
7541:Luminous gemstones
6715:Electroluminescent
6693:Cathodoluminescent
5842:10.1007/BF02649838
5788:. 4 December 2020.
5729:. 9 January 2018.
5354:The New York Times
5225:The New York Times
5145:on 30 January 2016
4872:page 37, table 2-1
3824:Swan, K R (1946).
2699:
2691:
2656:
2637:
2532:Common shape codes
2437:
2416:
2087:
2052:optical microscopy
2031:
1869:
1842:
1815:
1730:
1673:
1582:thermal insulation
1521:tungsten pentoxide
1495:Electrical contact
1479:Stem (glass mount)
1437:
1411:coloring the glass
1316:
1239:color temperatures
1223:
1072:
1063:
987:(a predecessor of
862:
839:
765:
741:Thorn Lighting Ltd
661:
658:Thomas Alva Edison
651:
643:
598:
580:
570:
473:
439:In 1845, American
334:
70:
62:
46:
18:Incandescent light
10435:
10434:
10385:
10384:
10381:
10380:
10358:Mature technology
10246:
10245:
10242:
10241:
9980:
9979:
9976:
9975:
9946:Graphics software
9325:Blood transfusion
8986:Epicyclic gearing
8818:Archimedes' screw
8098:
8097:
8003:A Night of Terror
7621:Carbon microphone
7566:
7565:
7083:Balanced-arm lamp
7039:
7038:
6923:Yablochkov candle
6791:Acetylene/Carbide
6761:Radioluminescence
6633:Luminous efficacy
6579:Color temperature
6283:978-3-8085-3227-0
6122:978-0-07-033046-7
5304:(Press release).
5056:on 14 March 2013.
5014:Helsingin Sanomat
4992:10.1063/1.4721897
4812:on 30 March 2009.
4768:"Popular Science"
4601:978-0-12-823161-6
3964:. Wiley. p.
3729:978-3-86674-006-8
3688:978-0-660-39273-8
3239:978-0-22635-927-4
3053:978-0-8018-9482-4
2993:Explanatory notes
2972:Over-illumination
2800:Color temperature
2529:
2528:
2481:Candle-flame bulb
2342:energy efficiency
2325:according to the
2306:
2305:
1933:positive feedback
1924:Filament notching
1879:fluorescent lamps
1867:
1840:
1725:
1525:tungsten trioxide
1501:
1500:
1356:photonic crystals
1203:
1202:
1108:luminous efficacy
1087:per watt (lm/W).
1077:luminous efficacy
1049:Luminous efficacy
969:Burnie Lee Benbow
889:Tungsten filament
806:as the so-called
555:Commercialization
477:Alexander Lodygin
475:In 1872, Russian
469:Alexander Lodygin
373:Royal Institution
358:oxyhydrogen torch
317:
316:
195:fluorescent lamps
148:luminous efficacy
78:incandescent lamp
16:(Redirected from
10480:
10422:
10410:
10409:
10398:
10397:
10263:
10262:
10256:Related concepts
10252:
10251:
10056:Clean technology
9997:
9996:
9986:
9985:
9951:Operating system
9557:Magnetic storage
9520:Electromagnetism
9150:Air conditioning
9099:Geothermal power
8845:Block and tackle
8791:Four-bar linkage
8678:Lost-wax casting
8555:Horseback riding
8152:
8151:
8141:
8140:
8125:
8118:
8111:
8102:
8101:
7894:Young Tom Edison
7783:General Electric
7593:
7586:
7579:
7570:
7569:
7366:Christmas lights
7300:Safety reflector
7295:Reversing lights
7230:Navigation light
7181:Bicycle lighting
7071:
7024:
7016:
6990:
6749:Photoluminescent
6732:Fluorescent lamp
6705:Chemiluminescent
6653:
6652:
6621:Bi-pin lamp base
6616:Lightbulb socket
6553:
6546:
6539:
6530:
6529:
6501:
6500:
6495:. Archived from
6489:
6483:
6482:
6471:
6465:
6464:
6448:
6442:
6441:
6439:
6437:
6428:. Bulbster.com.
6422:
6416:
6415:
6404:
6398:
6397:
6392:. Archived from
6382:
6376:
6375:
6373:
6371:
6354:
6348:
6347:
6345:
6343:
6332:
6326:
6316:
6310:
6309:
6302:donklipstein.com
6294:
6288:
6287:
6265:
6259:
6258:
6257:
6255:
6227:
6221:
6218:Internet Archive
6212:S. G. Starling,
6210:
6204:
6202:Internet Archive
6194:
6188:
6187:
6176:
6170:
6155:
6149:
6145:
6139:
6133:
6127:
6126:
6110:
6100:
6094:
6092:
6086:
6059:
6053:
6050:
6044:
6043:
6041:
6039:
6023:
6017:
6002:
5996:
5995:
5993:
5991:
5976:
5970:
5969:
5967:
5965:
5949:
5943:
5940:
5934:
5919:
5910:
5892:
5883:
5868:
5862:
5861:
5813:
5802:
5796:
5790:
5789:
5782:
5776:
5775:
5773:
5771:
5760:Behind the Glass
5752:
5743:
5742:
5740:
5738:
5727:Behind the Glass
5719:
5713:
5712:
5707:. Archived from
5701:
5695:
5694:
5663:
5657:
5656:
5624:
5611:
5610:
5586:
5580:
5579:
5564:
5555:
5554:
5552:
5550:
5544:
5537:
5529:
5523:
5522:
5506:
5500:
5499:
5497:
5495:
5469:
5435:
5426:
5417:
5416:
5412:
5406:
5405:
5390:
5384:
5383:
5368:
5362:
5361:
5345:
5339:
5338:
5320:
5314:
5313:
5308:. Archived from
5297:
5291:
5290:
5274:
5265:
5264:
5262:
5260:
5254:
5247:
5239:
5233:
5232:
5216:
5207:
5206:
5204:
5202:
5188:
5182:
5161:
5155:
5154:
5152:
5150:
5144:
5137:
5128:
5122:
5121:
5116:. 4 March 2009.
5106:
5100:
5085:
5079:
5064:
5058:
5057:
5052:. Archived from
5042:
5036:
5035:
5030:. Archived from
5023:
5017:
5016:23 October 2007.
5010:
5004:
5003:
4977:
4957:
4951:
4950:
4948:
4946:
4931:
4925:
4924:
4922:
4920:
4905:
4899:
4898:
4891:
4885:
4879:
4873:
4858:
4847:
4841:
4814:
4813:
4808:. Archived from
4802:
4796:
4795:
4793:
4791:
4763:
4757:
4756:
4754:
4752:
4732:
4726:
4725:
4723:
4721:
4699:
4693:
4692:
4690:
4688:
4679:. TOSHIBA CORP.
4669:
4663:
4661:
4654:
4648:
4647:
4645:
4643:
4634:. Archived from
4624:
4618:
4617:
4615:
4613:
4585:
4579:
4578:
4550:
4544:
4543:
4519:
4513:
4512:
4510:
4504:. Archived from
4503:
4495:
4489:
4488:
4483:. Archived from
4473:
4467:
4466:
4464:
4462:
4447:
4441:
4434:
4428:
4427:
4425:
4423:
4414:. Archived from
4404:
4398:
4397:
4377:
4371:
4370:
4363:
4354:
4353:
4351:
4349:
4344:. Lamptech.co.uk
4338:
4327:
4324:
4318:
4306:Fouché, Rayvon,
4304:
4298:
4297:
4287:
4281:
4280:
4278:
4276:
4256:
4250:
4247:
4241:
4240:
4234:
4232:
4213:
4207:
4206:
4201:
4199:
4180:
4171:
4170:
4164:
4162:
4143:
4134:
4133:
4131:
4129:
4101:
4095:
4094:
4092:
4090:
4072:
4066:
4065:
4047:
4041:
4040:
4021:
4011:
4005:
4003:
3997:
3988:
3987:
3976:
3970:
3969:
3963:
3953:
3947:
3946:
3928:
3922:
3920:
3914:
3908:
3903:
3897:
3896:
3885:
3879:
3878:, 3 October 1881
3870:
3864:
3861:
3855:
3854:
3839:
3830:
3829:
3821:
3812:
3811:
3809:
3807:
3801:
3778:
3752:
3743:
3732:
3717:
3711:
3706:
3700:
3699:
3697:
3695:
3680:
3666:
3660:
3659:
3654:. Archived from
3644:
3638:
3637:
3635:
3633:
3624:. Archived from
3614:
3608:
3607:
3597:
3591:
3585:
3579:
3578:
3564:A Streak of Luck
3558:
3552:
3546:
3540:
3539:
3521:
3515:
3509:Charles D. Wrege
3506:
3500:
3490:
3484:
3478:
3472:
3462:
3456:
3455:
3437:
3431:
3425:
3419:
3413:
3407:
3397:
3391:
3390:
3388:
3386:
3367:
3361:
3360:
3338:
3332:
3327:
3321:
3315:
3304:
3303:
3279:
3273:
3272:
3260:
3250:
3244:
3243:
3225:
3219:
3218:
3208:
3202:
3192:
3186:
3165:Vincenzo Balzani
3162:
3156:
3155:
3153:
3151:
3137:
3131:
3130:
3128:
3126:
3121:on 23 April 2012
3117:. Archived from
3110:
3086:
3079:
3070:
3069:
3067:
3065:
3028:
3022:
3021:
3018:Internet Archive
3016:–42 – via
3002:
2931:
2926:
2925:
2917:
2912:
2911:
2888:
2877:Centennial Light
2872:
2844:Photoflood lamps
2820:Centennial Light
2745:lightbulb socket
2743:Contacts in the
2727:General Electric
2711:automotive lamps
2681:Lightbulb socket
2625:
2624:
2620:
2524:bi-pin connector
2440:
2436:
2389:electrical short
2381:electric current
2327:electrical power
2123:Efficacy (lm/W)
2090:
2086:
1981:optical coatings
1862:
1861:
1835:
1834:
1773:General Electric
1737:carbon arc lamps
1726:
1556:molecular weight
1517:tungsten dioxide
1513:tungsten nitride
1428:
1373:electric current
1332:photonic lattice
1320:General Electric
1262:air conditioning
1249:Cost of lighting
1113:
1112:
1100:air conditioning
801:
793:Arturo Malignani
758:
724:Tampere, Finland
716:Nordic countries
530:Alessandro Cruto
524:
452:Château de Blois
422:Warren De la Rue
415:Marcellin Jobard
408:Dundee, Scotland
286:
285:
282:
235:Edison's version
231:General Electric
187:infrared heaters
21:
10488:
10487:
10483:
10482:
10481:
10479:
10478:
10477:
10438:
10437:
10436:
10431:
10430:
10377:
10329:
10267:Applied science
10257:
10238:
10179:
10146:Futures studies
10132:
10074:
10037:
9991:
9972:
9813:
9686:Electrical grid
9676:Circuit breaker
9652:
9514:
9398:
9362:Medical imaging
9345:Genetic testing
9306:
9173:
9056:
8944:Heavy equipment
8905:Washing machine
8876:
8801:Rack and pinion
8711:
8685:Mass production
8644:
8509:
8415:
8299:
8146:
8135:
8129:
8099:
8094:
8038:
8017:
7966:
7931:
7917:The Current War
7902:Edison, the Man
7881:
7858:
7802:
7716:
7665:
7608:
7602:
7597:
7567:
7562:
7526:Bioluminescence
7509:
7478:
7464:
7421:
7405:
7344:
7328:
7244:
7169:
7093:Emergency light
7069:
7035:
7022:
7014:
6988:
6986:
6979:
6927:
6899:
6870:Magnesium torch
6777:
6679:
6648:
6642:
6599:Light pollution
6574:Accent lighting
6562:
6557:
6509:
6504:
6491:
6490:
6486:
6473:
6472:
6468:
6449:
6445:
6435:
6433:
6424:
6423:
6419:
6406:
6405:
6401:
6396:on 3 July 2007.
6384:
6383:
6379:
6369:
6367:
6362:(in Japanese).
6360:
6356:
6355:
6351:
6341:
6339:
6334:
6333:
6329:
6317:
6313:
6296:
6295:
6291:
6284:
6276:. p. 190.
6266:
6262:
6253:
6251:
6244:
6233:Smart Grid Home
6228:
6224:
6211:
6207:
6195:
6191:
6178:
6177:
6173:
6156:
6152:
6146:
6142:
6134:
6130:
6123:
6101:
6097:
6060:
6056:
6051:
6047:
6037:
6035:
6024:
6020:
6003:
5999:
5989:
5987:
5978:
5977:
5973:
5963:
5961:
5952:Lipstein, Don.
5950:
5946:
5941:
5937:
5920:
5913:
5893:
5886:
5869:
5865:
5814:
5805:
5797:
5793:
5784:
5783:
5779:
5769:
5767:
5754:
5753:
5746:
5736:
5734:
5721:
5720:
5716:
5703:
5702:
5698:
5683:
5665:
5664:
5660:
5645:
5625:
5614:
5603:
5587:
5583:
5566:
5565:
5558:
5548:
5546:
5542:
5535:
5531:
5530:
5526:
5507:
5503:
5493:
5491:
5433:
5427:
5420:
5414:
5413:
5409:
5392:
5391:
5387:
5378:. 7 July 2003.
5370:
5369:
5365:
5346:
5342:
5321:
5317:
5312:on 16 May 2013.
5298:
5294:
5275:
5268:
5258:
5256:
5252:
5245:
5241:
5240:
5236:
5217:
5210:
5200:
5198:
5190:
5189:
5185:
5162:
5158:
5148:
5146:
5142:
5135:
5129:
5125:
5108:
5107:
5103:
5086:
5082:
5065:
5061:
5044:
5043:
5039:
5024:
5020:
5011:
5007:
4958:
4954:
4944:
4942:
4941:on 7 March 2017
4933:
4932:
4928:
4918:
4916:
4907:
4906:
4902:
4893:
4892:
4888:
4880:
4876:
4859:
4850:
4842:
4817:
4804:
4803:
4799:
4789:
4787:
4764:
4760:
4750:
4748:
4741:Popular Science
4733:
4729:
4719:
4717:
4700:
4696:
4686:
4684:
4671:
4670:
4666:
4657:
4655:
4651:
4641:
4639:
4638:on 12 June 2012
4626:
4625:
4621:
4611:
4609:
4602:
4586:
4582:
4551:
4547:
4536:
4520:
4516:
4511:on 30 May 2005.
4508:
4501:
4497:
4496:
4492:
4475:
4474:
4470:
4460:
4458:
4449:
4448:
4444:
4440:, 1908, no ISBN
4435:
4431:
4421:
4419:
4406:
4405:
4401:
4378:
4374:
4365:
4364:
4357:
4347:
4345:
4340:
4339:
4330:
4325:
4321:
4305:
4301:
4289:
4288:
4284:
4274:
4272:
4257:
4253:
4248:
4244:
4230:
4228:
4215:
4214:
4210:
4197:
4195:
4182:
4181:
4174:
4160:
4158:
4145:
4144:
4137:
4127:
4125:
4118:
4102:
4098:
4088:
4086:
4073:
4069:
4062:
4048:
4044:
4034:
4012:
4008:
3999:
3998:
3991:
3978:
3977:
3973:
3954:
3950:
3929:
3925:
3916:
3915:
3911:
3904:
3900:
3895:on 6 June 2014.
3887:
3886:
3882:
3871:
3867:
3862:
3858:
3841:
3840:
3833:
3822:
3815:
3805:
3803:
3799:
3750:
3744:
3735:
3718:
3714:
3707:
3703:
3693:
3691:
3689:
3678:
3667:
3663:
3646:
3645:
3641:
3631:
3629:
3628:on 19 June 2013
3616:
3615:
3611:
3599:
3598:
3594:
3586:
3582:
3575:
3559:
3555:
3547:
3543:
3536:
3522:
3518:
3507:
3503:
3491:
3487:
3479:
3475:
3463:
3459:
3452:
3438:
3434:
3426:
3422:
3414:
3410:
3398:
3394:
3384:
3382:
3369:
3368:
3364:
3357:
3349:. p. 278.
3339:
3335:
3328:
3324:
3316:
3307:
3296:
3280:
3276:
3269:
3261:. McGraw Hill.
3251:
3247:
3240:
3226:
3222:
3209:
3205:
3193:
3189:
3163:
3159:
3149:
3147:
3139:
3138:
3134:
3124:
3122:
3111:
3098:
3094:
3089:
3080:
3073:
3063:
3061:
3054:
3029:
3025:
3003:
2999:
2995:
2982:Resistance wire
2957:Lightbulb jokes
2927:
2920:
2913:
2906:
2903:
2896:
2889:
2880:
2873:
2759:
2753:
2683:
2677:
2622:
2618:
2617:
2534:
2430:14897:2000 and
2408:
2376:
2371:
2350:
2311:
2113:Efficacy (lm/W)
2098:230-volt lamps
2095:120-volt lamps
2085:
2077:xenon arc lamps
2060:
2019:
2013:
1960:
1958:Bulb blackening
1912:, or sometimes
1902:Irving Langmuir
1895:
1885:as a source of
1871:
1870:
1793:
1718:
1716:
1693:
1661:
1645:carbon monoxide
1565:heat convection
1561:heat conduction
1533:
1398:
1365:
1304:
1290:
1277:
1271:
1257:
1251:
1208:
1206:Color rendering
1171:Quartz halogen
1051:
1045:
958:Irving Langmuir
891:
831:
795:
754:
726:in March 1882.
562:
557:
520:
459:Moses G. Farmer
392:carbon arc lamp
322:
313:
311:
283:
276:
215:
181:bulbs, and the
104:or filled with
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
10486:
10476:
10475:
10470:
10465:
10460:
10455:
10450:
10433:
10432:
10429:
10428:
10416:
10404:
10391:
10390:
10387:
10386:
10383:
10382:
10379:
10378:
10376:
10375:
10370:
10365:
10360:
10355:
10350:
10345:
10339:
10337:
10331:
10330:
10328:
10327:
10322:
10317:
10312:
10307:
10302:
10297:
10292:
10287:
10282:
10277:
10271:
10269:
10259:
10258:
10248:
10247:
10244:
10243:
10240:
10239:
10237:
10236:
10231:
10230:
10229:
10224:
10214:
10213:
10212:
10202:
10201:
10200:
10189:
10187:
10181:
10180:
10178:
10177:
10176:
10175:
10170:
10165:
10155:
10154:
10153:
10142:
10140:
10134:
10133:
10131:
10130:
10125:
10120:
10115:
10113:Science policy
10110:
10105:
10104:
10103:
10098:
10088:
10082:
10080:
10076:
10075:
10073:
10072:
10071:
10070:
10060:
10059:
10058:
10047:
10045:
10039:
10038:
10036:
10035:
10030:
10029:
10028:
10018:
10017:
10016:
10014:Low technology
10005:
10003:
9993:
9992:
9982:
9981:
9978:
9977:
9974:
9973:
9971:
9970:
9969:
9968:
9966:Word processor
9963:
9958:
9953:
9948:
9943:
9938:
9933:
9923:
9918:
9917:
9916:
9914:World Wide Web
9911:
9906:
9901:
9896:
9891:
9881:
9880:
9879:
9874:
9869:
9864:
9859:
9854:
9849:
9844:
9839:
9829:
9823:
9821:
9815:
9814:
9812:
9811:
9809:Superconductor
9806:
9805:
9804:
9799:
9794:
9784:
9779:
9774:
9769:
9768:
9767:
9762:
9757:
9752:
9747:
9737:
9736:
9735:
9730:
9725:
9720:
9713:Electric light
9710:
9709:
9708:
9703:
9698:
9693:
9688:
9683:
9678:
9673:
9662:
9660:
9654:
9653:
9651:
9650:
9649:
9648:
9643:
9638:
9633:
9628:
9618:
9613:
9612:
9611:
9609:Motion picture
9606:
9596:
9591:
9590:
9589:
9584:
9574:
9569:
9564:
9562:Microwave oven
9559:
9554:
9553:
9552:
9542:
9541:
9540:
9530:
9524:
9522:
9516:
9515:
9513:
9512:
9507:
9502:
9501:
9500:
9495:
9490:
9488:Chromatography
9480:
9475:
9470:
9465:
9464:
9463:
9453:
9452:
9451:
9446:
9441:
9436:
9426:
9421:
9420:
9419:
9408:
9406:
9400:
9399:
9397:
9396:
9391:
9386:
9381:
9380:
9379:
9374:
9364:
9359:
9354:
9353:
9352:
9347:
9342:
9332:
9327:
9322:
9316:
9314:
9308:
9307:
9305:
9304:
9303:
9302:
9300:Spinning wheel
9297:
9287:
9286:
9285:
9275:
9270:
9265:
9260:
9255:
9250:
9249:
9248:
9243:
9238:
9233:
9223:
9218:
9213:
9208:
9207:
9206:
9196:
9195:
9194:
9183:
9181:
9175:
9174:
9172:
9171:
9170:
9169:
9159:
9158:
9157:
9152:
9142:
9141:
9140:
9130:
9129:
9128:
9123:
9113:
9112:
9111:
9104:Heat exchanger
9101:
9096:
9095:
9094:
9087:Energy storage
9084:
9083:
9082:
9077:
9066:
9064:
9058:
9057:
9055:
9054:
9053:
9052:
9047:
9037:
9036:
9035:
9030:
9025:
9020:
9010:
9005:
9004:
9003:
8998:
8993:
8988:
8983:
8978:
8968:
8967:
8966:
8961:
8956:
8946:
8941:
8940:
8939:
8934:
8929:
8924:
8919:
8917:Electric motor
8909:
8908:
8907:
8902:
8892:
8886:
8884:
8878:
8877:
8875:
8874:
8869:
8868:
8867:
8862:
8860:Potter's wheel
8857:
8852:
8847:
8837:
8832:
8827:
8826:
8825:
8820:
8810:
8805:
8804:
8803:
8798:
8793:
8788:
8783:
8773:
8772:
8771:
8766:
8761:
8751:
8750:
8749:
8739:
8738:
8737:
8727:
8721:
8719:
8717:Simple machine
8713:
8712:
8710:
8709:
8704:
8703:
8702:
8697:
8692:
8682:
8681:
8680:
8675:
8665:
8660:
8654:
8652:
8646:
8645:
8643:
8642:
8641:
8640:
8635:
8630:
8620:
8619:
8618:
8613:
8608:
8598:
8593:
8592:
8591:
8581:
8576:
8575:
8574:
8564:
8563:
8562:
8552:
8547:
8542:
8541:
8540:
8535:
8530:
8519:
8517:
8511:
8510:
8508:
8507:
8502:
8497:
8492:
8491:
8490:
8480:
8479:
8478:
8473:
8468:
8463:
8453:
8448:
8443:
8442:
8441:
8436:
8425:
8423:
8417:
8416:
8414:
8413:
8412:
8411:
8406:
8404:Printing press
8401:
8396:
8386:
8385:
8384:
8379:
8369:
8368:
8367:
8357:
8356:
8355:
8350:
8340:
8335:
8330:
8329:
8328:
8323:
8313:
8307:
8305:
8301:
8300:
8298:
8297:
8296:
8295:
8285:
8284:
8283:
8278:
8273:
8268:
8254:
8253:
8252:
8247:
8237:
8236:
8235:
8225:
8224:
8223:
8218:
8213:
8208:
8203:
8193:
8192:
8191:
8189:Sewing machine
8181:
8180:
8179:
8177:Working animal
8174:
8169:
8158:
8156:
8148:
8147:
8137:
8136:
8128:
8127:
8120:
8113:
8105:
8096:
8095:
8093:
8092:
8087:
8082:
8080:Telephonoscope
8077:
8072:
8067:
8062:
8057:
8052:
8046:
8044:
8040:
8039:
8037:
8036:
8031:
8025:
8023:
8019:
8018:
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8007:
7999:
7991:
7983:
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7967:
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7956:
7948:
7944:The Future Eve
7939:
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7929:
7921:
7913:
7906:
7898:
7889:
7887:
7883:
7882:
7880:
7879:
7873:
7870:Charles Edison
7866:
7864:
7860:
7859:
7857:
7856:
7854:Winter Estates
7851:
7846:
7841:
7836:
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7808:
7804:
7803:
7801:
7800:
7795:
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7778:Edison Studios
7775:
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7768:Edison Records
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7610:
7609:and inventions
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7517:
7515:
7514:Related topics
7511:
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7305:retroreflector
7297:
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7162:
7160:Track lighting
7157:
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7150:
7140:
7135:
7133:Recessed light
7130:
7125:
7120:
7115:
7110:
7105:
7103:Gooseneck lamp
7100:
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6754:Laser headlamp
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6584:Electric light
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6541:
6533:
6527:
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6508:
6507:External links
6505:
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5935:
5911:
5895:Donald G. Fink
5884:
5863:
5828:(7): 941–946.
5803:
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5602:978-0080933153
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5123:
5101:
5080:
5059:
5037:
5034:on 2 May 2006.
5018:
5005:
4952:
4926:
4900:
4897:. p. 647.
4886:
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4727:
4694:
4664:
4656:Benbow, B.L.,
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2929:Physics portal
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2874:
2867:
2812:Phoebus cartel
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2749:
2679:Main article:
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2473:, ⌀26 mm
2464:
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2349:
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2319:apparent power
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2100:
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2056:
2015:Main article:
2012:
2009:
1959:
1956:
1894:
1891:
1854:anaglyph image
1827:anaglyph image
1807:
1806:
1792:
1789:
1715:
1712:
1708:Osram-Sylvania
1692:
1691:Ribbon machine
1689:
1660:
1657:
1628:
1627:
1621:
1615:
1608:
1602:
1599:
1585:
1532:
1529:
1519:, violet-blue
1499:
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1493:
1486:
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1477:
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1471:
1468:
1462:
1443:
1438:
1407:Christmas tree
1397:
1394:
1364:
1361:
1303:
1300:
1296:health effects
1288:
1273:Main article:
1270:
1267:
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1189:
1186:
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1164:
1161:
1160:Glass halogen
1157:
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1146:
1145:
1142:
1139:
1135:
1134:
1131:
1128:
1124:
1123:
1120:
1117:
1044:
1041:
996:Phoebus cartel
905:Franjo Hanaman
890:
887:
830:
827:
817:developed the
815:Walther Nernst
804:red phosphorus
773:William Sawyer
747:in June 1882.
707:Hiram S. Maxim
699:William Sawyer
632:United Kingdom
561:
558:
556:
553:
541:Heinrich Göbel
513:Henry Woodward
350:stage lighting
321:
318:
315:
314:
294:
291:
290:
274:
214:
211:
183:Easy-Bake Oven
133:direct current
86:electric light
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10485:
10474:
10473:Thomas Edison
10471:
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10173:Transhumanism
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10138:Progressivism
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10128:Technorealism
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10043:Ecotechnology
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9787:Semiconductor
9785:
9783:
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9778:
9775:
9773:
9772:Lightning rod
9770:
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9763:
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9750:Circuit board
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9597:
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9583:
9580:
9579:
9578:
9575:
9573:
9572:Optical fiber
9570:
9568:
9565:
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9560:
9558:
9555:
9551:
9548:
9547:
9546:
9543:
9539:
9536:
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9534:
9531:
9529:
9528:Electromagnet
9526:
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9517:
9511:
9508:
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9503:
9499:
9496:
9494:
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9486:
9485:
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9479:
9476:
9474:
9471:
9469:
9466:
9462:
9461:Haber process
9459:
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9454:
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9447:
9445:
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9331:
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9326:
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9321:
9320:Birth control
9318:
9317:
9315:
9313:
9312:Biotechnology
9309:
9301:
9298:
9296:
9293:
9292:
9291:
9288:
9284:
9283:Vulcanization
9281:
9280:
9279:
9276:
9274:
9271:
9269:
9266:
9264:
9261:
9259:
9256:
9254:
9253:Nanomaterials
9251:
9247:
9244:
9242:
9239:
9237:
9234:
9232:
9229:
9228:
9227:
9224:
9222:
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9212:
9211:Chipped stone
9209:
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9197:
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9190:
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9167:Photovoltaics
9165:
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9153:
9151:
9148:
9147:
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9145:Refrigeration
9143:
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8698:
8696:
8693:
8691:
8690:Assembly line
8688:
8687:
8686:
8683:
8679:
8676:
8674:
8671:
8670:
8669:
8666:
8664:
8661:
8659:
8656:
8655:
8653:
8651:
8650:Manufacturing
8647:
8639:
8636:
8634:
8631:
8629:
8626:
8625:
8624:
8621:
8617:
8614:
8612:
8611:Space station
8609:
8607:
8604:
8603:
8602:
8599:
8597:
8594:
8590:
8587:
8586:
8585:
8582:
8580:
8579:Motor vehicle
8577:
8573:
8570:
8569:
8568:
8565:
8561:
8558:
8557:
8556:
8553:
8551:
8548:
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8526:
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8521:
8520:
8518:
8516:
8512:
8506:
8503:
8501:
8498:
8496:
8493:
8489:
8486:
8485:
8484:
8481:
8477:
8474:
8472:
8469:
8467:
8464:
8462:
8461:Fortification
8459:
8458:
8457:
8454:
8452:
8449:
8447:
8444:
8440:
8437:
8435:
8432:
8431:
8430:
8427:
8426:
8424:
8422:
8418:
8410:
8407:
8405:
8402:
8400:
8397:
8395:
8392:
8391:
8390:
8387:
8383:
8380:
8378:
8375:
8374:
8373:
8370:
8366:
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8362:
8361:
8358:
8354:
8351:
8349:
8346:
8345:
8344:
8341:
8339:
8336:
8334:
8331:
8327:
8324:
8322:
8319:
8318:
8317:
8314:
8312:
8309:
8308:
8306:
8302:
8294:
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8290:
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8286:
8282:
8279:
8277:
8274:
8272:
8269:
8267:
8264:
8263:
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8258:
8255:
8251:
8248:
8246:
8243:
8242:
8241:
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8234:
8231:
8230:
8229:
8226:
8222:
8219:
8217:
8214:
8212:
8209:
8207:
8204:
8202:
8199:
8198:
8197:
8194:
8190:
8187:
8186:
8185:
8182:
8178:
8175:
8173:
8170:
8168:
8167:Domestication
8165:
8164:
8163:
8160:
8159:
8157:
8153:
8149:
8142:
8138:
8133:
8126:
8121:
8119:
8114:
8112:
8107:
8106:
8103:
8091:
8088:
8086:
8083:
8081:
8078:
8076:
8073:
8071:
8068:
8066:
8065:Edison Museum
8063:
8061:
8058:
8056:
8053:
8051:
8048:
8047:
8045:
8041:
8035:
8032:
8030:
8027:
8026:
8024:
8020:
8013:
8012:
8008:
8005:
8004:
8000:
7997:
7996:
7992:
7989:
7988:
7984:
7981:
7980:
7976:
7975:
7973:
7969:
7962:
7961:
7957:
7954:
7953:
7949:
7946:
7945:
7941:
7940:
7938:
7934:
7927:
7926:
7922:
7919:
7918:
7914:
7911:
7907:
7904:
7903:
7899:
7896:
7895:
7891:
7890:
7888:
7884:
7877:
7874:
7871:
7868:
7867:
7865:
7861:
7855:
7852:
7850:
7847:
7845:
7842:
7840:
7837:
7835:
7832:
7830:
7827:
7825:
7822:
7820:
7817:
7815:
7812:
7811:
7809:
7805:
7799:
7796:
7794:
7791:
7789:
7786:
7784:
7781:
7779:
7776:
7774:
7771:
7769:
7766:
7764:
7761:
7759:
7756:
7754:
7751:
7749:
7746:
7744:
7741:
7739:
7736:
7734:
7731:
7729:
7726:
7725:
7723:
7719:
7713:
7710:
7708:
7705:
7703:
7700:
7698:
7695:
7693:
7690:
7688:
7685:
7683:
7680:
7678:
7675:
7674:
7672:
7668:
7662:
7659:
7657:
7654:
7652:
7649:
7647:
7644:
7642:
7639:
7637:
7636:Etheric force
7634:
7632:
7629:
7627:
7624:
7622:
7619:
7617:
7614:
7613:
7611:
7605:
7601:
7600:Thomas Edison
7594:
7589:
7587:
7582:
7580:
7575:
7574:
7571:
7557:
7554:
7553:
7552:
7549:
7547:
7544:
7542:
7539:
7537:
7534:
7532:
7529:
7527:
7524:
7522:
7519:
7518:
7516:
7512:
7506:
7503:
7501:
7498:
7496:
7495:Infrared lamp
7493:
7491:
7488:
7486:
7483:
7482:
7480:
7474:
7471:
7470:
7467:
7461:
7458:
7454:
7451:
7450:
7449:
7446:
7444:
7441:
7439:
7436:
7434:
7431:
7429:
7426:
7425:
7423:
7417:
7415:
7412:
7411:
7408:
7402:
7399:
7397:
7394:
7392:
7389:
7387:
7384:
7382:
7379:
7377:
7374:
7372:
7369:
7367:
7364:
7362:
7359:
7357:
7354:
7352:
7349:
7348:
7346:
7341:
7338:
7335:
7334:
7331:
7323:
7320:
7319:
7318:
7315:
7313:
7310:
7306:
7303:
7302:
7301:
7298:
7296:
7293:
7291:
7288:
7284:
7281:
7279:
7276:
7274:
7271:
7270:
7269:
7266:
7264:
7261:
7259:
7256:
7255:
7253:
7251:
7247:
7241:
7238:
7236:
7233:
7231:
7228:
7226:
7225:Laser pointer
7223:
7221:
7218:
7214:
7211:
7210:
7209:
7206:
7204:
7201:
7197:
7194:
7192:
7189:
7188:
7187:
7184:
7182:
7179:
7178:
7176:
7172:
7166:
7163:
7161:
7158:
7156:
7153:
7149:
7146:
7145:
7144:
7141:
7139:
7136:
7134:
7131:
7129:
7128:Pendant light
7126:
7124:
7123:Neon lighting
7121:
7119:
7116:
7114:
7111:
7109:
7106:
7104:
7101:
7099:
7096:
7094:
7091:
7089:
7086:
7084:
7081:
7079:
7076:
7072:
7066:
7064:
7061:
7059:
7056:
7055:
7054:
7051:
7050:
7048:
7046:
7042:
7032:
7029:
7025:
7019:
7017:
7011:
7009:
7006:
7005:
7004:
7001:
6999:
6998:Mercury-vapor
6996:
6995:
6993:
6991:
6982:
6976:
6973:
6971:
6968:
6964:
6961:
6960:
6959:
6956:
6952:
6949:
6948:
6947:
6944:
6942:
6941:Deuterium arc
6939:
6938:
6936:
6934:
6933:Gas discharge
6930:
6924:
6921:
6919:
6916:
6914:
6911:
6910:
6908:
6906:
6902:
6896:
6893:
6891:
6888:
6886:
6883:
6881:
6878:
6876:
6873:
6871:
6868:
6866:
6863:
6861:
6858:
6854:
6851:
6849:
6846:
6845:
6844:
6841:
6837:
6834:
6833:
6832:
6829:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6819:
6817:
6814:
6812:
6809:
6807:
6804:
6802:
6799:
6797:
6794:
6792:
6789:
6788:
6786:
6784:
6780:
6772:
6769:
6768:
6767:
6764:
6762:
6759:
6755:
6752:
6751:
6750:
6747:
6743:
6740:
6737:
6733:
6730:
6729:
6728:
6725:
6721:
6718:
6717:
6716:
6713:
6711:
6708:
6706:
6703:
6699:
6696:
6695:
6694:
6691:
6690:
6688:
6686:
6682:
6676:
6673:
6671:
6668:
6666:
6663:
6662:
6660:
6658:
6654:
6651:
6645:
6639:
6638:Task lighting
6636:
6634:
6631:
6627:
6624:
6622:
6619:
6618:
6617:
6614:
6610:
6607:
6605:
6602:
6601:
6600:
6597:
6595:
6594:Light fixture
6592:
6590:
6587:
6585:
6582:
6580:
6577:
6575:
6572:
6571:
6569:
6565:
6561:
6554:
6549:
6547:
6542:
6540:
6535:
6534:
6531:
6525:
6522:
6520:
6517:
6514:
6511:
6510:
6498:
6494:
6488:
6480:
6476:
6470:
6462:
6458:
6457:IEEE Spectrum
6454:
6447:
6431:
6427:
6421:
6413:
6409:
6403:
6395:
6391:
6387:
6381:
6365:
6361:
6353:
6337:
6331:
6324:
6320:
6315:
6307:
6303:
6299:
6293:
6285:
6279:
6275:
6271:
6264:
6249:
6245:
6239:
6235:
6234:
6226:
6219:
6215:
6209:
6203:
6199:
6193:
6185:
6181:
6175:
6168:
6167:0-87995-007-2
6164:
6160:
6154:
6144:
6137:
6132:
6124:
6118:
6114:
6109:
6108:
6099:
6090:
6085:
6080:
6076:
6072:
6068:
6064:
6058:
6049:
6033:
6029:
6022:
6015:
6014:0-87995-007-2
6011:
6007:
6001:
5985:
5981:
5975:
5959:
5955:
5948:
5939:
5932:
5931:0-87995-007-2
5928:
5924:
5918:
5916:
5908:
5907:0-07-020974-X
5904:
5900:
5896:
5891:
5889:
5881:
5880:0-07-020974-X
5877:
5873:
5867:
5859:
5855:
5851:
5847:
5843:
5839:
5835:
5831:
5827:
5823:
5819:
5812:
5810:
5808:
5801:
5795:
5787:
5781:
5765:
5761:
5757:
5751:
5749:
5732:
5728:
5724:
5718:
5710:
5706:
5700:
5692:
5688:
5684:
5678:
5674:
5670:
5669:
5662:
5654:
5650:
5646:
5640:
5636:
5632:
5631:
5623:
5621:
5619:
5617:
5608:
5604:
5598:
5594:
5593:
5585:
5577:
5573:
5569:
5563:
5561:
5541:
5534:
5528:
5520:
5516:
5512:
5505:
5489:
5485:
5481:
5477:
5473:
5468:
5467:1721.1/109242
5463:
5459:
5455:
5451:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5432:
5425:
5423:
5411:
5403:
5399:
5395:
5389:
5381:
5377:
5373:
5367:
5359:
5355:
5351:
5344:
5336:
5332:
5331:
5326:
5319:
5311:
5307:
5306:Business Wire
5303:
5296:
5288:
5284:
5280:
5273:
5271:
5251:
5244:
5238:
5230:
5226:
5222:
5215:
5213:
5197:
5193:
5187:
5180:
5176:
5172:
5171:
5170:Energy Policy
5166:
5160:
5141:
5134:
5127:
5119:
5115:
5111:
5105:
5098:
5094:
5090:
5087:Blain Brown,
5084:
5077:
5073:
5069:
5063:
5055:
5051:
5047:
5041:
5033:
5029:
5022:
5015:
5009:
5001:
4997:
4993:
4989:
4985:
4981:
4976:
4971:
4967:
4963:
4956:
4940:
4936:
4930:
4914:
4910:
4904:
4896:
4890:
4883:
4878:
4871:
4870:0-88173-378-4
4867:
4863:
4857:
4855:
4853:
4845:
4840:
4838:
4836:
4834:
4832:
4830:
4828:
4826:
4824:
4822:
4820:
4811:
4807:
4801:
4785:
4781:
4777:
4773:
4769:
4762:
4746:
4742:
4738:
4731:
4715:
4711:
4710:
4709:IEEE Spectrum
4705:
4698:
4682:
4678:
4674:
4668:
4660:
4653:
4637:
4633:
4629:
4623:
4607:
4603:
4597:
4593:
4592:
4584:
4576:
4572:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4549:
4541:
4537:
4535:9789380578057
4531:
4527:
4526:
4518:
4507:
4500:
4494:
4486:
4482:
4478:
4472:
4456:
4452:
4446:
4439:
4433:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4403:
4395:
4391:
4387:
4383:
4376:
4368:
4362:
4360:
4343:
4337:
4335:
4333:
4323:
4317:
4316:0-8018-7319-3
4313:
4309:
4303:
4296:
4294:
4286:
4270:
4266:
4262:
4255:
4246:
4239:
4226:
4222:
4218:
4212:
4205:
4193:
4189:
4185:
4179:
4177:
4169:
4156:
4152:
4148:
4142:
4140:
4123:
4119:
4117:9781926936116
4113:
4109:
4108:
4100:
4084:
4080:
4079:
4071:
4063:
4061:0-471-38420-8
4057:
4053:
4046:
4039:
4035:
4033:9781552976227
4029:
4025:
4020:
4019:
4010:
4002:
3996:
3994:
3985:
3981:
3975:
3967:
3962:
3961:
3952:
3944:
3940:
3936:
3935:
3927:
3919:
3913:
3907:
3902:
3894:
3890:
3884:
3877:
3876:
3869:
3860:
3852:
3848:
3844:
3838:
3836:
3827:
3820:
3818:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3777:
3776:11577/3164116
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3756:
3749:
3742:
3740:
3738:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3716:
3710:
3705:
3690:
3684:
3677:
3676:
3671:
3665:
3657:
3653:
3649:
3643:
3627:
3623:
3619:
3613:
3606:
3604:
3596:
3589:
3584:
3576:
3574:0-87223-521-1
3570:
3566:
3565:
3557:
3550:
3545:
3537:
3535:0-486-27472-1
3531:
3527:
3520:
3513:
3510:
3505:
3498:
3494:
3489:
3483:, p. 24.
3482:
3477:
3470:
3466:
3461:
3453:
3447:
3443:
3436:
3429:
3424:
3417:
3412:
3406:
3405:1-55970-655-4
3402:
3396:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3366:
3358:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3337:
3331:
3326:
3319:
3314:
3312:
3310:
3301:
3297:
3295:3-7186-5200-5
3291:
3287:
3286:
3278:
3270:
3268:0-471-54806-5
3264:
3259:
3258:
3249:
3241:
3235:
3231:
3224:
3216:
3213:
3207:
3200:
3196:
3191:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3175:
3170:
3166:
3161:
3146:
3142:
3136:
3120:
3116:
3109:
3107:
3105:
3103:
3101:
3096:
3084:
3078:
3076:
3059:
3055:
3049:
3045:
3044:
3037:
3033:
3027:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3010:
3001:
2997:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2963:
2960:
2958:
2955:
2953:
2950:
2948:
2945:
2943:
2940:
2938:
2935:
2934:
2930:
2924:
2919:
2916:
2915:Energy portal
2910:
2905:
2894:
2887:
2882:
2878:
2871:
2866:
2865:
2864:
2860:
2858:
2857:rough service
2852:
2848:
2845:
2841:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2826:
2821:
2815:
2813:
2805:
2801:
2798:
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2789:
2787:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2774:
2771:
2770:
2769:
2767:
2762:
2758:
2757:Lamp rerating
2748:
2746:
2741:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2728:
2723:
2721:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2695:
2687:
2682:
2669:
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2661:
2658:
2657:
2652:
2645:
2642:
2639:
2638:
2633:
2615:
2612:
2609:
2606:
2603:
2600:
2599:
2595:
2592:
2589:
2585:
2583:Reflector (R)
2582:
2581:
2577:
2574:
2571:
2568:
2567:
2563:
2560:
2557:
2556:
2552:
2549:
2546:
2542:
2539:
2536:
2535:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2514:
2511:
2508:
2507:
2503:
2500:
2497:
2494:
2493:
2489:
2486:
2483:
2480:
2479:
2476:
2472:
2471:A series bulb
2468:
2465:
2462:
2459:
2456:
2455:
2451:
2448:
2445:
2442:
2441:
2435:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2420:
2412:
2403:
2401:
2397:
2392:
2390:
2386:
2382:
2366:
2363:
2360:
2356:
2345:
2343:
2339:
2334:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2290:
2286:
2283:
2280:
2277:
2274:
2273:
2269:
2266:
2263:
2260:
2257:
2256:
2252:
2249:
2246:
2243:
2240:
2239:
2235:
2232:
2229:
2226:
2223:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2211:
2208:
2207:
2203:
2200:
2197:
2194:
2191:
2190:
2186:
2183:
2180:
2177:
2174:
2173:
2169:
2166:
2163:
2160:
2157:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2145:
2142:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2130:
2127:
2126:
2122:
2119:
2115:
2112:
2109:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2092:
2091:
2080:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2055:
2053:
2049:
2044:
2043:halogen cycle
2040:
2036:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2011:Halogen lamps
2008:
2004:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1982:
1978:
1975:used to make
1974:
1970:
1966:
1955:
1953:
1949:
1944:
1942:
1937:
1934:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1890:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1865:
1860:
1855:
1851:
1846:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1824:
1819:
1811:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1799:
1788:
1785:
1780:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1764:
1762:
1758:
1752:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1711:
1709:
1705:
1704:conveyor belt
1700:
1698:
1688:
1686:
1682:
1677:
1670:
1665:
1659:Manufacturing
1656:
1654:
1650:
1646:
1641:
1638:
1635:
1631:
1625:
1622:
1619:
1616:
1613:
1609:
1606:
1603:
1600:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1586:
1583:
1579:
1576:
1575:
1574:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1562:
1557:
1553:
1548:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1528:
1526:
1523:, and yellow
1522:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1507:
1494:
1491:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1441:
1440:
1439:
1434:
1430:
1429:
1426:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1403:
1393:
1392:wavelengths.
1391:
1387:
1386:visible light
1383:
1377:
1374:
1370:
1360:
1357:
1353:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1335:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1313:
1308:
1299:
1297:
1292:
1286:
1282:
1276:
1266:
1263:
1256:
1246:
1244:
1240:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1219:
1215:
1213:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1191:
1187:
1184:
1181:
1180:
1176:
1173:
1170:
1169:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1158:
1154:
1151:
1148:
1147:
1143:
1140:
1137:
1136:
1132:
1129:
1126:
1125:
1121:
1118:
1115:
1114:
1111:
1109:
1104:
1101:
1096:
1093:
1090:The luminous
1088:
1086:
1082:
1081:luminous flux
1078:
1067:
1060:
1055:
1050:
1040:
1036:
1032:
1030:
1026:
1022:
1019:
1014:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1003:Marvin Pipkin
999:
997:
992:
990:
986:
982:
981:Junichi Miura
978:
974:
970:
965:
963:
959:
954:
952:
948:
945:
941:
936:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
903:
899:
896:
886:
884:
880:
875:
872:
868:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
835:
826:
824:
820:
816:
811:
809:
805:
799:
794:
790:
786:
782:
777:
774:
770:
762:
761:Thomas Edison
757:
752:
748:
746:
742:
738:
733:
731:
730:Lewis Latimer
727:
725:
721:
717:
713:
708:
704:
700:
696:
691:
689:
685:
684:
679:
674:
670:
665:
664:Thomas Edison
659:
655:
647:
639:
635:
633:
629:
625:
621:
620:Savoy Theatre
617:
611:
608:
604:
595:
590:
586:
584:
578:
574:
566:
552:
550:
546:
542:
537:
535:
534:ethyl alcohol
531:
526:
523:
518:
514:
509:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
478:
470:
466:
462:
460:
455:
453:
449:
444:
442:
441:John W. Starr
437:
435:
430:
427:
423:
418:
416:
411:
409:
405:
400:
396:
393:
388:
386:
382:
381:melting point
378:
374:
370:
366:
361:
359:
355:
354:calcium oxide
351:
347:
343:
342:incandescence
339:
331:
330:Thomas Edison
326:
293:
292:
288:
287:
280:
273:
271:
267:
261:
259:
258:Thomas Hughes
254:
252:
248:
247:Sprengel pump
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
227:Thomas Edison
224:
220:
210:
208:
204:
200:
196:
190:
188:
184:
180:
179:Edison effect
176:
172:
168:
163:
161:
157:
153:
149:
144:
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
122:
118:
113:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
66:
59:
56:image of the
55:
50:
43:
39:
34:
30:
19:
10424:
10412:
10400:
10285:Construction
10280:Architecture
10101:Trade secret
9990:Perspectives
9909:Social media
9904:Peer-to-peer
9782:Oscilloscope
9723:Incandescent
9722:
9626:Mobile phone
9538:Optical disc
9505:Spectrometer
9493:Distillation
9268:Rammed earth
9155:Refrigerator
9133:Oil drilling
8981:Differential
8735:Ball bearing
8700:Machine tool
8495:Stonemasonry
8421:Construction
8338:Lock and key
8333:Cryptography
8228:Food storage
8075:Edison Hotel
8009:
8001:
7995:Frankenstein
7993:
7985:
7977:
7958:
7950:
7942:
7923:
7915:
7900:
7892:
7824:Depot Museum
7697:Movie camera
7691:
7670:Advancements
7631:Edison screw
7401:Strobe light
7396:Plasma globe
7371:Crackle tube
7361:Bubble light
7322:trafficators
7317:Turn signals
7143:Street light
7098:Gas lighting
7031:Sodium vapor
7003:Metal-halide
6905:Electric arc
6664:
6657:Incandescent
6626:Edison screw
6497:the original
6487:
6469:
6456:
6446:
6434:. Retrieved
6420:
6412:the original
6402:
6394:the original
6389:
6380:
6368:. Retrieved
6352:
6340:. Retrieved
6330:
6314:
6301:
6292:
6269:
6263:
6252:, retrieved
6232:
6225:
6213:
6208:
6197:
6192:
6174:
6158:
6153:
6143:
6135:
6131:
6106:
6098:
6074:
6070:
6057:
6048:
6036:. Retrieved
6021:
6005:
6000:
5988:. Retrieved
5974:
5962:. Retrieved
5947:
5938:
5922:
5898:
5871:
5866:
5825:
5821:
5799:
5794:
5780:
5768:. Retrieved
5759:
5735:. Retrieved
5726:
5717:
5709:the original
5699:
5667:
5661:
5629:
5591:
5584:
5576:the original
5571:
5547:. Retrieved
5527:
5514:
5504:
5494:23 September
5492:. Retrieved
5444:(4): 320–4.
5441:
5437:
5410:
5397:
5388:
5366:
5353:
5343:
5330:Toronto Star
5328:
5318:
5310:the original
5295:
5282:
5257:. Retrieved
5237:
5224:
5199:. Retrieved
5195:
5186:
5168:
5164:
5159:
5147:. Retrieved
5140:the original
5126:
5104:
5088:
5083:
5067:
5062:
5054:the original
5049:
5040:
5032:the original
5021:
5008:
4965:
4961:
4955:
4943:. Retrieved
4939:the original
4929:
4917:. Retrieved
4903:
4894:
4889:
4881:
4877:
4861:
4843:
4810:the original
4800:
4788:. Retrieved
4771:
4761:
4749:. Retrieved
4740:
4730:
4718:. Retrieved
4707:
4697:
4685:. Retrieved
4676:
4667:
4652:
4640:. Retrieved
4636:the original
4631:
4622:
4610:. Retrieved
4590:
4583:
4561:(8): 67–73.
4558:
4555:MRS Bulletin
4554:
4548:
4524:
4517:
4506:the original
4493:
4485:the original
4480:
4471:
4459:. Retrieved
4445:
4432:
4420:. Retrieved
4416:the original
4411:
4402:
4389:
4386:ERittenhouse
4385:
4375:
4346:. Retrieved
4322:
4307:
4302:
4292:
4285:
4273:. Retrieved
4264:
4254:
4245:
4236:
4229:. Retrieved
4220:
4211:
4203:
4196:. Retrieved
4187:
4166:
4159:. Retrieved
4150:
4126:. Retrieved
4106:
4099:
4087:. Retrieved
4077:
4070:
4051:
4045:
4037:
4017:
4009:
3974:
3959:
3951:
3933:
3926:
3912:
3901:
3893:the original
3883:
3873:
3868:
3859:
3846:
3825:
3804:. Retrieved
3761:(3): 44–47.
3758:
3754:
3720:
3715:
3704:
3692:. Retrieved
3674:
3664:
3656:the original
3651:
3642:
3630:. Retrieved
3626:the original
3612:
3602:
3595:
3587:
3583:
3563:
3556:
3544:
3525:
3519:
3511:
3504:
3488:
3476:
3460:
3441:
3435:
3430:, chapter 2.
3423:
3415:
3411:
3395:
3383:. Retrieved
3374:
3365:
3342:
3336:
3325:
3317:
3284:
3277:
3256:
3248:
3229:
3223:
3215:
3212:
3206:
3190:
3172:
3168:
3160:
3148:. Retrieved
3144:
3135:
3123:. Retrieved
3119:the original
3062:. Retrieved
3042:
3035:
3026:
3008:
3000:
2987:Spectrometer
2861:
2853:
2849:
2842:
2830:fire station
2823:
2816:
2808:
2803:
2799:
2794:
2790:
2785:
2781:
2776:
2772:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2742:
2738:
2735:
2724:
2707:bayonet base
2700:
2475:Edison screw
2426:C79.1-2002,
2421:
2417:
2393:
2377:
2351:
2335:
2315:power factor
2312:
2061:
2035:halogen lamp
2032:
2027:halogen lamp
2017:Halogen lamp
2005:
1992:
1985:
1961:
1948:electric arc
1945:
1938:
1923:
1922:
1900:
1896:
1883:vacuum tubes
1875:hot cathodes
1872:
1803:
1797:
1796:
1794:
1781:
1765:
1753:
1731:
1701:
1694:
1681:Libbey Glass
1678:
1674:
1642:
1639:
1636:
1632:
1629:
1572:
1569:
1549:
1534:
1510:
1506:fused quartz
1502:
1488:Insulation (
1485:Cap (sleeve)
1399:
1378:
1366:
1363:Construction
1346:
1338:
1336:
1323:
1322:announced a
1317:
1312:halogen lamp
1293:
1278:
1258:
1235:luminescence
1224:
1209:
1105:
1097:
1091:
1089:
1073:
1037:
1033:
1015:
1000:
993:
985:Hakunetsusha
972:
966:
955:
937:
892:
876:
869:developed a
863:
857:
812:
778:
766:
734:
728:
702:
692:
682:
662:
612:
599:
581:
549:anticipation
538:
527:
517:Mathew Evans
510:
508:filaments,.
474:
456:
445:
438:
431:
419:
412:
401:
397:
389:
385:electric arc
365:Humphry Davy
362:
335:
278:
263:
255:
241:material; a
239:incandescent
216:
191:
164:
145:
114:
81:
77:
73:
71:
29:
10290:Engineering
10026:Neo-Luddism
9961:Web browser
9956:Spreadsheet
9877:Touchscreen
9852:Motherboard
9765:Vacuum tube
9740:Electronics
9718:Fluorescent
9706:Transformer
9658:Electricity
9599:Photography
9241:Ironworking
9162:Solar power
9033:Vacuum pump
9001:Whippletree
8658:3D printing
8471:Scaffolding
8316:Calculation
8162:Agriculture
8155:Necessities
7971:Productions
7819:Black Maria
7712:Ticker tape
7687:Fluoroscopy
7641:Kinetoscope
7607:Discoveries
7546:Signal lamp
7500:Stroboscope
7376:DJ lighting
7312:Stop lights
7283:sealed beam
7235:Searchlight
6975:Xenon flash
6918:Klieg light
6766:Solid-state
6727:Fluorescent
6685:Luminescent
6321:, pp.
6113:McGraw-Hill
6030:. Teralab.
5990:25 February
5882:, page 22-5
4687:19 February
4642:19 February
4481:frognet.net
3806:2 September
3652:frognet.net
3375:Wiki Source
3145:tlo.mit.edu
2838:opera house
2662:"HIR" is a
2495:Flood light
2443:Description
2406:Bulb shapes
2065:microscopes
2048:Fiber-optic
1993:water cycle
1988:dissociates
1969:vacuum tube
1928:resistivity
1864:3D red cyan
1837:3D red cyan
1798:coiled coil
1541:evaporation
1029:Egon Orowan
979:. In 1921,
898:Sándor Just
819:Nernst lamp
796: [
583:Joseph Swan
223:Joseph Swan
219:Paul Israel
141:flashlights
123:, have low
10442:Categories
10335:Innovation
10320:Navigation
10217:Philosophy
9884:Networking
9802:Transistor
9777:Multimeter
9646:Television
9582:Microscope
9550:Eyeglasses
9498:Filtration
9483:Separation
9456:Fertilizer
9384:Prosthesis
9377:Antibiotic
9372:Anesthesia
9367:Medication
9226:Metallurgy
9023:Jackhammer
9018:Compressor
9013:Pneumatics
8949:Hydraulics
8932:Waterwheel
8900:Dishwasher
8623:Watercraft
8616:Space suit
8601:Spacecraft
8567:Jet engine
8466:Foundation
8439:Irrigation
8409:Typewriter
8382:Video game
8365:Phonograph
8311:Accounting
8240:Sanitation
8132:Technology
7936:Literature
7839:State Park
7814:Birthplace
7651:Phonomotor
7646:Phonograph
7490:Grow light
7485:Germicidal
7475:Scientific
7472:Industrial
7428:Floodlight
7414:Theatrical
7356:Blacklight
7351:Aroma lamp
7340:Decorative
7250:Automotive
7240:Solar lamp
7203:Glow stick
7186:Flashlight
7118:Nightlight
7113:Light tube
7088:Chandelier
7045:Stationary
6987:discharge
6913:Carbon arc
6783:Combustion
6649:generation
6647:Methods of
6254:8 November
5964:13 October
5798:Chapter 2
5682:0872901467
5644:0195140974
5149:14 January
5097:0429866666
5076:0470175621
4720:3 November
4422:18 January
4275:9 December
4231:18 October
4198:18 October
4161:18 October
4128:18 October
4089:18 October
3941:. p.
3495:, p.
3467:, p.
3385:1 November
3197:, p.
3125:5 November
3092:References
2952:Light tube
2937:3-way lamp
2755:See also:
2715:wedge base
2703:screw base
2675:Lamp bases
2569:Decorative
2515:MR16 GU5.3
2512:MR50 GU5.3
2331:resistance
2069:ionization
2050:lamps for
1979:and other
1590:(93%) and
1539:to reduce
1421:(blue) or
1253:See also:
1243:Metamerism
1092:efficiency
1021:Imre Bródy
502:molybdenum
256:Historian
251:resistance
175:lava lamps
171:incubators
167:heat lamps
42:male screw
10353:Invention
10348:High tech
10325:Surveying
10305:Logistics
10295:Forensics
10001:Criticism
9745:Capacitor
9696:Generator
9641:Telephone
9636:Telegraph
9587:Telescope
9510:Synthesis
9473:Pesticide
9444:Gunpowder
9439:Fireworks
9429:Explosive
9412:Detergent
9330:Dentistry
9273:Recycling
9109:Heat pump
9028:Rivet gun
8996:Gyroscope
8971:Mechanism
8895:Appliance
8882:Machinery
8823:Propeller
8663:Carpentry
8638:Submarine
8606:Satellite
8596:Scuba set
8515:Transport
8261:Equipment
8029:Edisonade
8011:Kidnapped
7807:Monuments
7661:Tasimeter
7556:Reflected
7536:Light art
7448:Spotlight
7433:Footlight
7418:Cinematic
7386:Lava lamp
7148:in the US
7053:Reflector
6970:Xenon arc
6951:Neon lamp
6880:Rushlight
6860:Limelight
6609:Hong Kong
6169:page 8-10
5909:, pg 22–8
5858:135784495
5850:1543-1940
5259:31 August
5201:19 August
5099:Chapter 7
4975:1309.7039
4790:4 January
4780:0161-7370
4575:138257279
4412:nernst.de
4348:18 August
4342:"Getters"
4238:apparatus
3875:The Times
3785:1932-4529
3694:15 August
3150:19 August
2947:Lampshade
2627:diameter.
2438:Examples
2400:oxidation
2353:144
2103:Power (W)
1997:zirconium
1908:and some
1887:electrons
1761:conductor
1741:sublimate
1697:Wellsboro
1667:The 1902
1545:oxidation
1537:inert gas
1285:LED lamps
1231:LED lamps
1018:Hungarian
1016:In 1930,
1001:In 1925,
967:In 1917,
962:inert gas
956:In 1913,
938:In 1906,
921:inert gas
913:Hungarian
895:Hungarian
846:Hungarian
720:Finlayson
680:steamer,
594:Underhill
539:In 1893,
494:ruthenium
457:In 1859,
446:In 1851,
402:In 1835,
363:In 1802,
346:Limelight
336:In 1761,
266:generator
249:; a high
160:LED lamps
137:headlamps
110:oxidation
106:inert gas
102:evacuated
96:until it
10401:Category
10310:Medicine
10300:Forestry
10275:Agronomy
9936:Database
9931:Compiler
9926:Software
9899:Internet
9832:Hardware
9819:Computer
9760:Inductor
9755:Resistor
9434:Dynamite
9404:Chemical
9357:Hospital
9231:Aluminum
9192:Concrete
9179:Material
9138:Fracking
9075:Charcoal
9040:Robotics
8959:Manifold
8954:Cylinder
8937:Windmill
8850:Flywheel
8808:Pendulum
8759:Catapult
8584:Railroad
8550:Elevator
8538:Seaplane
8533:Airplane
8528:Aerostat
8523:Aircraft
8456:Building
8429:Aqueduct
8348:Banknote
8326:Calendar
8245:Plumbing
8184:Clothing
8172:Grafting
7987:The Kiss
7912:" (1998)
7721:Ventures
7268:Headlamp
7208:Headlamp
7196:Tactical
7174:Portable
7155:Torchère
6836:Petromax
6831:Kerosene
6801:Campfire
6771:LED lamp
6567:Concepts
6560:Lighting
6479:Archived
6461:Archived
6459:. IEEE.
6430:Archived
6370:21 March
6364:Archived
6306:Archived
6248:archived
6184:Archived
6089:Archived
6065:(1885).
6032:Archived
6016:page 8-9
5984:Archived
5958:Archived
5933:page 8-6
5764:Archived
5731:Archived
5691:42012660
5653:45493270
5607:Archived
5540:Archived
5519:Archived
5515:BBC News
5488:Archived
5484:26751172
5402:Archived
5380:Archived
5358:Archived
5335:Archived
5287:Archived
5250:Archived
5229:Archived
5118:Archived
5114:CBC News
4913:Archived
4784:Archived
4745:Archived
4714:Archived
4681:Archived
4612:5 August
4606:Archived
4540:Archived
4455:Archived
4394:Archived
4269:Archived
4225:Archived
4192:Archived
4155:Archived
4122:Archived
4083:Archived
3984:Archived
3851:Archived
3797:Archived
3672:(2021).
3379:Archived
3300:Archived
3058:Archived
2901:See also
2791:Lifetime
2587:wattage.
2501:BR30 E26
2498:BR95 E26
2487:CA11 E12
2484:CA35 E12
2452:Details
2396:implodes
2323:marketed
2116:Output (
2106:Output (
2073:arc lamp
1910:nitrogen
1757:graphite
1714:Filament
1669:tantalum
1649:nitrogen
1618:Hydrogen
1592:nitrogen
1531:Gas fill
1515:, brown
1467:filament
1465:Tungsten
1451:nitrogen
1423:chromium
1390:infrared
1369:tungsten
1059:infrared
1007:frosting
947:tungsten
944:sintered
933:efficacy
929:nitrogen
923:such as
917:Tungsram
915:company
909:tungsten
902:Croatian
871:tantalum
854:tungsten
850:Tungsram
703:Columbia
683:Columbia
673:platinum
506:tungsten
482:chromium
377:platinum
275:—
270:lighting
92:that is
90:filament
58:tungsten
10413:Outline
10205:History
10185:Studies
10021:Luddite
9872:Storage
9666:Circuit
9478:Pigment
9394:Vaccine
9389:Surgery
9290:Textile
9263:Plastic
9221:Masonry
9199:Ceramic
9116:Nuclear
9092:Battery
8927:Turbine
8776:Linkage
8769:Shadoof
8730:Bearing
8707:Welding
8668:Casting
8628:Sailing
8560:Stirrup
8545:Compass
8488:Caisson
8389:Writing
8233:Pottery
8216:Milling
8196:Cooking
8043:Related
7551:Sources
7505:Tanning
7391:Marquee
7336:Display
7220:Lantern
7213:outdoor
7165:Troffer
7008:ceramic
6865:Luchina
6843:Lantern
6736:compact
6734: (
6670:Halogen
6665:Regular
6436:17 June
5830:Bibcode
5476:1371442
5446:Bibcode
5078:page 44
5000:6543030
4980:Bibcode
4945:7 March
4919:7 March
4751:31 July
4677:Toshiba
4632:frognet
4461:17 June
3793:2986686
3632:17 June
3036:ballast
2659:HIR/IRC
2621:⁄
2545:General
2543:Types:
2463:A19 E26
2460:A60 E26
2362:dimmers
2039:halogen
1977:mirrors
1941:rhenium
1914:krypton
1777:swaging
1653:mercury
1624:Halogen
1605:Krypton
1490:vitrite
1455:krypton
1413:with a
1343:Philips
989:Toshiba
977:mandrel
867:Siemens
622:in the
490:rhodium
486:iridium
369:battery
213:History
117:voltage
88:with a
10425:Portal
10343:Design
10315:Mining
10096:Patent
9867:Router
9701:Switch
9604:Camera
9567:Mirror
9278:Rubber
9236:Bronze
9187:Cement
9126:Weapon
9062:Energy
8991:Gimbal
8912:Engine
8865:Pulley
8830:Spring
8796:Piston
8786:Clutch
8572:Rocket
8505:Tunnel
8451:Bridge
8321:Abacus
8304:Social
8288:Weapon
8276:Plough
8271:Hammer
8250:Toilet
8211:Cheese
8014:(1917)
8006:(1911)
7998:(1910)
7990:(1896)
7982:(1895)
7963:(2004)
7955:(1898)
7947:(1886)
7928:(2020)
7920:(2017)
7905:(1940)
7897:(1940)
7863:Family
7273:hidden
7138:Sconce
6963:Sulfur
6958:Plasma
6890:Tilley
6885:Safety
6848:Fanous
6811:Carcel
6806:Candle
6796:Argand
6675:Nernst
6604:Hawaii
6342:3 July
6280:
6240:
6165:
6119:
6107:Edison
6012:
5929:
5905:
5878:
5856:
5848:
5770:14 May
5737:14 May
5689:
5679:
5651:
5641:
5599:
5549:20 May
5482:
5474:
5167:. In:
5095:
5074:
4998:
4868:
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4598:
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4532:
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3571:
3532:
3448:
3403:
3353:
3292:
3265:
3236:
3171:. In:
3064:3 July
3050:
2374:Safety
2338:lumens
2001:getter
1971:, and
1745:bamboo
1733:Carbon
1578:Vacuum
1552:atomic
1419:cobalt
1415:dopant
1402:kaolin
1345:. The
1339:hybrid
1310:Xenon
1085:lumens
1011:silica
879:osmium
823:globar
808:getter
712:Europe
688:dynamo
669:carbon
545:bamboo
498:osmium
434:patent
426:vacuum
243:vacuum
201:, and
152:lumens
139:, and
94:heated
84:is an
9894:Email
9857:Mouse
9847:Modem
9792:Diode
9631:Radio
9616:Radar
9533:Laser
9258:Paper
9246:Steel
9216:Glass
9204:Brick
9121:Power
8976:Clock
8840:Wheel
8835:Valve
8813:Screw
8764:Crane
8754:Lever
8747:Chain
8589:Train
8476:Tower
8434:Canal
8343:Money
8281:Wedge
8266:Blade
8206:Bread
8022:Terms
7925:Tesla
7886:Films
7878:(son)
7872:(son)
7531:Laser
7443:Scoop
7070:(PAR)
7023:(HQI)
7015:(HMI)
6989:(HID)
6895:Torch
6853:Paper
6821:Flare
6589:Glare
6323:22–23
6038:2 May
5854:S2CID
5635:85–95
5543:(PDF)
5536:(PDF)
5434:(PDF)
5253:(PDF)
5246:(PDF)
5143:(PDF)
5136:(PDF)
4996:S2CID
4970:arXiv
4571:S2CID
4509:(PDF)
4502:(PDF)
4392:(1).
3847:WIRED
3800:(PDF)
3789:S2CID
3751:(PDF)
3679:(PDF)
2782:Power
2773:Light
2731:Mazda
2720:bipin
2705:or a
2668:Osram
2359:TRIAC
2309:Power
2302:16.8
2299:8,400
2287:16.7
2284:5,000
2278:6,200
2270:15.8
2267:3,150
2261:3,900
2253:14.8
2250:2,220
2244:2,850
2236:13.8
2233:1,380
2227:1,700
2212:1,200
2204:12.2
2187:10.8
1952:fuses
1918:Xenon
1906:argon
1651:, or
1612:xenon
1588:Argon
1459:xenon
1447:argon
1396:Bulbs
1196:7.6%
1185:5.1%
1174:3.5%
1163:2.3%
1155:17.5
1152:2.6%
1144:14.5
1141:2.1%
1133:12.6
1130:1.9%
1061:light
925:argon
800:]
781:split
98:glows
9733:Neon
9691:Fuse
9545:Lens
9417:Soap
9295:Loom
9080:Oven
9070:Fire
9008:MEMS
8964:Pump
8872:Wing
8855:Gear
8742:Belt
8725:Axle
8633:Ship
8500:Road
8446:Arch
8394:Book
8377:Game
8353:Coin
8257:Tool
8221:Wine
8201:Beer
7438:Gobo
6946:Neon
6816:Diya
6438:2013
6372:2017
6344:2018
6278:ISBN
6256:2012
6238:ISBN
6163:ISBN
6117:ISBN
6040:2007
6010:ISBN
5992:2019
5966:2011
5927:ISBN
5903:ISBN
5876:ISBN
5846:ISSN
5772:2018
5739:2018
5687:OCLC
5677:ISBN
5649:OCLC
5639:ISBN
5597:ISBN
5551:2013
5496:2019
5480:PMID
5472:OSTI
5261:2009
5203:2022
5151:2016
5093:ISBN
5072:ISBN
4947:2017
4921:2017
4866:ISBN
4792:2021
4776:ISSN
4753:2020
4722:2017
4689:2017
4644:2017
4614:2021
4596:ISBN
4530:ISBN
4463:2013
4424:2015
4350:2022
4312:ISBN
4277:2021
4233:2016
4200:2016
4163:2016
4130:2016
4112:ISBN
4091:2020
4056:ISBN
4028:ISBN
3808:2019
3781:ISSN
3725:ISBN
3696:2024
3683:ISBN
3634:2013
3569:ISBN
3530:ISBN
3446:ISBN
3401:ISBN
3387:2015
3351:ISBN
3290:ISBN
3263:ISBN
3234:ISBN
3152:2022
3127:2007
3066:2018
3048:ISBN
2875:The
2729:'s "
2449:Inch
2424:ANSI
2385:fuse
2355:ohms
2281:20.7
2264:19.5
2247:19.0
2230:17.0
2215:16.0
2198:14.2
2181:12.5
2170:9.2
2033:The
1881:and
1563:and
1283:and
1281:CFLs
1229:and
1116:Type
1025:Ajka
900:and
767:The
515:and
504:and
225:and
9941:GUI
9862:RAM
9842:GPU
9837:CPU
9728:LED
9449:TNT
9424:Dye
9350:PCR
9050:Leg
9045:Arm
8781:Cam
8483:Dam
8399:Map
8372:Toy
8293:Gun
6875:Oil
6826:Gas
6079:doi
5838:doi
5462:hdl
5454:doi
5175:doi
4988:doi
4966:111
4563:doi
4024:124
3966:186
3943:123
3771:hdl
3763:doi
3179:doi
2832:in
2432:JIS
2292:500
2275:300
2258:200
2241:150
2224:100
2201:730
2195:850
2184:430
2178:500
2167:230
2164:8.0
2161:200
2149:7.3
2146:110
1877:of
1850:SEM
1823:SEM
1771:at
1554:or
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1199:52
1188:35
1177:24
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1070:up.
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