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a woman and her father do not. This is because the
Trobrianders are matrilineal; children belong to the clan of their mother and not of their father. Thus, sexual relations between a man and his mother's sister (and mother's sister's daughter) are also considered incestuous, but relations between a man and his father's sister are not. A man and his father's sister will often have a flirtatious relationship, and, far from being taboo, Trobriand society encourages a man and his father's sister or the daughter of his father's sister to have sexual relations or marry.
1346:
sexual avoidance. Paraphrasing LĂ©vi-Strauss's argument, without this avoidance, the rivalries for power between age-sets, coupled with the close bonds of sharing between age-mates, could lead to a sharing of daughters as spouses. Young men entering the age system would then find a dire shortage of marriageable girls, and extended families would be in danger of dying out. Thus, by parading this avoidance of their daughters, senior men make these girls available for younger age-sets and their marriages form alliances that mitigate the rivalries for power.
1167:
effects. Should a child inherit the version of homozygous alleles responsible for a birth defect from its parents, the birth defect will be expressed; on the other hand, should the child inherit the version of homozygous alleles not responsible for a birth defect, it would actually decrease the ratio of the allele version responsible for the birth defect in that population. The overall consequences of these diverging effects depends in part on the size of the population.
1042:. The prohibition may be so narrow as to include only one type of parentâchild relationship (though this is very rare), or those within the elementary family; or so wide as to include all with whom genealogical or classificatory kinship can be traced. The more usual practice is that unions with certain relatives only are considered incestuous, the relationships being regulated by the type of descent emphasized. In some societies unions with certain persons related by
867:-members, even when no traceable biological relationship exists, while members of other clans are permissible irrespective of the existence of a biological relationship. In many cultures, certain types of cousin relations are preferred as sexual and marital partners, whereas in others these are taboo. Some cultures permit sexual and marital relations between aunts/uncles and nephews/nieces. In some instances, brotherâsister marriages have been practised by the
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against incestuous relations in most societies is not based on or motivated by concerns over biological closeness. Other studies on cousin marriages have found support for a biological basis for the taboo. Also, current supporters of genetic influences on behavior do not argue that genes determine behavior absolutely, but that genes may create predispositions that are affected in various ways by the environment (including culture).
1183:). The biological costs of incest also depend largely on the degree of genetic proximity between the two relatives engaging in incest. This fact may explain why the cultural taboo generally includes prohibitions against sex between close relatives but less often includes prohibitions against sex between more distal relatives. Children born of close relatives have decreased survival. Many mammal species, including humanity's closest
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1326:. When she asked if a man ever sleeps with his sister, Arapesh replied: "No we don't sleep with our sisters. We give our sisters to other men, and other men give us their sisters." Mead pressed the question repeatedly, asking what would happen if a brother and sister did have sex with one another. LĂ©vi-Strauss quotes the Arapesh response:
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and the nearness of the blood-tie of the partners in guilt? Should children be born as the result of incestuous unions, how are they treated? Are there any methods, ritual or legal, by which persons who fall within the prohibited degrees and wish to marry can break the relationship and become free to marry?
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are also considered incestuous. What penalties fall on (a) the individuals concerned; (b) the community as a whole? Are such penalties enforced by authority, or are they believed to ensure automatically by all action of supernatural force? Is there any correlation between the severity of the penalty
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that exchange in primitive societies consists not so much in economic transactions as in reciprocal gifts, that these reciprocal gifts have a far more important function than in our own, and that this primitive form of exchange is not merely nor essentially of an economic nature but is what he aptly
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prohibit both sexual relations between a woman and her brother, and between a woman and her father, but they describe these prohibitions in very different ways: relations between a woman and her brother fall within the category of forbidden relations among members of the same clan; relations between
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It should be further noted that in these theories anthropologists are generally concerned solely with brotherâsister incest, and are not claiming that all sexual relations among family members are taboo or even necessarily considered incestuous by that society. These theories are further complicated
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An extreme example of this principle, and an exception to the incest taboo, is found among members of the ruling class in certain ancient states, such as the Inca, Egypt, China, and Hawaii; brotherâsister marriage (usually between half-siblings) was a means of maintaining wealth and political power
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What, you would like to marry your sister? What is the matter with you anyway? Don't you want a brother-in-law? Don't you realize that if you marry another man's sister and another man marries your sister, you will have at least two brothers-in-law, while if you marry your own sister you will have
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consider mating incestuous in one case and not in the other. Anthropologists have documented a great number of societies where marriages between some first cousins are prohibited as incestuous, while marriages between other first cousins are encouraged. Therefore, it is argued that the prohibition
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However, according to a book review by John
Hartung of a book by Shepher, out of 2516 marriages documented in Israel, 200 were between couples reared in the same kibbutz. These marriages occurred after young adults reared on kibbutzim had served in the military and encountered tens of thousands of
1257:
Steve
Stewart-Williams argues against the view that incest taboo is a Western phenomenon, arguing that while brother-sister marriage was reported in a diverse range of cultures such Egyptian, Incan, and Hawaiian cultures, it was not a culture-wide phenomenon, being largely restricted to the upper
1248:
One objection against an instinctive and genetic basis for the incest taboo is that incest does occur. Anthropologists have also argued that the social construct "incest" (and the incest taboo) is not the same thing as the biological phenomenon of "inbreeding". For example, there is equal genetic
1226:
A study in Taiwan of marriages where the future bride is adopted in the groom's family as an infant or small child found that these marriages have higher infidelity and divorce and lower fertility than ordinary marriages; it has been argued that this observation is consistent with the
Westermarck
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In every society there are rules prohibiting incestuous unions, both as to sexual intercourse and recognized marriage. The two prohibitions do not necessarily coincide. There is no uniformity as to which degrees are involved in the prohibitions. The rules regulating incest must be investigated in
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than none at all, and weak individuals are useful for the stronger individuals in the group as looking out for predators without being able to seriously compete with the stronger individuals. Additionally, protecting the health of closer relatives and their inbred offspring is more evolutionarily
1345:
While LĂ©vi-Strauss generally discounted the relevance of alliance theory in Africa, a particularly strong concern for incest is a fundamental issue among the age systems of East Africa. Here, the avoidance between men of an age-set and their daughters is altogether more intense than in any other
1235:
Another approach is looking at moral objections to third-party incest. This increases the longer a child has grown up together with another child of the opposite sex. This occurs even if the other child is genetically unrelated. Humans have been argued to have a special kin detection system that
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This excerpt also suggests that the relationship between sexual and marriage practices is complex, and that societies distinguish between different sorts of prohibitions. In other words, although an individual may be prohibited from marrying or having sexual relations with many people, different
1066:
It should also be noted that, in these theories, anthropologists are primarily concerned with marriage rules and not actual sexual behavior. In short, anthropologists were not studying "incest" per se; they were asking informants what they meant by "incest", and what the consequences of "incest"
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developed at a time when a great many human societies were illiterate, and much of the research on incest taboos has taken place in societies without legal codes, and, therefore, without written laws concerning marriage and incest. Nevertheless, anthropologists have found that the institution of
1166:
The increase in frequency of birth defects often attributed to inbreeding results directly from an increase in the frequency of homozygous alleles inherited by the offspring of inbred couples. This leads to an increase in homozygous allele frequency within a population, and results in diverging
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the frequency of defective genes in the population; over time, the gene pool will be healthier. However, in larger populations, it is more likely that large numbers of carriers will survive and mate, leading to more constant rates of birth defects. Besides recessive genes, there are also other
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married two of her brothers but did not have children with them, only having children with unrelated lovers). Stewart-Williams suggests that this was therefore simply a case of social pressure overriding anti-incest instincts. Stewart-Williams also observes that anti-incest behaviour has been
1339:. He argued that, in "primitive" societiesâsocieties not based on agriculture, class hierarchies, or centralized governmentâmarriage is not fundamentally a relationship between a man and a woman, but a transaction involving a woman that forges a relationshipâan allianceâbetween two men.
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classes. Stewart-Williams argues that these marriages were largely political (their function being to keep power and wealth concentrated in the family) and there is no evidence the siblings were attracted to each other and there is in fact some evidence against it (for example,
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and found no marriages and no sexual activity between the adolescents in the same peer group. This was not enforced but voluntary. Looking at the second generation adults in all kibbutzim, out of a total of 2769 marriages, none were between those of the same peer group.
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other potential mates, and 200 marriages is higher than what would be expected by chance. Of these 200 marriages, five were between men and women who had been reared together for the first six years of their lives, which would argue against the
Westermarck effect.
1298:. Through exogamy, otherwise unrelated households or lineages will form relationships through marriage, thus strengthening social solidarity. That is, LĂ©vi-Strauss views marriage as an exchange of women between two social groups. This theory is based in part on
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Gorrell J.C., McAdam A.G., Coltman D.W., Humphries M.M., Boutin S., Jamieson C.; McAdam, Andrew G.; Coltman, David W.; Humphries, Murray M.; Boutin, Stan (June 2010). "Adopting kin enhances inclusive fitness in asocial red squirrels". Nature
Communications
1358:. Societies that are stratifiedâthat is, divided into unequal classesâoften prescribe different degrees of endogamy. Endogamy is the opposite of exogamy; it refers to the practice of marriage between members of the same social group. An example is
1058:
Moreover, the definition restricts itself to sexual intercourse; this does not mean that other forms of sexual contact do not occur, or are proscribed, or prescribed. For example, in some Inuit societies in the Arctic, and traditionally in
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argued that his observations that unrelated children reared together on
Israeli Kibbutzim nevertheless avoided one another as sexual partners confirmed the Westermarck effect. Joseph Shepher in a study examined the second generation in a
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by the fact that in many societies people related to one another in different ways, and sometimes distantly, are classified together as siblings, and others who are just as closely related genetically are not considered family members.
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that improve the ability for both groups to thrive. According to this view, the incest taboo is not necessarily universal, but is likely to arise and become more strict under cultural circumstances that favour exogamy over
1317:
It is also based on LĂ©vi-Strauss's analysis of data on different kinship systems and marriage practices documented by anthropologists and historians. LĂ©vi-Strauss called attention specifically to data collected by
856:. However, different norms exist among cultures as to which blood relations are permissible as sexual partners and which are not. Sexual relations between related persons which are subject to the taboo are called
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relation between a man and the daughter of his father's sister and between a man and the daughter of his mother's sister, such that biologists would consider mating incestuous in both instances, but
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developed a general argument for the universality of the incest taboo in human societies. His argument begins with the claim that the incest taboo is in effect a prohibition against
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The Sexual Life of
Savages in North-West Melanesia: An Ethnographic Account of Courtship, Marriage and Family Life Among the Natives of the Trobriand Highlands, British New Guinea
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The Sexual Life of
Savages in North-West Melanesia: An Ethnographic Account of Courtship, Marriage and Family Life Among the Natives of the Trobriand Highlands, British New Guinea
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The Sexual Life of
Savages in North-West Melanesia: An Ethnographic Account of Courtship, Marriage and Family Life Among the Natives of the Trobriand Highlands, British New Guinea
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The Sexual Life of Savages in North-West Melanesia: An Ethnographic Account of Courtship, Marriage and Family Life Among the Natives of the Trobriand Highlands, British New Guinea
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within one family. Some scholars have argued that in Roman-governed Egypt this practice was also found among commoners, but others have argued that this was in fact not the norm.
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calls "a total social fact", that is, an event which has a significance that is at once social and religious, magic and economic, utilitarian and sentimental, jural and moral.
1278:, which is not an instinctual aversion against incest but an instinctual desireâhas influenced many theorists seeking to explain the incest taboo using sociological theories.
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One explanation sees the incest taboo as a cultural implementation of a biologically evolved preference for sexual partners with whom one is unlikely to share genes, since
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discourages adults from engaging in sexual relations with individuals with whom they grew up. The existence of the Westermarck effect has achieved some empirical support.
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Huebner, Sabine R. "âBrother-Sisterâ Marriage in Roman Egypt: a Curiosity of Humankind or a Widespread Family Strategy?." The Journal of Roman Studies 97 (2007): 21-49.
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In small populations, as long as children born with inheritable birth defects die (or are killed) before they reproduce, the ultimate effect of inbreeding will be to
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Huebner, Sabine R. The family in Roman Egypt: a comparative approach to intergenerational solidarity and conflict. Cambridge University Press, 2013, pp.190-195
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in 1891, is the theory that children reared together, regardless of biological relationship, form a sentimental attachment that is by its nature non-erotic.
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Some anthropologists argue that nuclear family incest avoidance can be explained in terms of the ecological, demographic, and economic benefits of exogamy.
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Another school argues that the incest prohibition is a cultural construct which arises as a side effect of a general human preference for group
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observed in other animals and even many plant species (many plants could self-pollinate but have mechanisms that prevent them from doing so).
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Stewart-Williams, Steve. The ape that understood the universe: How the mind and culture evolve. Cambridge University Press, 2018, pp 135-136
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Child Maltreatment: Theory and Research on the Causes and Consequences of Child Abuse and Neglect. New York, Cambridge University Press
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Shepher, J. (1971). "Mate selection among second generation kibbutz adolescents and adults: Incest avoidance and negative imprinting".
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1821:"Fitness Costs Predict Inbreeding Aversion Irrespective of Self-Involvement: Support for Hypotheses Derived from Evolutionary Theory"
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910:, and likely to become more lax under circumstances that favor endogamy. This hypothesis has also achieved some empirical support.
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marriage, and rules concerning appropriate and inappropriate sexual behavior, exist in every society. The following excerpt from
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Bittles, A. H.; Neel, J. V. (1994). "The costs of human inbreeding and their implications for variations at the DNA level".
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revised edition, translated from the French by James Harle Bell and John Richard von Sturmer. Boston: Beacon Press. 492-496
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revised edition, translated from the French by James Harle Bell and John Richard von Sturmer. Boston: Beacon Press. 13â14
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revised edition, translated from the French by James Harle Bell and John Richard von Sturmer. Boston: Beacon Press. 485
1724:"Does morality have a biological basis? An empirical test of the factors governing moral sentiments relating to incest"
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revised edition, translated from the French by James Harle Bell and John Richard von Sturmer. Boston: Beacon Press. 52
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revised edition, translated from the French by James Harle Bell and John Richard von Sturmer. Boston: Beacon Press. 17
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Confer, J. C.; Easton, J. A.; Fleischman, D. S.; Goetz, C. D.; Lewis, D. M. G.; Perilloux, C.; Buss, D. M. (2010).
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revised edition, translated from the French by James Harle Bell and John Richard von Sturmer. Boston: Beacon Press
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avoid mating with (close) relatives, incest will still exist in the gene pool because even genetically weakened,
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An explanation for the taboo is that it is due to an instinctual, inborn aversion that would lower the adverse
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The Blind Watchmaker: Why the Evidence of Evolution Reveals a Universe without Design, Richard Dawkins, 1986
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Debate about the origin of the incest taboo has often been framed as a question of whether it is based in
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McCabe, J. (1983). "FBD Marriage: Further Support for the Westermarck Hypothesis of the Incest Taboo".
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Steps to an ecology of mind: collected essays in anthropology, psychiatry, evolution, and epistemology
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Fessler, D. M. T. (2007). "Neglected Natural Experiments Germane to the Westermarck Hypothesis".
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have norms that exclude certain close relatives from those considered suitable or permissible
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Bittles; et al. (1991). "Reproductive Behavior and Health in Consangueneous Marriages".
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Wright, Sewall (1922). "Coefficients of inbreeding and relationship". American Naturalist 56
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with some regularity. Parentâchild and siblingâsibling unions are almost universally taboo.
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Inbreeding, Incest, and the Incest Taboo: The State of Knowledge at the Turn of the Century
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Inbreeding, Incest, and the Incest Taboo: the state of knowledge at the turn of the century
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Inbreeding, Incest, and the Incest Taboo: The State of Knowledge at the Turn of the Century
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may have detrimental outcomes. The most widely held hypothesis proposes that the so-called
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Walter Scheidel. 2004. "Ancient Egyptian Sibling Marriage and the Westermarck Effect", in
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Incest is sexual intercourse between individuals related in certain prohibited degrees of
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Livingstone, Frank B (1969). "Genetics, Ecology, and the Origins of Incest and Exogamy".
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Shaw, B. D. (1992). "Explaining Incest: Brother-Sister Marriage in Graeco-Roman Egypt".
2004:
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By applying Mauss's theory to data such as Mead's, LĂ©vi-Strauss proposed what he called
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sexual relations may be prohibited for different reasons, and with different penalties.
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A Committee of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 1951.
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advantageous than punishing said relative, especially in a context where predation and
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Bixler, Ray (1982). "Comment on the Incidence and Purpose of Royal Sibling Incest".
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Alexander, Richard 1977 "Natural Selection and the Analyusis of Human Sociology" in
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Sexual attraction and childhood association: a Chinese brief for Edward Westermarck
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Marriage, Authority, and Final Causes: A Study of Unilateral Cross-Cousin Marriage
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research, illustrates the scope of ethnographic investigation into the matter:
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2097:"Karo Batak Cousin Marriage, Cosocialization, and the Westermarck Hypothesis"
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none? With whom will you hunt, with whom will you garden, who will you visit?
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genes in a population increasing vulnerability to infectious diseases (see
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Arthur Wolf and William Durham (eds) Stanford University Press. pp. 93-108
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reasons why inbreeding may be harmful, such as a narrow range of certain
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E. O. Wilson, Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge, New York, Knopf, 1998
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Exogamy between households or descent groups is typically prescribed in
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1158:). Since the rise of modern genetics, belief in this theory has grown.
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were, in order to map out social relationships within the community.
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Culture, People and Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology
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Culture, People and Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology
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Culture, People and Nature: An Introduction to General Anthropology
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1516:, 6th edition. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, Ltd. p. 113â114
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The Tapestry of Culture An Introduction to Cultural Anthropology
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Leavitt, Gregory (1989). "Disappearance of the Incest Taboo".
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Spiro, M. (1965). Children of the Kibbutz. New York: Schocken.
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pp. 283â337 Academy of Natural Science Special Publication 12
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Structure and Sentiment: A Test Case in Social Anthropology
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besides the incest taboo also regulates a tendency towards
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preface by Mark Engel 1972 Chandler, San Francisco 112â115
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Antfolk, Jan; Lieberman, Debra; Santtila, Pekka (2012).
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The Maasai of Matapato: a Study of Rituals of Rebellion
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The Changing Scenes in the Natural Sciences, 1776â1976
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Major histocompatibility complex and sexual selection
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may be too technical for most readers to understand
49:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1807:The Natural History of Inbreeding and Outbreeding
863:Some cultures proscribe sexual relations between
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2668:Arthur P. Wolf and William H. Durham (editors),
1529:1970 Harvard University Press, Cambridge (Mass.)
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1987:Lieberman, D.; Tooby, J.; Cosmides, L. (2007).
1722:Lieberman, D.; Tooby, J.; Cosmides, L. (2003).
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943:are significant factors, as opposed to a rich
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1527:Never in anger: portrait of an Eskimo family
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1022:(1951), a well-established field manual for
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926:circumstances, select for individuals that
735:Matrilineal / matrilocal societies
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2494:Comparative Studies in Society and History
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1977:. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
934:individuals are better watchposts against
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1989:"The architecture of human kin detection"
1949:American Journal of Physical Anthropology
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1150:such as a higher incidence of congenital
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2543:"Brother-sister marriage in Roman Egypt"
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2487:"Brother-Sister Marriage in Roman Egypt"
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2095:Kushnick, G.; Fessler, D. M. T. (2011).
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918:While it is theoretically possible that
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914:Limits to biological evolution of taboo
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1809:. Chicago: UNiversity of Chicago Press
2686:
1710:
1190:
1112:make it understandable to non-experts
2812:Article 809 of the Korean Civil Code
2641:The Elementary Structures of Kinship
2446:
2309:The Elementary Structures of Kinship
2296:The Elementary Structures of Kinship
2283:The Elementary Structures of Kinship
2083:The Elementary Structures of Kinship
2045:The Elementary Structures of Kinship
1243:
1086:
1083:Instinctual and genetic explanations
983:adding citations to reliable sources
954:
852:partners, making such relationships
832:between certain members of the same
747:Sex and Repression in Savage Society
47:adding citations to reliable sources
18:
16:Cultural rule that prohibits incest
13:
756:Social Bonding and Nurture Kinship
14:
3147:
1943:Hartung, John (1985). "Review of
1514:Notes and Queries on Anthropology
1294:, and the effect is to encourage
1020:Notes and Queries on Anthropology
247:Parallel / cross cousins
2364:7th edition Longman pp. 250, 311
2056:Cicchetti and Carlson eds. 1989
1503:7th edition Longman pp. 250, 253
1091:
959:
141:
23:
2633:
2620:
2611:
2598:
2534:
2475:
2440:
2407:
2380:
2377:7th edition Longman pp. 317â318
2367:
2354:
2341:
2314:
2301:
2288:
2275:
2266:
2183:
2140:
2088:
2075:
2062:
2050:
2037:
1980:
1967:
1936:
1893:
1884:
1877:Westermarck, Edvard A. (1921).
1871:
1812:
1799:
1764:
1613:
1600:
1587:
1574:
1545:
1532:
1370:also correlates with endogamy.
970:needs additional citations for
34:needs additional citations for
1519:
1506:
1493:
1484:
1474:
1465:
1456:
1411:
1322:during her research among the
1038:every society by means of the
1:
2420:The Demography of Roman Egypt
2335:10.1525/aa.1989.91.1.02a00070
2204:10.1525/aa.1983.85.1.02a00030
1879:The history of human marriage
1555:Boston: Beacon Press 389, 392
1404:
836:, mainly between individuals
389:Household forms and residence
2855:Prohibited degree of kinship
2550:Journal of Biosocial Science
2401:10.1525/ae.1982.9.3.02a00100
1881:, 5th edn. London: Macmillan
1846:10.1371/journal.pone.0050613
1597:Boston: Beacon Press 449â450
1584:Boston: Beacon Press 450â451
1162:Birth defects and inbreeding
454:Classificatory terminologies
7:
3126:Interpersonal relationships
2294:Claude LĂ©vi-Strauss, 1969
1902:Archives of Sexual Behavior
1805:Thornhill, Nancy, ed. 1993
1377:
1349:
950:
10:
3152:
2775:Parallel and cross cousins
2712:
2639:Claude LĂ©vi-Strauss, 1969
2424:Cambridge University Press
2307:Claude LĂ©vi-Strauss, 1969
2281:Claude LĂ©vi-Strauss, 1969
2081:Claude LĂ©vi-Strauss, 1969
2043:Claude LĂ©vi-Strauss, 1969
1593:Bronislaw Malinowski 1929
1580:Bronislaw Malinowski 1929
1567:Bronislaw Malinowski 1929
1551:Bronislow Malinowski 1929
1281:
1194:
3085:Genetic sexual attraction
3077:
3008:
2973:
2941:Coefficient of inbreeding
2933:
2926:
2868:
2802:
2720:
2562:10.1017/s0021932097003611
2506:10.1017/S0010417500009385
2161:10.1007/s12110-007-9021-1
1945:Incest: A Biological View
1267:Sociological explanations
1231:Third-parties' objections
1187:relatives, avoid incest.
874:
1571:Boston: Beacon Press 384
858:incestuous relationships
842:All known human cultures
2323:American Anthropologist
2192:American Anthropologist
1961:10.1002/ajpa.1330670213
1642:10.1126/science.2028254
2913:Jewish views on incest
2738:Child incestuous abuse
2072:Chicago: Dorsey Press.
2070:Child and Sexual Abuse
2068:Glaser and Frosh 1988
1740:10.1098/rspb.2002.2290
1333:
1315:
1049:
764:"The Traffic in Women"
597:Coming of Age in Samoa
3066:Sheffield incest case
3031:Colt clan incest case
2950:Inbreeding depression
2347:Spencer, Paul. 1988.
2226:American Psychologist
1328:
1310:
1272:Psychoanalytic theory
1156:Inbreeding depression
1028:
780:Cultural anthropology
740:Feminist anthropology
532:Australian Aboriginal
2827:cousin marriage laws
2822:In the United States
2770:Incest between twins
2743:Consanguine marriage
2541:Scheidel, W (1997).
2389:American Ethnologist
2104:Current Anthropology
1773:Current Anthropology
1525:Briggs, Jean Louise
1399:Inbreeding avoidance
1360:India's caste system
1205:, first proposed by
979:improve this article
671:BronisĆaw Malinowski
43:improve this article
3131:Kinship and descent
3021:Ălvarez incest case
2891:film and television
2733:Avunculate marriage
2373:Marvin Harris 1997
2360:Marvin Harris 1997
2013:10.1038/nature05510
2005:2007Natur.445..727L
1837:2012PLoSO...750613A
1634:1991Sci...252..789B
1499:Marvin Harris 1997
1356:classless societies
1288:Claude LĂ©vi-Strauss
1286:The anthropologist
1076:Trobriand Islanders
1040:genealogical method
922:may, under certain
776:Social anthropology
666:Claude LĂ©vi-Strauss
449:Kinship terminology
272:Joking relationship
267:Posthumous marriage
2960:Westermarck effect
2758:in the Middle East
2651:David M. Schneider
1914:10.1007/BF01638058
1688:10.1038/ng1094-117
1207:Edvard Westermarck
1203:Westermarck effect
1197:Westermarck effect
1191:Westermarck effect
892:Westermarck effect
706:David M. Schneider
552:Polyandry in Tibet
3103:
3102:
3004:
3003:
2955:Pedigree collapse
2728:Accidental incest
2422:. Cambridge, UK:
2416:Bagnall, Roger S.
2414:Frier, Bruce W.;
1999:(7129): 727â731.
1734:(1517): 819â826.
1538:Gregory Bateson,
1244:Counter arguments
1140:
1139:
1132:
1011:
1010:
1003:
920:natural selection
881:nature or nurture
814:
813:
711:Marilyn Strathern
691:Stephen O. Murray
605:
604:
512:
511:
430:
429:
384:
383:
119:
118:
111:
93:
3143:
3070:Whittaker family
2931:
2930:
2860:Ten Abominations
2707:
2700:
2693:
2684:
2683:
2627:
2624:
2618:
2615:
2609:
2602:
2596:
2595:
2593:
2592:
2586:
2580:. Archived from
2547:
2538:
2532:
2531:
2529:
2528:
2522:
2516:. Archived from
2491:
2479:
2473:
2472:
2444:
2438:
2437:
2411:
2405:
2404:
2384:
2378:
2371:
2365:
2358:
2352:
2345:
2339:
2338:
2318:
2312:
2305:
2299:
2292:
2286:
2279:
2273:
2270:
2264:
2263:
2261:
2260:
2254:
2248:. Archived from
2238:10.1037/a0018413
2223:
2214:
2208:
2207:
2187:
2181:
2180:
2144:
2138:
2137:
2127:
2101:
2092:
2086:
2079:
2073:
2066:
2060:
2054:
2048:
2041:
2035:
2034:
2024:
1984:
1978:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1947:by J. Shepher".
1940:
1934:
1933:
1897:
1891:
1888:
1882:
1875:
1869:
1868:
1858:
1848:
1816:
1810:
1803:
1797:
1796:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1751:
1719:
1708:
1707:
1671:
1662:
1661:
1617:
1611:
1604:
1598:
1591:
1585:
1578:
1572:
1565:
1556:
1549:
1543:
1536:
1530:
1523:
1517:
1510:
1504:
1497:
1491:
1488:
1482:
1478:
1472:
1469:
1463:
1460:
1454:
1440:
1429:
1415:
1135:
1128:
1124:
1121:
1115:
1095:
1094:
1087:
1006:
999:
995:
992:
986:
963:
955:
838:related by blood
830:sexual relations
806:
799:
792:
724:Related articles
696:Michelle Rosaldo
525:
524:
443:
442:
311:
310:
298:
156:
155:
145:
133:Anthropology of
121:
120:
114:
107:
103:
100:
94:
92:
51:
27:
19:
3151:
3150:
3146:
3145:
3144:
3142:
3141:
3140:
3106:
3105:
3104:
3099:
3073:
3061:Patrick StĂŒbing
3051:Moe incest case
3046:Maria Ersdotter
3000:
2996:Phaedra complex
2991:Oedipus complex
2986:Jocasta complex
2981:Electra complex
2969:
2965:Kin recognition
2922:
2886:Popular culture
2864:
2798:
2748:Cousin marriage
2716:
2711:
2636:
2631:
2630:
2625:
2621:
2616:
2612:
2603:
2599:
2590:
2588:
2584:
2545:
2539:
2535:
2526:
2524:
2520:
2489:
2480:
2476:
2461:10.2307/2804054
2445:
2441:
2434:
2412:
2408:
2385:
2381:
2372:
2368:
2359:
2355:
2346:
2342:
2319:
2315:
2306:
2302:
2293:
2289:
2280:
2276:
2271:
2267:
2258:
2256:
2252:
2221:
2215:
2211:
2188:
2184:
2145:
2141:
2099:
2093:
2089:
2080:
2076:
2067:
2063:
2055:
2051:
2042:
2038:
1985:
1981:
1973:Wolf, A. 1995.
1972:
1968:
1941:
1937:
1898:
1894:
1889:
1885:
1876:
1872:
1817:
1813:
1804:
1800:
1769:
1765:
1720:
1711:
1676:Nature Genetics
1672:
1665:
1628:(52): 789â794.
1618:
1614:
1605:
1601:
1592:
1588:
1579:
1575:
1566:
1559:
1550:
1546:
1537:
1533:
1524:
1520:
1511:
1507:
1498:
1494:
1489:
1485:
1479:
1475:
1470:
1466:
1461:
1457:
1441:
1432:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1380:
1352:
1337:alliance theory
1284:
1276:Oedipus complex
1269:
1246:
1233:
1199:
1193:
1164:
1144:genetic effects
1136:
1125:
1119:
1116:
1108:help improve it
1105:
1096:
1092:
1085:
1051:
1007:
996:
990:
987:
976:
964:
953:
916:
877:
828:that prohibits
810:
778:
770:
769:
766:
759:
750:
730:Alliance theory
725:
717:
716:
715:
686:Lewis H. Morgan
681:Henrietta Moore
661:Eleanor Leacock
656:Louise Lamphere
651:Roger Lancaster
626:Tom Boellstorff
615:
614:Major theorists
607:
606:
583:
560:
522:
514:
513:
508:
501:Dravidian
440:
432:
431:
411:
296:Nurture kinship
286:
252:Cousin marriage
153:
115:
104:
98:
95:
52:
50:
40:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3149:
3139:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3101:
3100:
3098:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3081:
3079:
3075:
3074:
3072:
3071:
3068:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3026:Armando Lucero
3023:
3018:
3012:
3010:
3006:
3005:
3002:
3001:
2999:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2977:
2975:
2971:
2970:
2968:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2937:
2935:
2928:
2924:
2923:
2921:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2899:
2898:
2893:
2883:
2878:
2872:
2870:
2866:
2865:
2863:
2862:
2857:
2852:
2845:
2838:
2837:
2836:
2835:
2834:
2819:
2814:
2808:
2806:
2800:
2799:
2797:
2796:
2795:
2794:
2784:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2761:
2760:
2755:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2724:
2722:
2718:
2717:
2710:
2709:
2702:
2695:
2687:
2681:
2680:
2666:
2660:Rodney Needham
2657:
2644:
2635:
2632:
2629:
2628:
2619:
2610:
2597:
2533:
2500:(3): 303â354.
2483:Hopkins, Keith
2474:
2455:(2): 267â299.
2451:. New Series.
2439:
2432:
2406:
2395:(3): 580â582.
2379:
2366:
2353:
2340:
2313:
2300:
2287:
2274:
2265:
2232:(2): 110â126.
2209:
2182:
2155:(4): 355â364.
2139:
2116:10.1086/659337
2110:(3): 443â448.
2087:
2074:
2061:
2049:
2036:
1979:
1966:
1935:
1908:(4): 293â307.
1892:
1883:
1870:
1831:(11): e50613.
1811:
1798:
1785:10.1086/201009
1763:
1709:
1682:(2): 117â121.
1663:
1612:
1599:
1586:
1573:
1557:
1544:
1531:
1518:
1505:
1492:
1483:
1473:
1464:
1455:
1453:. Introduction
1451:978-0804751414
1430:
1409:
1408:
1406:
1403:
1402:
1401:
1396:
1391:
1386:
1384:Baldwin effect
1379:
1376:
1351:
1348:
1283:
1280:
1268:
1265:
1245:
1242:
1232:
1229:
1195:Main article:
1192:
1189:
1177:immune systems
1163:
1160:
1138:
1137:
1099:
1097:
1090:
1084:
1081:
1009:
1008:
967:
965:
958:
952:
949:
915:
912:
876:
873:
812:
811:
809:
808:
801:
794:
786:
783:
782:
772:
771:
768:
767:
762:
760:
753:
751:
744:
742:
737:
732:
726:
723:
722:
719:
718:
714:
713:
708:
703:
698:
693:
688:
683:
678:
673:
668:
663:
658:
653:
648:
643:
638:
636:W. D. Hamilton
633:
628:
623:
617:
616:
613:
612:
609:
608:
603:
602:
601:
600:
590:
589:
585:
584:
582:
581:
576:
570:
567:
566:
562:
561:
559:
558:
549:
544:
539:
534:
528:
523:
520:
519:
516:
515:
510:
509:
507:
506:
498:
493:
488:
486:Eskimo (Inuit)
483:
478:
473:
467:
464:
463:
459:
458:
457:
456:
451:
441:
438:
437:
434:
433:
428:
427:
426:
425:
420:
415:
409:
404:
399:
391:
390:
386:
385:
382:
381:
380:
379:
377:Patrilineality
374:
372:Matrilineality
369:
364:
356:
355:
351:
350:
349:
348:
343:
338:
333:
328:
323:
307:
306:
302:
301:
300:
299:
284:
279:
274:
269:
264:
259:
254:
249:
244:
239:
234:
229:
224:
219:
214:
209:
204:
199:
194:
189:
184:
179:
174:
169:
164:
154:
152:Basic concepts
151:
150:
147:
146:
138:
137:
130:
129:
117:
116:
58:"Incest taboo"
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3148:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3113:
3111:
3096:
3093:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3082:
3080:
3076:
3069:
3067:
3064:
3062:
3059:
3057:
3056:Mongelli case
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3013:
3011:
3007:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2978:
2976:
2972:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2942:
2939:
2938:
2936:
2932:
2929:
2925:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2888:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2873:
2871:
2867:
2861:
2858:
2856:
2853:
2851:
2850:
2849:Muth v. Frank
2846:
2844:
2843:
2839:
2833:
2830:
2829:
2828:
2825:
2824:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2817:Consanguinity
2815:
2813:
2810:
2809:
2807:
2805:
2801:
2793:
2790:
2789:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2782:
2781:Snokhachestvo
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2765:Covert incest
2763:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2753:notable cases
2751:
2750:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2725:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2708:
2703:
2701:
2696:
2694:
2689:
2688:
2685:
2679:
2678:0-8047-5141-2
2675:
2671:
2667:
2665:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2647:George Homans
2645:
2642:
2638:
2637:
2623:
2614:
2607:
2601:
2587:on 2013-11-02
2583:
2579:
2575:
2571:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2556:(3): 361â71.
2555:
2551:
2544:
2537:
2523:on 2016-03-03
2519:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2488:
2484:
2478:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2443:
2435:
2433:0-521-46123-5
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2410:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2383:
2376:
2370:
2363:
2357:
2350:
2344:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2317:
2310:
2304:
2297:
2291:
2284:
2278:
2269:
2255:on 2015-08-20
2251:
2247:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2220:
2213:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2193:
2186:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2143:
2135:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2098:
2091:
2084:
2078:
2071:
2065:
2059:
2053:
2046:
2040:
2032:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1983:
1976:
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1931:
1927:
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1915:
1911:
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1364:ethnic groups
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1321:
1320:Margaret Mead
1314:
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1211:Melford Spiro
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1182:
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1157:
1154:(see article
1153:
1152:birth defects
1149:
1145:
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1131:
1123:
1113:
1109:
1103:
1100:This section
1098:
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1088:
1080:
1077:
1074:For example,
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991:February 2016
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980:
974:
973:
968:This section
966:
962:
957:
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946:
945:welfare state
942:
937:
933:
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928:instinctively
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822:cultural rule
819:
818:incest taboo
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676:Margaret Mead
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641:Gilbert Herdt
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362:Ambilineality
360:
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341:House society
339:
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237:Bride service
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177:Consanguinity
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99:February 2012
91:
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77:
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70:
67:
63:
60: â
59:
55:
54:Find sources:
48:
44:
38:
37:
32:This article
30:
26:
21:
20:
3121:Sociobiology
3095:Motherfucker
2945:relationship
2908:Incest taboo
2907:
2876:In the Bible
2847:
2840:
2779:
2669:
2663:
2654:
2640:
2634:Bibliography
2622:
2613:
2605:
2600:
2589:. Retrieved
2582:the original
2553:
2549:
2536:
2525:. Retrieved
2518:the original
2497:
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2277:
2268:
2257:. Retrieved
2250:the original
2229:
2225:
2212:
2195:
2191:
2185:
2152:
2149:Human Nature
2148:
2142:
2107:
2103:
2090:
2082:
2077:
2069:
2064:
2057:
2052:
2044:
2039:
1996:
1992:
1982:
1974:
1969:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1938:
1905:
1901:
1895:
1886:
1878:
1873:
1828:
1824:
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1801:
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1413:
1394:Homozygosity
1372:
1353:
1344:
1341:
1334:
1329:
1316:
1311:
1303:
1300:Marcel Mauss
1285:
1270:
1256:
1251:Trobrianders
1247:
1234:
1225:
1221:
1200:
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1169:
1165:
1141:
1126:
1117:
1101:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1057:
1053:
1050:
1030:
1029:
1024:ethnographic
1019:
1015:anthropology
1012:
997:
988:
977:Please help
972:verification
969:
917:
896:
885:
878:
862:
817:
815:
754:
745:
595:
554: /
521:Case studies
502:
367:Unilineality
326:Matrilateral
319: /
294: /
290: /
282:Cohabitation
187:Incest taboo
186:
105:
96:
86:
79:
72:
65:
53:
41:Please help
36:verification
33:
3036:Fritzl case
2903:Pornography
2881:In folklore
2832:court cases
2787:Adelphogamy
2329:: 116â131.
1955:: 167â171.
1120:August 2015
701:Gayle Rubin
439:Terminology
354:Linealities
232:Bride price
222:Concubinage
3110:Categories
3090:Inbreeding
3041:Goler clan
2974:Psychology
2896:literature
2591:2013-03-08
2527:2013-07-21
2259:2015-08-28
2125:1885/50038
1405:References
1148:inbreeding
941:starvation
888:inbreeding
646:Don Kulick
631:Jack Goody
621:Diane Bell
547:Philippine
423:Patrilocal
407:Matrilocal
402:Matrifocal
346:Avunculate
336:Collateral
69:newspapers
2514:143698328
2198:: 50â69.
1779:: 45â62.
1389:Heterosis
1260:Cleopatra
936:predators
903:alliances
588:Sexuality
503:(debated)
321:Bilateral
227:Polyandry
2918:Xwedodah
2804:Legality
2578:23732024
2485:(1980).
2418:(1994).
2246:20141266
2169:26181312
2134:20905611
2031:17301784
1930:25602623
1922:24179077
1865:23209792
1825:PLOS ONE
1793:84009643
1758:12737660
1704:36077657
1378:See also
1350:Endogamy
1305:The Gift
1292:endogamy
1238:altruism
1227:effect.
1172:decrease
1044:affinity
951:Research
908:endogamy
850:marriage
565:Feminist
556:in India
496:Sudanese
491:Hawaiian
471:Iroquois
462:By group
413:Neolocal
397:Extended
317:Cognatic
262:Sororate
257:Levirate
217:Polygamy
212:Polygyny
207:Monogamy
192:Endogamy
182:Marriage
172:Affinity
126:a series
124:Part of
3078:Related
2934:Science
2869:Culture
2570:9881142
2469:2804054
2177:2039872
2022:3581061
2001:Bibcode
1856:3509093
1833:Bibcode
1749:1691313
1696:7842008
1658:1352617
1650:2028254
1630:Bibcode
1622:Science
1428:. p.101
1324:Arapesh
1296:exogamy
1282:Exogamy
1216:kibbutz
1185:primate
1106:Please
1033:kinship
1013:Modern
924:genetic
899:exogamy
820:is any
574:Chambri
542:Chinese
537:Burmese
418:Nuclear
305:Descent
288:Fictive
197:Exogamy
167:Lineage
135:kinship
83:scholar
3116:Incest
2927:Theory
2842:Mahram
2714:Incest
2676:
2576:
2568:
2512:
2467:
2430:
2244:
2175:
2167:
2132:
2029:
2019:
1993:Nature
1928:
1920:
1863:
1853:
1791:
1756:
1746:
1702:
1694:
1656:
1648:
1449:
1424:
932:inbred
875:Origin
869:elites
846:sexual
834:family
331:Lineal
202:Moiety
162:Family
128:on the
85:
78:
71:
64:
56:
3136:Taboo
3009:Cases
2721:Types
2585:(PDF)
2574:S2CID
2546:(PDF)
2521:(PDF)
2510:S2CID
2490:(PDF)
2465:JSTOR
2253:(PDF)
2222:(PDF)
2173:S2CID
2130:S2CID
2100:(PDF)
1926:S2CID
1789:S2CID
1700:S2CID
1654:S2CID
1368:races
854:taboo
579:Mosuo
481:Omaha
242:Dowry
90:JSTOR
76:books
2943:and
2792:list
2674:ISBN
2649:and
2566:PMID
2428:ISBN
2242:PMID
2165:PMID
2027:PMID
1918:PMID
1861:PMID
1754:PMID
1692:PMID
1646:PMID
1447:ISBN
1422:ISBN
1366:and
1201:The
1061:Bali
865:clan
826:norm
476:Crow
292:Milk
277:Clan
62:news
2558:doi
2502:doi
2457:doi
2449:Man
2397:doi
2331:doi
2234:doi
2200:doi
2157:doi
2120:hdl
2112:doi
2017:PMC
2009:doi
1997:445
1957:doi
1910:doi
1851:PMC
1841:doi
1781:doi
1744:PMC
1736:doi
1732:270
1684:doi
1638:doi
1146:of
1110:to
981:by
848:or
824:or
816:An
45:by
3112::
2672:,
2662:,
2653:,
2572:.
2564:.
2554:29
2552:.
2548:.
2508:.
2498:22
2496:.
2492:.
2463:.
2453:27
2426:.
2391:.
2327:91
2325:.
2240:.
2230:65
2228:.
2224:.
2196:85
2194:.
2171:.
2163:.
2153:18
2151:.
2128:.
2118:.
2108:52
2106:.
2102:.
2025:.
2015:.
2007:.
1995:.
1991:.
1953:67
1951:.
1924:.
1916:.
1904:.
1859:.
1849:.
1839:.
1827:.
1823:.
1787:.
1777:10
1775:.
1752:.
1742:.
1730:.
1726:.
1712:^
1698:.
1690:.
1678:.
1666:^
1652:.
1644:.
1636:.
1624:.
1560:^
1433:^
947:.
883:.
860:.
840:.
2706:e
2699:t
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2594:.
2560::
2530:.
2504::
2471:.
2459::
2436:.
2403:.
2399::
2393:9
2337:.
2333::
2262:.
2236::
2206:.
2202::
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2159::
2136:.
2122::
2114::
2033:.
2011::
2003::
1963:.
1959::
1932:.
1912::
1906:1
1867:.
1843::
1835::
1829:7
1795:.
1783::
1760:.
1738::
1706:.
1686::
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1660:.
1640::
1632::
1626:2
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1127:(
1122:)
1118:(
1104:.
1035:.
1004:)
998:(
993:)
989:(
975:.
805:e
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106:(
101:)
97:(
87:·
80:·
73:·
66:·
39:.
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