1349:. Genes from allopatric populations will have different evolutionary backgrounds and are never tested together until hybridization at secondary contact, when negative epistatic interactions will be exposed. In other words, new alleles will emerge in a population and only pass through selection if they work well together with other genes in the same population, but it may not be compatible with genes in an allopatric population, be those other newly derived alleles or retained ancestral alleles. This is only revealed through new hybridization. Such incompatibilities cause lower fitness in hybrids regardless of the ecological environment, and are thus intrinsic, although they can originate from the adaptation to different environments. The accumulation of such incompatibilities increases faster and faster with time, creating a "snowball" effect. There is a large amount of evidence supporting this theory, primarily from laboratory populations such as
1684:, who studied fruit flies in the early days of genetic research in 1930s, speculated that parts of chromosomes that switch from one location to another might cause a species to split into two different species. He mapped out how it might be possible for sections of chromosomes to relocate themselves in a genome. Those mobile sections can cause sterility in inter-species hybrids, which can act as a speciation pressure. In theory, his idea was sound, but scientists long debated whether it actually happened in nature. Eventually a competing theory involving the gradual accumulation of mutations was shown to occur in nature so often that geneticists largely dismissed the moving gene hypothesis. However, 2006 research shows that jumping of a gene from one chromosome to another can contribute to the birth of new species. This validates the reproductive isolation mechanism, a key component of speciation.
824:
816:
circumstances may present difficulties when many of the individuals in the neighborhood belong to other species. Under these circumstances, if any species' population size happens, by chance, to increase (at the expense of one or other of its neighboring species, if the environment is saturated), this will immediately make it easier for its members to find sexual partners. The members of the neighboring species, whose population sizes have decreased, experience greater difficulty in finding mates, and therefore form pairs less frequently than the larger species. This has a snowball effect, with large species growing at the expense of the smaller, rarer species, eventually driving them to
1384:
resources, experience contrasting natural selection pressures on the traits that directly or indirectly bring about the evolution of reproductive isolation". Evidence for the role ecology plays in the process of speciation exists. Studies of stickleback populations support ecologically-linked speciation arising as a by-product, alongside numerous studies of parallel speciation, where isolation evolves between independent populations of species adapting to contrasting environments than between independent populations adapting to similar environments. Ecological speciation occurs with much of the evidence, "...accumulated from top-down studies of adaptation and reproductive isolation".
1399:. However the term "speciation", in this context, tends to be used in two different, but not mutually exclusive senses. The first and most commonly used sense refers to the "birth" of new species. That is, the splitting of an existing species into two separate species, or the budding off of a new species from a parent species, both driven by a biological "fashion fad" (a preference for a feature, or features, in one or both sexes, that do not necessarily have any adaptive qualities). In the second sense, "speciation" refers to the wide-spread tendency of sexual creatures to be grouped into clearly defined species, rather than forming a continuum of
1321:, is the process by which natural selection increases reproductive isolation. It may occur after two populations of the same species are separated and then come back into contact. If their reproductive isolation was complete, then they will have already developed into two separate incompatible species. If their reproductive isolation is incomplete, then further mating between the populations will produce hybrids, which may or may not be fertile. If the hybrids are infertile, or fertile but less fit than their ancestors, then there will be further reproductive isolation and speciation has essentially occurred, as in
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1984:
lengths depict how long each of them existed. The fact that the lines remain parallel with the time axis illustrates the unchanging appearance of each of the fossil species depicted on the graph. During each species' existence new species appear at random intervals, each also lasting many hundreds of thousands of years before disappearing without a change in appearance. The exact relatedness of these concurrent species is generally impossible to determine. This is illustrated in the diagram depicting the
54:
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866:). Once a population has become as homogeneous in appearance as is typical of most species (and is illustrated in the photograph of the African pygmy kingfisher), its members will avoid mating with members of other populations that look different from themselves. Thus, the avoidance of mates displaying rare and unusual phenotypic features inevitably leads to reproductive isolation, one of the hallmarks of speciation.
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1972:. Under these circumstances, not only is the choice of mates severely restricted but population bottlenecks, founder effects, genetic drift and inbreeding cause rapid, random changes in the isolated population's genetic composition. Furthermore, hybridization with a related species trapped in the same isolate might introduce additional genetic changes. If an isolated population such as this
1632:. This phenotype can also be fitter than the parental lineage and as such natural selection may then favor these individuals. Eventually, if reproductive isolation is achieved, it may lead to a separate species. However, reproductive isolation between hybrids and their parents is particularly difficult to achieve and thus hybrid speciation is considered an extremely rare event. The
1508:
groups and their offspring were isolated reproductively because of their strong habitat preferences: they mated only within the areas they preferred, and so did not mate with flies that preferred the other areas. The history of such attempts is described by Rice and Elen E. Hostert (1993). Diane Dodd used a laboratory experiment to show how reproductive isolation can develop in
1922:" which do not affect the functionality or appearance of the carrier, are thus usually disadvantageous, and their chance of proving to be useful in the future is vanishingly small. Therefore, while a species or group might benefit from being able to adapt to a new environment by accumulating a wide range of genetic variation, this is to the detriment of the
1953:
therefore seldom be tested by natural selection. Evolution is, therefore, effectively halted or slowed down considerably. The only mutations that can accumulate in a population, on this punctuated equilibrium view, are ones that have no noticeable effect on the outward appearance and functionality of their bearers (i.e., they are "silent" or "
1449:
1976:, and subsequently expands into an unoccupied niche, or into a niche in which it has an advantage over its competitors, a new species, or subspecies, will have come into being. In geological terms, this will be an abrupt event. A resumption of avoiding mutant mates will thereafter result, once again, in evolutionary stagnation.
873:, there is no cost of rarity; consequently, there are only benefits to fine-scale adaptation. Thus, asexual organisms very frequently show the continuous variation in form (often in many different directions) that Darwin expected evolution to produce, making their classification into "species" (more correctly,
1013:, his speculation on evolution deepened after experts informed him that these were separate species, not just varieties, and famously that other differing GalĂĄpagos birds were all species of finches. Though the finches were less important for Darwin, more recent research has shown the birds now known as
1360:
Reinforcement favoring reproductive isolation is required for both parapatric and sympatric speciation. Without reinforcement, the geographic area of contact between different forms of the same species, called their "hybrid zone", will not develop into a boundary between the different species. Hybrid
799:
Another dilemma, related to the first one, is the absence or rarity of transitional varieties in time. Darwin pointed out that by the theory of natural selection "innumerable transitional forms must have existed", and wondered "why do we not find them embedded in countless numbers in the crust of the
1332:
One reasoning behind this is that if the parents of the hybrid offspring each have naturally selected traits for their own certain environments, the hybrid offspring will bear traits from both, therefore would not fit either ecological niche as well as either parent (ecological speciation). The low
1952:
If sexual individuals are disadvantaged by passing mutations on to their offspring, they will avoid mutant mates with strange or unusual characteristics. Mutations that affect the external appearance of their carriers will then rarely be passed on to the next and subsequent generations. They would
1647:) is tolerated in plants more readily than in animals. Polyploidy is important in hybrids as it allows reproduction, with the two different sets of chromosomes each being able to pair with an identical partner during meiosis. Polyploids also have more genetic diversity, which allows them to avoid
1507:
using a maze with three different choices of habitat such as light/dark and wet/dry. Each generation was placed into the maze, and the groups of flies that came out of two of the eight exits were set apart to breed with each other in their respective groups. After thirty-five generations, the two
1983:
of an evolutionary progression typically consists of species that suddenly appear, and ultimately disappear, hundreds of thousands or millions of years later, without any change in external appearance. Graphically, these fossil species are represented by lines parallel with the time axis, whose
1547:
Few speciation genes have been found. They usually involve the reinforcement process of late stages of speciation. In 2008, a speciation gene causing reproductive isolation was reported. It causes hybrid sterility between related subspecies. The order of speciation of three groups from a common
815:
has an intrinsic cost of rarity. The cost of rarity arises as follows. If, on a resource gradient, a large number of separate species evolve, each exquisitely adapted to a very narrow band on that gradient, each species will, of necessity, consist of very few members. Finding a mate under these
2338:
One of his greatest anxieties was that the "incompleteness" of the fossil record would be used to criticize his theory: that the apparent "gaps" in fossil succession could be cited as negative evidence, at the very least, for his proposal that all organisms have descended by minute and gradual
1383:
Ecological selection is "the interaction of individuals with their environment during resource acquisition". Natural selection is inherently involved in the process of speciation, whereby, "under ecological speciation, populations in different environments, or populations exploiting different
1240:
Budding speciation has been proposed as a particular form of sympatric speciation, whereby small groups of individuals become progressively more isolated from the ancestral stock by breeding preferentially with one another. This type of speciation would be driven by the conjunction of various
1593:
because offspring of, for example, tetraploid x diploid matings often result in triploid sterile progeny. However, among plants, not all polyploids are reproductively isolated from their parents, and gene flow may still occur, such as through triploid hybrid x diploid matings that produce
1538:
is high. Thus, if an animal, unable to predict natural selection's future direction, is conditioned to produce the fittest offspring possible, it will avoid mates with unusual habits or features. Sexual creatures then inevitably group themselves into reproductively isolated species.
820:. Eventually, only a few species remain, each distinctly different from the other. The cost of rarity not only involves the costs of failure to find a mate, but also indirect costs such as the cost of communication in seeking out a partner at low population densities.
1275:
loci are different, that hawthorn flies mature later in the season and take longer to mature than apple flies; and that there is little evidence of interbreeding (researchers have documented a 4â6% hybridization rate) suggests that sympatric speciation is occurring.
1089:
between two populations, strong differential selection may impede assimilation and different species may eventually develop. Habitat differences may be more important in the development of reproductive isolation than the isolation time. Caucasian rock lizards
1341:
who suggested in the late 19th century that it might be an important factor in speciation. Conversely, if the hybrid offspring are more fit than their ancestors, then the populations will merge back into the same species within the area they are in contact.
1715:
There is debate as to the rate at which speciation events occur over geologic time. While some evolutionary biologists claim that speciation events have remained relatively constant and gradual over time (known as "Phyletic gradualism" â see diagram), some
776:(1859), Darwin interpreted biological evolution in terms of natural selection, but was perplexed by the clustering of organisms into species. Chapter 6 of Darwin's book is entitled "Difficulties of the Theory". In discussing these "difficulties" he noted
1533:
An alternative explanation is that these observations are consistent with sexually-reproducing animals being inherently reluctant to mate with individuals whose appearance or behavior is different from the norm. The risk that such deviations are due to
1078:. Parapatric speciation is modelled on continuous variation within a "single", connected habitat acting as a source of natural selection rather than the effects of isolation of habitats produced in peripatric and allopatric speciation.
1069:
In parapatric speciation, there is only partial separation of the zones of two diverging populations afforded by geography; individuals of each species may come in contact or cross habitats from time to time, but reduced fitness of the
1263:), also known as the apple maggot fly, appears to be undergoing sympatric speciation. Different populations of hawthorn fly feed on different fruits. A distinct population emerged in North America in the 19th century some time after
780:
Firstly, why, if species have descended from other species by insensibly fine gradations, do we not everywhere see innumerable transitional forms? Why is not all nature in confusion instead of the species being, as we see them, well
1031:
In peripatric speciation, a subform of allopatric speciation, new species are formed in isolated, smaller peripheral populations that are prevented from exchanging genes with the main population. It is related to the concept of a
761:
Since
Charles Darwin's time, efforts to understand the nature of species have primarily focused on the first aspect, and it is now widely agreed that the critical factor behind the origin of new species is reproductive isolation.
2383:
The near-simultaneous appearance of most modern animal body plans in the
Cambrian explosion suggests a brief interval of rapid phenotypic and genetic evolution, which Darwin believed were too fast to be explained by natural
1605:
It has been suggested that many of the existing plant and most animal species have undergone an event of polyploidization in their evolutionary history. Reproduction of successful polyploid species is sometimes asexual, by
1471:, but the dates and methods of the initiation of such species are not clear. Often, the domestic counterpart can still interbreed and produce fertile offspring with its wild ancestor. This is the case with domestic
1524:
Dodd's experiment has been replicated many times, including with other kinds of fruit flies and foods. Such rapid evolution of reproductive isolation may sometimes be a relic of infection by
800:
earth". That clearly defined species actually do exist in nature in both space and time implies that some fundamental feature of natural selection operates to generate and maintain species.
5657:
3568:"The existence of species rests on a metastable equilibrium between inbreeding and outbreeding. An essay on the close relationship between speciation, inbreeding and recessive mutations"
1756:
Evolution can be extremely rapid, as shown in the creation of domesticated animals and plants in a very short geological space of time, spanning only a few tens of thousands of years.
1772:
in only a few thousand years, starting about 7,000 to 12,000 years ago. This raises the question of why the long term rate of evolution is far slower than is theoretically possible.
7658:
846:). Sexual populations therefore rapidly shed rare or peripheral phenotypic features, thus canalizing the entire external appearance, as illustrated in the accompanying image of the
981:
arise in the two populations. When the populations come back into contact, they have evolved such that they are reproductively isolated and are no longer capable of exchanging
935:
colonies in isolated lakes and streams. Over an estimated 10,000 generations, the sticklebacks show structural differences that are greater than those seen between different
3749:
1964:
This argument implies that evolution can only occur if mutant mates cannot be avoided, as a result of a severe scarcity of potential mates. This is most likely to occur in
7601:
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1361:
zones are regions where diverged populations meet and interbreed. Hybrid offspring are common in these regions, which are usually created by diverged species coming into
1221:. There are over 800 described species, and according to estimates, there could be well over 1,600 species in the region. Their evolution is cited as an example of both
1009:
differed from one island to another, but it was only nine months later that he speculated that such facts could show that species were changeable. When he returned to
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8745:
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325:
1728:
have argued that species usually remain unchanged over long stretches of time, and that speciation occurs only over relatively brief intervals, a view known as
7653:
7638:
4948:
3934:"Intrinsic incompatibilities evolving as a by-product of divergent ecological selection: Considering them in empirical studies on divergence with gene flow"
7643:
4956:
2804:
1614:, as for unknown reasons many asexual organisms are polyploid. Rare instances of polyploid mammals are known, but most often result in prenatal death.
1233:. Sympatric speciation driven by ecological factors may also account for the extraordinary diversity of crustaceans living in the depths of Siberia's
3415:
1241:
advantages of inbreeding such as the expression of advantageous recessive phenotypes, reducing the recombination load, and reducing the cost of sex.
4509:"Molecular analysis of wild and domestic sheep questions current nomenclature and provides evidence for domestication from two different subspecies"
1267:, a non-native species, were introduced. This apple-feeding population normally feeds only on apples and not on the historically preferred fruit of
1187:
Sympatric speciation is the formation of two or more descendant species from a single ancestral species all occupying the same geographic location.
3364:"Interspecific profiling of gene expression informed by comparative genomic hybridization: A review and a novel approach in African cichlid fishes"
4340:
5695:
2703:
The
Phenotypic Differences between Carrion and Hooded Crows across the Hybridization Zone in Europe are Unlikely to be due to Assortative Mating.
5569:
9477:
640:
8494:
7794:
248:
1654:
Hybridization without change in chromosome number is called homoploid hybrid speciation. It is considered very rare but has been shown in
1498:
The best-documented creations of new species in the laboratory were performed in the late 1980s. William R. Rice and George W. Salt bred
939:
of fish including variations in fins, changes in the number or size of their bony plates, variable jaw structure, and color differences.
2545:
Koeslag, Johan H. (May 10, 1990). "Koinophilia groups sexual creatures into species, promotes stasis, and stabilizes social behaviour".
1926:
who have to carry these mutations until a small, unpredictable minority of them ultimately contributes to such an adaptation. Thus, the
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7730:
559:
842:, which is almost certain to be deleterious. It therefore behooves sexual creatures to avoid mates sporting rare or unusual features (
9311:
3319:
Berlocher, Stewart H.; Feder, Jeffrey L. (January 2002). "Sympatric
Speciation in Phytophagous Insects: Moving Beyond Controversy?".
3156:
1403:
both in time and space â which would be the more obvious or logical consequence of natural selection. This was indeed recognized by
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8998:
8453:
7611:
4556:
Rice, William R.; Salt, George W. (June 1988). "Speciation Via
Disruptive Selection on Habitat Preference: Experimental Evidence".
3115:
1312:
367:
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9321:
2021:
1346:
4591:
Rice, William R.; Hostert, Ellen E. (December 1993). "Laboratory
Experiments on Speciation: What Have We Learned in 40 Years?".
1667:. Polyploid speciation, which involves changes in chromosome number, is a more common phenomenon, especially in plant species.
9461:
9306:
7804:
3678:
Berlocher, Stewart H.; Bush, Guy L. (June 1982). "An electrophoretic analysis of
Rhagoletis (Diptera: Tephritidae) phylogeny".
1985:
1973:
834:
Rarity brings with it other costs. Rare and unusual features are very seldom advantageous. In most instances, they indicate a (
73:
4288:"On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection"
1968:. These occur most commonly on small islands, in remote valleys, lakes, river systems, or caves, or during the aftermath of a
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Bernstein, Harris; Byerly, Henry C.; Hopf, Frederic A.; et al. (December 21, 1985). "Sex and the emergence of species".
2331:
1954:
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Studies in
History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences
1271:. The current hawthorn feeding population does not normally feed on apples. Some evidence, such as that six out of thirteen
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8118:
7411:
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6147:
3411:"Genomics of adaptation and speciation in cichlid fishes: recent advances and analyses in African and Neotropical lineages"
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501:
17:
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9241:
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4729:
Kirkpatrick, Mark; Ravigné, Virginie (March 2002). "Speciation by
Natural and Sexual Selection: Models and Experiments".
3368:
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8506:
8166:
7038:
6632:
5473:
5248:
Mavarez, JesĂșs; Salazar, Camilo A.; Bermingham, Eldredge; et al. (June 15, 2006). "Speciation by hybridization in
4780:
Koukou, Katerina; Pavlikaki, Haris; Kilias, George; et al. (January 2006). "Influence of
Antibiotic Treatment and
3732:
633:
362:
193:
6668:
Mayr, Ernst (1992). "Speciational Evolution or Punctuated Equilibrium". In Somit, Albert; Peterson, Steven A. (eds.).
6119:
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life
989:
is the term associated with the tendency of small, isolated genetic pools to produce unusual traits. Examples include
9379:
5733:
8573:
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1576:. In plants, this can effectively be a new species, reproductively isolated from its parents, and able to reproduce.
9513:
9482:
8578:
8176:
6946:
6906:
6591:
95:
1337:, which would control hybridization. This is sometimes called the Wallace effect after the evolutionary biologist
1142:
gulls have been claimed to illustrate speciation in progress, though the situation may be more complex. The grass
986:
9291:
9188:
8823:
8813:
8737:
8012:
4981:
4847:
4337:
Eberhard, W. G. (1985). Sexual Selection and Animal Genitalia. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts
352:
320:
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7933:
6942:
6868:
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4379:
3152:"Speciation in Caucasian lizards: climatic dissimilarity of the habitats is more important than isolation time"
3091:
2547:
2451:
1958:
1935:
823:
574:
357:
2884:"Adaptive speciation: The role of natural selection in mechanisms of geographic and non-geographic speciation"
1996:
1992:
separated from the line that led to the evolution of their closest living primate relatives, the chimpanzees.
1345:
Another important theoretical mechanism is the arise of intrinsic genetic incompatibilities, addressed in the
961:, "fatherland") speciation, a population splits into two geographically isolated populations (for example, by
9616:
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8603:
8347:
8086:
5662:
2041:
626:
613:
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fruit flies after several generations by placing them in different media, starch- and maltose-based media.
544:
2000:
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9563:
9434:
9026:
8620:
7718:
7706:
6351:
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1548:
ancestor may be unclear or unknown; a collection of three such species is referred to as a "trichotomy".
1001:
are particularly famous for their influence on Charles Darwin. During his five weeks there he heard that
600:
9576:
9082:
8722:
7896:
7607:
6305:
6214:(1972). "Punctuated Equilibria: An Alternative to Phyletic Gradualism". In Schopf, Thomas J. M. (ed.).
6043:
5390:
5151:
4682:
Dodd, Diane M. B. (September 1989). "Reproductive Isolation as a Consequence of Adaptive Divergence in
3619:"Evidence for inversion polymorphism related to sympatric host race formation in the apple maggot fly,
2723:
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100:
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Often-cited examples of sympatric speciation are found in insects that become dependent on different
466:
441:
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78:
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2883:
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Hopf, Frederic A.; Hopf, F. W. (February 1985). "The role of the Allee effect in species packing".
1510:
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854:. This uniformity of all the adult members of a sexual species has stimulated the proliferation of
847:
827:
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This dilemma can be described as the absence or rarity of transitional varieties in habitat space.
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772:
686:
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1413:(1859), under the heading "Difficulties with the Theory". There are several suggestions as to how
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There are four geographic modes of speciation in nature, based on the extent to which speciating
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4380:"Adaptive radiation, nonadaptive radiation, ecological speciation and nonecological speciation"
3998:
3013:"Divergence at the edges: peripatric isolation in the montane spiny throated reed frog complex"
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1421:. If speciation takes place in the absence of natural selection, it might be referred to as
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6709:
The Story of Earth & Life: A Southern African Perspective on a 4.6-Billion-Year Journey
6670:
Dynamics of Evolution: The Punctuated Equilibrium Debate in the Natural and Social Sciences
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Time Frames: The Rethinking of Darwinian Evolution and the Theory of Punctuated Equilibria
4350:
3362:
Machado, Heather E.; Pollen, Alexander A.; Hofmann, Hans A.; et al. (December 2009).
3332:
2008:
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and two other species, which separated later but live in climatically different habitats.
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8081:
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7886:
7869:
7847:
7694:
7551:
7367:
7327:
7269:
6263:
5334:; et al. (September 8, 2006). "Gene Transposition as a Cause of Hybrid Sterility in
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Langlois, Judith H.; Roggman, Lori A. (March 1990). "Attractive Faces Are Only Average".
4593:
2934:
2659:"The genomic landscape underlying phenotypic integrity in the face of gene flow in crows"
1696:
1082:
1045:
1014:
974:
928:
862:, in which a species can be described with a single illustration (or two, in the case of
812:
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is a minor or major contributor to speciation is the subject of much ongoing discussion.
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295:
198:
123:
58:
8239:
5608:
5445:
5351:
5267:
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4639:(October 2003). "Perspective: Models of Speciation: What Have We Learned in 40 Years?".
4450:
4395:
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3536:
3483:
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Tarkhnishvili, David; Murtskhvaladze, Marine; Gavashelishvili, Alexander (August 2013).
3028:
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2622:
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way. The mutations on which the process depends are random events, and, except for the "
1433:
1289:
728:, such as by doubling of chromosome number; the result is progeny which are immediately
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5457:
5371:
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SĂ©mon, Marie; Wolfe, Kenneth H. (December 2007). "Consequences of genome duplication".
5131:
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Poelstra, Jelmer W.; Vijay, Nagarjun; Bossu, Christen M.; et al. (June 20, 2014).
2374:
2206:
2171:
2152:
1939:
1369:. Reinforcement may be induced in artificial selection experiments as described below.
1334:
1040:. Genetic drift is often proposed to play a significant role in peripatric speciation.
966:
830:, showing coloration shared by all adults of that species to a high degree of fidelity.
808:
It has been argued that the resolution of Darwin's first dilemma lies in the fact that
564:
496:
280:
208:
173:
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6397:
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4132:
Jeffrey S. McKinnon; et al. (2004), "Evidence for ecology's role in speciation",
4103:
3544:
2947:
2658:
2568:
2424:
912:; however, debate persists as to the relative importance of each mechanism in driving
736:, followed by reproductive isolation, if the hybrid is favoured by natural selection.
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6578:
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6534:
6526:
6516:
6496:
6488:
6478:
6461:
6453:
6443:
6442:(7th ed.). Cape Town, South Africa: Trustees of the J. Voelcker Bird Book Fund.
6426:
6418:
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4482:
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3786:
3617:
Feder, Jeffrey L.; Roethele, Joseph B.; Filchak, Kenneth; et al. (March 2003).
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2698:
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1914:
Evolution is imposed on species or groups. It is not planned or striven for in some
9611:
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2420:
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2191:
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2107:
1995:
For similar evolutionary time lines see, for instance, the paleontological list of
1969:
1518:
1468:
1392:
1298:
1226:
1129:
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1075:
990:
691:
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1919:
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1607:
1218:
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243:
105:
2902:
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8583:
7943:
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6207:
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In apparent confirmation of this punctuated equilibrium view of evolution, the
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1404:
1318:
1191:
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924:
677:
665:
335:
238:
31:
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5164:
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Niemiller, Matthew L.; Fitzpatrick, Benjamin M.; Miller, Brian T. (May 2008).
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Parapatric speciation may be associated with differential landscape-dependent
53:
9600:
9266:
9117:
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8971:
8849:
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8408:
8076:
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7336:
7168:
7122:
7009:
6986:. Oxford Series in Ecology and Evolution. New York: Oxford University Press.
6902:
6851:
6554:
6550:
6500:
6139:
6035:
5776:
5708:
5683:
4750:
4466:
4411:
4022:
3967:
3902:
3842:
2638:
2576:
2026:
1857:
1504:
1210:
1043:
Case studies include Mayr's investigation of bird fauna; the Australian bird
874:
718:
486:
158:
7212:
6894:
6812:
6775:
6734:
6699:
6660:
6538:
6465:
6289:
6199:
6105:
6019:
5981:
5938:
5359:
5215:
4949:"Pathways, Mechanisms, and Rates of Polyploid Formation in Flowering Plants"
4915:
4206:
3286:
3258:"Mayr, Dobzhansky, and Bush and the complexities of sympatric speciation in
3101:
2682:
2196:
1949:
The resolution to Darwin's second dilemma might thus come about as follows:
1851:
9508:
9087:
8966:
8914:
8859:
8692:
8687:
8281:
8039:
7508:
7457:
7452:
7305:
7261:
7221:
7079:
6974:
6934:
6623:
6383:
6331:
6071:
6059:
5893:
5367:
5331:
5283:
5234:
5172:
5127:
5084:
5041:
4933:
4883:
4809:
4758:
4715:
4660:
4622:
4542:
4524:
4474:
4419:
4272:
4214:
4161:
4111:
3975:
3910:
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3770:
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3603:
3584:
3552:
3501:
3446:
3428:
3391:
3340:
3305:
3220:
3202:
3056:
2955:
2910:
2690:
2630:
2274:
2255:
2215:
2119:
1717:
1133:
993:
and the radical changes among certain famous island chains, for example on
913:
809:
669:
506:
491:
275:
270:
188:
27:
Evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species
6582:
6430:
6241:
5761:
4040:
3860:
3149:
2831:
2584:
2432:
1899:
1628:
Hybridization between two different species sometimes leads to a distinct
9369:
9354:
9137:
8993:
8864:
8593:
8128:
7958:
7864:
7822:
6786:
Darwinian Dynamics: Evolutionary Transitions in Fitness and Individuality
6339:
6297:
6173:
6067:
5191:"The role of genetic and genomic attributes in the success of polyploids"
4239:
3382:
3363:
1885:
1837:
1831:
1692:
1414:
1253:, the hawthorn fly, appears to be in the process of sympatric speciation.
1234:
1214:
1202:
1132:. A niche must be available in order for a new species to be successful.
1110:
932:
855:
843:
516:
233:
183:
8433:
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5061:(November 2005). "The advantages and disadvantages of being polyploid".
4888:"A Single Gene Causes Both Male Sterility and Segregation Distortion in
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1475:, which can be considered the same species as several varieties of wild
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8854:
8755:
8677:
8298:
8098:
7963:
7916:
7911:
7859:
7827:
7742:
7593:
7532:
7447:
7130:
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The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance
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213:
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Koeslag, Johan H. (December 21, 1995). "On the Engine of Speciation".
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may be starting parapatric speciation in areas of mine contamination.
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8839:
8448:
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7814:
6031:
5717:
Unto Others : The Evolution and Psychology of Unselfish Behavior
5425:"Punctuated equilibria: the tempo and mode of evolution reconsidered"
5307:"Genetic Surprise Confirms Neglected 70-Year-Old Evolutionary Theory"
4801:
1817:
1708:
1664:
1660:
1640:
1629:
1586:
1581:
1526:
1400:
1357:, and some genes involved in incompatibilities have been identified.
1268:
1128:
Ecologists refer to parapatric and peripatric speciation in terms of
1092:
1086:
970:
909:
803:
725:
657:
549:
163:
83:
5076:
4699:
4606:
4435:"The Ecology of Nonecological Speciation and Nonadaptive Radiations"
4295:
Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society of London. Zoology
3693:
2369:
2352:
2085:
1757:
1121:, which separated earlier but live in similar habitats than between
908:
All forms of natural speciation have taken place over the course of
732:
from the parent population. New species can also be created through
9404:
8891:
8093:
7096:
6634:
Toward a New Philosophy of Biology: Observations of an Evolutionist
4742:
4652:
4569:
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Howard D. Rundle and Patrik Nosil (2005), "Ecological speciation",
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1989:
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1799:
1639:
Hybridization is an important means of speciation in plants, since
1611:
1590:
1556:
1535:
1365:. Without reinforcement, the two species would have uncontrollable
1074:
leads to selection for behaviours or mechanisms that prevent their
1071:
978:
885:
839:
539:
138:
7204:
7114:
6843:
6726:
6492:
6457:
6097:
3879:"Darwin and the Origin of Interspecific Genetic Incompatibilities"
1699:, above, consists of relatively slow change over geological time.
1229:. A 2008 study suggests that sympatric speciation has occurred in
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7990:
7597:
7432:
6304:. Monographs in Population Biology. Vol. 10. Princeton, NJ:
5867:. Benjamin/Cummings Series in the Life Sciences. Menlo Park, CA:
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6926:
6886:
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2724:"Speciation - What is the role of reinforcement in speciation?"
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1589:
is a mechanism that has caused many rapid speciation events in
1573:
1569:
1472:
1441:
1326:
757:
how the separateness and individuality of species is maintained
750:
In addressing the origin of species, there are two key issues:
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3616:
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The best known example of sympatric speciation is that of the
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8197:
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One example of natural speciation is the diversity of the
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divergence as: (a) they become subjected to dissimilar
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process by which populations evolve to become distinct
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fitness of the hybrids would cause selection to favor
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on birds, mammals, reptiles, insects, and many other
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724:Rapid sympatric speciation can take place through
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3416:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B
694:as a likely mechanism, but found it problematic.
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4180:
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3187:"The herring gull complex is not a ring species"
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2604:
2602:
2600:
2598:
2596:
2594:
2540:
2538:
2536:
2534:
2532:
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1005:could be identified by island, and noticed that
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2172:"Natural selection in action during speciation"
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2394:
2392:
2326:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 9â50.
1959:relatedness and age of populations and species
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7758:
7375:
6789:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
6515:. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.
6507:
6206:
5591:
5553:
5523:
5418:
5152:Current Opinion in Genetics & Development
5053:
5051:
4175:
3677:
3404:
2799:
2764:
2591:
2527:
2479:
2229:Schneider, Christopher J. (31 October 2000).
1785:can differ markedly from their wild ancestors
1113:; however, hybridization is stronger between
634:
7031:Fitness Landscapes and the Origin of Species
6302:Geographic Variation, Speciation, and Clines
5946:Bernstein, Carol; Bernstein, Harris (1991).
5838:
5836:
5519:
5517:
5185:
4773:
4629:
4500:
4377:
3715:SĂŠtre, Glenn-Peter (2012). "Reinforcement".
2645:
1986:distribution of hominin species through time
1957:", which can be, and are, used to trace the
1551:
1440:(Indian bison) can interbreed with domestic
6169:River Out of Eden: A Darwinian View of Life
5808:
5806:
5804:
5241:
4997:
4590:
3249:
2495:
2493:
2389:
1417:might play a significant role in resolving
672:, the splitting of lineages, as opposed to
9535:The Sixth Extinction: An Unnatural History
9060:
9046:
7765:
7751:
7382:
7368:
6707:McCarthy, Terence; Rubidge, Bruce (2005).
6149:The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online
5148:
5048:
4881:
4233:
4231:
3876:
3312:
3004:
2760:
2758:
2756:
2059:
953:During allopatric (from the ancient Greek
869:In the contrasting case of organisms that
641:
627:
7251:
7241:
7143:Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
6598:Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
5900:
5833:
5823:
5821:
5532:
5514:
5224:
5214:
5023:
4923:
4635:
4532:
4361:
4359:
4306:
4075:
4030:
3957:
3850:
3648:
3593:
3583:
3491:
3436:
3381:
3295:
3285:
3210:
3169:
3157:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
3046:
3036:
2444:
2442:
2368:
2264:
2254:
2228:
2205:
2195:
2065:
1934:, a concept discredited by (for example)
1802:; middle: maize-teosinte hybrid; bottom:
754:the evolutionary mechanisms of speciation
8999:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
7772:
7087:Marko, Peter B. (2008). "Allopatry". In
6981:
6941:
6253:
6247:
6066:
5988:
5812:
5801:
5580:
5508:
5305:Sherwood, Jonathan (September 8, 2006).
5304:
4957:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
4555:
3747:
3063:
2998:
2968:
2931:
2805:"The Genetics of Stasis and Punctuation"
2787:
2504:
2490:
2448:
2317:
1691:
1555:
1447:
1432:
1428:
1313:Evidence for speciation by reinforcement
1288:
1243:
1161:
1036:, since small populations often undergo
884:
822:
739:
30:For the electrochemical phenomenon, see
7320:
6162:
5728:
5652:
5646:
5637:
4286:Darwin, Charles; A. R. Wallace (1858).
4228:
3708:
3522:
3178:
3081:
2753:
2608:
2544:
1741:
1279:
766:Darwin's dilemma: why do species exist?
14:
9599:
6901:
6819:
6782:
6741:
6296:
6112:
5818:
5775:
5769:
5722:
5388:
5189:; Soltis, Douglas E. (June 20, 2000).
5105:
5099:
5001:; Whitton, Jeannette (December 2000).
4830:
4365:
4356:
4321:
3877:Presgraves, Daven C. (December 2010).
3138:
2510:
2499:
2439:
2350:
2306:
2302:
2300:
2298:
2296:
680:was the first to describe the role of
676:, phyletic evolution within lineages.
9041:
8762:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
7746:
7363:
7335:
7321:Boxhorn, Joseph (September 1, 1995).
7268:
6911:. New York: Oxford University Press.
6858:
6394:
6346:
5909:Endless Forms: Species and Speciation
5857:
5827:
5781:"The False Allure of Group Selection"
5565:
5142:
5057:
4495:
4346:
3872:
3870:
3812:
3810:
3714:
3333:10.1146/annurev.ento.47.091201.145312
2881:
2870:
2339:modifications from a common ancestor.
1670:
1643:(having more than two copies of each
1055:subject to population bottlenecking.
9559:
7701:
6667:
6630:
6589:
6545:
6472:
6172:. Science Masters Series. New York:
5864:Population and Evolutionary Genetics
5815:, pp. 450â451, 487â490, 499â501
5538:
5496:
4681:
3932:Kulmuni, J.; Westram, A. M. (2017).
3565:
3069:
2776:
2287:
2132:
2080:
1617:
1463:Laboratory experiments of speciation
1407:as problematic, and included in his
1293:Reinforcement assists speciation by
931:, has undergone speciation into new
9493:Voluntary Human Extinction Movement
9242:Extinction risk from climate change
7725:
5389:Minkel, J. R. (September 8, 2006).
5003:"Polyploid Incidence and Evolution"
3996:
3816:
3725:10.1002/9780470015902.a0001754.pub3
3369:Integrative and Comparative Biology
3237:. University of California Berkeley
2824:10.1146/annurev.ge.17.120183.000303
2293:
2169:
1387:
965:due to geographical change such as
24:
8167:Evolutionary developmental biology
7323:"Observed Instances of Speciation"
7018:
5830:, pp. 73â83, 182â190, 198â215
5707:"Remarks on an earlier article by
5330:Masly, John P.; Jones, Corbin D.;
4861:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1990.tb00079.x
4513:Proceedings of the Royal Society B
4308:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1858.tb02500.x
3867:
3807:
2718:
2231:"Natural selection and speciation"
25:
9633:
7314:
4784:Curing on Sexual Isolation Among
4439:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
4384:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
4252:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
4244:"Sexual selection and speciation"
4238:Panhuis, Tami M.; Butlin, Roger;
3748:Ollerton, Jeff (September 2005).
3525:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
3466:) inferred from gene genealogies"
3405:Fan, Shaohua; Elmer, Kathryn R.;
2948:10.1038/scientificamerican0109-52
2860:Clapham, Tutin & Warburg 1952
2738:(2004), 3rd edition (Malden, MA:
1467:New species have been created by
9584:
9558:
9549:
9548:
9514:Decline in amphibian populations
9483:IUCN Species Survival Commission
9136:
9021:
9012:
9011:
7724:
7712:
7700:
7689:
7688:
6908:The Evolution of Human Sexuality
6440:Roberts Birds of Southern Africa
4970:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.29.1.467
4077:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00715.x
3493:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.03750.x
1898:
1884:
1864:
1850:
1830:
1816:
1791:
1594:tetraploids, or matings between
1517:
1284:
608:
607:
594:
52:
9189:Human impact on the environment
8824:Extended evolutionary synthesis
8013:Gene-centered view of evolution
6867:(6th ed.). Baltimore, MD:
6820:Miller, William B. Jr. (2013).
5850:
5585:
5574:
5547:
5490:
5382:
5323:
5298:
5179:
4991:
4940:
4875:
4824:
4722:
4675:
4584:
4549:
4489:
4426:
4371:
4331:
4279:
4125:
4092:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
4083:
4047:
3990:
3925:
3741:
3671:
3610:
3559:
3516:
3453:
3398:
3355:
3227:
3143:
3132:
3108:
3075:
2962:
2875:
2864:
2853:
2793:
2781:
2770:
2515:
2022:BatesonâDobzhanskyâMuller model
1347:Bateson-Dobzhansky-Muller model
1317:Reinforcement, also called the
701:are isolated from one another:
684:in speciation in his 1859 book
601:Evolutionary biology portal
9169:Climate variability and change
9067:
8952:Hologenome theory of evolution
8819:History of molecular evolution
8045:Evolutionarily stable strategy
7934:Last universal common ancestor
7389:
7220:Shapiro, J. B.; Leducq, J-B.;
7033:. Princeton University Press.
6869:Johns Hopkins University Press
6477:. Buffalo, NY: Firefly Books.
5901:Berlocher, Stewart H. (1998).
5034:10.1146/annurev.genet.34.1.401
2611:Journal of Theoretical Biology
2548:Journal of Theoretical Biology
2486:Bernstein & Bernstein 1991
2452:Theoretical Population Biology
2405:Journal of Theoretical Biology
2344:
2311:
2281:
2222:
2163:
2126:
2086:"Factors of species-formation"
2074:
1974:survives its genetic upheavals
560:Creationâevolution controversy
314:History of evolutionary theory
13:
1:
9519:Decline in insect populations
9462:IUCN Red List extinct species
8746:Renaissance and Enlightenment
6863:Walker's Mammals of the World
5738:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
5663:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
4265:10.1016/s0169-5347(01)02160-7
4104:10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02198-X
3545:10.1016/S0169-5347(97)01039-2
3086:. Oxford: Blackwell Science.
2882:Baker, Jason M. (June 2005).
2569:10.1016/s0022-5193(05)80297-8
2425:10.1016/S0022-5193(85)80246-0
2053:
2042:Selection (genetic algorithm)
1560:Speciation via polyploidy: A
1491:that can interbreed with the
1372:
1058:
1020:
942:
8957:Missing heritability problem
8584:Gamete differentiation/sexes
7243:10.1371/journal.pgen.1005860
7141:. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
7137:Animal Species and Evolution
6982:Williams, George C. (1992).
6748:. Helix Books. Reading, MA:
6596:. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
3817:Orr, H. A. (December 1996).
3566:Joly, E. (9 December 2011).
2522:Hockey, Dean & Ryan 2005
2473:10.1016/0040-5809(85)90014-0
2353:"Resolving Darwin's Dilemma"
1151:
668:coined the term in 1906 for
545:Evolution as fact and theory
7:
7719:Evolutionary biology Portal
6783:Michod, Richard E. (1999).
6742:Michod, Richard E. (1995).
6146:John van Wyhe, ed. (2002),
6144:The book is available from
5843:McCarthy & Rubidge 2005
4242:; et al. (July 2001).
4015:10.1093/genetics/139.4.1805
3835:10.1093/genetics/144.4.1331
3321:Annual Review of Entomology
2903:10.1016/j.shpsc.2005.03.005
2170:Via, Sara (June 16, 2009).
2014:
1966:small, isolated communities
1542:
10:
9638:
9083:Background extinction rate
8589:Life cycles/nuclear phases
8141:TriversâWillard hypothesis
7052:(2nd ed.). New York:
6358:W. W. Norton & Company
6356:(1st ed.). New York:
6306:Princeton University Press
6044:Cambridge University Press
6040:Flora of the British Isles
5950:Aging, Sex, and DNA Repair
5869:Benjamin/Cummings Pub. Co.
4459:10.1016/j.tree.2019.01.012
4404:10.1016/j.tree.2009.02.007
3641:10.1093/genetics/163.3.939
2112:10.1126/science.23.587.506
1745:
1674:
1621:
1579:
1460:
1376:
1310:
1307:Reinforcement (speciation)
1304:
1231:Tennessee cave salamanders
1155:
1062:
1024:
946:
743:
580:Nature-nurture controversy
29:
9544:
9501:
9470:
9447:
9405:End-Jurassic or Tithonian
9332:
9284:
9275:
9227:
9161:
9145:
9134:
9075:
9007:
8907:
8832:
8736:
8663:
8619:
8474:
8378:
8195:
8154:
8087:Parentâoffspring conflict
8023:
7892:Earliest known life forms
7813:
7780:
7684:
7631:
7580:
7523:
7471:
7425:
7397:
7280:W. H. Freeman and Company
7054:Columbia University Press
6859:Nowak, Ronald M. (1999).
6405:Columbia University Press
5750:10.1017/S0140525X00036219
5676:10.1017/S0140525X00036207
5524:Eldredge & Gould 1972
5454:10.1017/s0094837300005224
5165:10.1016/j.gde.2007.09.007
5011:Annual Review of Genetics
4353:, "A Quahog is a Quahog".
3038:10.1186/s12862-015-0384-3
2812:Annual Review of Genetics
1552:Speciation via polyploidy
1194:plants in the same area.
1109:with each other in their
977:pressures; (b) different
467:Evolutionary neuroscience
442:Evolutionary epistemology
422:Evolutionary anthropology
402:Applications of evolution
9457:Lists of extinct species
8940:Cultural group selection
8804:The eclipse of Darwinism
8776:On the Origin of Species
8751:Transmutation of species
7562:Nonecological speciation
6674:Cornell University Press
6254:Eldredge, Niles (1985).
6122:(1st ed.). London:
4684:Drosophila pseudoobscura
3017:BMC Evolutionary Biology
2318:Sepkoski, David (2012).
1930:to evolve would require
1838:Domesticated cauliflower
1687:
1536:heritable maladaptations
1511:Drosophila pseudoobscura
1455:Drosophila pseudoobscura
1423:nonecological speciation
1410:On the Origin of Species
921:three-spined stickleback
880:
848:African pygmy kingfisher
828:African pygmy kingfisher
788:On the Origin of Species
773:On the Origin of Species
687:On the Origin of Species
457:Evolutionary linguistics
452:Evolutionary game theory
427:Evolutionary computation
8945:Dual inheritance theory
8784:History of paleontology
7187:Oxford University Press
7093:Encyclopedia of Ecology
5913:Oxford University Press
5360:10.1126/science.1128721
5311:University of Rochester
5216:10.1073/pnas.97.13.7051
5120:10.1023/A:1006392424384
5108:Plant Molecular Biology
5064:Nature Reviews Genetics
4916:10.1126/science.1163934
4786:Drosophila melanogaster
4731:The American Naturalist
4558:The American Naturalist
4368:, pp. 177, 395â396
4326:"IV. Natural Selection"
4207:10.1126/science.1160006
3997:Orr, H A (1995-04-01).
3883:The American Naturalist
3287:10.1073/pnas.0502099102
3235:"Parapatric speciation"
2683:10.1126/science.1253226
2357:Nature Reviews Genetics
2351:Stower, Hannah (2013).
2197:10.1073/pnas.0901397106
2136:The American Naturalist
2032:Court jester hypothesis
1858:Ancestral Prussian carp
1501:Drosophila melanogaster
730:reproductively isolated
570:Objections to evolution
477:Evolutionary psychology
472:Evolutionary physiology
417:Evolutionary aesthetics
396:Fields and applications
378:History of paleontology
9262:Latent extinction risk
8633:Punctuated equilibrium
7954:Non-adaptive radiation
7902:Evolutionary arms race
7667:Punctuated equilibrium
7623:Character displacement
7443:Reproductive isolation
7412:Laboratory experiments
7091:; Fath, Brian (eds.).
6563:Evolution as a Process
6216:Models in Paleobiology
5709:[Elliot] Sober
4525:10.1098/rspb.2002.1975
3771:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800718
3585:10.1186/1745-6150-6-62
3429:10.1098/rstb.2011.0247
3272:(Suppl 1): 6573â6580.
3203:10.1098/rspb.2004.2679
2972:(September 30, 1982).
2631:10.1006/jtbi.1995.0256
2256:10.1073/pnas.240463297
2182:(Suppl 1): 9939â9946.
1824:Ancestral wild cabbage
1748:Punctuated equilibrium
1731:punctuated equilibrium
1712:
1703:, bottom, consists of
1701:Punctuated equilibrium
1651:in small populations.
1577:
1564:cell undergoes failed
1458:
1445:
1302:
1254:
1184:
905:
831:
794:
502:Speciation experiments
482:Experimental evolution
437:Evolutionary economics
259:Recent human evolution
117:Processes and outcomes
9219:Paradox of enrichment
9108:Functional extinction
9098:Ecological extinction
8925:Evolutionary medicine
8799:Mendelian inheritance
8507:Biological complexity
8495:Programmed cell death
8187:Phenotypic plasticity
7907:Evolutionary pressure
7897:Evidence of evolution
7795:Timeline of evolution
7548:Ecological speciation
7463:Evidence of evolution
7226:"What is Speciation?"
7048:Grant, Verne (1981).
6513:Evolutionary Genetics
6395:Grant, Verne (1971).
6391:via Internet Archive.
5789:Edge Foundation, Inc.
5658:"Burying the Vehicle"
4848:Psychological Science
1764:), for instance, was
1695:
1682:Theodosius Dobzhansky
1675:Further information:
1649:inbreeding depression
1596:meiotically unreduced
1559:
1451:
1436:
1429:Artificial speciation
1379:Ecological speciation
1339:Alfred Russel Wallace
1311:Further information:
1292:
1247:
1172:Haplochromis nyererei
1165:
1145:Anthoxanthum odoratum
1085:. Even if there is a
1065:Parapatric speciation
1027:Peripatric speciation
963:habitat fragmentation
949:Allopatric speciation
927:fish that, after the
888:
826:
778:
746:History of speciation
740:Historical background
690:. He also identified
462:Evolutionary medicine
407:Biosocial criminology
373:History of speciation
286:Evolutionary taxonomy
249:Timeline of evolution
9617:Evolutionary biology
9591:Evolutionary biology
9488:Extinction Rebellion
9430:PlioceneâPleistocene
9312:CretaceousâPaleogene
9257:Hypothetical species
9247:Extinction threshold
9204:Overabundant species
8899:Teleology in biology
8794:Blending inheritance
8172:Genetic assimilation
8035:Artificial selection
7774:Evolutionary biology
7339:(February 9, 2005).
7270:White, Michael J. D.
7185:. Oxford; New York:
7099:. pp. 131â138.
7089:JĂžrgensen, Sven Erik
6826:Universal-Publishers
6631:Mayr, Ernst (1988).
6590:Mayr, Ernst (1982).
6264:Simon & Schuster
5419:Gould, Stephen Jay;
4886:(January 16, 2009).
3621:Rhagoletis pomonella
3409:(February 5, 2012).
3082:Tokeshi, M. (1999).
2999:Coyne & Orr 2004
2740:Blackwell Publishing
1742:Punctuated evolution
1734:. (See diagram, and
1677:Transposable element
1568:, producing diploid
1487:; and with domestic
1280:Methods of selection
1260:Rhagoletis pomonella
1250:Rhagoletis pomonella
1177:sympatric speciation
1158:Sympatric speciation
903:sympatric speciation
432:Evolutionary ecology
46:Evolutionary biology
18:Incipient speciation
9415:Cenomanian-Turonian
9360:CambrianâOrdovician
9292:OrdovicianâSilurian
9199:Mutational meltdown
9184:Habitat destruction
9103:Extinct in the wild
8962:Molecular evolution
8920:Ecological genetics
8789:Transitional fossil
8579:Sexual reproduction
8419:endomembrane system
8348:pollinator-mediated
8304:dolphins and whales
8082:Parental investment
7552:Parallel speciation
7328:TalkOrigins Archive
7275:Modes of Speciation
7177:Schilthuizen, Menno
6943:Williams, George C.
6509:Maynard Smith, John
6473:Laws, Bill (2010).
6078:. Sunderlands, MA:
6028:Clapham, Arthur Roy
5859:Ayala, Francisco J.
5609:1964Natur.201.1145S
5603:(4924): 1145â1147.
5593:Maynard Smith, John
5446:1977Pbio....3..115G
5395:Scientific American
5352:2006Sci...313.1448M
5346:(5792): 1448â1450.
5332:Mohamed, A. F. Noor
5276:10.1038/nature04738
5268:2006Natur.441..868M
5207:2000PNAS...97.7051S
4908:2009Sci...323..376P
4788:Cage Populations".
4451:2019TEcoE..34..400C
4396:2009TEcoE..24..394R
4199:2009Sci...323..737S
4154:10.1038/nature02556
4146:2004Natur.429..294M
4068:2005EcolL...8..336R
3950:2017MolEc..26.3093K
3537:1997TEcoE..12..177M
3484:2008MolEc..17.2258N
3278:2005PNAS..102.6573F
3029:2015BMCEE..15..128L
2935:Scientific American
2801:Maynard Smith, John
2675:2014Sci...344.1410P
2669:(6190): 1410â1414.
2623:1995JThBi.177..401K
2561:1990JThBi.144...15K
2524:, pp. 176, 193
2465:1985TPBio..27...27H
2417:1985JThBi.117..665B
2247:2000PNAS...9712398S
2241:(23): 12398â12399.
2188:2009PNAS..106.9939V
2104:1906Sci....23..506C
1697:Phyletic gradualism
1046:Petroica multicolor
1003:GalĂĄpagos tortoises
929:last glacial period
871:reproduce asexually
813:sexual reproduction
534:Social implications
522:Universal Darwinism
512:Island biogeography
447:Evolutionary ethics
412:Ecological genetics
358:Molecular evolution
296:Transitional fossil
124:Population genetics
40:Part of a series on
8935:Cultural evolution
8050:Fisher's principle
7979:Handicap principle
7969:Parallel evolution
7833:Adaptive radiation
7632:Speciation in taxa
7567:Assortative mating
6824:. Boca Raton, FL:
6348:Gould, Stephen Jay
6308:. pp. 1â246.
6250:, pp. 193â223
6212:Gould, Stephen Jay
6080:Sinauer Associates
6036:Warburg, Edmund F.
5734:"E Pluribus Unum?"
5730:Dennett, Daniel C.
5713:David Sloan Wilson
5554:Maynard Smith 1989
5499:, pp. 210â215
3681:Systematic Zoology
3383:10.1093/icb/icp080
2970:Sulloway, Frank J.
2767:, pp. 275â280
2765:Maynard Smith 1989
2084:(March 30, 1906).
1940:John Maynard Smith
1936:George C. Williams
1713:
1671:Gene transposition
1578:
1459:
1446:
1335:assortative mating
1303:
1257:The hawthorn fly (
1255:
1185:
967:mountain formation
906:
877:) very difficult.
832:
565:Theistic evolution
497:Selective breeding
209:Parallel evolution
174:Adaptive radiation
9572:
9571:
9524:Extinction symbol
9443:
9442:
9307:TriassicâJurassic
9277:Extinction events
9153:Extinction vortex
9113:Genetic pollution
9035:
9034:
8651:Uniformitarianism
8604:Sex-determination
8109:Sexual dimorphism
8104:Natural selection
8008:Unit of selection
7974:Signalling theory
7740:
7739:
7618:Secondary contact
7590:Hybrid speciation
7538:Natural selection
7525:Isolating factors
7345:John Hawks Weblog
7289:978-0-7167-0284-9
7196:978-0-19-850393-4
7152:978-0-674-03750-2
7106:978-0-444-52033-3
7063:978-0-231-05112-5
6993:978-0-19-506933-4
6958:978-0-691-02357-1
6918:978-0-19-502535-4
6878:978-0-8018-5789-8
6835:978-1-61233-277-2
6796:978-0-691-02699-2
6759:978-0-201-40754-9
6718:978-1-77007-148-3
6683:978-0-8014-9763-6
6644:978-0-674-89665-9
6607:978-0-674-36445-5
6567:Allen & Unwin
6555:Hardy, Alister C.
6522:978-0-19-854215-5
6484:978-1-55407-798-4
6449:978-0-620-34053-3
6414:978-0-231-03208-7
6367:978-0-393-01380-1
6315:978-0-691-08187-8
6273:978-0-671-49555-8
6225:978-0-87735-325-6
6183:978-0-465-01606-8
6089:978-0-87893-089-0
6042:. Cambridge, UK:
6003:978-0-8053-1800-5
5990:Campbell, Neil A.
5965:978-0-12-092860-6
5954:. San Diego, CA:
5922:978-0-19-510901-6
5877:978-0-8053-0315-5
5779:(June 18, 2012).
5732:(December 1994).
5656:(December 1994).
5617:10.1038/2011145a0
5309:(Press release).
5262:(7095): 868â871.
5201:(13): 7051â7057.
5187:Soltis, Pamela S.
4902:(5912): 376â379.
4647:(10): 2197â2215.
4637:Gavrilets, Sergey
4519:(1494): 893â904.
4193:(5915): 737â740,
4140:(6989): 294â298,
3959:10.1111/mec.14147
3944:(12): 3093â3103.
3938:Molecular Ecology
3471:Molecular Ecology
3423:(1587): 385â394.
3197:(1542): 893â901.
3171:10.1111/bij.12092
2803:(December 1983).
2748:978-1-4051-0345-9
2333:978-0-226-74858-0
1997:African dinosaurs
1955:neutral mutations
1892:Ancestral mouflon
1872:Domestic goldfish
1752:Rate of evolution
1726:Stephen Jay Gould
1624:Hybrid speciation
1618:Hybrid speciation
1600:hybrid speciation
1397:natural selection
1363:secondary contact
1207:Rift Valley lakes
1181:Rift Valley lakes
1130:ecological niches
999:GalĂĄpagos Islands
864:sexual dimorphism
791:(1859), chapter 6
682:natural selection
651:
650:
342:Origin of Species
144:Natural selection
16:(Redirected from
9629:
9622:Sexual selection
9589:
9588:
9580:
9562:
9561:
9552:
9551:
9529:Human extinction
9420:EoceneâOligocene
9302:PermianâTriassic
9282:
9281:
9252:Field of Bullets
9209:Overexploitation
9194:Muller's ratchet
9179:Invasive species
9140:
9128:Pseudoextinction
9123:Local extinction
9062:
9055:
9048:
9039:
9038:
9025:
9015:
9014:
8814:Modern synthesis
8574:Multicellularity
8569:Mosaic evolution
8454:auditory ossicle
8136:Social selection
8119:Flowering plants
8114:Sexual selection
7767:
7760:
7753:
7744:
7743:
7728:
7727:
7716:
7704:
7703:
7692:
7691:
7543:Sexual selection
7472:Geographic modes
7384:
7377:
7370:
7361:
7360:
7356:
7348:
7332:
7309:
7265:
7255:
7245:
7216:
7172:
7140:
7126:
7083:
7050:Plant Speciation
7044:
7013:
6978:
6938:
6898:
6866:
6855:
6816:
6779:
6738:
6703:
6664:
6627:
6586:
6542:
6504:
6469:
6434:
6402:
6399:Plant Speciation
6387:
6343:
6293:
6261:
6245:
6203:
6164:Dawkins, Richard
6158:
6157:
6156:
6143:
6109:
6063:
6032:Tutin, Thomas G.
6023:
5985:
5953:
5942:
5906:
5897:
5845:
5840:
5831:
5825:
5816:
5810:
5799:
5798:
5796:
5795:
5773:
5767:
5765:
5760:. Archived from
5726:
5720:
5706:
5704:
5703:
5694:. Archived from
5654:Dawkins, Richard
5650:
5644:
5635:
5629:
5628:
5589:
5583:
5578:
5572:
5563:
5557:
5551:
5545:
5536:
5530:
5521:
5512:
5506:
5500:
5494:
5488:
5487:
5485:
5484:
5478:
5472:. Archived from
5429:
5416:
5405:
5404:
5402:
5401:
5386:
5380:
5379:
5327:
5321:
5320:
5318:
5317:
5302:
5296:
5295:
5245:
5239:
5238:
5228:
5218:
5183:
5177:
5176:
5146:
5140:
5139:
5103:
5097:
5096:
5055:
5046:
5045:
5027:
5007:
4995:
4989:
4988:
4986:
4980:. Archived from
4953:
4944:
4938:
4937:
4927:
4882:Phadnis, Nitin;
4879:
4873:
4872:
4842:
4833:
4828:
4822:
4821:
4802:10.1554/05-374.1
4777:
4771:
4770:
4726:
4720:
4719:
4694:(6): 1308â1311.
4679:
4673:
4672:
4633:
4627:
4626:
4601:(6): 1637â1653.
4588:
4582:
4581:
4553:
4547:
4546:
4536:
4504:
4498:
4493:
4487:
4486:
4430:
4424:
4423:
4375:
4369:
4363:
4354:
4344:
4338:
4335:
4329:
4319:
4313:
4312:
4310:
4292:
4283:
4277:
4276:
4248:
4235:
4226:
4225:
4182:
4173:
4172:
4129:
4123:
4122:
4087:
4081:
4080:
4079:
4051:
4045:
4044:
4034:
4009:(4): 1805â1813.
3994:
3988:
3987:
3961:
3929:
3923:
3922:
3874:
3865:
3864:
3854:
3829:(4): 1331â1335.
3814:
3805:
3804:
3802:
3801:
3795:
3789:. Archived from
3754:
3745:
3739:
3738:
3712:
3706:
3705:
3675:
3669:
3668:
3666:
3665:
3652:
3614:
3608:
3607:
3597:
3587:
3563:
3557:
3556:
3520:
3514:
3513:
3495:
3478:(9): 2258â2275.
3457:
3451:
3450:
3440:
3402:
3396:
3395:
3385:
3359:
3353:
3352:
3316:
3310:
3309:
3299:
3289:
3253:
3247:
3246:
3244:
3242:
3231:
3225:
3224:
3214:
3182:
3176:
3175:
3173:
3147:
3141:
3136:
3130:
3129:
3127:
3126:
3112:
3106:
3105:
3079:
3073:
3072:, pp. 21â53
3067:
3061:
3060:
3050:
3040:
3008:
3002:
2996:
2990:
2989:
2966:
2960:
2959:
2929:
2923:
2922:
2888:
2879:
2873:
2868:
2862:
2857:
2851:
2850:
2848:
2842:. Archived from
2809:
2797:
2791:
2785:
2779:
2774:
2768:
2762:
2751:
2733:
2731:
2730:
2716:
2707:
2705:
2654:
2643:
2642:
2606:
2589:
2588:
2542:
2525:
2519:
2513:
2508:
2502:
2497:
2488:
2483:
2477:
2476:
2446:
2437:
2436:
2400:
2387:
2386:
2372:
2348:
2342:
2341:
2315:
2309:
2304:
2291:
2285:
2279:
2278:
2268:
2258:
2226:
2220:
2219:
2209:
2199:
2167:
2161:
2160:
2143:(503): 727â731.
2130:
2124:
2123:
2098:(587): 506â507.
2078:
2072:
2063:
1920:silent mutations
1902:
1888:
1868:
1854:
1834:
1820:
1795:
1783:domestic animals
1736:Darwin's dilemma
1718:palaeontologists
1521:
1469:animal husbandry
1419:Darwin's dilemma
1393:Sexual selection
1388:Sexual selection
1227:sexual selection
1115:D. portschinskii
1103:D. portschinskii
1015:Darwin's finches
991:insular dwarfism
792:
692:sexual selection
664:. The biologist
643:
636:
629:
616:
611:
610:
603:
599:
598:
575:Level of support
368:Current research
353:Modern synthesis
348:Before synthesis
301:Extinction event
59:Darwin's finches
56:
37:
36:
21:
9637:
9636:
9632:
9631:
9630:
9628:
9627:
9626:
9597:
9596:
9595:
9583:
9575:
9573:
9568:
9540:
9497:
9466:
9449:Extinct species
9439:
9395:Carnian Pluvial
9340:Great Oxidation
9328:
9271:
9237:Extinction debt
9229:
9223:
9174:Genetic erosion
9157:
9141:
9132:
9071:
9066:
9036:
9031:
9003:
8930:Group selection
8903:
8828:
8732:
8659:
8621:Tempo and modes
8615:
8470:
8374:
8191:
8150:
8026:
8019:
7996:Species complex
7809:
7800:History of life
7776:
7771:
7741:
7736:
7680:
7663:Paleopolyploidy
7627:
7582:Hybrid concepts
7576:
7519:
7467:
7437:Species complex
7421:
7393:
7388:
7351:
7317:
7312:
7290:
7236:(3): e1005860.
7219:
7197:
7175:
7153:
7129:
7107:
7086:
7064:
7047:
7041:
7025:
7021:
7019:Further reading
7016:
6994:
6959:
6919:
6879:
6836:
6797:
6760:
6719:
6684:
6645:
6608:
6559:Ford, Edmund B.
6523:
6485:
6450:
6415:
6368:
6316:
6298:Endler, John A.
6274:
6226:
6208:Eldredge, Niles
6184:
6154:
6152:
6145:
6114:Darwin, Charles
6090:
6068:Coyne, Jerry A.
6004:
5966:
5923:
5878:
5853:
5848:
5841:
5834:
5826:
5819:
5811:
5802:
5793:
5791:
5774:
5770:
5727:
5723:
5701:
5699:
5651:
5647:
5636:
5632:
5590:
5586:
5579:
5575:
5570:pt. 4, chpt. 18
5564:
5560:
5552:
5548:
5537:
5533:
5522:
5515:
5507:
5503:
5495:
5491:
5482:
5480:
5476:
5427:
5423:(Spring 1977).
5421:Eldredge, Niles
5417:
5408:
5399:
5397:
5387:
5383:
5328:
5324:
5315:
5313:
5303:
5299:
5246:
5242:
5184:
5180:
5147:
5143:
5104:
5100:
5077:10.1038/nrg1711
5071:(11): 836â846.
5056:
5049:
5025:10.1.1.323.1059
5005:
4996:
4992:
4984:
4951:
4945:
4941:
4880:
4876:
4843:
4836:
4829:
4825:
4778:
4774:
4737:(S3): S22âS35.
4727:
4723:
4700:10.2307/2409365
4680:
4676:
4634:
4630:
4607:10.2307/2410209
4589:
4585:
4554:
4550:
4505:
4501:
4494:
4490:
4431:
4427:
4376:
4372:
4364:
4357:
4345:
4341:
4336:
4332:
4320:
4316:
4290:
4284:
4280:
4246:
4236:
4229:
4183:
4176:
4130:
4126:
4088:
4084:
4056:Ecology Letters
4052:
4048:
3995:
3991:
3930:
3926:
3889:(S1): S45âS60.
3875:
3868:
3815:
3808:
3799:
3797:
3793:
3752:
3746:
3742:
3735:
3713:
3709:
3694:10.2307/2413033
3676:
3672:
3663:
3661:
3615:
3611:
3564:
3560:
3521:
3517:
3458:
3454:
3403:
3399:
3360:
3356:
3317:
3313:
3254:
3250:
3240:
3238:
3233:
3232:
3228:
3183:
3179:
3148:
3144:
3137:
3133:
3124:
3122:
3114:
3113:
3109:
3094:
3080:
3076:
3068:
3064:
3009:
3005:
2997:
2993:
2967:
2963:
2930:
2926:
2886:
2880:
2876:
2869:
2865:
2858:
2854:
2846:
2807:
2798:
2794:
2786:
2782:
2775:
2771:
2763:
2754:
2728:
2726:
2717:
2710:
2655:
2646:
2607:
2592:
2543:
2528:
2520:
2516:
2509:
2505:
2498:
2491:
2484:
2480:
2447:
2440:
2401:
2390:
2370:10.1038/nrg3614
2349:
2345:
2334:
2316:
2312:
2305:
2294:
2286:
2282:
2227:
2223:
2168:
2164:
2131:
2127:
2082:Cook, Orator F.
2079:
2075:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2051:
2047:Species problem
2017:
2001:Asian dinosaurs
1970:mass extinction
1944:Richard Dawkins
1932:group selection
1912:
1911:
1910:
1909:
1908:
1903:
1895:
1894:
1889:
1878:
1877:
1876:
1875:
1874:
1869:
1861:
1860:
1855:
1844:
1843:
1842:
1841:
1840:
1835:
1827:
1826:
1821:
1810:
1809:
1808:
1807:
1806:
1796:
1787:
1786:
1754:
1746:Main articles:
1744:
1690:
1679:
1673:
1634:Mariana mallard
1626:
1620:
1608:parthenogenesis
1584:
1554:
1545:
1465:
1431:
1390:
1381:
1375:
1315:
1309:
1287:
1282:
1219:Lake Tanganyika
1209:, particularly
1205:inhabiting the
1175:diversified by
1160:
1154:
1067:
1061:
1029:
1023:
987:Island genetics
951:
945:
883:
806:
793:
785:
768:
748:
742:
647:
606:
593:
592:
585:
584:
535:
527:
526:
397:
389:
388:
387:
315:
307:
306:
305:
254:Human evolution
244:History of life
228:
227:Natural history
220:
219:
218:
118:
110:
65:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9635:
9625:
9624:
9619:
9614:
9609:
9594:
9593:
9570:
9569:
9567:
9566:
9556:
9545:
9542:
9541:
9539:
9538:
9531:
9526:
9521:
9516:
9511:
9505:
9503:
9499:
9498:
9496:
9495:
9490:
9485:
9480:
9474:
9472:
9468:
9467:
9465:
9464:
9459:
9453:
9451:
9445:
9444:
9441:
9440:
9438:
9437:
9432:
9427:
9425:Middle Miocene
9422:
9417:
9412:
9407:
9402:
9397:
9392:
9390:End-Capitanian
9387:
9382:
9377:
9372:
9367:
9362:
9357:
9352:
9347:
9342:
9336:
9334:
9330:
9329:
9327:
9326:
9325:
9324:
9314:
9309:
9304:
9299:
9294:
9288:
9286:
9279:
9273:
9272:
9270:
9269:
9264:
9259:
9254:
9249:
9244:
9239:
9233:
9231:
9225:
9224:
9222:
9221:
9216:
9211:
9206:
9201:
9196:
9191:
9186:
9181:
9176:
9171:
9165:
9163:
9159:
9158:
9156:
9155:
9149:
9147:
9143:
9142:
9135:
9133:
9131:
9130:
9125:
9120:
9115:
9110:
9105:
9100:
9095:
9090:
9085:
9079:
9077:
9073:
9072:
9065:
9064:
9057:
9050:
9042:
9033:
9032:
9030:
9029:
9019:
9008:
9005:
9004:
9002:
9001:
8996:
8991:
8986:
8981:
8980:
8979:
8969:
8964:
8959:
8954:
8949:
8948:
8947:
8942:
8937:
8927:
8922:
8917:
8911:
8909:
8905:
8904:
8902:
8901:
8896:
8895:
8894:
8889:
8884:
8883:
8882:
8872:
8867:
8862:
8857:
8852:
8842:
8836:
8834:
8830:
8829:
8827:
8826:
8821:
8816:
8811:
8806:
8801:
8796:
8791:
8786:
8781:
8780:
8779:
8770:Charles Darwin
8767:
8766:
8765:
8753:
8748:
8742:
8740:
8734:
8733:
8731:
8730:
8725:
8720:
8715:
8710:
8708:Non-ecological
8705:
8700:
8695:
8690:
8685:
8680:
8675:
8669:
8667:
8661:
8660:
8658:
8657:
8648:
8639:
8625:
8623:
8617:
8616:
8614:
8613:
8608:
8607:
8606:
8601:
8596:
8591:
8586:
8576:
8571:
8566:
8561:
8556:
8551:
8546:
8541:
8536:
8531:
8526:
8525:
8524:
8514:
8509:
8504:
8499:
8498:
8497:
8492:
8481:
8479:
8472:
8471:
8469:
8468:
8467:
8466:
8461:
8459:nervous system
8456:
8451:
8446:
8438:
8437:
8436:
8431:
8426:
8421:
8416:
8411:
8401:
8396:
8391:
8385:
8383:
8376:
8375:
8373:
8372:
8367:
8362:
8357:
8352:
8351:
8350:
8340:
8339:
8338:
8333:
8332:
8331:
8326:
8316:
8311:
8306:
8301:
8296:
8295:
8294:
8289:
8279:
8269:
8264:
8263:
8262:
8252:
8247:
8242:
8237:
8236:
8235:
8225:
8220:
8219:
8218:
8208:
8202:
8200:
8193:
8192:
8190:
8189:
8184:
8179:
8174:
8169:
8164:
8158:
8156:
8152:
8151:
8149:
8148:
8143:
8138:
8133:
8132:
8131:
8126:
8121:
8111:
8106:
8101:
8096:
8091:
8090:
8089:
8084:
8074:
8069:
8064:
8063:
8062:
8052:
8047:
8042:
8037:
8031:
8029:
8021:
8020:
8018:
8017:
8016:
8015:
8005:
8000:
7999:
7998:
7993:
7983:
7982:
7981:
7971:
7966:
7961:
7959:Origin of life
7956:
7951:
7946:
7944:Microevolution
7941:
7939:Macroevolution
7936:
7931:
7926:
7925:
7924:
7914:
7909:
7904:
7899:
7894:
7889:
7884:
7879:
7877:Common descent
7874:
7873:
7872:
7862:
7857:
7855:Baldwin effect
7852:
7851:
7850:
7845:
7835:
7830:
7825:
7819:
7817:
7811:
7810:
7808:
7807:
7802:
7797:
7792:
7787:
7781:
7778:
7777:
7770:
7769:
7762:
7755:
7747:
7738:
7737:
7735:
7734:
7722:
7710:
7698:
7685:
7682:
7681:
7679:
7678:
7671:Macroevolution
7656:
7651:
7646:
7641:
7635:
7633:
7629:
7628:
7626:
7625:
7620:
7615:
7605:
7586:
7584:
7578:
7577:
7575:
7574:
7572:Haldane's rule
7569:
7564:
7559:
7545:
7540:
7535:
7529:
7527:
7521:
7520:
7518:
7517:
7512:
7498:
7495:Founder effect
7475:
7473:
7469:
7468:
7466:
7465:
7460:
7455:
7450:
7445:
7440:
7429:
7427:
7426:Basic concepts
7423:
7422:
7420:
7419:
7414:
7409:
7404:
7398:
7395:
7394:
7387:
7386:
7379:
7372:
7364:
7358:
7357:
7349:
7337:Hawks, John D.
7333:
7316:
7315:External links
7313:
7311:
7310:
7288:
7266:
7217:
7195:
7173:
7151:
7127:
7105:
7084:
7062:
7045:
7040:978-0691119830
7039:
7022:
7020:
7017:
7015:
7014:
6992:
6979:
6957:
6939:
6917:
6903:Symons, Donald
6899:
6877:
6856:
6834:
6817:
6795:
6780:
6758:
6750:Addison-Wesley
6739:
6717:
6704:
6682:
6672:. Ithaca, NY:
6665:
6643:
6628:
6606:
6587:
6551:Huxley, Julian
6543:
6521:
6505:
6483:
6470:
6448:
6435:
6413:
6392:
6366:
6344:
6314:
6294:
6272:
6251:
6224:
6204:
6182:
6160:
6110:
6088:
6064:
6024:
6002:
5986:
5964:
5956:Academic Press
5943:
5921:
5898:
5876:
5854:
5852:
5849:
5847:
5846:
5832:
5817:
5800:
5777:Pinker, Steven
5768:
5764:on 2007-12-27.
5744:(4): 617â618.
5721:
5670:(4): 616â617.
5645:
5630:
5584:
5573:
5558:
5546:
5531:
5513:
5501:
5489:
5440:(2): 115â151.
5406:
5381:
5322:
5297:
5252:butterflies".
5240:
5178:
5159:(6): 505â512.
5141:
5114:(1): 225â249.
5098:
5047:
4999:Otto, Sarah P.
4990:
4987:on 2020-06-08.
4939:
4874:
4855:(2): 115â121.
4834:
4823:
4772:
4743:10.1086/338370
4721:
4674:
4653:10.1554/02-727
4628:
4583:
4570:10.1086/284831
4564:(6): 911â917.
4548:
4499:
4488:
4445:(5): 400â415.
4425:
4390:(7): 394â399.
4370:
4355:
4339:
4330:
4324:, p. 89,
4314:
4278:
4259:(7): 364â371.
4227:
4174:
4124:
4098:(7): 372â380,
4082:
4062:(3): 336â352,
4046:
3989:
3924:
3895:10.1086/657058
3866:
3806:
3765:(3): 181â182.
3740:
3734:978-0470016176
3733:
3707:
3688:(2): 136â155.
3670:
3635:(3): 939â953.
3609:
3572:Biology Direct
3558:
3531:(5): 177â182.
3515:
3452:
3397:
3376:(6): 644â659.
3354:
3311:
3248:
3226:
3177:
3164:(4): 876â892.
3142:
3131:
3107:
3092:
3074:
3062:
3003:
3001:, p. 105.
2991:
2961:
2924:
2897:(2): 303â326.
2874:
2863:
2852:
2849:on 2019-03-05.
2792:
2780:
2769:
2752:
2708:
2644:
2617:(4): 401â409.
2590:
2526:
2514:
2503:
2489:
2478:
2438:
2411:(4): 665â690.
2388:
2343:
2332:
2310:
2292:
2280:
2221:
2162:
2149:10.1086/279001
2125:
2073:
2066:Berlocher 1998
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2037:Macroevolution
2034:
2029:
2024:
2018:
2016:
2013:
1906:Domestic sheep
1904:
1897:
1896:
1890:
1883:
1882:
1881:
1880:
1879:
1870:
1863:
1862:
1856:
1849:
1848:
1847:
1846:
1845:
1836:
1829:
1828:
1822:
1815:
1814:
1813:
1812:
1811:
1797:
1790:
1789:
1788:
1777:
1776:
1775:
1774:
1743:
1740:
1722:Niles Eldredge
1689:
1686:
1672:
1669:
1622:Main article:
1619:
1616:
1580:Main article:
1553:
1550:
1544:
1541:
1430:
1427:
1389:
1386:
1377:Main article:
1374:
1371:
1319:Wallace effect
1305:Main article:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1278:
1156:Main article:
1153:
1150:
1063:Main article:
1060:
1057:
1034:founder effect
1025:Main article:
1022:
1019:
947:Main article:
944:
941:
889:Comparison of
882:
879:
852:Ispidina picta
805:
802:
783:
767:
764:
759:
758:
755:
744:Main article:
741:
738:
678:Charles Darwin
666:Orator F. Cook
649:
648:
646:
645:
638:
631:
623:
620:
619:
618:
617:
604:
587:
586:
583:
582:
577:
572:
567:
562:
557:
555:Social effects
552:
547:
542:
536:
533:
532:
529:
528:
525:
524:
519:
514:
509:
504:
499:
494:
489:
484:
479:
474:
469:
464:
459:
454:
449:
444:
439:
434:
429:
424:
419:
414:
409:
404:
398:
395:
394:
391:
390:
386:
385:
375:
370:
365:
360:
355:
350:
345:
338:
333:
328:
323:
317:
316:
313:
312:
309:
308:
304:
303:
298:
293:
288:
283:
281:Classification
278:
273:
268:
263:
262:
261:
251:
246:
241:
239:Common descent
236:
234:Origin of life
230:
229:
226:
225:
222:
221:
217:
216:
211:
206:
201:
196:
191:
186:
181:
176:
171:
166:
161:
156:
151:
146:
141:
136:
131:
126:
120:
119:
116:
115:
112:
111:
109:
108:
103:
98:
92:
91:
86:
81:
76:
70:
67:
66:
57:
49:
48:
42:
41:
32:Ion speciation
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9634:
9623:
9620:
9618:
9615:
9613:
9610:
9608:
9605:
9604:
9602:
9592:
9587:
9582:
9581:
9578:
9565:
9557:
9555:
9547:
9546:
9543:
9537:
9536:
9532:
9530:
9527:
9525:
9522:
9520:
9517:
9515:
9512:
9510:
9507:
9506:
9504:
9500:
9494:
9491:
9489:
9486:
9484:
9481:
9479:
9476:
9475:
9473:
9471:Organizations
9469:
9463:
9460:
9458:
9455:
9454:
9452:
9450:
9446:
9436:
9433:
9431:
9428:
9426:
9423:
9421:
9418:
9416:
9413:
9411:
9408:
9406:
9403:
9401:
9398:
9396:
9393:
9391:
9388:
9386:
9383:
9381:
9380:Carboniferous
9378:
9376:
9373:
9371:
9368:
9366:
9363:
9361:
9358:
9356:
9353:
9351:
9348:
9346:
9345:End-Ediacaran
9343:
9341:
9338:
9337:
9335:
9331:
9323:
9320:
9319:
9318:
9315:
9313:
9310:
9308:
9305:
9303:
9300:
9298:
9297:Late Devonian
9295:
9293:
9290:
9289:
9287:
9283:
9280:
9278:
9274:
9268:
9267:Living fossil
9265:
9263:
9260:
9258:
9255:
9253:
9250:
9248:
9245:
9243:
9240:
9238:
9235:
9234:
9232:
9226:
9220:
9217:
9215:
9212:
9210:
9207:
9205:
9202:
9200:
9197:
9195:
9192:
9190:
9187:
9185:
9182:
9180:
9177:
9175:
9172:
9170:
9167:
9166:
9164:
9160:
9154:
9151:
9150:
9148:
9144:
9139:
9129:
9126:
9124:
9121:
9119:
9118:Lazarus taxon
9116:
9114:
9111:
9109:
9106:
9104:
9101:
9099:
9096:
9094:
9093:De-extinction
9091:
9089:
9086:
9084:
9081:
9080:
9078:
9074:
9070:
9063:
9058:
9056:
9051:
9049:
9044:
9043:
9040:
9028:
9024:
9020:
9018:
9010:
9009:
9006:
9000:
8997:
8995:
8992:
8990:
8987:
8985:
8982:
8978:
8975:
8974:
8973:
8972:Phylogenetics
8970:
8968:
8965:
8963:
8960:
8958:
8955:
8953:
8950:
8946:
8943:
8941:
8938:
8936:
8933:
8932:
8931:
8928:
8926:
8923:
8921:
8918:
8916:
8913:
8912:
8910:
8906:
8900:
8897:
8893:
8890:
8888:
8885:
8881:
8878:
8877:
8876:
8875:Structuralism
8873:
8871:
8868:
8866:
8863:
8861:
8858:
8856:
8853:
8851:
8850:Catastrophism
8848:
8847:
8846:
8843:
8841:
8838:
8837:
8835:
8831:
8825:
8822:
8820:
8817:
8815:
8812:
8810:
8809:Neo-Darwinism
8807:
8805:
8802:
8800:
8797:
8795:
8792:
8790:
8787:
8785:
8782:
8778:
8777:
8773:
8772:
8771:
8768:
8764:
8763:
8759:
8758:
8757:
8754:
8752:
8749:
8747:
8744:
8743:
8741:
8739:
8735:
8729:
8726:
8724:
8723:Reinforcement
8721:
8719:
8716:
8714:
8711:
8709:
8706:
8704:
8701:
8699:
8696:
8694:
8691:
8689:
8686:
8684:
8681:
8679:
8676:
8674:
8671:
8670:
8668:
8666:
8662:
8656:
8655:Catastrophism
8652:
8649:
8647:
8646:Macromutation
8643:
8642:Micromutation
8640:
8638:
8634:
8630:
8627:
8626:
8624:
8622:
8618:
8612:
8609:
8605:
8602:
8600:
8597:
8595:
8592:
8590:
8587:
8585:
8582:
8581:
8580:
8577:
8575:
8572:
8570:
8567:
8565:
8562:
8560:
8557:
8555:
8552:
8550:
8549:Immune system
8547:
8545:
8542:
8540:
8537:
8535:
8532:
8530:
8527:
8523:
8520:
8519:
8518:
8515:
8513:
8510:
8508:
8505:
8503:
8500:
8496:
8493:
8491:
8488:
8487:
8486:
8483:
8482:
8480:
8478:
8473:
8465:
8462:
8460:
8457:
8455:
8452:
8450:
8447:
8445:
8442:
8441:
8439:
8435:
8432:
8430:
8427:
8425:
8422:
8420:
8417:
8415:
8412:
8410:
8409:symbiogenesis
8407:
8406:
8405:
8402:
8400:
8397:
8395:
8392:
8390:
8387:
8386:
8384:
8382:
8377:
8371:
8368:
8366:
8363:
8361:
8358:
8356:
8353:
8349:
8346:
8345:
8344:
8341:
8337:
8334:
8330:
8327:
8325:
8322:
8321:
8320:
8317:
8315:
8312:
8310:
8307:
8305:
8302:
8300:
8297:
8293:
8290:
8288:
8285:
8284:
8283:
8280:
8278:
8275:
8274:
8273:
8270:
8268:
8265:
8261:
8258:
8257:
8256:
8253:
8251:
8248:
8246:
8243:
8241:
8238:
8234:
8231:
8230:
8229:
8226:
8224:
8221:
8217:
8214:
8213:
8212:
8209:
8207:
8204:
8203:
8201:
8199:
8194:
8188:
8185:
8183:
8180:
8178:
8175:
8173:
8170:
8168:
8165:
8163:
8160:
8159:
8157:
8153:
8147:
8144:
8142:
8139:
8137:
8134:
8130:
8127:
8125:
8122:
8120:
8117:
8116:
8115:
8112:
8110:
8107:
8105:
8102:
8100:
8097:
8095:
8092:
8088:
8085:
8083:
8080:
8079:
8078:
8077:Kin selection
8075:
8073:
8072:Genetic drift
8070:
8068:
8065:
8061:
8058:
8057:
8056:
8053:
8051:
8048:
8046:
8043:
8041:
8038:
8036:
8033:
8032:
8030:
8028:
8022:
8014:
8011:
8010:
8009:
8006:
8004:
8001:
7997:
7994:
7992:
7989:
7988:
7987:
7984:
7980:
7977:
7976:
7975:
7972:
7970:
7967:
7965:
7962:
7960:
7957:
7955:
7952:
7950:
7947:
7945:
7942:
7940:
7937:
7935:
7932:
7930:
7927:
7923:
7920:
7919:
7918:
7915:
7913:
7910:
7908:
7905:
7903:
7900:
7898:
7895:
7893:
7890:
7888:
7885:
7883:
7880:
7878:
7875:
7871:
7868:
7867:
7866:
7863:
7861:
7858:
7856:
7853:
7849:
7846:
7844:
7841:
7840:
7839:
7836:
7834:
7831:
7829:
7826:
7824:
7821:
7820:
7818:
7816:
7812:
7806:
7803:
7801:
7798:
7796:
7793:
7791:
7788:
7786:
7783:
7782:
7779:
7775:
7768:
7763:
7761:
7756:
7754:
7749:
7748:
7745:
7733:
7732:
7723:
7721:
7720:
7715:
7711:
7709:
7708:
7699:
7697:
7696:
7687:
7686:
7683:
7676:
7675:Chronospecies
7672:
7668:
7664:
7660:
7657:
7655:
7652:
7650:
7647:
7645:
7642:
7640:
7637:
7636:
7634:
7630:
7624:
7621:
7619:
7616:
7613:
7609:
7608:Reinforcement
7606:
7603:
7602:Recombination
7599:
7595:
7591:
7588:
7587:
7585:
7583:
7579:
7573:
7570:
7568:
7565:
7563:
7560:
7557:
7553:
7549:
7546:
7544:
7541:
7539:
7536:
7534:
7531:
7530:
7528:
7526:
7522:
7516:
7513:
7510:
7506:
7502:
7499:
7496:
7492:
7488:
7484:
7480:
7477:
7476:
7474:
7470:
7464:
7461:
7459:
7456:
7454:
7451:
7449:
7446:
7444:
7441:
7438:
7434:
7431:
7430:
7428:
7424:
7418:
7415:
7413:
7410:
7408:
7405:
7403:
7400:
7399:
7396:
7392:
7385:
7380:
7378:
7373:
7371:
7366:
7365:
7362:
7354:
7350:
7346:
7342:
7338:
7334:
7330:
7329:
7324:
7319:
7318:
7307:
7303:
7299:
7295:
7291:
7285:
7281:
7277:
7276:
7271:
7267:
7263:
7259:
7254:
7249:
7244:
7239:
7235:
7231:
7230:PLOS Genetics
7227:
7223:
7218:
7214:
7210:
7206:
7202:
7198:
7192:
7188:
7184:
7183:
7178:
7174:
7170:
7166:
7162:
7158:
7154:
7148:
7144:
7139:
7138:
7132:
7128:
7124:
7120:
7116:
7112:
7108:
7102:
7098:
7094:
7090:
7085:
7081:
7077:
7073:
7069:
7065:
7059:
7055:
7051:
7046:
7042:
7036:
7032:
7028:
7027:Gavrilets, S.
7024:
7023:
7011:
7007:
7003:
6999:
6995:
6989:
6985:
6980:
6976:
6972:
6968:
6964:
6960:
6954:
6950:
6949:
6944:
6940:
6936:
6932:
6928:
6924:
6920:
6914:
6910:
6909:
6904:
6900:
6896:
6892:
6888:
6884:
6880:
6874:
6870:
6865:
6864:
6857:
6853:
6849:
6845:
6841:
6837:
6831:
6827:
6823:
6818:
6814:
6810:
6806:
6802:
6798:
6792:
6788:
6787:
6781:
6777:
6773:
6769:
6765:
6761:
6755:
6751:
6747:
6746:
6740:
6736:
6732:
6728:
6724:
6720:
6714:
6710:
6705:
6701:
6697:
6693:
6689:
6685:
6679:
6675:
6671:
6666:
6662:
6658:
6654:
6650:
6646:
6640:
6636:
6635:
6629:
6625:
6621:
6617:
6613:
6609:
6603:
6599:
6595:
6594:
6588:
6584:
6580:
6576:
6572:
6568:
6564:
6560:
6556:
6552:
6548:
6544:
6540:
6536:
6532:
6528:
6524:
6518:
6514:
6510:
6506:
6502:
6498:
6494:
6490:
6486:
6480:
6476:
6471:
6467:
6463:
6459:
6455:
6451:
6445:
6441:
6436:
6432:
6428:
6424:
6420:
6416:
6410:
6406:
6401:
6400:
6393:
6390:
6385:
6381:
6377:
6373:
6369:
6363:
6359:
6355:
6354:
6349:
6345:
6341:
6337:
6333:
6329:
6325:
6321:
6317:
6311:
6307:
6303:
6299:
6295:
6291:
6287:
6283:
6279:
6275:
6269:
6265:
6260:
6259:
6252:
6249:
6248:Eldredge 1985
6246:Reprinted in
6243:
6239:
6235:
6231:
6227:
6221:
6217:
6213:
6209:
6205:
6201:
6197:
6193:
6189:
6185:
6179:
6175:
6171:
6170:
6165:
6161:
6151:
6150:
6141:
6137:
6133:
6129:
6125:
6121:
6120:
6115:
6111:
6107:
6103:
6099:
6095:
6091:
6085:
6081:
6077:
6073:
6072:Orr, H. Allen
6069:
6065:
6061:
6057:
6053:
6049:
6045:
6041:
6037:
6033:
6029:
6025:
6021:
6017:
6013:
6009:
6005:
5999:
5995:
5991:
5987:
5983:
5979:
5975:
5971:
5967:
5961:
5957:
5952:
5951:
5944:
5940:
5936:
5932:
5928:
5924:
5918:
5914:
5910:
5905:
5899:
5895:
5891:
5887:
5883:
5879:
5873:
5870:
5866:
5865:
5860:
5856:
5855:
5844:
5839:
5837:
5829:
5824:
5822:
5814:
5813:Campbell 1990
5809:
5807:
5805:
5790:
5786:
5782:
5778:
5772:
5763:
5759:
5755:
5751:
5747:
5743:
5739:
5735:
5731:
5725:
5718:
5714:
5710:
5698:on 2006-09-15
5697:
5693:
5689:
5685:
5681:
5677:
5673:
5669:
5665:
5664:
5659:
5655:
5649:
5643:
5639:
5634:
5626:
5622:
5618:
5614:
5610:
5606:
5602:
5598:
5594:
5588:
5582:
5581:Williams 1974
5577:
5571:
5567:
5562:
5556:, p. 281
5555:
5550:
5544:
5540:
5535:
5529:
5525:
5520:
5518:
5510:
5509:Williams 1992
5505:
5498:
5493:
5479:on 2014-06-24
5475:
5471:
5467:
5463:
5459:
5455:
5451:
5447:
5443:
5439:
5435:
5434:
5426:
5422:
5415:
5413:
5411:
5396:
5392:
5385:
5377:
5373:
5369:
5365:
5361:
5357:
5353:
5349:
5345:
5341:
5337:
5333:
5326:
5312:
5308:
5301:
5293:
5289:
5285:
5281:
5277:
5273:
5269:
5265:
5261:
5257:
5256:
5251:
5244:
5236:
5232:
5227:
5222:
5217:
5212:
5208:
5204:
5200:
5196:
5192:
5188:
5182:
5174:
5170:
5166:
5162:
5158:
5154:
5153:
5145:
5137:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5121:
5117:
5113:
5109:
5102:
5094:
5090:
5086:
5082:
5078:
5074:
5070:
5066:
5065:
5060:
5054:
5052:
5043:
5039:
5035:
5031:
5026:
5021:
5017:
5013:
5012:
5004:
5000:
4994:
4983:
4979:
4975:
4971:
4967:
4963:
4959:
4958:
4950:
4943:
4935:
4931:
4926:
4921:
4917:
4913:
4909:
4905:
4901:
4897:
4893:
4891:
4885:
4884:Orr, H. Allen
4878:
4870:
4866:
4862:
4858:
4854:
4850:
4849:
4841:
4839:
4832:
4827:
4819:
4815:
4811:
4807:
4803:
4799:
4795:
4791:
4787:
4783:
4776:
4768:
4764:
4760:
4756:
4752:
4748:
4744:
4740:
4736:
4732:
4725:
4717:
4713:
4709:
4705:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4689:
4685:
4678:
4670:
4666:
4662:
4658:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4638:
4632:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4596:
4595:
4587:
4579:
4575:
4571:
4567:
4563:
4559:
4552:
4544:
4540:
4535:
4530:
4526:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4503:
4497:
4492:
4484:
4480:
4476:
4472:
4468:
4464:
4460:
4456:
4452:
4448:
4444:
4440:
4436:
4429:
4421:
4417:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4393:
4389:
4385:
4381:
4374:
4367:
4362:
4360:
4352:
4348:
4343:
4334:
4327:
4323:
4318:
4309:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4289:
4282:
4274:
4270:
4266:
4262:
4258:
4254:
4253:
4245:
4241:
4234:
4232:
4224:
4220:
4216:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4181:
4179:
4171:
4167:
4163:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4143:
4139:
4135:
4128:
4121:
4117:
4113:
4109:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4093:
4086:
4078:
4073:
4069:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4050:
4042:
4038:
4033:
4028:
4024:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4004:
4000:
3993:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3928:
3920:
3916:
3912:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3892:
3888:
3884:
3880:
3873:
3871:
3862:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3844:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3813:
3811:
3796:on 2007-06-05
3792:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3759:
3751:
3744:
3736:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3711:
3703:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3683:
3682:
3674:
3660:
3656:
3651:
3646:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3630:
3629:
3624:
3622:
3613:
3605:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3577:
3573:
3569:
3562:
3554:
3550:
3546:
3542:
3538:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3519:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3494:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3473:
3472:
3467:
3465:
3456:
3448:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3417:
3412:
3408:
3401:
3393:
3389:
3384:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3370:
3365:
3358:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3322:
3315:
3307:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3261:
3252:
3236:
3230:
3222:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3191:Proc Biol Sci
3188:
3181:
3172:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3158:
3153:
3146:
3140:
3135:
3121:
3117:
3111:
3103:
3099:
3095:
3089:
3085:
3078:
3071:
3066:
3058:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3007:
3000:
2995:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2977:
2971:
2965:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2936:
2928:
2920:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2885:
2878:
2872:
2867:
2861:
2856:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2817:
2813:
2806:
2802:
2796:
2790:, p. 118
2789:
2788:Williams 1992
2784:
2778:
2773:
2766:
2761:
2759:
2757:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2734:Adapted from
2725:
2721:
2715:
2713:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2653:
2651:
2649:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2628:
2624:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2605:
2603:
2601:
2599:
2597:
2595:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2549:
2541:
2539:
2537:
2535:
2533:
2531:
2523:
2518:
2512:
2507:
2501:
2496:
2494:
2487:
2482:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2453:
2445:
2443:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2399:
2397:
2395:
2393:
2385:
2380:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2347:
2340:
2335:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2314:
2308:
2303:
2301:
2299:
2297:
2290:, p. 273
2289:
2284:
2276:
2272:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2225:
2217:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2166:
2158:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2137:
2129:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2092:
2087:
2083:
2077:
2071:
2067:
2062:
2058:
2048:
2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2027:Chronospecies
2025:
2023:
2020:
2019:
2012:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1993:
1991:
1987:
1982:
1981:fossil record
1977:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1962:
1960:
1956:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1907:
1901:
1893:
1887:
1873:
1867:
1859:
1853:
1839:
1833:
1825:
1819:
1805:
1801:
1794:
1784:
1780:
1773:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1753:
1749:
1739:
1737:
1733:
1732:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1710:
1706:
1705:morphological
1702:
1698:
1694:
1685:
1683:
1678:
1668:
1666:
1662:
1659:
1658:
1652:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1637:
1635:
1631:
1625:
1615:
1613:
1609:
1603:
1601:
1597:
1592:
1588:
1583:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1558:
1549:
1540:
1537:
1531:
1529:
1528:
1522:
1520:
1515:
1513:
1512:
1506:
1503:
1502:
1496:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1464:
1457:
1456:
1450:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1426:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1411:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1385:
1380:
1370:
1368:
1364:
1358:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1343:
1340:
1336:
1330:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1314:
1308:
1300:
1296:
1291:
1285:Reinforcement
1277:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1261:
1252:
1251:
1246:
1242:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1211:Lake Victoria
1208:
1204:
1200:
1195:
1193:
1188:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1173:
1168:
1164:
1159:
1149:
1147:
1146:
1141:
1140:
1135:
1131:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1094:
1088:
1084:
1079:
1077:
1076:interbreeding
1073:
1066:
1056:
1054:
1053:
1048:
1047:
1041:
1039:
1035:
1028:
1018:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
950:
940:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
917:
915:
911:
904:
900:
896:
892:
887:
878:
876:
875:morphospecies
872:
867:
865:
861:
857:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
829:
825:
821:
819:
814:
811:
801:
797:
790:
789:
782:
777:
775:
774:
763:
756:
753:
752:
751:
747:
737:
735:
734:hybridization
731:
727:
722:
720:
719:genetic drift
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
695:
693:
689:
688:
683:
679:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
644:
639:
637:
632:
630:
625:
624:
622:
621:
615:
605:
602:
597:
591:
590:
589:
588:
581:
578:
576:
573:
571:
568:
566:
563:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
548:
546:
543:
541:
538:
537:
531:
530:
523:
520:
518:
515:
513:
510:
508:
505:
503:
500:
498:
495:
493:
490:
488:
487:Phylogenetics
485:
483:
480:
478:
475:
473:
470:
468:
465:
463:
460:
458:
455:
453:
450:
448:
445:
443:
440:
438:
435:
433:
430:
428:
425:
423:
420:
418:
415:
413:
410:
408:
405:
403:
400:
399:
393:
392:
383:
379:
376:
374:
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
354:
351:
349:
346:
344:
343:
339:
337:
334:
332:
331:Before Darwin
329:
327:
324:
322:
319:
318:
311:
310:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
287:
284:
282:
279:
277:
274:
272:
269:
267:
264:
260:
257:
256:
255:
252:
250:
247:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
231:
224:
223:
215:
212:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
195:
192:
190:
187:
185:
182:
180:
177:
175:
172:
170:
167:
165:
162:
160:
159:Genetic drift
157:
155:
152:
150:
147:
145:
142:
140:
137:
135:
132:
130:
127:
125:
122:
121:
114:
113:
107:
104:
102:
99:
97:
94:
93:
90:
87:
85:
82:
80:
77:
75:
72:
71:
69:
68:
64:
60:
55:
51:
50:
47:
44:
43:
39:
38:
33:
19:
9533:
9509:Anthropocene
9350:End-Botomian
9230:and concepts
9088:Coextinction
8984:Polymorphism
8967:Astrobiology
8915:Biogeography
8870:Saltationism
8860:Orthogenesis
8845:Alternatives
8774:
8760:
8693:Cospeciation
8688:Cladogenesis
8664:
8637:Saltationism
8594:Mating types
8517:Color vision
8502:Avian flight
8424:mitochondria
8162:Canalisation
8040:Biodiversity
7985:
7785:Introduction
7729:
7717:
7705:
7693:
7509:Ring species
7458:Cospeciation
7453:Cladogenesis
7402:Introduction
7390:
7353:"Speciation"
7344:
7341:"Speciation"
7326:
7274:
7233:
7229:
7181:
7136:
7092:
7049:
7030:
6983:
6947:
6907:
6862:
6821:
6785:
6744:
6708:
6669:
6633:
6592:
6562:
6512:
6474:
6439:
6403:. New York:
6398:
6389:1982 edition
6352:
6301:
6262:. New York:
6257:
6215:
6168:
6153:, retrieved
6148:
6118:
6075:
6039:
5993:
5949:
5911:. New York:
5908:
5863:
5851:Bibliography
5784:
5771:
5762:the original
5741:
5737:
5724:
5716:
5700:. Retrieved
5696:the original
5667:
5661:
5648:
5638:Dawkins 1995
5633:
5600:
5596:
5587:
5576:
5561:
5549:
5534:
5504:
5492:
5481:. Retrieved
5474:the original
5437:
5433:Paleobiology
5431:
5398:. Retrieved
5394:
5384:
5343:
5339:
5335:
5325:
5314:. Retrieved
5300:
5259:
5253:
5249:
5243:
5198:
5194:
5181:
5156:
5150:
5144:
5111:
5107:
5101:
5068:
5062:
5015:
5009:
4993:
4982:the original
4961:
4955:
4942:
4899:
4895:
4889:
4877:
4852:
4846:
4826:
4796:(1): 87â96.
4793:
4789:
4785:
4781:
4775:
4734:
4730:
4724:
4691:
4687:
4683:
4677:
4644:
4640:
4631:
4598:
4592:
4586:
4561:
4557:
4551:
4516:
4512:
4502:
4491:
4442:
4438:
4428:
4387:
4383:
4373:
4342:
4333:
4317:
4301:(9): 46â50.
4298:
4294:
4281:
4256:
4250:
4240:Zuk, Marlene
4190:
4186:
4137:
4133:
4127:
4095:
4091:
4085:
4059:
4055:
4049:
4006:
4002:
3992:
3941:
3937:
3927:
3886:
3882:
3826:
3822:
3798:. Retrieved
3791:the original
3762:
3756:
3743:
3716:
3710:
3685:
3679:
3673:
3662:. Retrieved
3632:
3626:
3620:
3612:
3575:
3571:
3561:
3528:
3524:
3518:
3475:
3469:
3464:Gyrinophilus
3463:
3455:
3420:
3414:
3400:
3373:
3367:
3357:
3324:
3320:
3314:
3269:
3265:
3259:
3251:
3239:. Retrieved
3229:
3194:
3190:
3180:
3161:
3155:
3145:
3134:
3123:. Retrieved
3119:
3110:
3083:
3077:
3065:
3023:(128): 128.
3020:
3016:
3006:
2994:
2985:
2981:
2975:
2964:
2942:(1): 52â59.
2939:
2933:
2927:
2894:
2890:
2877:
2866:
2855:
2844:the original
2815:
2811:
2795:
2783:
2772:
2735:
2727:. Retrieved
2720:Ridley, Mark
2702:
2666:
2662:
2614:
2610:
2555:(1): 15â35.
2552:
2546:
2517:
2506:
2481:
2459:(1): 27â50.
2456:
2450:
2408:
2404:
2382:
2363:(747): 747.
2360:
2356:
2346:
2337:
2323:
2313:
2283:
2238:
2234:
2224:
2179:
2175:
2165:
2140:
2134:
2128:
2095:
2089:
2076:
2061:
2005:Lampriformes
1994:
1978:
1963:
1951:
1948:
1927:
1923:
1913:
1761:
1755:
1729:
1714:
1709:evolutionary
1680:
1655:
1653:
1638:
1627:
1604:
1585:
1546:
1532:
1525:
1523:
1516:
1509:
1499:
1497:
1466:
1453:
1408:
1391:
1382:
1359:
1354:
1350:
1344:
1331:
1316:
1258:
1256:
1248:
1239:
1196:
1189:
1186:
1170:
1143:
1137:
1134:Ring species
1127:
1123:D. valentini
1122:
1118:
1114:
1102:
1099:D. valentini
1098:
1091:
1080:
1072:heterozygote
1068:
1050:
1044:
1042:
1030:
958:
957:, "other" +
954:
952:
918:
914:biodiversity
907:
868:
856:field guides
851:
833:
810:out-crossing
807:
798:
795:
786:
779:
771:
769:
760:
749:
723:
696:
685:
670:cladogenesis
658:evolutionary
653:
652:
507:Sociobiology
492:Paleontology
340:
276:Biogeography
271:Biodiversity
189:Coextinction
179:Co-operation
168:
154:Polymorphism
79:Introduction
9355:Dresbachian
8994:Systematics
8865:Mutationism
8683:Catagenesis
8611:Snake venom
8544:Eusociality
8522:in primates
8512:Cooperation
8440:In animals
8260:butterflies
8233:Cephalopods
8223:Brachiopods
8155:Development
8129:Mate choice
7882:Convergence
7865:Coevolution
7823:Abiogenesis
7731:WikiProject
7491:Centrifugal
7131:Mayr, Ernst
6547:Mayr, Ernst
6174:Basic Books
6124:John Murray
5541:, pp.
5059:Comai, Luca
5018:: 401â437.
4964:: 467â501.
4831:Symons 1979
4366:Miller 2013
4349:, pp.
4322:Darwin 1859
3407:Meyer, Axel
3327:: 773â815.
3139:Endler 1977
2988:(2): 49â58.
2511:Michod 1999
2500:Michod 1995
2307:Darwin 1859
1924:individuals
1661:butterflies
1505:fruit flies
1415:mate choice
1235:Lake Baikal
1215:Lake Malawi
1203:East Africa
1111:hybrid zone
1038:bottlenecks
844:koinophilia
699:populations
517:Systematics
326:Renaissance
204:Convergence
194:Contingency
184:Coevolution
9607:Speciation
9601:Categories
9435:Quaternary
9069:Extinction
8855:Lamarckism
8833:Philosophy
8756:David Hume
8718:Peripatric
8713:Parapatric
8698:Ecological
8678:Anagenesis
8673:Allopatric
8665:Speciation
8629:Gradualism
8554:Metabolism
8414:chromosome
8404:Eukaryotes
8182:Modularity
8099:Population
8025:Population
7986:Speciation
7964:Panspermia
7917:Extinction
7912:Exaptation
7887:Divergence
7860:Cladistics
7848:Reciprocal
7828:Adaptation
7594:Polyploidy
7556:Allochrony
7533:Adaptation
7501:Parapatric
7483:Peripatric
7479:Allopatric
7448:Anagenesis
7391:Speciation
7222:Mallet, J.
7205:2001270180
7115:2008923435
6844:2013033832
6727:2006376206
6565:. London:
6493:2011414731
6458:2006376728
6155:2015-09-12
6098:2004009505
6076:Speciation
5828:Ayala 1982
5794:2015-09-15
5792:Retrieved
5702:2015-09-15
5566:Gould 1980
5483:2015-09-15
5400:2015-09-11
5336:Drosophila
5316:2015-09-10
5250:Heliconius
4890:Drosophila
4496:Nowak 1999
4347:Gould 1980
3800:2015-09-07
3664:2015-09-07
3260:Rhagoletis
3125:2020-02-16
3093:0632061464
2871:Grant 1971
2729:2015-09-07
2384:selection.
2068:, p.
2054:References
2009:Amiiformes
1988:since the
1928:capability
1916:Lamarckist
1798:Top: wild
1665:sunflowers
1657:Heliconius
1645:chromosome
1641:polyploidy
1587:Polyploidy
1530:bacteria.
1461:See also:
1401:phenotypes
1373:Ecological
1367:inbreeding
1351:Drosophila
1059:Parapatric
1052:Drosophila
1021:Peripatric
971:phenotypic
943:Allopatric
933:freshwater
899:parapatric
895:peripatric
891:allopatric
836:non-silent
818:extinction
726:polyploidy
717:. Whether
711:parapatric
707:peripatric
703:allopatric
674:anagenesis
654:Speciation
291:Cladistics
214:Extinction
199:Divergence
169:Speciation
149:Adaptation
63:John Gould
9214:Overshoot
9076:Phenomena
8989:Protocell
8840:Darwinism
8728:Sympatric
8477:processes
8365:Tetrapods
8314:Kangaroos
8240:Dinosaurs
8177:Inversion
8146:Variation
8067:Gene flow
8060:Inclusive
7870:Mutualism
7815:Evolution
7515:Sympatric
7169:899044868
7123:173240026
7010:228136567
6945:(1974) .
6852:859168474
6501:711609823
6140:741260650
5758:146359497
5692:143378724
5684:0140-525X
5539:Mayr 1954
5511:, chpt. 9
5497:Laws 2010
5020:CiteSeerX
4818:198153238
4790:Evolution
4782:Wolbachia
4751:0003-0147
4688:Evolution
4669:198158082
4641:Evolution
4594:Evolution
4467:0169-5347
4412:0169-5347
4023:1943-2631
3968:1365-294X
3903:0003-0147
3843:0016-6731
3070:Mayr 1992
2818:: 11â25.
2777:Mayr 1988
2736:Evolution
2639:0022-5193
2577:0022-5193
2288:Mayr 1982
1630:phenotype
1582:Polyploid
1527:Wolbachia
1295:selecting
1269:hawthorns
1152:Sympatric
1107:hybridize
1093:Darevskia
1087:gene flow
1083:selection
979:mutations
975:selective
910:evolution
715:sympatric
550:Dysgenics
266:Phylogeny
164:Gene flow
134:Diversity
129:Variation
9554:Category
9502:See also
9400:Toarcian
9365:Ireviken
9322:Timeline
9317:Holocene
9228:Theories
9017:Category
8892:Vitalism
8887:Theistic
8880:Spandrel
8564:Morality
8559:Monogamy
8434:plastids
8399:Flagella
8355:Reptiles
8336:sea cows
8319:primates
8228:Molluscs
8206:Bacteria
8094:Mutation
8027:genetics
8003:Taxonomy
7949:Mismatch
7929:Homology
7843:Cheating
7838:Altruism
7695:Category
7612:evidence
7417:Glossary
7298:77010955
7272:(1978).
7262:27030977
7224:(2016).
7213:46729094
7179:(2001).
7161:63009552
7133:(1963).
7097:Elsevier
7072:81006159
7029:(2004).
7002:91038938
6967:65017164
6927:78023361
6905:(1979).
6895:39045218
6887:98023686
6813:38948118
6805:98004166
6776:30625193
6768:94013158
6735:62098231
6700:24374091
6692:91055569
6661:17108004
6653:87031892
6616:81013204
6575:54001781
6561:(eds.).
6539:18069049
6531:88017041
6511:(1989).
6466:65978899
6423:75125620
6376:80015952
6350:(1980).
6324:76045896
6300:(1977).
6290:11443805
6282:84023632
6234:72078387
6200:31376584
6192:94037146
6166:(1995).
6132:06017473
6116:(1859).
6106:55078441
6074:(2004).
6052:52008880
6038:(1952).
6020:20352649
6012:89017952
5992:(1990).
5982:22542921
5974:90014467
5939:37545522
5931:97031461
5886:81021623
5861:(1982).
5785:edge.org
5470:83492071
5376:23462115
5368:16960009
5284:16778888
5235:10860970
5173:18006297
5136:14856314
5128:10688139
5085:16304599
5042:11092833
4978:31637733
4934:19074311
4892:Hybrids"
4869:18557871
4810:16568634
4767:16516804
4759:18707367
4716:28564510
4661:14628909
4623:28568007
4578:84876223
4543:12028771
4483:73494468
4475:30824193
4420:19409647
4273:11403869
4215:19197053
4162:15152252
4112:11403870
4003:Genetics
3984:41904934
3976:28423210
3911:21043780
3823:Genetics
3787:13300641
3779:16077739
3758:Heredity
3659:12663534
3628:Genetics
3604:22152499
3553:21238028
3510:20761880
3502:18410292
3447:22201168
3392:21665847
3341:11729091
3306:15851672
3221:15255043
3102:47011551
3057:26126573
2956:19186749
2911:19260194
2699:14431499
2691:24948738
2379:45302603
2275:11058173
2216:19528641
2157:84565616
2120:17789700
2015:See also
1990:hominins
1800:teosinte
1762:Zea mays
1720:such as
1612:apomixis
1591:sympatry
1543:Genetics
1297:against
1273:allozyme
1199:cichlids
1169:such as
1167:Cichlids
1136:such as
1119:D. rudis
840:mutation
784:â
781:defined?
614:Category
540:Eugenics
382:timeline
363:Evo-devo
321:Overview
139:Mutation
101:Evidence
96:Glossary
9612:Ecology
9564:Commons
9385:Olson's
8908:Related
8738:History
8599:Meiosis
8534:Empathy
8529:Emotion
8429:nucleus
8370:Viruses
8360:Spiders
8272:Mammals
8255:Insects
8055:Fitness
7991:Species
7790:Outline
7707:Commons
7659:Fossils
7649:Insects
7598:Klepton
7487:Quantum
7433:Species
7407:History
7306:3203453
7253:4816541
7080:7552165
6975:8500898
6935:4494283
6624:7875904
6384:6331415
6332:2645720
6060:1084058
5994:Biology
5894:8034790
5642:chpt. 4
5625:4177102
5605:Bibcode
5543:157â180
5528:chpt. 5
5462:2400177
5442:Bibcode
5348:Bibcode
5340:Science
5292:2457445
5264:Bibcode
5203:Bibcode
5093:3329282
4925:2628965
4904:Bibcode
4896:Science
4708:2409365
4615:2410209
4534:1690972
4447:Bibcode
4392:Bibcode
4351:204â213
4195:Bibcode
4187:Science
4170:2744267
4142:Bibcode
4120:9845298
4064:Bibcode
4041:7789779
4032:1206504
3946:Bibcode
3919:5592958
3861:8978022
3852:1207686
3702:2413033
3650:1462491
3595:3275546
3533:Bibcode
3480:Bibcode
3438:3233715
3349:9677456
3297:1131876
3274:Bibcode
3241:3 April
3212:1691675
3048:4487588
3025:Bibcode
2919:3555049
2840:3901837
2832:6364957
2671:Bibcode
2663:Science
2619:Bibcode
2585:2200930
2557:Bibcode
2461:Bibcode
2433:4094459
2413:Bibcode
2243:Bibcode
2207:2702801
2184:Bibcode
2100:Bibcode
2091:Science
1766:created
1711:change.
1570:gametes
1566:meiosis
1562:diploid
1493:mouflon
1327:donkeys
1299:hybrids
1223:natural
1179:in the
1011:England
1007:finches
662:species
656:is the
106:History
89:Outline
9577:Portal
9410:Aptian
9162:Causes
9146:Models
9027:Portal
8703:Hybrid
8539:Ethics
8381:organs
8343:Plants
8329:lemurs
8324:humans
8309:horses
8299:hyenas
8287:wolves
8282:canids
8216:origin
7654:Plants
7505:Clines
7304:
7296:
7286:
7260:
7250:
7211:
7203:
7193:
7167:
7159:
7149:
7121:
7113:
7103:
7078:
7070:
7060:
7037:
7008:
7000:
6990:
6973:
6965:
6955:
6933:
6925:
6915:
6893:
6885:
6875:
6850:
6842:
6832:
6811:
6803:
6793:
6774:
6766:
6756:
6733:
6725:
6715:
6698:
6690:
6680:
6659:
6651:
6641:
6622:
6614:
6604:
6583:974739
6581:
6573:
6537:
6529:
6519:
6499:
6491:
6481:
6464:
6456:
6446:
6431:139834
6429:
6421:
6411:
6382:
6374:
6364:
6340:409931
6338:
6330:
6322:
6312:
6288:
6280:
6270:
6242:572084
6240:
6232:
6222:
6198:
6190:
6180:
6138:
6130:
6104:
6096:
6086:
6058:
6050:
6018:
6010:
6000:
5980:
5972:
5962:
5937:
5929:
5919:
5892:
5884:
5874:
5756:
5690:
5682:
5623:
5597:Nature
5468:
5460:
5374:
5366:
5290:
5282:
5255:Nature
5233:
5223:
5171:
5134:
5126:
5091:
5083:
5040:
5022:
4976:
4932:
4922:
4867:
4816:
4808:
4765:
4757:
4749:
4714:
4706:
4667:
4659:
4621:
4613:
4576:
4541:
4531:
4481:
4473:
4465:
4418:
4410:
4271:
4223:307207
4221:
4213:
4168:
4160:
4134:Nature
4118:
4110:
4039:
4029:
4021:
3982:
3974:
3966:
3917:
3909:
3901:
3859:
3849:
3841:
3785:
3777:
3731:
3700:
3657:
3647:
3602:
3592:
3578:: 62.
3551:
3508:
3500:
3445:
3435:
3390:
3347:
3339:
3304:
3294:
3219:
3209:
3120:Nature
3100:
3090:
3055:
3045:
2976:Beagle
2954:
2917:
2909:
2838:
2830:
2746:
2697:
2689:
2637:
2583:
2575:
2431:
2377:
2330:
2273:
2263:
2214:
2204:
2155:
2118:
2003:, the
1779:Plants
1770:Mexico
1574:zygote
1483:, and
1473:cattle
1442:cattle
1405:Darwin
1323:horses
1265:apples
997:. The
995:Komodo
937:genera
925:marine
713:, and
612:
336:Darwin
9370:Mulde
9333:Other
9285:Major
8490:Death
8485:Aging
8464:brain
8250:Fungi
8211:Birds
8124:Fungi
7922:Event
7805:Index
7639:Birds
5754:S2CID
5688:S2CID
5621:S2CID
5477:(PDF)
5466:S2CID
5458:JSTOR
5428:(PDF)
5372:S2CID
5288:S2CID
5226:34383
5132:S2CID
5089:S2CID
5006:(PDF)
4985:(PDF)
4974:S2CID
4952:(PDF)
4865:S2CID
4814:S2CID
4763:S2CID
4704:JSTOR
4665:S2CID
4611:JSTOR
4574:S2CID
4479:S2CID
4291:(PDF)
4247:(PDF)
4219:S2CID
4166:S2CID
4116:S2CID
3980:S2CID
3915:S2CID
3794:(PDF)
3783:S2CID
3753:(PDF)
3698:JSTOR
3506:S2CID
3345:S2CID
2974:"The
2915:S2CID
2887:(PDF)
2847:(PDF)
2836:S2CID
2808:(PDF)
2695:S2CID
2375:S2CID
2266:34057
2153:S2CID
1804:maize
1758:Maize
1688:Rates
1489:sheep
1452:Male
1139:Larus
1095:rudis
983:genes
959:patrÄ
955:allos
881:Modes
74:Index
8977:Tree
8449:hair
8389:Cell
8292:dogs
8277:cats
8267:Life
8245:Fish
8198:taxa
7644:Fish
7302:OCLC
7294:LCCN
7284:ISBN
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