1127:. It explicitly encompasses unregulated, historical, and non-Western forms of labor. Here, labor relations define "for or with whom one works and under what rules. These rules (implicit or explicit, written or unwritten) determine the type of work, type and amount of remuneration, working hours, degrees of physical and psychological strain, as well as the degree of freedom and autonomy associated with the work." More specifically in a North American and strictly modern context, labor relations is the study and practice of managing
923:
1036:. In practice, trade unions are declining and fewer companies have industrial relations functions. The number of academic programs in industrial relations is therefore shrinking, while fields such as human resource management and organizational behaviour grow. The importance of this work, however, is stronger than ever, and the lessons of industrial relations remain vital. The challenge for industrial relations is to re-establish these connections with the broader academic, policy, and business worlds.
1109:
1069:
inherent in dealing with industrial relations since different sub-groups have different opinions in the day-to-day operations. Consequently, the role of management would lean less towards enforcing and controlling and more toward persuasion and coordination. Trade unions are deemed legitimate representatives of employees, conflict is resolved through collective bargaining and is viewed not necessarily as a bad thing and, if managed, could, in fact, be channeled towards evolution and positive change.
830:-inspired critical camp sees employer–employee conflicts of interest as sharply antagonistic and deeply embedded in the socio-political-economic system. From this perspective, the pursuit of a balanced employment relationship gives too much weight to employers' interests, and instead deep-seated structural reforms are needed to change the sharply antagonistic employment relationship that is inherent within capitalism. Militant trade unions are thus frequently supported.
1091:
the nature of the capitalist economic system. Conflict is therefore seen as a natural outcome of capitalism, thus it is inevitable and trade unions are a natural response of workers to their exploitation by capital. Whilst there may be periods of acquiescence, the
Marxist view would be that institutions of joint regulation would enhance rather than limit management's position as they presume the continuation of capitalism rather than challenge it.
716:
53:
2462:
704:. However, it is generally regarded as a separate field of study only in English-speaking countries, having no direct equivalent in continental Europe. In recent times, industrial relations has been in decline as a field, in correlation with the decline in importance of trade unions and also with the increasing preference of
766:, employers typically have greater bargaining power than employees. Industrial relations scholarship also assumes that there are at least some inherent conflicts of interest between employers and employees (for example, higher wages versus higher profits) and thus, in contrast to scholarship in human resource management and
770:, conflict is seen as a natural part of the employment relationship. Industrial relations scholars therefore frequently study the diverse institutional arrangements that characterize and shape the employment relationship—from norms and power structures on the shop floor, to employee voice mechanisms in the workplace, to
669:, this is controversial, because of the narrower focus of employee/labour relations, i.e. on employees or labour, from the perspective of employers, managers and/or officials. In addition, employee relations is often perceived as dealing only with non-unionized workers, whereas labour relations is seen as dealing with
802:
institutional interventions, however, differ between two camps within industrial relations. The pluralist camp sees the employment relationship as a mixture of shared interests and conflicts of interests that are largely limited to the employment relationship. In the workplace, pluralists, therefore, champion
1131:
employment situations. In academia, labor relations is frequently a sub-area within industrial relations, though scholars from many disciplines including economics, sociology, history, law, and political science also study labor unions and labor movements. In practice, labor relations is frequently a
1090:
This view of industrial relations looks at the nature of the capitalist society, where there is a fundamental division of interest between capital and labour, and sees workplace relations against this background. This perspective sees inequalities of power and economic wealth as having their roots in
842:
which created the modern employment relationship by spawning free labour markets and large-scale industrial organizations with thousands of wage workers. As society wrestled with these massive economic and social changes, labour problems arose. Low wages, long working hours, monotonous and dangerous
1044:
Industrial relations scholars such as Alan Fox have described three major theoretical perspectives or frameworks, that contrast in their understanding and analysis of workplace relations. The three views are generally known as unitarism, pluralism, and the radical or critical school. Each offers a
932:
However, as the Second World War drew to a close and in anticipation of a renewal of labour–management conflict after the war, there was a wave of creations of new academic institutes and degree programs that sought to analyse such conflicts and the role of collective bargaining. The most known of
1077:
In unitarism, the organization is perceived as an integrated and harmonious whole with the idea of "one happy family" in which management and other members of the staff all share a common purpose by emphasizing mutual co-operation. Furthermore, unitarism has a paternalistic approach: it demands
1068:
divergent sub-groups, each with its own legitimate interests and loyalties and with their own set of objectives and leaders. In particular, the two predominant sub-groups in the pluralist perspective are the management and trade unions. The pluralist perspective also supports that conflict is
801:
to always serve workers' interests, and in extreme cases to prevent worker exploitation. Industrial relations scholars and practitioners, therefore, support institutional interventions to improve the workings of the employment relationship and to protect workers' rights. The nature of these
653:
The newer name, "Employment
Relations" is increasingly taking precedence because "industrial relations" is often seen to have relatively narrow connotations. Nevertheless, industrial relations has frequently been concerned with employment relationships in the broadest sense, including
1078:
loyalty of all employees and is managerial in its emphasis and application. Consequently, trade unions are deemed unnecessary since the loyalty between employees and organizations are considered mutually exclusive, and there cannot be two sides of industry. Conflict is perceived as
1020:
By the early 21st century, the academic field of industrial relations was often described as being in crisis. In academia, its traditional positions are threatened on one side by the dominance of mainstream economics and organizational behaviour, and on the other by
826:, and other employment and labour laws and public policies. These institutional interventions are all seen as methods for balancing the employment relationship to generate not only economic efficiency but also employee equity and voice. In contrast, the
1045:
particular perception of workplace relations and will, therefore, interpret such events as workplace conflict, the role of unions and job regulation differently. The perspective of the critical school is sometimes referred to as the
1150:
and various pieces of state legislation. In other countries, labor relations might be regulated by law or tradition. An important professional association for United States labor relations scholars and practitioners is the
673:, i.e unionized workers. Some academics, universities and other institutions regard human resource management as synonymous with one or more of the above disciplines, although this too is controversial.
681:
Industrial relations examines various employment situations, not just ones with a unionized workforce. However, according to Bruce E. Kaufman, "To a large degree, most scholars regard
1905:
Budd, John W.; Bhave, Devasheesh (2008). "Values, Ideologies, and Frames of
Reference in Industrial Relations". In Blyton, Paul; Bacon, Nicolas; Fiorito, Jack; Heery, Edmund (eds.).
847:, and the threat of social instability. Intellectually, industrial relations was formed at the end of the 19th century as a middle ground between classical economics and
934:
926:
2170:
Taras, Daphne (2008). "How
Industrial Relations Is Marginalized in Business Schools: Using Institutional Theory to Examine Our Home Base". In Whalen, Charles J. (ed.).
1119:
or labor studies is a field of study that can have different meanings depending on the context in which it is used. In an international context, it is a subfield of
1136:. Courses in labor relations typically cover labor history, labor law, union organizing, bargaining, contract administration, and important contemporary topics.
1980:
Hamann, Kerstin; Kelly, John (2008). "Varieties of
Capitalism and Industrial Relations". In Blyton, Paul; Bacon, Nicolas; Fiorito, Jack; Heery, Edmund (eds.).
1932:
Calveley, Moira; Allsop, David; Rocha Lawton, Natalia; Huesmann, Monika (2017). "Managing the
Employment Relationship". In Rees, Gary; Smith, Paul E. (eds.).
960:
In the 1950s, industrial relations was formalized as a distinct academic discipline with the emergence in the UK of the so-called "Oxford school", including
731:
relationship and its institutions through high-quality, rigorous research. In this vein, industrial relations scholarship intersects with scholarship in
723:
Industrial relations has three faces: science building, problem solving, and ethical. In the science building phase, industrial relations is part of the
1052:, although this is somewhat ambiguous, as pluralism also tends to see conflict as inherent in workplaces. Radical theories are strongly identified with
1538:
1509:
797:
When labour markets are seen as imperfect, and when the employment relationship includes conflicts of interest, then one cannot rely on markets or
2084:
Kuhn, James W.; Lewin, David; McNulty, Paul J. (1983). "Neil W. Chamberlain: A Retrospective
Analysis of His Scholarly Work and Influence".
1152:
1707:
1028:
In policy-making circles, the industrial relations emphasis on institutional intervention is trumped by a neoliberal emphasis on the
317:
654:"non-industrial" employment relationships. This is sometimes seen as paralleling a trend in the separate but related discipline of
916:
2065: (2008). "The Original Industrial Relations Paradigm: Foundation for Revitalizing the Field". In Whalen, Charles J. (ed.).
325:
762:
Industrial relations scholarship assumes that labour markets are not perfectly competitive and thus, in contrast to mainstream
286:
630:
is the multidisciplinary academic field that studies the employment relationship; that is, the complex interrelations between
2466:
2425:
2406:
2384:
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2337:
2318:
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2233:
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2187:
2160:
2141:
2122:
2074:
2044:
2016:
1997:
1941:
1922:
1895:
1874:
1855:
1828:
1227:
1772:
Ackers, Peter; Wilkinson, Adrian (2005). "British
Industrial Relations Paradigm: A Critical Outline History and Prognosis".
2347:
312:
87:
995:
Industrial relations was formed with a strong problem-solving orientation that rejected both the classical economists'
2216:
Zhang, Yan (2014). "The
Relationships between Employees and Organizations". In Zhang, Zhi-Xue; Zhang, Jianjun (eds.).
1703:
The Global
Collaboratory on the History of Labour Relations, 1500–2000: Background, Set-Up, Taxonomy, and Applications
1838:
Barchiesi, Franco (2014). "Conflict, Order, and Change". In Wilkinson, Adrian; Wood, Geoffrey; Deeg, Richard (eds.).
965:
908:
196:
1147:
973:
938:
458:
330:
181:
2011:. Cornell Studies in Industrial and Labor Relations. Vol. 25. Ithaca, New York: ILR Press (published 1995).
1123:
that studies the human relations with regard to work in its broadest sense and how this connects to questions of
610:
533:
1951:
Farnham, David (2008). "Beatrice and Sidney Webb and the Intellectual Origins of British Industrial Relations".
2199:
New Directions in the Study of Work and Employment: Revitalizing Industrial Relations as an Academic Enterprise
2174:
New Directions in the Study of Work and Employment: Revitalizing Industrial Relations as an Academic Enterprise
2067:
New Directions in the Study of Work and Employment: Revitalizing Industrial Relations as an Academic Enterprise
823:
819:
231:
226:
20:
2482:
518:
1139:
1010:
493:
814:, collective bargaining, and labour–management partnerships. In the policy arena, pluralists advocate for
700:
Initiated in the United States at end of the 19th century, it took off as a field in conjunction with the
2492:
740:
937:, founded in 1945. But counting various forms, there were over seventy-five others. These included the
1120:
567:
503:
1133:
989:
748:
655:
523:
251:
191:
1014:
981:
767:
498:
473:
201:
102:
2031:
901:
881:
873:
513:
42:
2179:
977:
969:
643:
478:
448:
440:
211:
1219:
1213:
945:, which began in 1945. An influential industrial relations scholar in the 1940s and 1950s was
2487:
2394:
1847:
865:(1897) being a key intellectual work. Industrial relations thus rejected the classical econ.
839:
774:
arrangements at company, regional, or national level, to various levels of public policy and
771:
686:
508:
468:
453:
176:
82:
2171:
2443:
911:, and with that came frequent and sometimes violent labour–management conflict. During the
861:
736:
488:
307:
142:
112:
1867:
Invisible Hands, Invisible Objectives: Bringing Workplace Law and Public Policy Into Focus
8:
954:
946:
893:
709:
603:
483:
137:
2275:
1138:
In the United States, labor relations in most of the private sector is regulated by the
2097:
1885:
1807:
897:
803:
661:
While some scholars regard or treat industrial/employment relations as synonymous with
386:
246:
1392:"John R. Commons and the Wisconsin School on Industrial Relations Strategy and Policy"
2421:
2402:
2380:
2361:
2333:
2314:
2281:
2257:
2229:
2202:
2183:
2172:
2156:
2137:
2118:
2101:
2070:
2040:
2012:
2009:
The Origins & Evolution of the Field of Industrial Relations in the United States
1993:
1968:
1937:
1918:
1891:
1870:
1851:
1824:
1799:
1785:
1760:
1411:
1223:
1143:
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1047:
848:
752:
577:
528:
463:
406:
216:
72:
1811:
1631:
1629:
2221:
2093:
1985:
1960:
1910:
1843:
1789:
1781:
1750:
1403:
1002:
985:
912:
876:
in 1920. Another scholarly pioneer in industrial relations and labour research was
787:
732:
670:
666:
562:
552:
107:
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1626:
1116:
1101:
950:
922:
889:
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869:
763:
705:
582:
396:
354:
276:
62:
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1108:
1053:
961:
942:
843:
work, and abusive supervisory practices led to high employee turnover, violent
744:
724:
596:
421:
416:
401:
364:
186:
32:
1964:
1510:"Growth and Variety of University Programs in Labor Studies Shown in a Survey"
1142:. Labor relations in the railroad and airline industries are regulated by the
884:
who supported progressive labour–management relations in the aftermath of the
2476:
2439:
2105:
1989:
1972:
1914:
1803:
1764:
1504:
1415:
1022:
997:
856:
844:
807:
791:
346:
281:
241:
206:
132:
1755:
1738:
1840:
The Oxford Handbook of Employment Relations: Comparative Employment Systems
815:
426:
391:
374:
271:
256:
221:
171:
166:
158:
92:
2330:
Rethinking Industrial Relations: Mobilization, Collectivism and Long Waves
2285:
2435:
2033:
The Global Evolution of Industrial Relations: Events, Ideas, and the IIRA
1128:
1033:
907:
Beginning in the early 1930s there was a rapid increase in membership of
852:
811:
783:
682:
639:
300:
127:
97:
77:
1218:. Piscataway, New Jersey: Research & Education Association. p.
1794:
1594:
1391:
872:
when he created the first academic industrial relations program at the
779:
775:
728:
694:
690:
572:
266:
261:
719:
Protest against industrial relations legislation in Melbourne in 2005.
2254:
Understanding Work and Employment: Industrial Relations in Transition
1887:
Employment with a Human Face: Balancing Efficiency, Equity, and Voice
1702:
647:
381:
122:
117:
1407:
715:
697:
within which they are embedded, as the core subjects of the field."
1006:
701:
635:
631:
236:
2313:. Champaign, Illinois: Industrial Relations Research Association.
1931:
1635:
1181:
52:
1934:
Strategic Human Resource Management: An International Perspective
827:
798:
411:
16:
Study of the relationship between employers, employees and others
2311:
Theoretical Perspectives on Work and the Employment Relationship
2069:. Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp. 31–47.
1064:
In pluralism, the organization is perceived as being made up of
892:, endowed chairs in industrial relations at the universities of
2461:
1670:
1470:
1422:
359:
1570:
1165:
2115:
Employee Relations: Understanding The Employment Relationship
1936:(2nd ed.). London: SAGE Publications. pp. 281–323.
369:
1739:"Reframing Employment Relations: The Case for Neo-Pluralism"
1558:
1614:
935:
Cornell University School of Industrial and Labor Relations
927:
Cornell University School of Industrial and Labor Relations
1299:
886:
bloody strike at a Rockefeller-owned coal mine in Colorado
2178:. Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar Publishing. pp.
2113:
Lewis, Philip; Thornhill, Adrian; Saunders, Mark (2003).
1193:
1112:
Vancouver Labour Temple during the general strike in 1918
1001:
solutions to labour problems and the Marxist solution of
756:
1682:
1658:
1446:
1434:
1359:
1323:
1648:
1646:
1644:
1253:
1251:
915:
these were suppressed by the arbitration powers of the
2218:
Understanding Chinese Firms from Multiple Perspectives
2112:
1582:
1335:
1187:
2360:(11th ed.). Harlow, England: Pearson Education.
1842:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 241–259.
1482:
1458:
1311:
868:
Institutionally, industrial relations was founded by
2399:
An Introduction to the Study of Industrial Relations
1641:
1287:
1248:
1146:. Public sector labor relations is regulated by the
2220:. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer. pp. 227–256.
1869:. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
1371:
1275:
1537:
1508:
1085:
880:. Early financial support for the field came from
1823:(1st ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1263:
888:. In Britain, another progressive industrialist,
2474:
2420:(4th ed.). Harlow, England: Prentice Hall.
2201:. Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar Publishing.
2083:
1564:
1428:
1347:
1205:
2252:Ackers, Peter; Wilkinson, Adrian, eds. (2003).
2251:
1984:. London: SAGE Publications. pp. 129–148.
1771:
1576:
1236:
1909:. London: SAGE Publications. pp. 92–112.
1009:legislation in the United States, such as the
806:procedures, employee voice mechanisms such as
693:relations, and the national labour policy and
604:
2302:Industrial Relations: A Marxist Introduction
2155:. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
1979:
1818:
1499:
1497:
1305:
1199:
1039:
2393:
1865:Befort, Stephen F.; Budd, John W. (2009).
1864:
1341:
1153:Labor and Employment Relations Association
1056:, although they are not limited to these.
838:Industrial relations has its roots in the
611:
597:
2418:Industrial Relations: Theory and Practice
2150:
1982:The SAGE Handbook of Industrial Relations
1907:The SAGE Handbook of Industrial Relations
1904:
1837:
1821:Introduction to Human Resource Management
1793:
1754:
1688:
1676:
1664:
1440:
1329:
1317:
1005:. It is this approach that underlies the
2434:
2349:The Nordic Model of Industrial Relations
1529:
1494:
1107:
1072:
1059:
921:
714:
2415:
2374:
2358:Management and Organisational Behaviour
2355:
2270:
2086:British Journal of Industrial Relations
2060:
2039:. Geneva: International Labour Office.
2025:
2006:
1950:
1620:
1604:
1588:
1488:
1476:
1464:
1452:
1389:
1377:
1365:
1293:
1257:
1211:
1175:
2475:
2401:. London: Routledge (published 2003).
2280:. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
2196:
1848:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199695096.013.011
1736:
1723:, 3rd ed. (Boston: McGraw-Hill/Irwin).
1608:
1600:
1535:
1269:
1171:
2327:
2299:
2215:
2169:
1819:Banfield, Paul; Kay, Rebecca (2008).
1652:
1396:Industrial and Labor Relations Review
1281:
2153:Montague Burton: The Tailor of Taste
2131:
1883:
1503:
1353:
1242:
1188:Lewis, Thornhill & Saunders 2003
2256:. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1721:Labor Relations: Striking a Balance
287:Workers' right to access the toilet
13:
2448:. London: Longmans, Green, and Co.
2377:The Sociology of Industrial Injury
2244:
2136:. Harlow, England: Prentice Hall.
2117:. Harlow, England: Prentice Hall.
2098:10.1111/j.1467-8543.1983.tb00127.x
1539:"Behavior Studied for Labor Peace"
1094:
14:
2504:
2454:
909:trade unions in the United States
727:, and it seeks to understand the
2460:
2352:. Lund: Department of Sociology.
2197:Whalen, Charles J., ed. (2008).
1786:10.1111/j.1472-9296.2005.00184.x
1536:Porter, Russell (15 July 1946).
1148:Civil Service Reform Act of 1978
1100:This section is an excerpt from
939:Yale Labor and Management Center
182:Diversity, equity, and inclusion
51:
2309:Kaufman, Bruce E., ed. (2004).
1890:. Ithaca, New York: ILR Press.
1774:Journal of Industrial Relations
1729:
1713:
1700:Karin Hofmeester et al. (2015)
1694:
1383:
1086:Radical or critical perspective
1082:the result of poor management.
2379:. London: Mansell Publishing.
1565:Kuhn, Lewin & McNulty 1983
1429:Kuhn, Lewin & McNulty 1983
824:international labour standards
820:occupational health and safety
232:Occupational safety and health
227:Occupational safety and health
21:Industrial Relations (journal)
1:
1215:CLEP Principles of Management
1159:
355:Chronological list of strikes
1743:Industrial Relations Journal
1140:National Labor Relations Act
1011:National Labor Relations Act
7:
2356:Mullins, Laurie J. (2016).
2226:10.1007/978-3-642-54417-0_9
2151:Sigsworth, Eric M. (1990).
1577:Ackers & Wilkinson 2005
676:
10:
2509:
2007:Kaufman, Bruce E. (1993).
1390:Kaufman, Bruce E. (2003).
1099:
833:
18:
2416:Salamon, Michael (2000).
2346:Kjellberg, Anders (2022)
1965:10.1108/01425450810888295
1212:Ogilvie, John R. (2006).
1134:human resource management
990:Brasenose College, Oxford
778:regimes, to varieties of
749:human resource management
656:human resource management
318:International comparisons
252:Right to rest and leisure
192:Employment discrimination
1990:10.4135/9781849200431.n7
1915:10.4135/9781849200431.n5
1479:, pp. 61–67, 80–81.
1040:Theoretical perspectives
1015:Fair Labor Standards Act
982:Nuffield College, Oxford
917:National War Labor Board
768:organizational behaviour
103:Social movement unionism
2300:Hyman, Richard (1975).
1756:10.1111/1468-2338.00216
1306:Hamann & Kelly 2008
1200:Banfield & Kay 2008
980:(all of whom taught at
882:John D. Rockefeller Jr.
874:University of Wisconsin
708:for the human resource
313:Trade union federations
308:Trade unions by country
2375:Nichols, Theo (1997).
1884:Budd, John W. (2004).
1737:Ackers, Peter (2002).
1679:, pp. 92–93, 103.
1342:Befort & Budd 2009
1113:
929:
720:
644:employer organizations
212:Freedom of association
83:Exploitation of labour
2332:. London: Routledge.
1689:Budd & Bhave 2008
1677:Budd & Bhave 2008
1330:Budd & Bhave 2008
1318:Budd & Bhave 2008
1111:
1073:Unitarist perspective
1060:Pluralist perspective
925:
840:Industrial Revolution
772:collective bargaining
718:
687:collective bargaining
197:Employment protection
177:Collective bargaining
19:For the journal, see
2483:Industrial relations
2469:at Wikimedia Commons
2467:Industrial relations
2445:Industrial Democracy
2395:Richardson, J. Henry
2328:Kelly, John (1998).
2304:. London: Macmillan.
2134:Employment Relations
1719:John W. Budd (2010)
1636:Calveley et al. 2017
1623:, pp. 189, 192.
862:Industrial Democracy
737:industrial sociology
628:employment relations
624:Industrial relations
558:Industrial relations
547:Academic disciplines
143:National-syndicalism
113:Democratic socialism
2277:Industrial Goodwill
1507:(9 February 1947).
947:Neil W. Chamberlain
759:, and other areas.
710:management paradigm
640:labor/trade unions
138:Anarcho-syndicalism
2493:Employee relations
1953:Employee Relations
1544:The New York Times
1515:The New York Times
1114:
930:
721:
663:employee relations
247:Professional abuse
2465:Media related to
2427:978-0-273-64646-4
2408:978-0-415-31384-1
2386:978-0-7201-2255-8
2367:978-1-292-08848-8
2339:978-0-415-18672-8
2320:978-0-913447-88-8
2263:978-0-19-924066-1
2235:978-3-642-54417-0
2208:978-1-84844-520-8
2189:978-1-84844-520-8
2162:978-0-7190-2364-4
2143:978-0-273-71008-0
2132:Rose, Ed (2008).
2124:978-0-273-64625-9
2076:978-1-84844-520-8
2046:978-92-2-114153-2
2018:978-0-87546-192-2
1999:978-1-84920-043-1
1943:978-1-4739-6931-5
1924:978-1-84920-043-1
1897:978-0-8014-4208-7
1876:978-0-8047-6153-6
1857:978-0-19-969509-6
1830:978-0-19-929152-6
1455:, pp. 61–62.
1368:, pp. 15–16.
1229:978-0-7386-0125-0
1144:Railway Labor Act
1125:social inequality
753:political science
621:
620:
578:Post-work society
407:Solidarity action
217:Legal working age
73:Conflict theories
2500:
2464:
2449:
2431:
2412:
2390:
2371:
2343:
2324:
2305:
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2292:
2272:Commons, John R.
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2003:
1976:
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1197:
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1185:
1179:
1169:
1081:
1067:
1054:Marxist theories
1003:class revolution
986:Otto Kahn-Freund
974:William McCarthy
913:Second World War
788:social democracy
733:labour economics
706:business schools
671:organized labour
667:labour relations
613:
606:
599:
563:Labour economics
553:Critique of work
397:Pen-down strikes
108:Social democracy
55:
45:
44:Organized labour
35:
28:
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2245:Further reading
2242:
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2209:
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2077:
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2027:
2019:
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1156:
1132:subarea within
1117:Labor relations
1105:
1102:Labor relations
1097:
1095:Labor relations
1088:
1080:destructive and
1079:
1075:
1065:
1062:
1042:
890:Montague Burton
878:Robert F. Hoxie
870:John R. Commons
836:
764:economic theory
725:social sciences
679:
617:
588:
587:
583:Refusal of work
548:
540:
539:
538:
443:
433:
432:
431:
422:Wildcat strikes
417:Whipsaw strikes
402:Sitdown strikes
349:
339:
338:
335:
303:
293:
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291:
277:Toxic workplace
161:
151:
150:
147:
65:
63:Labour movement
43:
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17:
12:
11:
5:
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2455:External links
2453:
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2440:Webb, Beatrice
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2092:(2): 143–160.
2081:
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2017:
2004:
1998:
1977:
1959:(5): 534–552.
1948:
1942:
1929:
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1816:
1780:(4): 443–456.
1769:
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1728:
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1725:
1712:
1693:
1691:, p. 103.
1681:
1669:
1667:, p. 243.
1665:Barchiesi 2014
1657:
1655:, p. 228.
1640:
1638:, p. 290.
1625:
1613:
1593:
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1581:
1579:, p. 446.
1569:
1557:
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1505:Fine, Benjamin
1493:
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1445:
1443:, p. 124.
1441:Sigsworth 1990
1433:
1431:, p. 157.
1421:
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1322:
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984:), as well as
962:Allan Flanders
957:universities.
943:E. Wight Bakke
941:, directed by
933:these was the
904:in 1929–1930.
835:
832:
808:works councils
745:social history
683:trade unionism
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2014:
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1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
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1490:
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1296:, p. 94.
1295:
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1259:
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1196:
1189:
1184:
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1177:
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1137:
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1130:
1126:
1122:
1121:labor history
1118:
1110:
1103:
1092:
1083:
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1032:promotion of
1031:
1030:laissez-faire
1026:
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1023:postmodernism
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857:Beatrice Webb
854:
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846:
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831:
829:
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821:
817:
813:
809:
805:
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795:
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792:neoliberalism
789:
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494:New Caledonia
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347:Strike action
343:
342:
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305:
302:
297:
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282:Unfree labour
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263:
260:
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240:
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207:Four-day week
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159:Labour rights
155:
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133:Union busting
131:
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119:
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50:
49:
46:
41:
40:
36:
30:
29:
26:
22:
2488:Business law
2444:
2436:Webb, Sidney
2417:
2398:
2376:
2357:
2348:
2329:
2310:
2301:
2289:. Retrieved
2276:
2253:
2217:
2198:
2173:
2152:
2133:
2114:
2089:
2085:
2066:
2050:. Retrieved
2032:
2008:
1981:
1956:
1952:
1933:
1906:
1886:
1866:
1839:
1820:
1777:
1773:
1746:
1742:
1730:Bibliography
1720:
1715:
1701:
1696:
1684:
1672:
1660:
1621:Kaufman 1993
1616:
1605:Kaufman 2004
1596:
1589:Kaufman 1993
1584:
1572:
1560:
1548:. Retrieved
1546:. p. 23
1543:
1531:
1519:. Retrieved
1517:. p. E9
1514:
1489:Kaufman 1993
1484:
1477:Kaufman 1993
1472:
1465:Kaufman 1993
1460:
1453:Kaufman 1993
1448:
1436:
1424:
1399:
1395:
1385:
1378:Farnham 2008
1373:
1366:Kaufman 2004
1361:
1349:
1337:
1325:
1313:
1301:
1294:Kaufman 2004
1289:
1277:
1265:
1258:Kaufman 2008
1238:
1214:
1207:
1195:
1190:, p. 3.
1183:
1176:Kaufman 2004
1167:
1115:
1089:
1076:
1066:powerful and
1063:
1046:
1043:
1034:free markets
1029:
1027:
1019:
996:
994:
959:
931:
906:
867:
860:
837:
816:minimum wage
812:trade unions
796:
761:
722:
699:
680:
662:
660:
652:
627:
623:
622:
557:
427:Work-to-rule
301:Trade unions
272:Six-hour day
257:Right to sit
222:Minimum wage
172:Child labour
167:Annual leave
93:New unionism
25:
1795:10072/15401
1749:(1): 2–19.
1710:Dataverse).
1609:Whalen 2008
1601:Ackers 2002
1402:(1): 3–30.
1270:Ackers 2002
1172:Ackers 2002
978:George Bain
853:Sidney Webb
822:standards,
784:corporatism
689:and labour–
524:South Korea
504:Netherlands
499:New Zealand
128:Syndicalism
98:Proletariat
78:Decent work
2477:Categories
1653:Zhang 2014
1282:Taras 2008
1160:References
966:Hugh Clegg
780:capitalism
776:labour law
729:employment
695:labour law
691:management
573:Labour law
382:Green bans
375:newspapers
267:Sick leave
262:Sabbatical
2106:1467-8543
1973:0142-5455
1804:1472-9296
1765:1468-2338
1416:0019-7939
1354:Budd 2004
1243:Rose 2008
1129:unionized
902:Cambridge
804:grievance
782:(such as
648:the state
636:employees
632:employers
519:Singapore
474:Hong Kong
449:Australia
202:Equal pay
123:Communism
118:Socialism
2442:(1897).
2397:(1954).
2274:(1919).
1812:44227768
1048:conflict
1013:and the
1007:New Deal
970:Alan Fox
955:Columbia
799:managers
702:New Deal
677:Overview
514:Portugal
454:Barbados
412:Walkouts
387:Lockouts
237:Overwork
88:Timeline
34:a series
31:Part of
2291:14 July
2052:13 July
1550:14 July
1521:14 July
972:, Lord
898:Cardiff
851:, with
849:Marxism
845:strikes
834:History
828:Marxist
479:Ireland
469:Georgia
2424:
2405:
2383:
2364:
2336:
2317:
2286:429243
2284:
2260:
2232:
2205:
2186:
2182:–141.
2159:
2140:
2121:
2104:
2073:
2061:
2043:
2026:
2015:
1996:
1971:
1940:
1921:
1894:
1873:
1854:
1827:
1810:
1802:
1763:
1414:
1226:
976:, Sir
968:, and
900:, and
818:laws,
790:, and
741:labour
646:, and
534:Sweden
509:Norway
484:Israel
459:Brazil
360:Hartal
2037:(PDF)
1808:S2CID
1050:model
894:Leeds
489:Malta
370:Bandh
2422:ISBN
2403:ISBN
2381:ISBN
2362:ISBN
2334:ISBN
2315:ISBN
2293:2018
2282:OCLC
2258:ISBN
2230:ISBN
2203:ISBN
2184:ISBN
2157:ISBN
2138:ISBN
2119:ISBN
2102:ISSN
2071:ISBN
2054:2018
2041:ISBN
2013:ISBN
1994:ISBN
1969:ISSN
1938:ISBN
1919:ISBN
1892:ISBN
1871:ISBN
1852:ISBN
1825:ISBN
1800:ISSN
1761:ISSN
1708:IISH
1552:2018
1523:2018
1412:ISSN
1224:ISBN
953:and
951:Yale
855:and
810:and
743:and
665:and
634:and
464:Fiji
331:WFTU
326:ITUC
2222:doi
2180:123
2094:doi
2063:———
2028:———
1986:doi
1961:doi
1911:doi
1844:doi
1790:hdl
1782:doi
1751:doi
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