Inner German border

889: 2398: 1980: 2071:(literally the buying of freedom). Between 1964 and 1989, 33,755 political prisoners were ransomed. A further 2,087 prisoners were released to the West under an amnesty in 1972. Another 215,000 people, including 2,000 children cut off from their parents, were allowed to leave East Germany to rejoin their families. In exchange, West Germany paid over 3.4 billion DM – nearly $ 2.3 billion at 1990 prices – in goods and hard currency. Those ransomed were valued on a sliding scale, ranging from around 1,875 DM for a worker to around 11,250 DM for a doctor. The justification, according to East Germany, was that this was compensation for the money invested by the state in the prisoner's training. For a while, payments were made in kind using goods that were in short supply in East Germany, such as oranges, bananas, coffee and medical drugs. The average prisoner was worth around 4,000 DM worth of goods. The scheme was highly controversial in the West. 759: 608: 1870: 2599: 1383: 1364: 2414:, began to dismantle its border fortifications. Hungary was already a popular tourist destination for East Germans. Its government was still notionally Communist but planned free elections and economic reform as part of a strategy of "rejoining Europe" and reforming its struggling economy. Opening the Hungarian border with Austria was essential to this effort; West Germany had secretly offered a much-needed hard currency loan of DM 500 million ($ 250 million) in return for allowing citizens of the GDR to freely emigrate. Pictures of the barbed-wire fences being taken down were transmitted into East Germany by West German television stations. They prompted a mass exodus by hundreds of thousands of East Germans which began in earnest in September 1989. In addition to those crossing the Hungarian border, tens of thousands of East Germans scaled the walls of the West German embassies in 1585: 2044: 1968: 1700: 462: 2464: 2059:

universities and subjected to social ostracisation. They faced the threat of having their children taken into state custody on the grounds that they were unfit to bring up children. The law was used to punish those who continued to apply for emigration; over 10,000 applicants were arrested by the Stasi between the 1970s and 1989. A report for the Central Committee's security section noted: "The emigration problem is confronting us with a fundamental problem of the GDR's development. Experience shows that the current repertoire of solutions (improved travel possibilities, expatriation of applicants, etc.) have not brought the desired results, but rather the opposite." The agitation for emigration, the report concluded, "threatens to undermine beliefs in the correctness of the Party's policies."

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pensioners were allowed, as they were believed to be less likely to escape. This gave rise to a joke that only in East Germany did people look forward to old age. Younger East Germans were not allowed to travel to the West until 1972, though few did so until the mid-1980s. They had to apply for an exit visa and passport, pay a substantial fee, obtain permission from their employer and undergo an interrogation from the police. The odds were against successful applications, and only approximately 40,000 a year were approved. Refusal was often arbitrary, dependent on the goodwill of local officials. Members of the Party elite and cultural ambassadors were frequently given permission to travel, as were essential transport workers. However, they were not permitted to take their families with them.

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substantial subsidies to communities under the "Aid to border regions" programme, an initiative begun in 1971 to save them from total decline. Infrastructure and businesses along the border benefited from substantial state investment. East Germany's communities had a much harder time because the country was poorer and their government imposed severe restrictions on them. The border region was progressively depopulated through the clearance of numerous villages and the forced relocation of their inhabitants. Border towns suffered draconian building restrictions: inhabitants were forbidden from building new houses and even repairing existing buildings, causing infrastructure to fall into severe decay. The state did little but to provide a 15% income supplement to those living in the

1780: 2135:, a further 743 people (15%) were arrested by the guards. 48 people (1%) were stopped – i.e. killed or injured – by landmines and 43 people (0.9%) by SM-70 directional mines on the fence. A further 67 people (1.35%) were intercepted at the fence (shot and/or arrested). A total of 229 people – just 4.6% of attempted escapees, representing less than one in twenty – made it across the fence. Of these, the largest number (129, or 55% of successful escapees) succeeded in making it across the fence in unmined sectors. 89 people (39% of escapees) managed to cross both the minefields and the fence, but just 12 people (6% of the total) succeeded in getting past the SM-70s booby-trap mines on the fences. 2022:

fugitives. Inspection pits and mirrors allowed the undersides of vehicles to be scrutinised. Probes were used to investigate the chassis and even the fuel tank, where a fugitive might be concealed, and vehicles could be partially dismantled in on-site garages. At Marienborn there was even a mortuary garage where coffins could be checked to confirm that the occupants really were dead. Passengers were checked and often interrogated about their travel plans and reasons for travelling. The system used simple technology and was slow, relying largely on vast card indexes recording travellers' details, but it was effective nonetheless; during the 28 years of operation of the Marienborn complex, no successful escapes were recorded.

38: 1764: 2317: 1515: 1182: 735:("Eastern Policy") at the end of the 1960s reduced tensions between the two German states. It led to a series of treaties and agreements in the early 1970s, most significantly a treaty in which East and West Germany recognised each other's sovereignty and supported each other's applications for UN membership, although neither state changed its view on the citizenship issue. Reunification remained a theoretical objective for West Germany, but in practice that objective was put aside by the West and abandoned entirely by the East. New crossing points were established and East German crossing regulations were slightly relaxed, although the fortifications were as rigorously maintained as ever. 699: 1858: 1916: 2476: 2655: 1944:

of East Germany and faced restrictions on travel, accommodation and expenditure. The process for driving from West Germany to West Berlin through East Germany was tightly controlled. After passing the crossing checkpoint, vehicles had to remain on designated autobahn routes and were not permitted to leave apart from at specified exits. If a vehicle accidentally took the wrong route, it had immediately to return to the highway. If a vehicle was caught outside the permitted route without a reasonable explanation, penalties followed. Inspections caused long delays to traffic at the crossing points. Westerners found crossing the inner German border to be a disturbing experience;

2305: 827: 419:, more than 170 kilometres (110 mi) to the east of the inner German border. On 9 November 1989, the East German government announced the opening of the Berlin Wall and the inner German border. Over the following days, millions of East Germans poured into the West to visit. Hundreds of thousands moved permanently to the West in the following months as more crossings were opened, and ties between long-divided communities were re-established as border controls became little more than a cursory formality. The inner German border was not completely abandoned until 1 July 1990, exactly 45 years to the day since its establishment, and only three months before 1066: 1158: 1170: 1044: 972: 1289: 1024: 543:, without a freely or fairly elected government. West Germany regarded German citizenship and rights as applying equally to East and West German citizens. An East German who escaped or was released to the West was automatically granted West German rights, including residence and the right to work; West German laws were deemed to be applicable in the East. East Germans thus had a powerful incentive to move to the West, where they would enjoy greater freedom and economic prospects. The East German government sought to define the country as a legitimate state in its own right and portrayed West Germany as enemy territory ( 1601: 2517:(border opening) was taking place along the entire length of the inner German border. Existing crossings were opened immediately. Within the first four days, 4.3 million East Germans – a quarter of the country's entire population – poured into West Germany. At the Helmstedt crossing point on the Berlin–Hanover autobahn, cars were backed up for 65 km (40 miles); some drivers waited 11 hours to cross to the West. The border was opened in stages over the next few months. Many new crossing points were created, reconnecting communities that had been separated for nearly 40 years. BBC correspondent 2643: 988: 1197: 643: 620: 1500: 1004: 2103: 815: 1305: 1277: 2201: 2189: 2544: 674:) a further 5 km (3.1 mile) wide was created in which only those holding a special permit could live or work. Trees and brush were cut down along the border to clear lines of sight for the guards and to eliminate cover for would-be crossers. Houses adjoining the border were torn down, bridges were closed and barbed-wire fencing was put up in many places. Farmers were permitted to work their fields along the border only in daylight hours and under the watch of armed guards, who were authorised to use weapons if their orders were not obeyed. 1738:(BZV) was responsible for policing much of the inner German border and manning the West German crossings. Its personnel lived with their families in communities along the border and carried out regular policing tasks in a zone about 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) deep along the border. They had the power to arrest and search suspects in their area of operations with the exception of the section of border in Bavaria. The BZV's remit overlapped significantly with that of the BGS, which led to a degree of feuding between the two agencies. 297: 263: 286: 1094:), a line of bare earth running parallel to the fences along almost the entire length of the border. There were two control strips, both located on the inward-facing sides of the fences. The secondary "K2" strip, 2 metres (6.6 ft) wide, ran alongside the signal fence, while the primary "K6" strip, 6 metres (20 ft) wide, ran along the inside of the fence or wall. In places where the border was prone to escape attempts, the control strip was illuminated at night by high-intensity floodlights ( 274: 228: 217: 206: 195: 1350:("Stop! The zonal border is here") notified visitors of the presence of the border. Foreign military personnel were restricted from approaching the border to avoid clashes or other unwanted incidents. Signs in English and German provided notifications of the distance to the border to discourage accidental crossings. No such restriction applied to Western civilians, who were free to go up to the border line, and there were no physical obstacles to stop them crossing it. 136: 78: 2552:

East Germans bought up whole crates, believing supplies would soon be exhausted. The rush for fruit made the banana the unofficial symbol of the changes in East Germany, which some dubbed the "banana revolution". Some West German leftists protested what they saw as rampant consumerism by tossing bananas at East Germans coming to visit the West. The easterners' obsession with bananas was famously spoofed by the West German satirical magazine

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as the defences were improved over the subsequent decades. However, escapees were never more than a small minority of the total number of emigrants from East Germany. During the 1980s, only about 1% of those who left East Germany did so by escaping across the border. Far more people left the country after being granted official permits, by fleeing through third countries or by being ransomed by the West German government.

2267:("order to fire" or "command to shoot"). It was formally in force as early as 1948, when regulations concerning the use of firearms on the border were promulgated. A regulation issued to East German police on 27 May 1952 stipulated that "failure to obey the orders of the Border Patrol will be met by the use of arms." From the 1960s through to the end of the 1980s, the border guards were given daily verbal orders ( 1671:, posing as regular border guards, between 1968 and 1985, to weed out potential defectors. One in ten officers and one in thirty enlisted men were said to have been recruited by the Stasi as informers. The Stasi regularly interviewed and maintained files on every guard. Stasi operatives were directly responsible for some aspects of security; passport control stations at crossings were manned by Stasi officers wearing 1216:) panels. The openings in the mesh were generally too small to provide finger-holds and were very sharp. The panels could not easily be pulled down, as they overlapped, and they could not be cut through with a bolt- or wire-cutter. Nor could they be tunnelled under easily, as the bottom segment of the fences was partially buried in the ground. In a number of places, more lightly constructed fences ( 1552:

blown up in the closing days of the Second World War remained in ruins, while other surviving bridges were blocked or demolished on the East German side. There were no ferry crossings and river barges were rigorously inspected by the GDR border guards. To prevent escape attempts, the East German river banks were barricaded with a continuous line of metal fences and concrete walls. At one location,

2271:) to "track down, arrest or annihilate violators." The GDR formally codified its regulations on the use of deadly force in March 1982, when the State Border Law mandated that firearms were to be used as the "maximum measure in the use of force" against individuals who "publicly attempt to break through the state border". The GDR's leadership explicitly endorsed the use of deadly force. General 848:. Their colleagues killed on the border were hailed as heroes and schoolchildren in East Berlin were depicted saluting their memorial. However, West German propaganda leaflets referred to the border as merely "the demarcation line of the Soviet occupation zone", and emphasised the cruelty and injustice of the division of Germany. Signs along the Western side of the frontier declared 2619:

was the presence of mines along the border. Although the 1.4 million mines laid by the GDR were supposed to have been removed during the 1980s, it turned out that 34,000 were unaccounted for. A further 1,100 mines were found and removed following reunification at a cost of more than DM 250 million, in a programme that was not concluded until the end of 1995.

2450:. The new government sought to appease the protesters by reopening the border with Czechoslovakia. This, however, merely resulted in the resumption of the mass exodus through Hungary. On 8 November 1989, with huge demonstrations continuing across the country, the entire Politburo resigned and a new, more moderate Politburo was appointed under Krenz's continued leadership. 952:), 500 to 1,000 metres (1,600 to 3,300 ft) wide, which adjoined the border itself. It was monitored by guards stationed in concrete, steel and wooden watchtowers constructed at regular intervals along the entire length of the border. Nearly 700 such watchtowers had been built by 1989; the larger ones were equipped with a powerful 1,000-watt rotating searchlight ( 2014:. The largest was at Helmstedt-Marienborn on the Hanover–Berlin autobahn, through which 34.6 million travellers passed between 1985 and 1989. Codenamed Checkpoint Alpha, this was the first of three Allied checkpoints on the road to Berlin. The others were Checkpoint Bravo, where the autobahn crossed from East Germany into West Berlin, and most famous of all, 921:). This was a 5 kilometres (3.1 mi) wide area running parallel to the border to which access was heavily restricted. Its inhabitants could only enter and leave using special permits, were not permitted to travel to other villages within the zone, and were subjected to nighttime curfews. It was not fenced off but access roads were blocked by checkpoints. 2240:, followed by another 13 inhabitants in February 1963. An unusual mass escape occurred in September 1964 when 14 East Germans, including eleven children, were smuggled across the border in a refrigerated truck. They were able to escape detection by being concealed under the carcasses of slaughtered pigs being transported to the West. 2055:, a pan-European treaty to improve relations between the countries of Europe. An increasing number of East German citizens sought to use the Accords' provision on freedom of movement to secure exit visas. By the late 1980s over 100,000 applications for visas were being submitted annually with around 15,000–25,000 being granted. 2035:

the number of East German citizens able to travel to the West. The relaxation of the restrictions was reported to have been motivated by a desire on the part of the East German leadership to reduce their citizens' desire to travel and shrink the number applying to emigrate. In practice, however, it had exactly the opposite effect.

1231:) standing around 3–4 metres (9.8–13.1 ft) high. Windows in buildings adjoining the border were bricked or boarded up, and buildings deemed too close to the border were pulled down. The barrier walls stood along only a small percentage of the border – 29.1 kilometres (18.1 mi) of the total length by 1989. 2175:

sentences. More than 75,000 people – an average of more than seven people a day – were imprisoned for attempting to escape across the border, serving an average of one to two years' imprisonment. Border guards who attempted to escape were treated much more harshly and were on average imprisoned for five years.

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border would be opened "immediately, without delay", rather than from the following day as the government had intended. Crucially, it was neither meant to be an uncontrolled opening nor to apply to East Germans wishing to visit the West as tourists. At an interview in English after the press conference, Schabowski told the

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to target escapees and provided a buffer zone where engineers could work on maintaining the outward face of the fence in East German territory. Access to the outer strip was very tightly controlled, to ensure that the guards themselves would not be tempted to escape. Although often described by Western sources as a "

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between the two states eased in the 1970s, the GDR agreed to open more crossing points in exchange for economic assistance. Telephone and mail communications operated throughout the Cold War, although packages and letters were routinely opened and telephone calls were monitored by the East German secret police.

956:) and firing ports to enable the guards to open fire without having to go outside. Their entrances were always positioned facing towards the East German side, so that observers in the West could not see guards going in or out. Around 1,000 two-man observation bunkers also stood along the length of the border. 844:("Border Guard"), a 1981 East German Army propaganda film, NATO and West German troops and tanks were depicted as ruthless militarists advancing towards East Germany. Border troops interviewed in the film described what they saw as the rightfulness of their cause and the threat of Western agents, spies and 2383:

regime named schools, barracks and other public facilities after the dead guards and used their memorials as places of pilgrimage to signify that (as a slogan put it) "their deaths are our commitment" to maintaining the border. After 1989 the memorials were vandalised, neglected and ultimately removed.

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remain in place to serve as farm and forestry access roads, though the accompanying anti-vehicles ditches, fences and other obstacles have been almost entirely removed. Artworks, commemorative stones, memorials and signs have been erected at many points along the former border to mark its opening, to

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had justified as the first "Socialist state on German soil", came to seem pointless. The state was bankrupt, the economy was collapsing, the political class was discredited, the governing institutions were in chaos and the people were demoralised by the evaporation of the collective assumptions which

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The taboo in East Germany surrounding escapees meant that the great majority of deaths went unpublicised and uncommemorated. However, the deaths of border guards were used for GDR propaganda, which portrayed them as "martyrs". Four stone memorials were erected in East Berlin to mark their deaths. The

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became a crime in 1957, punishable by heavy fines and up to three years' imprisonment. Any act associated with an escape attempt – including helping an escapee – was subject to this legislation. Those caught in the act were often tried for espionage as well and given proportionately harsher

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Before 1952, the inner German border could be crossed at almost any point along its length. The fortification of the border resulted in the severing of 32 railway lines, three autobahns, 31 main roads, eight primary roads, about 60 secondary roads and thousands of lanes and cart tracks. The

1952:

Travelling from west to east through was like entering a drab and disturbing dream, peopled by all the ogres of totalitarianism, a half-lit world of shabby resentments, where anything could be done to you, I used to feel, without anybody ever hearing of it, and your every step was dogged by watchful

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For many years, the two sides waged a propaganda battle across the border using propaganda signs and canisters of leaflets fired or dropped into each other's territory. West German leaflets sought to undermine the willingness of East German guards to shoot at refugees attempting to cross the border,

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The GDR implemented a variety of security measures along its Baltic coastline to hinder escape attempts. Camping and access to boats was severely limited and 27 watchtowers were built along the Baltic coastline. If a suspected escape attempt was spotted, high-speed patrol boats would be dispatched to

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found themselves becoming a tourist attraction for Westerners in the 1970s and 1980s. A viewing point, the "Window on Kella", was established on a nearby hilltop from which tourists could peer across the border with binoculars and telescopes. To the amusement of many, a nudist beach was opened on the

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Construction of the new border system started in September 1967. Nearly 1,300 kilometres (808 mi) of new fencing was built, usually further back from the geographical line than the old barbed-wire fences. The upgrade programme continued well into the 1980s. The new system immediately reduced the

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gave the remaining border guards and other ex-NVA soldiers the task of clearing the fortifications, which was completed only in 1994. The scale of the task was immense, involving both the clearing of the fortifications and the rebuilding of hundreds of roads and railway lines. A serious complication

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After the Wall fell, we were in a state of delirium. We submitted a request for our reserve activities to be ended, which was approved a few days later. We visited Helmstedt and Braunschweig in West Germany, which would have been impossible before. In the NVA even listening to Western radio stations

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identity papers and East German passports littered the tracks as the refugees threw them out of the windows. When the trains passed through Dresden, 1,500 East Germans stormed the main railway station in an attempt to board. Dozens were injured and the station concourse was virtually destroyed.

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The two sides commemorated their dead in very different ways. Various mostly unofficial memorials were set up on the western side by people seeking to commemorate victims of the border. West Germans such as Michael Gartenschläger and Kurt Lichtenstein were commemorated with signs and memorials, some

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Twenty-five East German border guards died after being shot from the Western side of the border or were killed by resisting escapees or (often accidentally) by their own colleagues. The East German government described them as "victims of armed assaults and imperialist provocations against the state

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It is still not certain how many people died on the inner German border or who they all were, as the GDR treated such information as a closely guarded secret. But estimates have risen steadily since unification, as evidence has been gathered from East German records. As of 2009, unofficial estimates

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put it) "girl-hungry GI's with seductive sirens, who usually desert the love-lorn soldier once he is across the border". The fate of such defectors varied considerably. Some were sent straight to labour camps on charges of espionage. Others committed suicide, while a few were able to find wives and

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It was not possible to simply drive through the gap in the fence that existed at crossing points, as the East Germans installed high-impact vehicle barriers and mobile rolling barriers that could (and did) kill drivers that attempted to ram them. Vehicles were subjected to rigorous checks to uncover

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The border could be crossed legally only through a limited number of air, road, rail and river routes. Foreigners were able to cross East German territory to or from West Berlin, Denmark, Sweden, Poland and Czechoslovakia. However, they had only limited and very tightly controlled access to the rest

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During the 1950s, West Germany sent millions of propaganda leaflets into East Germany each year. In 1968 alone, over 4,000 projectiles containing some 450,000 leaflets were fired from East Germany into the West. Another 600 waterproof East German leaflet containers were recovered from

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government to carry out policing duties along the inner German border's 390 kilometres (240 mi) in Bavaria. By the late 1960s, the BGP had 600 men patrolling its sector of the border, alongside the BZV, BGS and US Army. Its duties were very similar to those of the BZV, leading to turf wars

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The rivers were as heavily guarded as other parts of the border. On the Elbe, East Germany maintained a fleet of about 30 fast patrol boats and West Germany had some sixteen customs vessels. The river border was closely watched for escapees, many of whom drowned attempting to cross. Numerous bridges

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Until the late 1960s the fortifications were constructed almost up to the actual border line. When the third-generation fortifications were constructed, the fences were moved back from between 20 metres (66 ft) to as much as 2 kilometres (1.2 mi). This gave the guards a clear field of fire

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The East German side of the inner German border was dominated by a complex system of fortifications and security zones, over 1,300 kilometres (810 mi) long and several kilometres deep. The fortifications were established in 1952 and reached a peak of complexity and lethality at the start of the

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or national roads, 140 regional roads and thousands of smaller roads, paths and waterways were blocked or otherwise interrupted. The tightest level of closure came in 1966, by which time only six railway lines, three autobahns, one regional road and two waterways were left open. When relations

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The division of Germany was official on 1 August 1945. Because of the unexpectedly rapid Allied advances through central Germany in the final weeks of the war, British and American troops occupied large areas of territory that had been assigned to the Soviet zone of occupation. The redeployment

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Very little remains of the installations along the former inner German border. At least 30 public, private and municipal museums along the old line present displays of equipment and other artifacts relating to the border. Among the preserved sites are several dozen watchtowers, short stretches

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To the surprise of many West Germans, many of the East German visitors spent their DM 100 "welcome money" buying great quantities of bananas, a highly prized rarity in the East. For months after the opening of the border, bananas were sold out at supermarkets along the western side of the border as

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Czechoslovakia's hardline communist government agreed to close its border with East Germany to choke off the exodus. The closure produced uproar across East Germany and the GDR government's bid to humiliate refugees by expelling them from the country in sealed trains backfired disastrously. Torn-up

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Refugees used a variety of methods to escape across the border. The great majority crossed on foot, though some took more unusual routes. One of the most spectacular was the escape in September 1979 of eight people from two families in a home-made hot-air balloon. Their flight involved an ascent to

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The vast majority of refugees were motivated by economic concerns and sought to improve their living conditions and opportunities by migrating to the West. Events such as the crushing of the 1953 uprising, the imposition of collectivisation and East Germany's final economic crisis in the late 1980s

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Between 1950 and 1988, around four million East Germans migrated to the West; 3.454 million left between 1950 and the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961. After the border was fortified and the Berlin Wall constructed, the number of illegal crossings fell dramatically and continued to fall

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Until the late 1980s, ordinary East Germans were only permitted to travel to the West on "urgent family business" such as the marriage, serious illness or death of a close relative. In February 1986, the regime relaxed the definition of "urgent family business", which prompted a massive increase in

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The BGS, established in 1951, was responsible for policing a zone 30 kilometres (19 mi) deep along the border. Its 20,000 personnel were equipped with armoured cars, anti-tank guns, helicopters, trucks and jeeps. The BGS had limited police powers within its zone of operations to tackle threats

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A "third-generation" fence, much more solidly constructed, was installed in an ongoing programme of improvements from the late 1960s to the 1980s. The fence line was moved back to create an outer strip between the fence and the actual border. The barbed-wire fences were replaced with a barrier that

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Anyone attempting to cross the control strips would leave footprints which were quickly detected by patrols. This enabled the guards to identify otherwise undetected escape attempts, recording how many individuals had crossed, where escape attempts were being made and at which times of day escapees

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The border between East and West Berlin was also significantly tightened, although not fully closed; East Germans were still able to cross into West Berlin, which then became the main route by which East Germans migrated to the West. Between 1949 and the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961, an

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The boundary line was nonetheless still fairly easy to cross. Local inhabitants were able to maintain fields on the other side, or even to live on one side and work on the other. Refugees were able to sneak across or bribe the guards, and the smuggling of goods in both directions was rife. The flow

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The east–west interzonal border became steadily more tense as the relationship between the Western Allies and the Soviets deteriorated. From September 1947, an increasingly strict regime was imposed on the eastern Soviet zone boundary. The number of Soviet soldiers on the boundary was increased and

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The GDR's government nonetheless remained opposed to emigration and sought to dissuade would-be émigrés. The process of applying for an exit permit was deliberately made slow, demeaning, frustrating and often fruitless. Applicants were marginalised, demoted or sacked from their jobs, excluded from

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and could be crossed in either direction throughout the Cold War. The post-war agreements on the governance of Berlin specified that the Western Allies were to have access to the city via defined air, road, rail and river corridors. This was mostly respected by the Soviets and East Germans, albeit

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conducted only relatively infrequent patrols along its sector of the inner German border, principally for training purposes and symbolic value. By the 1970s it was carrying out only one patrol a month, only rarely using helicopters or ground surveillance radar and erecting no permanent observation

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or GAK) soldiers, an elite reconnaissance force, carried out patrols and intelligence-gathering on the western side of the fence. Western visitors to the border were routinely photographed by the GAKs, who also oversaw work detachments maintaining the fence. The workers would be covered by machine

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It was not just the arrivals at Hof who wore their emotions on their sleeves. The local people turned out in their hundreds to welcome them; stout men and women in their Sunday best, twice or three times the average age of those getting off the trains, wept as they clapped. 'These are our people,

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at a somewhat chaotic press conference in East Berlin, who proclaimed the new control regime as liberating the people from a situation of psychological pressure by legalising and simplifying migration. Misunderstanding the note passed to him about the decision to open the border, he announced the

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Attempts to flee across the border were carefully studied and recorded by the GDR authorities to identify possible weak points. These were addressed by strengthening the fortifications in vulnerable areas. At the end of the 1970s a study was carried out by the East German army to review attempted

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were closely watched to ensure that they could not take advantage of their inside knowledge to escape across the border. Patrols, watchtowers and observation posts were always manned by two or three guards at a time. They were not allowed to go out of each other's sight in any circumstances. If a

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were conscripts, a lower proportion than in other branches of the East German armed forces. Many potential recruits were screened out as potentially unreliable; for instance, actively religious individuals or those with close relatives in West Germany. They were all subjected to close scrutiny to

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The economic impact of the border was harsh. Many towns and villages were severed from their markets and economic hinterlands, which caused areas close to the border to go into an economic and demographic decline. The two German states responded to the problem in different ways. West Germany gave

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barriers; directional anti-personnel mines and anti-vehicle ditches blocked the movement of people and vehicles; tripwires and electric signals helped guards to detect escapees; all-weather patrol roads enabled rapid access to any point along the border; and wooden guard towers were replaced with

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officials and intelligence officers. These controls were gradually lifted in the Western zones, but were tightened between Western and Soviet zones in 1946 to stem a flow of economic and political refugees from the Soviet zone. Between October 1945 and June 1946, 1.6 million Germans left the

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The border fortifications were progressively torn down and eventually abandoned in the months following its opening. Dozens of new crossings were opened by February 1990, and the guards no longer carried weapons or made much effort to check travellers' passports. The guards' numbers were rapidly

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on occasions when it would have been politically inconvenient to have to explain dead refugees, such as during a visit to the GDR by the French foreign minister in 1985. It was also a problem for many of the East German guards and was the motivating factor behind a number of escapes, when guards

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of the kind practised elsewhere in Germany was absent and large areas were untouched by agriculture. Conservationists became aware as early as the 1970s that the border had become a refuge for rare species of animals and plants. Their findings led the Bavarian government to begin a programme of

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There were many ways to die on the inner German border. Numerous escapees were shot by the border guards, while others were killed by mines and booby-traps. A substantial number drowned while trying to cross the Baltic and the Elbe river. Not all of those killed on the border were attempting to

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The GDR bore a huge economic cost for its creation of the border zone and the building and maintenance of its fortifications. The zone consumed around 6,900 square kilometres (2,700 sq mi) – more than six per cent of the East's territory, within which economic

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West Germans were able to cross the border relatively freely to visit relatives, but had to go through numerous bureaucratic formalities. East Germans were subjected to far stricter restrictions. It was not until November 1964 that they were allowed to visit the West at all, and even then only

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Some East Germans tried to escape by jumping overboard from East German ships docked in Baltic harbours. So many East Germans attempted to flee this way in Danish ports that harbourmasters installed extra life-saving equipment on quaysides where East German vessels docked. The GDR's government

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opposite the West German port of Travemünde. Watchtowers, walls and fences stood along the marshy shoreline to deter escape attempts and the water was patrolled by high-speed East German boats. The continuous line of the inner German border ended at the peninsula of Priwall, still belonging to

412:, the large-scale emigration of East German citizens to the West, about 1,000 of whom are said to have died trying to cross it during its 45-year existence. It caused widespread economic and social disruption on both sides; East Germans living nearby suffered especially draconian restrictions. 2622:

The border clearers' task was aided unofficially by German civilians from both sides of the former border who scavenged the installations for fencing, wire and blocks of concrete to use in home improvements. Much of the fence was sold to a West German scrap-metal company. Environmental groups

860:

in Bavaria. The Associated Press reported in 1976 that "Western tourists by the busload come out to have their pictures taken against the backdrop of the latest Communist walled city the concrete blockhouse and the bunker-slits protruding from the green hillock where a collective's cows were

662:

The relative openness of the border ended abruptly on 26 May 1952 when the GDR implemented a "special regime on the demarcation line", justified as a measure to keep out "spies, diversionists, terrorists and smugglers". The East German move was taken to limit the continuing exodus of its

2505:

As the press conference had been broadcast live, within hours, thousands of people gathered at the Berlin Wall demanding that the guards open the gates. The border guards were unable to contact their superiors for instructions and, fearing a stampede, opened the gates. The iconic scenes that

2243:

The traffic was not one-way; thousands of people migrated each year from West Germany to the east, motivated by reasons such as marital problems, family estrangement and homesickness. A number of Allied military personnel, including British, French, West German and United States troops, also

2703:

voted unanimously in December 2004 to extend federal protection to the Green Belt and incorporate it into a "European Green Belt" being developed along the entire 6,800-kilometre (4,200 mi) length of the former Iron Curtain. The German Green Belt now links 160 natural parks,

374:

of Germany. On the Eastern side, it was made one of the world's most heavily fortified frontiers, defined by a continuous line of high metal fences and walls, barbed wire, alarms, anti-vehicle ditches, watchtowers, automatic booby traps and minefields. It was patrolled by 50,000 armed

1996:

number of crossing points was reduced to three air corridors, three road corridors, two railway lines and two river connections giving transit access to Berlin, plus a handful of additional crossing points for freight traffic. The situation improved somewhat after the initiation of

1220:) consisting of mesh and barbed wire lined the border. The fences were not continuous but could be crossed at a number of places. Gates were installed to enable guards to patrol up to the line and to give engineers access for maintenance on the outward-facing side of the barrier. 677:

Border communities on both sides suffered acute disruption. Farms, coal mines and even houses were split in two by the sudden closure of the border. More than 8,300 East German civilians living along the border were forcibly resettled in a programme codenamed "Operation Vermin"

516:(ACC) for Germany. Cooperation between the Western Allies and the Soviets ultimately broke down because of disagreements over Germany's political and economic future. In May 1949, the three western occupation zones were merged to form the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), a 1797:

posts. The British border zone was divided into two sectors covering a total distance of about 650 kilometres (400 mi) along the border. Unlike the Americans, the British did not assign specific units to border duty but rotated the task between the divisions of the

1247:

that was sprayed in one direction along the line of the fence. The device was potentially lethal to a range of around 120 metres (390 ft). The mines were eventually removed by the end of 1984 in the face of international condemnation of the East German government.

1683:

guard attempted to escape, his colleagues were under instructions to shoot him without hesitation or prior warning; 2,500 did escape to the West, 5,500 more were caught and imprisoned for up to five years, and a number were shot and killed or injured in the attempt.

800:

rose from 600 million marks per annum in 1970 to nearly 1 billion by 1983. In early 1989, East German economists calculated that each arrest cost the equivalent of 2.1 million marks, three times the average "value" to the state of each working person.

1815:

maintained a substantial and continuous military presence at the inner German border throughout the entire period from 1945 to after the end of the Cold War. Regular American soldiers manned the border from the end of the war until they were replaced in 1946 by the

1234:

Anti-personnel mines were installed along approximately half of the border's length starting in 1966; by the 1980s, some 1.3 million mines of various Soviet-made types had been laid. In addition, from 1970 the outer fence was booby-trapped with around 60,000

1062:), consisting of a suspended wire up to 100 metres (330 ft) long to which a large dog was chained, were installed on high-risk sectors of the border. The dogs were occasionally turned loose in temporary pens adjoining gates or damaged sections of the fence. 465:

The Allied zones of occupation in post-war Germany, highlighting the Soviet zone (red), the inner German border (heavy black line) and the zone from which British and American troops withdrew in July 1945 (purple). The provincial boundaries are those of pre-Nazi

2232:, before he was picked up by a West German yacht. Another escapee used an air mattress to escape across the Baltic in 1987. Mass escapes were rare. One of the few that succeeded took place on 2 October 1961, when 53 people from the border village of 2409:

The fall of the inner German border came rapidly and unexpectedly in November 1989, along with the fall of the Berlin Wall. Its integrity had been fatally compromised in May 1989 when a reformist Communist government in Hungary, supported by the Soviet leader

1169: 1808:, the smallest of the Western border surveillance organisations. Its personnel served as a liaison between British military and political interests and the German agencies on the border. The BFS was disbanded in 1991 following Germany's reunification. 1459:, or simply the international shipping lanes in the hope of being picked up by a passing freighter. The Baltic Sea was, however, an extremely dangerous escape route. In all, 189 people are estimated to have died attempting to flee via the Baltic. 2570:. The removal of restrictions on travel prompted hundreds of thousands of East Germans to migrate to the West – more than 116,000 did so between 9 November and 31 December 1989, compared with 40,000 for the whole of the previous year. 1181: 791:

activity was severely curtailed or ceased entirely. The actual cost of the border system was a closely guarded secret, and even today it is uncertain exactly how much it cost to build and maintain. The BT-9 watchtowers each cost around 65,000

2244:

defected. By the end of the Cold War, as many as 300 United States citizens were thought to have defected across the Iron Curtain for a variety of reasons – whether to escape criminal charges, for political reasons or because (as the

1547:

principle). In practice, the waterways were shared 50/50 but the navigation channels often strayed across the line. This led to tense confrontations as East or West German vessels sought to assert their right to free passage on the waterways.

1543:. The river borders were especially problematic; although the Western Allies and West Germany held that the demarcation line ran along the eastern bank, the East Germans and Soviets insisted that it was located in the middle of the river (the 1138:) which stood between 1.2 and 2.5 metres (3.9 and 8.2 ft) high and was built very close to the actual border line. This was replaced in the late 1950s with parallel rows of more strongly constructed barbed-wire fences, sometimes with 1083:, literally "column way") to patrol the border and travel rapidly to the scene of an attempted crossing. It consisted of two parallel lines of perforated concrete blocks which ran beside the border for around 900 kilometres (560 mi). 1102:

were active. From this information, the guards were able to determine where and when patrols needed to be increased, where improved surveillance from watchtowers and bunkers was required, and which areas needed additional fortifications.

971: 6802:(Picture 175-P05-00002-0001) in the collection of the Gesamtdeutsches Institut – Bundesanstalt für gesamtdeutsche Aufgaben (All-German Institut – Federal Institute for All-German Affairs). Photographer: n.a. Dated: 2585:

coalition led by the Christian Democratic Union (CDU), Chancellor Kohl's party. Both countries progressed rapidly towards reunification, while international diplomacy paved the way abroad. In July 1990, monetary union was achieved. A

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The guards of the inner German border comprised tens of thousands of military, paramilitary and civilian personnel from both East and West Germany, as well as from the United Kingdom, the United States and initially the Soviet Union.

1477:

caused an international incident in the Danish port of Gedser, when they beat up a would-be escapee on the quayside and opened fire, hitting a Danish boat in the harbour. The next day, thousands of Danes turned out to protest against

2279:, as Chairman of the GDR's National Defence Council, ordered: "Firearms are to be ruthlessly used in the event of attempts to break through the border, and the comrades who have successfully used their firearms are to be commended." 582:("People's Police"). Many unofficial crossing points were blocked with ditches and barricades. The West Germans also stepped up security with the establishment in 1952 of the Federal Border Protection force of 20,000 men; – the 855:

Whereas the GDR kept its civilians well away from the border, the West Germans actively encouraged tourism, and locations where the border was especially intrusive became tourist attractions. One example was the divided village of

2010:", essentially meaning West German day trippers – were opened at various locations along the border. By 1982, there were 19 border crossings: six roads, three autobahns, eight railway lines plus the Elbe river and the 607: 1043: 2437:

soon swelled into crowds of hundreds of thousands of people in cities across East Germany. The East German leadership considered using force but ultimately backed down, lacking support from the Soviet Union for a violent

2488:

The East German government sought to defuse the situation by relaxing the country's border controls with effect from 10 November 1989; the announcement was on the evening of 9 November 1989 by Politburo member

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plans to divide a defeated Germany into occupation zones. The boundaries between these zones were drawn along the territorial boundaries of 19th-century German states and provinces that had largely disappeared with the

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to build and the expanded metal fences cost around 151,800 marks per kilometre. The implementation of the "modern frontier" in the 1970s led to a major increase in personnel costs. Total annual expenditure on

1304: 6365: 2354:

was shot at a crossing point in August 1976; the GDR government was severely embarrassed and, unusually, offered an apology. In one notorious shooting on 1 May 1976, a former East German political prisoner,

1157: 1023: 839:

The two German governments promoted very different views of the border. The GDR saw it as the international frontier of a sovereign state – a defensive rampart against Western aggression. In

1133:

The outer fences were constructed in a number of phases, starting with the initial fortification of the border from May 1952. The first-generation fence was a crudely constructed single barbed-wire fence

316: 770:

The closure of the border had a substantial economic and social impact on both countries. Cross-border transport links were largely severed; 10 main railway lines, 24 secondary lines, 23

682:). Another 3,000 residents, realising they were about to be expelled from their homes, fled to the West. The seal around the country was expanded in July 1962 when the GDR declared its entire 1003: 1395:

The inner German border system also extended along the Baltic coast, dubbed the "blue border" or sea border of the GDR. The coastline was partly fortified along the east side mouth of the river

766:, razed in the 1970s. The inscription on the lone transformer tower reads, "Bardowiek: mentioned in historical records since 1292; illegally destroyed between 1977 and 1989 by the 'DDR' regime." 713:

The GDR decided to upgrade the fortifications in the late 1960s to establish a "modern frontier" that would be far more difficult to cross. Barbed-wire fences were replaced with harder-to-climb

1125:) were installed along 829 kilometres (515 mi) of the border and were absent only where natural obstacles such as streams, rivers, gullies or thick forests made such barriers unnecessary. 2566:

had underpinned their society for forty years. Membership of the Party collapsed and Krenz himself resigned on 6 December 1989 after only 50 days in office, handing over to the moderate

2367:

border of the GDR" and alleged that "bandits" in the West took potshots at guards doing their duty – a version of events that was uncorroborated by Western accounts of border incidents.

1686:

The work of the guards involved carrying out repair work on the defences, monitoring the zone from watchtowers and bunkers and patrolling the line several times a day. Border Reconnaissance (

874:. Visitors often sought to have a nude photograph taken below a looming East German watchtower; the West Germans noted "a lot more movement on that watchtower since the nudist beach opened." 6386: 1276: 2224:. Other escapees relied more on physical strength and endurance. An escapee in 1987 used meat hooks to scale the fences, while in 1971 a doctor swam 45 kilometres (28 mi) across the 2573:

The new East German leadership initiated "round table" talks with opposition groups, similar to the processes that had led to multi-party elections in Hungary and Poland. When the first

1633:

or DGP), before the Soviets handed over full control of the border to the East Germans in 1955/56. In 1961 the DGP was converted into a military force within the National People's Army (

2123:). It found that 4,956 people had attempted to escape across the border between 1 January 1974 and 30 November 1979. Of those, 3,984 people (80.4%) were arrested by the 8577: 2558:

on the front cover of its November 1989 edition, which depicted "Easterner Gaby (17), happy to be in West Germany: My first banana". Gaby was shown holding a large peeled cucumber.

2530:

free at last,' they said ... Those arriving at Hof report people lining the route of the trains in East Germany waving and clapping and holding placards saying: 'We're coming soon.'

5485:

Detjen, Marion (2006). "Die propagandistische Ausrichtung der Strafverfolgung von Fluchthelfern in der DDR und ihre Wirkung im Westen". In Marxen, Klaus; Weinke, Annette (eds.).

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A preserved section of the border fortifications at Hötensleben. The patrol road is on the left; the primary control strip runs parallel in the middle; beyond it rise a row of

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after he attempted to speak with East German farm workers. His death aroused condemnation across the political spectrum in West Germany. The incident prompted students from

1901:

cross-border rivers. The "leaflet war" was eventually ended by mutual agreement in the early 1970s as part of the normalisation of relations between the two German states.

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The closure of the border region for nearly 40 years created a haven for wildlife in some places. Although parts of the East German side of the border were farmed,

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Even the East German border guards were not immune to the euphoria. One of them, Peter Zahn, described how he and his colleagues reacted to the opening of the border:

1175:

The "second-generation" fences in 1962, with derelict barbed wire in the foreground, a control strip, two rows of barbed wire further back and a watchtower at the rear

6445: 2442:-style military intervention. Reformist members of the East German Politburo sought to rescue the situation by forcing the resignation of the hardline Party chairman 2734: 5675:

Kindermann, Gottfried Karl (1994). "Chapter 12: Recent ROC-PRC unification policies in the light of the German experience". In Lin, Bih-jaw; Myers, James T (eds.).

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between East and West Germany in the 1970s, the two sides established procedures for maintaining formal contacts through fourteen direct telephone connections or

2708:

biosphere reservations and the Harz Mountains National Park. It is home to a wide variety of species that are rare elsewhere in Germany, including the wild cat,

917:

A person attempting to make an illegal crossing of the inner German border around 1980, travelling from east to west, would first come to the "restricted zone" (

438:. Museums and memorials along the old border commemorate the division and reunification of Germany and, in some places, preserve elements of the fortifications. 2561:

The opening of the border had a profound political and psychological effect on the East German public. For many people the very existence of the GDR, which the

2092: 588:, or BGS – however, Allied troops (the British in the north, the Americans in the south) retained responsibility for the military security of the border. 356: 2263:

From 1945 onwards, unauthorised crossers of the inner German border risked being shot by Soviet or East German guards. The use of deadly force was termed the

1203:

tripwire-activated directional anti-personnel mine mounted on the fence. The cone contained an explosive charge which fired shrapnel fragments when activated.

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assure their political reliability and were given intensive ideological indoctrination. A special unit of the Stasi secret police worked covertly within the

1655:. They were responsible for securing and defending the borders with West Germany, Czechoslovakia, Poland, the Baltic Sea and West Berlin. At their peak, the 2322:

East German memorial to border guard Waldemar Estel, who was shot on the border on 3 September 1956. The GDR blamed "imperialist agents" for his death.

2310:

West German memorial to Helmut Kleinert, shot dead on the border on 1 August 1963. His death was memorialised by the German Federation of Trade Unions.

1187:

The third-generation fence, constructed from several overlapping horizontal tiers of expanded steel mesh fencing. A border marker pole is in the foreground.

8194: 1556:

on the Elbe, the border fortifications completely surrounded the village and sealed off the inhabitants from the rest of East Germany as well as the West.

1844: – monitored the border using observation posts, ground and air patrols, countering intrusions and gathering intelligence on Warsaw Pact activities. 619: 2168:("human traffickers"). Such ideologically coloured language enabled the regime to portray border crossers as little better than traitors and criminals. 1243:) directional anti-personnel mines. They were activated by tripwires connected to the firing mechanism. This detonated a horn-shaped charge filled with 8242: 10097: 10072: 9897: 9424: 8174: 6424: 2691:

In December 1989, only a month after the opening of the border, conservationists from East and West Germany met to work out a plan to establish a "

592:

of emigrants remained large despite the increase in East German security measures: 675,000 people fled to West Germany between 1949 and 1952.

2330:

are up to 1,100 people, though officially released figures give a lower count for the death toll before and after the Berlin Wall was built.

1893:(GIP, "border information points"). They were used to resolve local problems affecting the border, such as floods, forest fires or stray animals. 1885:

There was little informal contact between the two sides; East German guards were under orders not to speak to Westerners. After the initiation of

1404:, along some 15 km of the eastern shore of the Bay of Mecklenburg, the GDR shoreline was part of the restricted-access "protective strip" or 787:; but this did not halt the shrinkage of the border population as younger people moved elsewhere to find employment and better living conditions. 7741: 6936: 2720:, one of Germany's largest conservation groups, is campaigning to extend the area within the Green Belt designated as nature conservation zones. 1640: 797: 199: 6897: 666:

A ploughed strip 10 m (32.8 ft) wide was created along the entire length of the inner German border. An adjoining "protective strip" (

9983: 7492: 7301: 738:

In 1988, the GDR leadership considered proposals to replace the expensive and intrusive fortifications with a high-technology system codenamed

6816:

Gesetz über die Staatsgrenze der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik (Law on the State Border of the German Democratic Republic) (25 March 1982)

2717: 1863:

Roll of East German propaganda leaflets in a canister which was fired across the border during the "leaflet war" between East and West Germany

6295: 5903:

Müller-Enbergs, Helmut (1988). "Innere Sicherheit: Grenztruppen, MfS, Volkspolizei, Wehrerziehung and Zivilschutz". In Judt, Matthias (ed.).

1331:) markers were installed just behind the border line at intervals of about 500 metres (1,600 ft). A metal East German coat of arms, the 6789:(Filmstudio der Nationalen Volksarmee, 1981, dir. Reiner Bachmann, Jochen Hoffmann). Progress Film-Verleih, Berlin. Retrieved 6 August 2009. 9973: 5523:

Freytag, Konrad (1996). "Germany's Security Policy and the Role of Bundeswehr in the Post-Cold War Period". In Trifunovska, Snežana (ed.).

2067:

East German citizens could also emigrate through the semi-secret route of being ransomed by the West German government in a process termed

9947: 8834: 7199: 7030: 6912:. An initiative to turn the length of the former Iron Curtain into an international network of protected areas for wildlife. (In English) 6611: 6092: 2623:

undertook a programme of re-greening the border, planting new trees and sowing grass seeds to fill in the clear-cut area along the line.

2286:

was very controversial in the West and was singled out for criticism by the West Germans. The GDR authorities occasionally suspended the

1486:) methods." The "boat-jumpers" were eventually stopped by further restricting the already limited travel rights of the GDR's population. 2051:

There was no formal legal basis under which a citizen could emigrate from East Germany. In 1975, however, East Germany signed up to the

1897:

while East German leaflets promoted the GDR's view of West Germany as a militaristic regime intent on restoring Germany's 1937 borders.

1049:

A metal observation tower manned by three GDR guards. Some watchtowers were semi-portable and could be moved to new sectors when needed.

10092: 9937: 6929: 2343: 936:

fence 1,185 kilometres (736 mi) long and 2 metres (6.6 ft) high. The fence was lined with low-voltage electrified strands of

2506:

followed – people pouring into West Berlin, standing on the Wall and attacking it with pickaxes – were broadcast worldwide.

10026: 7050: 7035: 1936:. Before and after the Blockade, Western civilian and military trains, road traffic and barges routinely passed through East Germany 1821: 1117:("steel hedgehogs"), were used to prevent vehicles being used to cross the border. Elsewhere, V-shaped anti-vehicle ditches known as 883: 865:) was constructed in 1966 to give visitors a view across the hills into East Germany. The inhabitants of the East German village of 9978: 8011: 7186: 1594:) guarding border maintenance workers in 1979. The workers would be shot if they crossed the red "cord of death" in the foreground. 1565: 380: 10087: 9414: 8058: 7076: 2578: 2275:, the GDR defence minister, declared in August 1966 that "anyone who does not respect our border will feel the bullet." In 1974, 1820:, which was disbanded in 1952 after policing duties were transferred to the German authorities. It was replaced by two dedicated 9907: 8179: 6655: 6624: 1319:

The actual line between West and East Germany was located on the far side of the outer strip. It was marked by granite stones (

690:

estimated 3.5 million East Germans – a sixth of the entire population – emigrated to the West, most via Berlin.

447: 6407: 2672:

at Hötensleben and Mödlareuth, and a number of buildings related to the border, such as the GDR crossing point at Marienborn.

1310:

One of the distinctive East German "barber pole" border markers. The spike on the top deterred birds from using it as a perch.

722:

number of successful escapes from around 1,000 people a year in the mid-1960s to only about 120 per year a decade later.

9902: 7837: 7524: 7502: 6977: 6339: 2434: 2397: 1711:

A number of West German state organisations were responsible for policing the western side of the border. These included the

8925: 981:), an 11 m (36 ft) high observation tower introduced in 1969. The top-heavy tower was unstable and vulnerable to collapsing. 10057: 8744: 8669: 8329: 7929: 7153: 6218: 3684: 1338:

On the West German side, there were no fortifications of any kind, nor even any patrol roads in most areas. Warning signs (

509:

of Western troops prompted many Germans to flee west to escape the Russians' takeover of the remainder of the Soviet zone.

6260: 2106:

Diagram summarising the numbers of people who succeeded in passing each element of the inner German border system, 1974–79

1617:

Following the end of the Second World War, the East German side of the border was guarded initially by the Border Troops (

9942: 8349: 7482: 6766: 3371: 2131:, the outer restricted zone. 205 people (4.1%) were caught at the signal fence. Within the inner security zone, the 406:. Built by the East German government in phases from 1952 to the late 1980s, the fortifications were constructed to stop 7591: 7519: 3654: 10031: 9384: 8479: 7457: 7342: 7296: 7291: 7237: 7025: 6539: 2632: 2574: 2379:

was initiated in the 1970s this became politically inconvenient and state support for border memorials largely ceased.

490: 1363: 1323:) with the letters "DDR" carved on the west-facing edge. Around 2,600 distinctive East German concrete "barber pole" ( 9116: 8679: 7949: 7890: 7015: 6150: 6131: 6064: 6045: 6026: 6007: 5988: 5969: 5912: 5893: 5874: 5855: 5817: 5779: 5760: 5741: 5722: 5703: 5684: 5665: 5646: 5627: 5608: 5589: 5570: 5551: 5532: 5494: 5475: 5456: 5437: 5399: 5323: 5285: 5266: 2607:

reduced; half were dismissed within five months of the opening. On 1 July 1990 the border was abandoned and the

2439: 2160:(literally "blockade runners" but more loosely translated as "border violators"). Those who helped escapees were not 1875:

East German border guards near Mackenrode, Thuringia, walking past a propaganda caricature of West German Chancellor

1382: 7687: 6918:. Project of the conservation organisation BUND to preserve the inner German border as a nature reserve. (In German) 415:

The better-known Berlin Wall was a physically separate, less elaborate, and much shorter border barrier surrounding

10062: 8819: 8814: 8309: 8272: 8001: 7447: 7135: 7068: 2739: 2562: 2359:, who had fled to the West some years before, was ambushed and killed by a Stasi commando squad on the border near 1910: 8497: 8359: 8043: 2481:

East and West Germans mingling in front of the newly opened border wall in Heinersdorf, Thuringia, 4 December 1989

1707:

personnel, civilians and an East German border guard on opposite sides of the border line at Herrnburg near Lübeck

9539: 8920: 8849: 8749: 8627: 8399: 8389: 7976: 7363: 7086: 2392: 8314: 8201: 8189: 6355:

Koenig, Robert L. (22 April 1990). "Unity replaces fence – German social, economic barriers next to fall".

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Gordon, Joseph S. (1988). "East German psychological operations: a 1965 case study". In Gordon, Joseph S (ed.).

10067: 8970: 8739: 8319: 8221: 7954: 7398: 7393: 7122: 6230:

Czuczka, Tony (13 January 2000). "Last East German communist boss going to jail unrepentant". Associated Press.

6169: 5950: 5931: 5836: 5798: 5513: 5418: 5380: 5361: 5342: 5304: 494: 8639: 8369: 7880: 7652: 6900:. A free book by Eron Witzel about a series of journeys along the remnants of the border in 2003. (In English) 6245: 2668:

of the fence and associated installations (some of which have been reconstructed), sections of the wall still

2079:

but was defended by others as an "act of pure humanitarianism"; the West German government budgeted money for

997:), a 9 m (30 ft)-high observation tower introduced in the mid-1970s as a more stable replacement for the BT-11 9917: 8932: 8885: 8649: 8572: 8304: 7168: 6806: 1961/7. Held in: Bundesarchiv Deutschland (Federal Archive of Germany) Last accessed: 26 October 2009. 1841: 1833: 8364: 8073: 7996: 7667: 6906:. Documents the soldiers on both sides who guarded the inner German border during the Cold War. (In English) 10077: 10052: 8950: 8910: 8880: 8829: 8689: 8607: 8603: 8474: 8404: 8169: 7986: 7752: 7647: 7579: 2375:

in 1982 was commemorated annually by demonstrations on the Western side of the border. After the policy of

1825: 1282:

The actual border: a West German pole with warning sign, a GDR marker and the fence and a watchtower beyond

5924:

Building the East German myth: historical mythology and youth propaganda in the German Democratic Republic

2138:

Escape attempts were severely punished by the GDR. From 1953, the regime described the act of escaping as

9922: 9394: 9389: 9106: 8784: 8512: 8257: 8216: 8160: 8063: 7944: 7902: 7807: 7332: 7286: 7145: 7010: 1629:). They were supplemented from 1946 by a locally recruited paramilitary force, the German Border Police ( 1440:

intercept the fugitives. Armed patrols equipped with powerful mobile searchlights monitored the beaches.

750:, it would have replaced the fences with sensors and detectors. However, the plan was never implemented. 6799: 4695: 1527:

The border also ran along part of the length of three major rivers of central Germany: the Elbe between

1105:

Anti-vehicle barriers were installed on the other side of the primary control strip. In some locations,

9759: 8980: 8965: 8955: 8809: 8409: 7897: 7700: 7467: 7130: 6645: 4073:

Gesetz über die Staatsgrenze der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik (Law on the State Border of the GDR)

2469:

Crowds of West Germans welcome East German Trabant drivers at the Helmstedt crossing, 11 November 1989.

2463: 1817: 1163:

Reconstruction of the "first-generation" fence as erected in 1952, with control strip in the foreground

3223:

Official presentation of the text of the treaty as given by the United States - Department of State -

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Vehicles queuing at the East German passport control at the Marienborn crossing point, December 1989

832:

The East German view: the border depicted as a defensive line against military aggression from NATO.

10082: 9614: 9181: 8444: 8334: 8088: 7632: 2543: 1967: 1805: 1244: 290: 9354: 6303: 4233:"The formalities to be carried out by citizens of the GDR wishing to enter the Federal Republic." 2716: – more than half of the 25,000 that live in Europe – live along the former border. The 2547:

Zonen-Gaby's first banana: West German magazine cover satirising East Germans' banana-buying spree

1473:) on passenger ships to deal forcefully with escape attempts. On one occasion in August 1961, the 426:

Little remains of the inner German border's fortifications. Its route has been declared part of a

8844: 8789: 8774: 8714: 8522: 8502: 8262: 7939: 7544: 3228: 2729: 2351: 1433: 367: 267: 7747: 2350:

to erect a sign on the border protesting the killing. An Italian truck driver and member of the

2291:

facing a crisis of confidence defected because of their unwillingness to shoot fellow citizens.

9634: 9138: 8532: 8206: 7682: 7442: 7437: 7230: 2083:

under the euphemistic heading of "support of special aid measures of an all-German character."

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Joint British Army – British Frontier Service patrol near Helmstedt, early 1970s

1034: 521: 513: 498: 489:

in 1871. Three zones were agreed on, each covering roughly a third of Germany's territories: a

486: 481: 451: 371: 9844: 6235:

Evans, Michael (15 February 1990). "Border watchdog, Thomas Jones, completes 30-year patrol".

6106: 2611:

were officially abolished; all but 2,000 of them were dismissed or transferred to other jobs.

2426:, where they were regarded as "german citizens" by the federal government, claiming "asylum". 9869: 9153: 9148: 8915: 8804: 8759: 8719: 8654: 8598: 8517: 8299: 8113: 7991: 7909: 7817: 7782: 7692: 7637: 7534: 7375: 6921: 6826:

Gedenkstätte Deutsche Teilung Marienborn (Memorial to the division of Germany in Marienborn).

6783: 1584: 870:

Western side in 1975 immediately adjoining the border's terminus near the Baltic Sea port of

430:

linking national parks and nature reserves along the course of the old Iron Curtain from the

2043: 9409: 9176: 9031: 8985: 8900: 8895: 8694: 8593: 8542: 8537: 8429: 8384: 8339: 8277: 8108: 8083: 8033: 7961: 7875: 7725: 7327: 7306: 6877:. Comprehensive overview of the inner German border system with lots of photos. (In German) 6475: 2582: 2007: 1635: 420: 256: 2490: 2372: 1727:

units were not allowed to approach the border without being accompanied by BGS personnel.

648:

The newly strengthened border in 1962, with barbed-wire fences, watchtowers and minefields

8: 9854: 9769: 9764: 9664: 9527: 9324: 9208: 9123: 9011: 8864: 8859: 8839: 8824: 8734: 8729: 8634: 8567: 8557: 8469: 8464: 8454: 8354: 8294: 8267: 8093: 8078: 8048: 8026: 7812: 7802: 7529: 7452: 7422: 7406: 6275: 427: 8709: 8622: 6675:

Staff (30 May 2004). "History hits the wall – Tourists warm to Berlin's Cold War".

10008: 9804: 9789: 9714: 9694: 9689: 9674: 9521: 9269: 9021: 8905: 8659: 8562: 8547: 8459: 8449: 8424: 8419: 8184: 8138: 8053: 8038: 7981: 7797: 7720: 7596: 7487: 7477: 6492: 6250: 5981:

Repainting the little red schoolhouse: a history of Eastern German education, 1945–1995

2590:

was agreed on in August 1990 and political reunification took place on 3 October 1990.

2554: 2015: 1812: 1443:

Escapees aimed for the western (West German) shore of the Bay of Mecklenburg, a Danish

1261:", it was in fact wholly East German territory; trespassers could be arrested or shot. 901:

1980s. The border guards referred to the side of the border zone facing the GDR as the

670:) 500 m (1,640 ft) wide was placed under tight control. A "restricted zone" ( 564: 461: 302: 9704: 9533: 6458: 10021: 9874: 9819: 9794: 9749: 9679: 9654: 9619: 9609: 9578: 9465: 9349: 9319: 9056: 9046: 8960: 8854: 8699: 8414: 8211: 8068: 8021: 7919: 7870: 7844: 7822: 7662: 7642: 7586: 7574: 7388: 7223: 6208:

Buschschluter, Siegfried (11 October 1981). "Trade in human beings costs Bonn dear".

6165: 6146: 6127: 6098: 6079: 6060: 6041: 6022: 6003: 5984: 5965: 5946: 5927: 5908: 5889: 5870: 5851: 5832: 5813: 5794: 5775: 5756: 5737: 5718: 5699: 5680: 5661: 5642: 5623: 5604: 5585: 5566: 5547: 5528: 5509: 5490: 5471: 5452: 5433: 5414: 5395: 5376: 5357: 5338: 5319: 5314:

Baker, Frederick (2004). "The Berlin Wall". In Ganster, Paul; Lorey, David E (eds.).

5300: 5281: 5262: 2692: 2684: 2598: 2411: 2339: 2076: 888: 845: 747: 626: 584: 395: 376: 363: 245: 9998: 9669: 6685: 5941:

Osmańczyk, Edmund Jan; Mango, Anthony (2004). "Allied Control Council for Germany".

5487:

Inszenierungen des Rechts: Schauprozesse, Medienprozesse und Prozessfilme in der DDR

2405:

on 30 October 1989 calling for democracy, freedom of the press and freedom to travel

2356: 1223:

In some places, villages adjoining the border were fenced with wooden board fences (

820:

The West German view: "Germany does not end here! The Fatherland is over there too!"

9784: 9709: 9639: 9624: 9604: 9551: 9334: 9329: 9309: 9259: 9249: 9076: 9041: 9026: 8975: 8704: 8644: 8484: 8143: 8123: 7832: 7774: 7768: 7735: 7715: 7705: 7554: 7355: 7347: 7204: 6321: 2220:

more than 2,500 metres (8,200 ft) before landing near the West German town of

2144:(literally "flight from the Republic"), by analogy with the existing military term 2052: 1986: 1779: 1465: 1258: 940:. When the wire was touched or cut, an alarm was activated to alert nearby guards. 866: 792: 613:

The border before fortification: inter-zonal barrier near Asbach in Thuringia, 1950

517: 2363:. The Stasi reported that he had been "liquidated by security forces of the GDR". 948:

On the other side of the signal fence lay the heavily guarded "protective strip" (

861:

grazing." At Zimmerau in Bavaria, a 38-metre (125 ft) observation tower (the

10003: 9859: 9849: 9834: 9814: 9799: 9774: 9719: 9484: 9452: 9344: 9304: 9066: 9061: 9001: 8942: 8674: 8552: 8379: 8344: 8252: 8247: 7971: 7865: 7539: 7472: 7462: 7427: 7383: 7370: 7322: 5867:

The Red Army Faction, a Documentary History: Volume 1: Projectiles for the People

5753:

Frontdienst im Frieden, die Grenztruppen der DDR: Entwicklung, Struktur, Aufgaben

2011: 1929: 1876: 1139: 525: 320: 7966: 6733:

Thorson, Larry (11 November 1995). "Former German border almost free of mines".

3692: 2475: 2258: 2233: 1915: 1857: 1699: 850:"Hier ist Deutschland nicht zu Ende – Auch drüben ist Vaterland!" 758: 551:

state that exploited its citizens, sought to regain the lost territories of the

9829: 9754: 9744: 9739: 9599: 9339: 9128: 9051: 8779: 8684: 8434: 8374: 8006: 7924: 7827: 7787: 7757: 7657: 7612: 6891: 6857: 5371:

Buchholz, Hanns (1994). "The Inner-German Border". In Grundy-Warr, Carl (ed.).

2660:

View of border-related exhibits at the Grenzmuseum Schifflersgrund in Thuringia

2443: 2276: 2272: 2140: 1979: 1933: 1520:

High-speed GDR river patrol boat, equipped with searchlights to detect escapees

1209: 1098:), which were also used at points where rivers and streams crossed the border. 1071: 1058:

Guard dogs were used to provide an additional deterrent to escapees. Dog runs (

1017:, a tower 6 m (20 ft) high that doubled as observation tower and command centre 933: 714: 698: 467: 408: 285: 2680:

remember its victims and to record the division and reunification of Germany.

2654: 1985:

The West German crossing facility at Herleshausen in 1985, looking west along

1408:. Security controls were imposed on the rest of the coast from Boltenhagen to 10046: 9993: 9839: 9734: 9699: 9684: 9644: 9186: 9016: 8754: 8664: 8527: 8507: 8394: 8155: 8133: 8098: 7677: 7672: 7627: 7549: 7509: 7258: 6952: 6724:

Staff (13 May 1996). "Border "No Man's Land" Officially Declared Mine-Free".

5637:

James, Howard (1992). "Introduction". In James, Howard; Stone, Marla (eds.).

3662: 2502:

that "it is no question of tourism. It is a permission of leaving the GDR ."

2194:

Boot modified with a hooked overshoe to enable the wearer to climb the fences

1532: 1065: 431: 6102: 2648:

Memorial to "the victims of inhumanity" at Rüterberg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern

1763: 871: 857: 9779: 9729: 9659: 9649: 9503: 9491: 9478: 9284: 9111: 8612: 7860: 7710: 7569: 7564: 7559: 7265: 7104: 6997: 6972: 6956: 6860: 5601:

Peace and survival: West Germany, the peace movement, and European security

5354:

Where the world ended: re-unification and identity in the German borderland

2522: 2518: 2347: 2304: 1793: 1483: 726: 578: 536: 532: 399: 340: 336: 279: 251: 240: 232: 227: 216: 205: 194: 141: 95: 83: 6742:

Walmer, Tracy (14 February 1990). "Wall's fall coaxes 2nd deserter back".

2316: 1928:

with periodic interruptions and harassment of travellers. Even during the

1553: 505:

in the far west of Germany, carved out of the British and American zones.

9824: 9429: 9399: 9254: 9244: 9143: 9006: 8799: 8288: 8118: 8103: 7914: 7762: 7730: 7617: 7432: 7337: 7276: 6982: 6083: 5943:

Encyclopedia of the United Nations and international agreements, volume 1

2709: 2567: 2086: 2018:, the only place where non-Germans could cross from West to East Berlin. 1724: 1444: 1401: 1208:

was usually 3.2–4.0 metres (10–13 ft) high. It was constructed with

937: 709:

helicopter patrols the West German side of the inner German border, 1985.

706: 552: 502: 416: 388: 348: 43: 6881:

Information on the GDR border system (in German, but with many pictures)

5829:

Youth Politics in East Germany: The Free German Youth Movement 1946–1968

3227:( Washington: Department of State, , pp. 1215-1217 ), reproduced here: 2688:

buying land along the border to ensure its protection from development.

1923:

The inner German border was never entirely sealed in the fashion of the

1514: 383:

and soldiers. In the hinterlands behind the border, more than a million

9583: 9294: 9264: 9218: 9133: 9101: 9093: 9036: 8724: 8439: 8128: 8016: 7622: 7176: 6124:

Constructing socialism: technology and change in East Germany 1945–1990

5715:

The ghosts of Berlin: confronting German history in the urban landscape

2615: 2499: 2447: 2225: 2209: 2206: 1945: 1388:

Armed GDR border police patrolling a beach on the island of Rügen, 1956

814: 731: 683: 630: 576:

supplemented with border guards from the newly established East German

512:

The wartime Allies initially worked together under the auspices of the

352: 8237: 2102: 1998: 826: 351:, the border was 1,381 kilometres (858 mi) long and ran from the 9879: 9724: 9573: 9546: 9359: 9314: 9223: 9191: 9171: 9163: 8492: 8282: 3691:, Kühlungsborn (Baltic Border Tower in Kühlungsborn ). Archived from 3661:, Kühlungsborn (Baltic Border Tower in Kühlungsborn ). Archived from 2700: 2047:

Crossing the border by rail at Oebisfelde railway station, April 1990

1829: 1528: 1505: 1421: 1400:

Travemünde, but already on the east side of the Trave. From there to

892:

Annotated diagram of the third-generation inner German border system

763: 435: 6915: 6856:

Grenzturm e.V, Kühlungsborn (Baltic Border Tower in Kühlungsborn).

6765:

Ministry of Federal Affairs, Displaced Persons and Refugees, Bonn. "

6190:"Why Have U.S. Army Men In Europe Defected Behind The Iron Curtain?" 5791:

Spying on Science: Western Intelligence in Divided Germany 1945–1961

2371:

of which were supported by the government. The death of East German

2360: 2212:

used to smuggle several East Germans across the border in the 1960s.

2200: 1869: 1196: 472: 9458: 9299: 9196: 9071: 8890: 8794: 7934: 7792: 7246: 7058: 6880: 6874: 6601:

Staff (9 June 1952). "'Forbidden Zone' Runs Across Opencast Site".

2713: 2423: 1600: 771: 743: 563:

In the early days of the occupation, the Allies controlled traffic

539:'s legitimacy. The creation of East Germany was deemed a communist 403: 175: 37: 8578:

Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union

6885: 6715:

Staff (11 September 1964). "Two Families Flee From East Germany".

5506:

Confrontation: the Strategic Geography of NATO and the Warsaw Pact

2446:, replacing him in October 1989 with the marginally less hardline 1499: 1417: 1373: 9404: 9289: 9279: 9228: 8769: 7514: 6898:

Disturbed Ground: Journeys along the remnants of the Iron Curtain

6265: 5394:. Turning Points in History. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. 2229: 2156:("Republic deserter"). Those who attempted to escape were called 1746: 1544: 1456: 1452: 1409: 852:("Germany does not end here: the Fatherland is over there too!") 548: 524:. The Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic (GDR), a 262: 6909: 2915:

Joint statement of the Allied powers, 3 October 1954, quoted in

2642: 2453: 2062: 1429: 567:

to manage the flow of refugees and prevent the escape of former

9472: 9274: 9213: 8148: 6366:"Leaving East Germany - as easy as Alpha, Bravo, Charlie?" 6319:

Jacoby, Jeff (8 November 1989). "The Wall came tumbling down".

2705: 2577:

in March 1990, the former SED, which had renamed itself as the

2419: 2415: 2402: 1932:

of 1948, supplies could be brought in by air – the famous

1448: 1425: 1335:, was fixed to the side of the marker that faced West Germany. 663:

citizens, which threatened the viability of the GDR's economy.

528:

where voters were restricted to electing communist candidates.

6951: 6892:

Allied military trains crossing the zonal border at Marienborn

6387:"E. Germany Relaxes Curbs on Working Citizens' Visits to West" 6019:

Politics and government in Germany, 1944–1994: basic documents

5375:. World Boundaries (ed. Blake, Gerald H.). London: Routledge. 4979:

Bradshaw, Ben (orally). BBC News, 12 November 1989. Quoted in

2188: 1508:

on the Saale in the mid-1980s, enclosed behind a concrete wall

1372:(GDR border police) patrol boat off the East German island of 9957: 9913:

American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation

9419: 9202: 7281: 7112: 7005: 6967: 2236: – a quarter of the village's population – escaped 2221: 1837: 1540: 1536: 1396: 1236: 1200: 905:(literally "friendward") side and that facing the FRG as the 633: 221: 6846:

Zonengrenze-Museum Helmstedt (Zonal Border Museum Helmstedt)

5468:

The Rise and Fall of the German Democratic Republic, 1945–90

2513:(the fall of the Wall) in Berlin, a simultaneous process of 1412:

on the Polish border, including the whole of the islands of

877: 9497: 9379: 7271: 7215: 7194: 7020: 5810:

East Germany and detente: building authority after the wall

5677:

Contemporary China and the changing international community

5525:

The Transatlantic Alliance on the Eve of the New Millennium

3368:

Ministry of Federal Affairs, Displaced Persons and Refugees

2581:, was swept from power and replaced by a pro-reunification 1804:

The border was also patrolled in the British sector by the

1622: 1559: 1413: 693: 568: 384: 379:

who faced tens of thousands of West German, British and US

6903: 2699:) stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Czech border. The 2539:

was punishable and there we were on an outing in the West.

657: 555:, and stood opposed to the peaceful socialism of the GDR. 9952: 9932: 9927: 7094: 7040: 2735:

Czechoslovakian border fortifications during the Cold War

2495: 1626: 441: 5639:

When the Wall came down: reactions to German unification

5259:

Germany and the Americas: culture, politics, and history

2521:

described the jubilant scenes at the railway station of

558: 6706:

Staff (21 July 1962). "Baltic Coast Made Border Zone".

6697:

Staff (11 July 1959). "Two Soldiers Go To E. Germany".

6612:"East Germany Apologizes For Fatal Shooting of Italian" 2712:, otter and rare mosses and orchids. Most of Germany's 718:

prefabricated concrete towers and observation bunkers.

402:

that separated the Soviet and Western blocs during the

6643:

Staff (2 July 1990). "Berlin reunites, borders fade".

6592:

Staff (18 August 1975). "Nudes warm up the Cold War".

6330:

Kellerhoff, Sven Felix; Banse, Dirk (11 August 2007).

4627: 4625: 4419: 4417: 2093:

Escape attempts and victims of the inner German border

2087:

Escape attempts and victims of the inner German border

1294:

An East German boundary stone with the letters "DDR" (

762:

All that remains of the East German border village of

6656:"Escape Into East Germany Not Blocked by Wire, Mines" 5563:

Behind the wall: an American in East Germany, 1988–89

5278:

Politics and popular opinion in East Germany, 1945–68

1142:

placed between the fences as an additional obstacle.

5679:. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. 4200:(Memorial to the division of Germany in Marienborn). 4187:(Memorial to the division of Germany in Marienborn). 4052: 4050: 2097: 1128: 686:

a border zone subject to closures and restrictions.

6000:

The Berlin Wall and the Intra-German border 1961–89

5696:"Den Gegner vernichten": die Grenzsicherung der DDR 4622: 4414: 2773: 2771: 2525:in Bavaria in the early hours of 12 November: 1904: 1691:guns to discourage them from attempting to escape. 5316:Borders and border politics in a globalizing world 5141: 5139: 5099: 5097: 2386: 2115:prompted surges in the number of escape attempts. 366:on 1 August 1945 as the boundary between the 347:not including the similar but physically separate 16:Border separating East and West Germany, 1949-1990 7021:People's Commissariat for Internal Affairs (NKVD) 6888:(in German and English, with pictures and videos) 6493:""We Were Told to Stop Trespassing at All Costs"" 6162:A world at arms: a global history of World War II 4047: 3815: 2002:in the 1970s. Additional crossings for so-called 10044: 9898:List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States 6836:Grenzmuseum Eichsfeld (Border Museum Eichsfeld). 5356:. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 3315: 3313: 2768: 2602:The abandoned border in Thuringia, December 1990 2588:Treaty on the establishment of a unified Germany 1919:Crossing points on the inner German border, 1982 598:Phases of development of the inner German border 8335:North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972 7742:On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences 7031:People's Commissariat for State Security (NKGB) 6145:. Budapest: Central European University Press. 5136: 5094: 3883: 3881: 3129: 3127: 3125: 2038: 200:Border Troops of the German Democratic Republic 6055:Shackley, Theodore; Finney, Richard A (2005). 6038:Revolution 1989: the Fall of the Soviet Empire 5582:Psychological operations: the Soviet challenge 4915: 4913: 4755: 4650: 3472: 3470: 3288: 3286: 3249: 3247: 2148:("desertion"). A successful escapee was not a 2025: 1745:(BGP) was a border police force raised by the 7231: 6937: 6510:"East German defector seventh since Saturday" 6219:"Beside the Autobahn, a Cold-War Memory Lane" 6126:. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 5983:. New York City: Oxford University Press US. 5660:. New York City: Oxford University Press US. 4886: 4527:United Press International (UPI) (1971-08-04) 4269: 4267: 3854: 3832: 3830: 3575: 3565: 3563: 3561: 3536: 3534: 3532: 3530: 3517: 3515: 3502: 3500: 3487: 3485: 3310: 3168: 3166: 3164: 3162: 3160: 2839: 2837: 2454:Opening of the border and the fall of the GDR 1824:assigned to provide a permanent defence. The 753: 391:troops awaited the possible outbreak of war. 9974:Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War 7525:Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council 5960:Ritter, Jürgen; Lapp, Peter Joachim (2007). 5508:. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Books. 5207: 5205: 4279: 4067: 4065: 3878: 3122: 3047: 3045: 2593: 2228:from Rostock almost to the Danish island of 1353: 1079:The guards used an all-weather patrol road ( 480:The inner German border originated from the 8835:1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre 6894:. Includes 1969 sound clip with guard dogs. 6728:. New York City: German Information Center. 6425:"East German border appearance has changed" 5926:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. 5772:Europe, Cold War and coexistence, 1953–1965 5544:Ick ooch: meine 20 Jahre DDR und die Folgen 5280:. Manchester: Manchester University Press. 5082: 4910: 4368: 4366: 3467: 3283: 3244: 3207: 3205: 3147: 3145: 3062: 3060: 2342:was shot on the border near the village of 725:The introduction of West German Chancellor 394:The border was a physical manifestation of 9938:United States involvement in regime change 7493:1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine 7238: 7224: 6944: 6930: 5527:. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. 5449:Popular protest in East Germany, 1945–1989 5126: 5124: 5046: 4949: 4937: 4925: 4898: 4874: 4850: 4838: 4264: 3827: 3791: 3623: 3558: 3527: 3512: 3497: 3482: 3157: 2834: 2164:("escape helpers"), the Western term, but 962:East German border watchtowers and bunkers 7177:Department of State Security (Securitate) 7026:Main Directorate of State Security (GUGB) 6368:. Deutsche Presse-Agentur. Archived from 6332:""Zögern Sie nicht mit der Schusswaffe!"" 6164:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5812:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5620:The Berlin Wall: Monument of the Cold War 5202: 4062: 4033: 4031: 4029: 3842: 3546: 3325: 3178: 3042: 1651:) came under the NVA's Border Command or 1535:(around 95 kilometres (59 mi)), the 884:Fortifications of the inner German border 878:Fortifications of the inner German border 7059:Directorate of State Security (Sigurimi) 7016:Joint State Political Directorate (OGPU) 5717:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 5318:. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. 4363: 4291: 4198:Gedenkstätte Deutsche Teilung Marienborn 4185:Gedenkstätte Deutsche Teilung Marienborn 3202: 3142: 3057: 2597: 2575:free elections were held in East Germany 2542: 2509:While the eyes of the world were on the 2396: 2249:work on the eastern side of the border. 2101: 2042: 1914: 1847: 1698: 1566:Border guards of the inner German border 1560:Border guards of the inner German border 1195: 1064: 887: 757: 697: 460: 8064:Transition to the New Order (Indonesia) 6840: 6625:"Homemade balloon carries 8 to freedom" 6600: 6540:"Sie gaben ihr Leben für ihr Vaterland" 5736:. Rochester, NY: Boydell & Brewer. 5121: 4466: 3960: 3090: 3030: 2294: 1769:United States Army personnel meet with 343:(FRG, West Germany) from 1949 to 1990. 10045: 9908:Russian espionage in the United States 8180:Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia 7195:Department of National Security (OZNA) 6459:"Scale of East German exodus revealed" 6385:McCartney, Robert J. (16 April 1988). 6294:Jackson, James O. (12 February 1990). 6143:Germany, 1945–1990: a parallel history 5888:. New York City: Villard. p. 71. 4026: 3707: 2704:150 flora-and-fauna areas, three 1715:(BGS, Federal Border Protection), the 1037:, which accommodated one or two guards 804: 501:in the east. France was later given a 448:Development of the inner German border 442:Development of the inner German border 9903:Soviet espionage in the United States 8059:Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966 7838:Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution 7503:1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight 7219: 7200:Directorate for State Security (UDBA) 6978:Telephone tapping in the Eastern Bloc 6925: 6723: 6696: 6553:"East German Doctor Swims To Freedom" 6537: 6476:"More Than 1,100 Berlin Wall Victims" 6423:Mulligan, Hugh A. (28 October 1976). 6296:"The Revolution Came From the People" 6276:"East Germany jailed 75,000 escapers" 6244:Fowle, Farnsworth (8 February 1981). 6040:. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. 5169: 4746: 4631:"The Use of Firearms at the Border". 4589: 2922: 9979:Soviet Union–United States relations 8330:1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China 7154:Ministry of Public Security (UB/MBP) 6261:"Cold War legacy a haven for nature" 6094:US Army Border Operations in Germany 2626: 742:. Drawing on technology used by the 10098:Soviet Union–West Germany relations 10073:East Germany–Soviet Union relations 9943:Soviet involvement in regime change 7113:Ministry for State Security (Stasi) 6571: 6097:. US Army Military History Office. 6017:Schweitzer, Carl Christoph (1995). 5865:Moncourt, André; Smith, J. (2009). 5793:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4511: 3374:". Leaflet published ca. mid 1960s. 2063:Ransoms and "humanitarian releases" 1298:) carved on the western-facing edge 1148:East German border fences and walls 1029:An observation bunker, known as an 943: 423:formally ended Germany's division. 362:It was formally established by the 13: 9984:Soviet Union–United States summits 7458:1947 Polish parliamentary election 7343:Guerrilla war in the Baltic states 7041:Committee for State Security (KGB) 6674: 6559:. United Press International (UPI) 6529:Staff (7 July 1977). "Buff Boom". 6490: 6364:Maguire, Helen (20 October 2009). 6217:Cowell, Alan (12 September 1996). 6207: 6021:. Providence, RI: Berghahn Books. 5902: 5373:Eurasia: World Boundaries Volume 3 4992: 4396: 4168: 4071:Based on: Appendix to § 18 of the 3265: 2633:Museums of the inner German border 1957: 1723:(Federal Customs Administration). 912: 476:(federal states) were established. 14: 10109: 10093:1990 disestablishments in Germany 8745:Lord's Resistance Army insurgency 8680:United States invasion of Grenada 7950:Guinea-Bissau War of Independence 7891:Expulsion of Soviets from Albania 7205:Counterintelligence Service (KOS) 7077:Committee for State Security (DS) 7011:State Political Directorate (GPU) 6868: 6820: 6686:"Sonntagsreden am Todesstreifen?" 6446:"From Iron Curtain to Green Belt" 5962:Die Grenze: ein deutsches Bauwerk 5755:. Koblenz: Bernard & Graefe. 5413:. London: Pearson Education Ltd. 4698:. Last accessed: 26 October 2009. 4578:The Associated Press (1963-07-07) 4539:The Associated Press (1987-09-03) 4197: 4184: 2745:Military Demarcation Line (Korea) 2334:escape. On 13 October 1961, 2178: 2098:Refugee flows and escape attempts 1753: 1719:(Bavarian Border Police) and the 1659:had up to 50,000 personnel. 1451:, the southern Danish islands of 1129:Outer fence, walls and minefields 8820:United States invasion of Panama 8670:1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War 8310:1971 Turkish military memorandum 8273:Communist insurgency in Thailand 8243:Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty 8175:Communist insurgency in Malaysia 8002:Assassination of John F. Kennedy 7930:Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation 7448:Restatement of Policy on Germany 7136:Ministry of Internal Affairs III 7131:State Protection Authority (ÁVH) 7036:Ministry of State Security (MGB) 7006:Extraordinary Commission (Cheka) 6830: 6752: 6705: 6591: 6528: 6507: 5229: 5217: 5190: 5178: 5163: 5151: 5109: 5070: 5058: 5034: 5022: 5010: 4998: 4986: 4973: 4961: 4862: 4826: 4814: 4802: 4790: 4778: 4766: 4740: 4728: 4716: 4701: 4686: 4674: 4662: 4638: 4632: 4610: 4598: 4583: 4571: 4556: 4544: 4538: 4532: 4520: 4505: 4490: 4478: 4454: 4442: 4430: 4424: 4402: 4390: 4378: 4351: 4339: 4327: 4315: 4303: 4252: 4240: 4234: 4227: 4215: 4203: 4190: 4177: 4162: 4150: 4138: 4126: 4114: 4102: 4090: 3434: 3419: 3133: 2653: 2641: 2474: 2462: 2315: 2303: 2252: 2199: 2187: 1978: 1966: 1911:Crossing the inner German border 1905:Crossing the inner German border 1868: 1856: 1778: 1762: 1599: 1583: 1513: 1498: 1489: 1381: 1362: 1303: 1287: 1275: 1180: 1168: 1156: 1042: 1022: 1002: 986: 970: 825: 813: 641: 618: 606: 535:and the western Allies rejected 295: 284: 272: 261: 250: 239: 226: 215: 204: 193: 134: 88: 76: 36: 9540:Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty 8921:Dissolution of the Soviet Union 8850:Fall of the inner German border 8750:1988 Black Sea bumping incident 8400:Strategic Arms Limitation Talks 8390:Spanish transition to democracy 8350:1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency 7977:Communist insurgency in Sarawak 7483:Indo-Pakistani War of 1947–1948 7364:Occupation of the Baltic states 6683: 6609: 6329: 6234: 6188:Anderson, Jack (14 June 1964). 6180: 6078:. London: Chatto & Windus. 6035: 6016: 6002:. Fortress 69. Oxford: Osprey. 5886:Fifty years of Europe: an album 5848:The Year that Changed the World 5674: 5584:. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. 5542:Fröhling, Wolf Amadeus (2007). 5390:Buckley Jr, William F. (2004). 5261:. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. 4868: 4761: 4707: 4078: 4014: 4002: 3990: 3978: 3966: 3953: 3941: 3929: 3917: 3905: 3893: 3866: 3821: 3803: 3779: 3767: 3755: 3743: 3731: 3719: 3677: 3647: 3635: 3611: 3599: 3587: 3455: 3443: 3428: 3413: 3401: 3389: 3377: 3361: 3349: 3337: 3298: 3271: 3259: 3232: 3217: 3190: 3110: 3098: 3084: 3072: 3018: 3006: 2994: 2982: 2970: 2958: 2952: 2946: 2934: 2916: 2909: 2897: 2885: 2873: 2393:Fall of the inner German border 2387:Fall of the inner German border 1694: 1574: 1296:Deutsche Demokratische Republik 1109:barricades, known in German as 1090:was one of the control strips ( 1075:barricades and the border wall. 335:) was the frontier between the 10088:1945 establishments in Germany 8320:Four Power Agreement on Berlin 7955:Mozambican War of Independence 7394:Indonesian National Revolution 6850: 6714: 6653: 6642: 6550: 6444:Paterson, Tony (17 May 2009). 6398:Mielke, Michael (6 May 2002). 6384: 6293: 6274:Hooper, John (7 August 2001). 6258: 6246:"Dresden's Salvaged Treasures" 5940: 5921: 5826: 5656:Jarausch, Konrad Hugo (1994). 5603:. Stanford, CA: Hoover Press. 5503: 5297:Along the Wall and Watchtowers 5235: 5115: 4762:Thüringen Journal (2009-09-18) 4577: 4562: 4526: 4460: 4273: 3822:Kellerhoff; Banse (2007-08-11) 3688: 3658: 3225:Documents on Germany 1944-1985 2891: 2861: 2855: 2849: 2822: 2813: 2807: 2795: 2789: 2783: 2777: 2762: 2756: 1840: – later replaced by the 1463:responded by stationing armed 1251: 694:1967–89: the "Modern Frontier" 1: 9918:CIA and the Cultural Cold War 8933:Dissolution of Czechoslovakia 8886:Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident 8608:1984 Summer Olympics boycotts 8573:Seven Days to the River Rhine 8305:Corrective Revolution (Egypt) 7592:March 1949 Syrian coup d'état 7520:1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état 6622: 6456: 6443: 6422: 6187: 6159: 6057:Spymaster: my life in the CIA 6054: 5864: 5788: 5734:The companion guide to Berlin 5731: 5712: 5655: 5618:Hertle, Hans-Hermann (2007). 5565:. Carbondale, IL: SIU Press. 5541: 5432:. Rodingersdorf: Esterbauer. 5370: 5337:. London: Faber & Faber. 5275: 5244: 5211: 5040: 4784: 4772: 4616: 4496: 4408: 3872: 3848: 3476: 3461: 3292: 3253: 3211: 3151: 2867: 2843: 2579:Party of Democratic Socialism 1925:border between the two Koreas 1842:11th Armored Cavalry Regiment 1834:14th Armored Cavalry Regiment 1346:("Danger! Zonal border!") or 1227:) or concrete barrier walls ( 658:1952–67: the "Special Regime" 8911:Fall of communism in Albania 8881:Mongolian Revolution of 1990 8830:Polish Round Table Agreement 8170:1968 Polish political crisis 7987:Eritrean War of Independence 7753:Hungarian Revolution of 1956 7648:East German uprising of 1953 7580:Chinese Communist Revolution 7245: 6777: 6732: 6574:"Climber flees East Germany" 6363: 6229: 5997: 5964:. Berlin: Ch. Links Verlag. 5945:. New York City: Routledge. 5905:DDR-Geschichte in Dokumenten 5807: 5751:Lapp, Peter Joachim (1986). 5622:. Berlin: Ch. Links Verlag. 5522: 5389: 5351: 5335:Along the edge of the forest 5184: 5157: 5145: 5103: 4372: 4285: 4156: 4132: 3860: 3836: 3809: 3797: 3641: 3629: 3617: 3605: 3593: 3581: 3569: 3540: 3521: 3506: 3491: 3407: 3355: 3319: 3172: 3116: 3036: 2801: 2675:Substantial sections of the 2039:Emigrating from East Germany 1826:2nd Armored Cavalry Regiment 1731:to the peace of the border. 547:) – a capitalist, semi- 339:(GDR, East Germany) and the 7: 10058:Cold War history of Germany 8785:Korean Air Lines Flight 007 8513:Korean Air Lines Flight 902 8258:Corrective Movement (Syria) 8222:New People's Army rebellion 8217:Sino-Soviet border conflict 7945:Angolan War of Independence 7808:Second Taiwan Strait Crisis 7688:1954 Guatemalan coup d'état 7333:Jamaican political conflict 6767:Attention Demarcation Line! 6759: 6741: 6692:. Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk. 6684:Staff (18 September 2009). 6623:Staff (17 September 1979). 6538:Staff (13–14 August 1989). 6397: 6354: 6318: 6273: 6259:Hall, Allan (19 May 2008). 6216: 6122:Stokes, Raymond G. (2000). 6121: 6073: 6036:Sebasteyen, Victor (2009). 5998:Rottman, Gordon L. (2008). 5978: 5959: 5922:Nothnagle, Alan L. (1990). 5883: 5850:. New York City: Scribner. 5831:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 5617: 5579: 5484: 5465: 5427: 5408: 5392:The fall of the Berlin Wall 5332: 5294: 5223: 5196: 5130: 5088: 5076: 5064: 5052: 5016: 4993:Deutsche Welle (2006-11-02) 4980: 4967: 4955: 4943: 4931: 4919: 4904: 4892: 4880: 4856: 4844: 4722: 4680: 4669:Deutsche Welle (2005-08-09) 4656: 4644: 4604: 4550: 4484: 4472: 4448: 4436: 4384: 4345: 4333: 4309: 4258: 4246: 4221: 4209: 4144: 4120: 4108: 4096: 4056: 4037: 4020: 4008: 3996: 3935: 3911: 3899: 3887: 3785: 3773: 3761: 3749: 3737: 3725: 3713: 3552: 3449: 3395: 3383: 3372:Attention Demarcation Line! 3367: 3331: 3304: 3104: 3078: 3051: 2903: 2879: 2828: 2723: 2026:Border crossing regulations 559:1945–52: the "Green Border" 341:Federal Republic of Germany 62:Up to 4 metres (13 ft) 54:Border fortification system 10: 10114: 8981:Sino-Indian border dispute 8810:First Nagorno-Karabakh War 8740:1987–1989 JVP insurrection 8498:1976 Argentine coup d'état 8410:Turkish invasion of Cyprus 8360:1973 Uruguayan coup d'état 8044:1964 Brazilian coup d'état 8012:Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964 7701:First Taiwan Strait Crisis 7468:Asian Relations Conference 6508:Staff (3 September 1987). 6243: 6160:Weinberg, Gerhard (1995). 6140: 6091:Stacy, William E. (1984). 6090: 5845: 5808:McAdams, James A. (1985). 5636: 5598: 5560: 5430:German-German Border Trail 5313: 5299:. London: Harper Collins. 5028: 4832: 4820: 4808: 4796: 4734: 4635:(Border Museum Eichsfeld). 4427:(Border Museum Eichsfeld). 4423:"The number of escapees". 4397:Buschschluter (1981-10-11) 4237:(Border Museum Eichsfeld). 4084: 3984: 3972: 3947: 3923: 3238: 3196: 3184: 3066: 3024: 3012: 3000: 2988: 2976: 2964: 2928: 2740:Israeli separation barrier 2630: 2390: 2256: 2090: 1908: 1822:armoured cavalry regiments 1818:United States Constabulary 1750:between the two agencies. 1639:, NVA). The newly renamed 1590:Border Troops of the GDR ( 1563: 881: 754:Economic and social impact 572:Soviet zone for the west. 456: 445: 337:German Democratic Republic 30:North and central Germany 10017: 9966: 9888: 9865:William Appleman Williams 9810:Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. 9592: 9564: 9513: 9445: 9438: 9372: 9237: 9162: 9092: 9085: 8994: 8941: 8873: 8586: 8325:Bangladesh Liberation War 8315:1971 Sudanese coup d'état 8230: 8202:1969 Sudanese coup d'état 8190:1968 Peruvian coup d'état 7853: 7628:Arab Cold War (1952–1979) 7605: 7315: 7253: 7185: 7167: 7144: 7121: 7103: 7085: 7067: 7049: 6996: 6963: 6886:Experten Forum DDR Grenze 6793: 6735:Austin American-Statesman 6491:Staff (2 November 2006). 6400:"Der Fall Gartenschläger" 6059:. Dulles, VA: Brassey's. 5869:. Oakland, CA: PM Press. 5769: 5750: 5693: 5446: 5256: 5004: 4692: 4357: 4321: 4297: 3343: 3277: 2940: 2594:Abandonment of the border 2075:was denounced by many as 1799:British Army of the Rhine 1647:, commonly nicknamed the 1354:East Germany's sea border 1267:The East–West border line 1119:Kraftfahrzeug-Sperrgraben 186: 181: 171: 163: 155: 147: 129: 114: 109: 101: 71: 66: 58: 50: 35: 28: 23: 8640:1980 Turkish coup d'état 8475:Cambodian–Vietnamese War 8445:1978 Somali coup attempt 8405:Second Iraqi–Kurdish War 8370:1973 Chilean coup d'état 8195:Revolutionary Government 8089:South African Border War 7881:1960 Turkish coup d'état 7798:Iraqi 14 July Revolution 7653:1953 Iranian coup d'état 7633:1952 Egyptian revolution 6810: 6572:Staff (28 August 1987). 5827:McDougall, Alex (2004). 5658:The rush to German unity 5504:Faringdon, Hugh (1986). 5428:Cramer, Michael (2008). 5352:Berdahl, Daphne (1999). 5333:Bailey, Anthony (1983). 5249: 4072: 2750: 2433:The small pro-democracy 1806:British Frontier Service 1641:Border Troops of the GDR 1342:) with messages such as 482:Second World War Allies' 291:British Frontier Service 42:Border installations at 10063:20th century in Germany 8845:Fall of the Berlin Wall 8790:People Power Revolution 8775:Central American crisis 8715:1986 Black Sea incident 8365:1973 Afghan coup d'état 8263:Western Sahara conflict 8074:1966 Syrian coup d'état 7997:1963 Syrian coup d'état 7940:Portuguese Colonial War 7903:First Iraqi–Kurdish War 7668:1954 Syrian coup d'état 7545:Annexation of Hyderabad 7488:1947–1949 Palestine war 6800:Bild 175-P05-00002-0001 6610:Staff (7 August 1976). 6603:The Manchester Guardian 6551:Staff (4 August 1971). 6474:Staff (9 August 2005). 6473: 6457:Staff (7 August 2001). 6357:St. Louis Post-Dispatch 5846:Meyer, Michael (2009). 5789:Maddrell, Paul (2006). 5295:August, Oliver (1999). 5276:Allinson, Mark (2000). 4693:Bild 175-P05-00002-0001 4668: 4409:Shackley; Finney (2005) 4183:"Flucht und Ausreise". 2892:Osmańczyk; Mango (2004) 2730:Berlin border crossings 2697:Grünes Band Deutschland 2352:Italian Communist Party 1891:Grenzinformationspunkte 1743:Bayerische Grenzpolizei 1717:Bayerische Grenzpolizei 1606:Border Reconnaissance ( 924:On the far side of the 625:Inner German border at 522:free and fair elections 372:Soviet occupation zones 329:deutsch–deutsche Grenze 268:Bayerische Grenzpolizei 9139:Neoclassical economics 8650:Gulf of Sidra incident 8207:1969 Libyan revolution 7898:Iraqi–Kurdish conflict 7683:1954 Geneva Conference 7443:Turkish straits crisis 7438:Corfu Channel incident 6662:. The Associated Press 6516:. The Associated Press 6431:. The Associated Press 6141:Weber, Jürgen (2004). 6074:Shears, David (1970). 5770:Loth, Wilfred (2004). 5409:Childs, David (2001). 4696:Bundesarchiv (Germany) 4274:McCartney (1988-04-16) 3959:"Grenzbewacher West". 3873:Moncourt; Smith (2009) 2603: 2548: 2541: 2532: 2406: 2357:Michael Gartenschläger 2336:Westfälische Rundschau 2107: 2048: 1955: 1920: 1708: 1428:and the peninsulas of 1348:Halt! Hier Zonengrenze 1204: 1076: 1035:Observation Post Alpha 928:was the signal fence ( 897: 767: 710: 514:Allied Control Council 493:in the north-west, an 487:unification of Germany 477: 452:Inner German relations 324: 211:National People's Army 10068:National unifications 9989:Russia–NATO relations 9870:Jonathan Reed Winkler 9154:Democratic capitalism 9149:Supply-side economics 9117:American conservatism 8916:Breakup of Yugoslavia 8805:Bougainville conflict 8720:South Yemen civil war 8655:Martial law in Poland 8518:Nicaraguan Revolution 8493:Dirty War (Argentina) 8300:1971 JVP insurrection 8114:Years of Lead (Italy) 7992:North Yemen civil war 7910:Berlin Crisis of 1961 7886:Albanian–Soviet split 7818:1959 Tibetan uprising 7783:Syrian Crisis of 1957 7638:Iraqi Intifada (1952) 7498:1948 Arab–Israeli War 7159:Security Service (SB) 6769:". Leaflet published 6654:Staff (7 July 1963). 6450:Independent On Sunday 5979:Rodden, John (2002). 5774:. London: Routledge. 5694:Koop, Volker (1996). 5641:. London: Routledge. 5599:Gress, David (1985). 5466:Dennis, Mike (2000). 5451:. London: Routledge. 5447:Dale, Gareth (2005). 5257:Adam, Thomas (2005). 5212:Paterson (2009-05-17) 4633:Grenzmuseum Eichsfeld 4617:Anderson (1964-06-14) 4425:Grenzmuseum Eichsfeld 4235:Grenzmuseum Eichsfeld 3266:Müller-Enbergs (1988) 3212:Mulligan (1976-10-28) 2631:Further information: 2601: 2546: 2536: 2527: 2435:Monday demonstrations 2400: 2391:Further information: 2105: 2091:Further information: 2046: 1950: 1918: 1909:Further information: 1848:Cross-border contacts 1702: 1631:Deutsche Grenzpolizei 1564:Further information: 1370:Deutsche Grenzpolizei 1344:Achtung! Zonengrenze! 1199: 1068: 891: 882:Further information: 761: 701: 470:, before the present 464: 446:Further information: 9410:Non-Aligned Movement 9032:Peaceful coexistence 8986:North Borneo dispute 8901:German reunification 8896:Min Ping Yu No. 5202 8594:Salvadoran Civil War 8543:Grand Mosque seizure 8538:Yemenite War of 1979 8430:Mozambican Civil War 8385:Carnation Revolution 8340:Yemenite War of 1972 8278:1970 Polish protests 8109:1967 Hong Kong riots 8084:Argentine Revolution 8034:Guatemalan Civil War 7962:Cuban Missile Crisis 7876:Bay of Pigs Invasion 7748:1956 Poznań protests 7726:Geneva Summit (1955) 7328:Hukbalahap Rebellion 7307:Non-Aligned Movement 7095:State Security (StB) 6796:Government archives: 6677:The Sunday Telegraph 6660:The Spokesman-Review 6629:The Prescott Courier 6557:St. Petersburg Times 6194:St. Petersburg Times 5907:. Ch. Links Verlag. 5884:Morris, Jan (1997). 5732:Ladd, Brian (2004). 5713:Ladd, Brian (1998). 5561:Gleye, Paul (1991). 5185:Thorson (1995-11-11) 5116:Jackson (1990-02-12) 4498:The Prescott Courier 4170:The Sunday Telegraph 4157:Maguire (2009-10-20) 2802:Czuczka (2000-01-13) 2583:Alliance for Germany 2295:Deaths on the border 2246:St. Petersburg Times 2008:small border traffic 1953:eyes and mechanisms. 1736:Bundeszollverwaltung 1721:Bundeszollverwaltung 1645:Grenztruppen der DDR 1636:Nationale Volksarmee 1619:Pogranichnyie Voiska 909:("enemyward") side. 421:German reunification 325:innerdeutsche Grenze 257:Bundeszollverwaltung 182:Garrison information 10078:Revolutions of 1989 10053:Inner German border 9855:Alex von Tunzelmann 9845:Vladimir Tismăneanu 9770:Thomas J. McCormick 9765:Jack F. Matlock Jr. 9665:Robert Hugh Ferrell 9528:Crusade for Freedom 9325:Illiberal democracy 9209:Ho Chi Minh Thought 9012:Eisenhower Doctrine 8865:Peaceful Revolution 8860:Romanian Revolution 8840:Revolutions of 1989 8825:1988 Polish strikes 8735:Operation INFEKTION 8730:1987 Lieyu massacre 8635:Eritrean Civil Wars 8618:Peruvian Revolution 8568:1979 Herat uprising 8558:Sino-Vietnamese War 8523:Uganda–Tanzania War 8503:Egyptian–Libyan War 8470:Third Indochina War 8465:Sino-Albanian split 8455:Ethiopian Civil War 8355:Eritrean Civil Wars 8295:Ping-pong diplomacy 8268:Cambodian Civil War 8094:Korean DMZ Conflict 8079:Cultural Revolution 8049:Dominican Civil War 8027:Tlatelolco massacre 7813:1959 Mosul uprising 7803:1958 Lebanon crisis 7530:Al-Wathbah uprising 7453:First Indochina War 7423:Iran crisis of 1946 6988:Inner German border 6910:European Green Belt 6726:The Week in Germany 6404:Berliner Morgenpost 6391:The Washington Post 6336:Berliner Morgenpost 5470:. Harlow: Longman. 5411:The fall of the GDR 5197:Ritter; Lapp (2007) 5171:The Week in Germany 5131:Koenig (1990-04-22) 4968:Jacoby (1989-11-08) 4723:Mielke (2002-05-06) 4605:Walmer (1990-02-14) 4485:Hooper (2001-08-07) 4437:Ritter; Lapp (2007) 4210:Cowell (1996-09-12) 3553:Ritter; Lapp (2007) 3450:Ritter; Lapp (2007) 3356:Synopsis of Grenzer 3092:Manchester Guardian 2401:A demonstration in 2119:"border breaches" ( 2004:kleine Grenzverkehr 1688:Grenzaufklärungszug 1662:Around half of the 1608:Grenzaufklärungszug 979:Beobachtungsturm-11 805:Views of the border 545:feindliches Ausland 497:in the south and a 428:European Green Belt 396:Winston Churchill's 312:inner German border 24:Inner German border 10009:Russian Revolution 9805:Mary Elise Sarotte 9790:William B. Pickett 9715:Patrick J. Hearden 9695:Gabriel Gorodetsky 9690:Timothy Garton Ash 9675:Anneli Ute Gabanyi 9270:Ethnic nationalism 9022:Hallstein Doctrine 8906:Yemeni unification 8695:1985 Geneva Summit 8660:Casamance conflict 8563:New Jewel Movement 8548:Iranian Revolution 8533:Chadian–Libyan War 8480:Cambodian conflict 8460:Lebanese Civil War 8450:Western Sahara War 8425:June 1976 protests 8420:Cambodian genocide 8185:17 July Revolution 8139:Nigerian Civil War 8054:Rhodesian Bush War 8039:Colombian conflict 7982:Ramadan Revolution 7721:Bandung Conference 7597:Operation Valuable 7478:Partition of India 6616:The New York Times 6372:on 27 October 2009 6306:on 1 December 2007 6251:The New York Times 6223:The New York Times 6109:on 6 November 2010 5546:. Kampehl: Dosse. 4709:The New York Times 4099:, p. 131–139, 141. 4085:Fowle (1981-02-08) 3961:Zonengrenze-Museum 2604: 2549: 2407: 2154:Republikflüchtiger 2152:("refugee") but a 2108: 2049: 2016:Checkpoint Charlie 1921: 1813:United States Army 1709: 1205: 1096:Beleuchtungsanlage 1077: 995:Beobachtungsturm-9 898: 768: 711: 478: 303:United States Army 72:Controlled by 10040: 10039: 10027:List of conflicts 9875:Rudolph Winnacker 9820:Giles Scott-Smith 9795:Ronald E. Powaski 9750:Melvyn P. Leffler 9680:John Lewis Gaddis 9655:Robert D. English 9620:Warren H. Carroll 9610:Michael Beschloss 9579:Nuclear arms race 9560: 9559: 9466:Neues Deutschland 9368: 9367: 9350:White nationalism 9320:Liberal democracy 9057:Ulbricht Doctrine 9047:Brezhnev Doctrine 8855:Velvet Revolution 8599:Soviet–Afghan War 8415:Angolan Civil War 8212:Goulash Communism 8069:ASEAN Declaration 8022:Mexican Dirty War 7920:Annexation of Goa 7871:1960 U-2 incident 7845:Sino-Soviet split 7823:Laotian Civil War 7663:Bricker Amendment 7643:Mau Mau rebellion 7587:Malayan Emergency 7575:Chinese Civil War 7535:Tito–Stalin split 7389:Division of Korea 7213: 7212: 6855: 6845: 6835: 6825: 6815: 6798: 6782: 6764: 6690:Thüringen Journal 6544:Neues Deutschland 6531:Los Angeles Times 6076:The Ugly Frontier 5698:. Bonn: Bouvier. 5236:Hall (2008-05-19) 4869:Sebasteyen (2009) 4748:Neues Deutschland 3436:Los Angeles Times 2953:Schweitzer (1995) 2917:Kindermann (1994) 2693:German Green Belt 2685:intensive farming 2627:Border area today 2491:Günter Schabowski 2412:Mikhail Gorbachev 2373:Heinz-Josef Große 2340:Kurt Lichtenstein 2077:human trafficking 1771:Bundesgrenzschutz 1713:Bundesgrenzschutz 1705:Bundesgrenzschutz 1060:Kettenlaufanlagen 798:GDR border troops 793:East German marks 748:Soviet–Afghan War 704:Bundesgrenzschutz 680:Aktion Ungeziefer 585:Bundesgrenzschutz 565:between the zones 531:From the outset, 377:GDR border guards 364:Potsdam Agreement 331:; initially also 308: 307: 246:Bundesgrenzschutz 105:Mostly demolished 10105: 9785:David S. Painter 9710:John Earl Haynes 9640:Nicholas J. Cull 9625:Adrian Cioroianu 9605:Thomas A. Bailey 9552:Voice of America 9443: 9442: 9355:White separatism 9335:Social democracy 9330:Guided democracy 9310:Authoritarianism 9260:Ultranationalism 9250:Anti-imperialism 9177:Marxism–Leninism 9090: 9089: 9077:Kinmen Agreement 9042:Johnson Doctrine 9027:Kennedy Doctrine 8943:Frozen conflicts 8926:1991 August Coup 8815:Afghan Civil War 8710:Reykjavík Summit 8705:Somali Rebellion 8645:Ugandan Bush War 8623:Gdańsk Agreement 8144:Protests of 1968 8124:War of Attrition 7833:Cuban Revolution 7769:We will bury you 7736:Cyprus Emergency 7716:Kashmir Princess 7706:Jebel Akhdar War 7555:Western betrayal 7240: 7233: 7226: 7217: 7216: 6955:agencies in the 6946: 6939: 6932: 6923: 6922: 6863: 6851: 6847: 6843:Museum Displays: 6841: 6837: 6833:Museum Displays: 6831: 6827: 6823:Museum Displays: 6821: 6817: 6811: 6807: 6794: 6790: 6778: 6774: 6760: 6747: 6738: 6729: 6720: 6711: 6702: 6693: 6680: 6671: 6669: 6667: 6650: 6649:. Bergen County. 6639: 6637: 6635: 6619: 6606: 6597: 6588: 6586: 6584: 6578:Sunday Star-News 6568: 6566: 6564: 6547: 6534: 6525: 6523: 6521: 6504: 6502: 6500: 6495:. Deutsche Welle 6487: 6485: 6483: 6478:. Deutsche Welle 6470: 6468: 6466: 6453: 6440: 6438: 6436: 6419: 6417: 6415: 6410:on 10 March 2012 6406:. Archived from 6394: 6381: 6379: 6377: 6360: 6351: 6349: 6347: 6342:on 10 March 2012 6338:. Archived from 6326: 6322:The Boston Globe 6315: 6313: 6311: 6302:. Archived from 6290: 6288: 6286: 6270: 6255: 6240: 6231: 6226: 6213: 6204: 6202: 6200: 6175: 6156: 6137: 6118: 6116: 6114: 6105:. Archived from 6087: 6070: 6051: 6032: 6013: 5994: 5975: 5956: 5937: 5918: 5899: 5880: 5861: 5842: 5823: 5804: 5785: 5766: 5747: 5728: 5709: 5690: 5671: 5652: 5633: 5614: 5595: 5576: 5557: 5538: 5519: 5500: 5481: 5462: 5443: 5424: 5405: 5386: 5367: 5348: 5329: 5310: 5291: 5272: 5239: 5233: 5227: 5221: 5215: 5209: 5200: 5194: 5188: 5182: 5176: 5167: 5161: 5155: 5149: 5143: 5134: 5128: 5119: 5113: 5107: 5101: 5092: 5086: 5080: 5074: 5068: 5062: 5056: 5050: 5044: 5038: 5032: 5026: 5020: 5014: 5008: 5002: 4996: 4990: 4984: 4977: 4971: 4965: 4959: 4953: 4947: 4941: 4935: 4929: 4923: 4917: 4908: 4902: 4896: 4890: 4884: 4878: 4872: 4866: 4860: 4854: 4848: 4842: 4836: 4830: 4824: 4818: 4812: 4806: 4800: 4794: 4788: 4782: 4776: 4770: 4764: 4759: 4753: 4744: 4738: 4732: 4726: 4720: 4714: 4705: 4699: 4690: 4684: 4678: 4672: 4666: 4660: 4654: 4648: 4642: 4636: 4629: 4620: 4614: 4608: 4602: 4596: 4587: 4581: 4575: 4569: 4560: 4554: 4548: 4542: 4536: 4530: 4524: 4518: 4513:Sunday Star-News 4509: 4503: 4494: 4488: 4482: 4476: 4470: 4464: 4461:Nothnagle (1990) 4458: 4452: 4446: 4440: 4434: 4428: 4421: 4412: 4406: 4400: 4394: 4388: 4382: 4376: 4370: 4361: 4355: 4349: 4343: 4337: 4331: 4325: 4319: 4313: 4307: 4301: 4295: 4289: 4283: 4277: 4271: 4262: 4256: 4250: 4244: 4238: 4231: 4225: 4219: 4213: 4207: 4201: 4194: 4188: 4181: 4175: 4166: 4160: 4154: 4148: 4142: 4136: 4130: 4124: 4118: 4112: 4106: 4100: 4094: 4088: 4082: 4076: 4069: 4060: 4054: 4045: 4035: 4024: 4018: 4012: 4006: 4000: 3999:, pp. 88, 98–99. 3994: 3988: 3982: 3976: 3970: 3964: 3957: 3951: 3945: 3939: 3933: 3927: 3921: 3915: 3909: 3903: 3897: 3891: 3885: 3876: 3870: 3864: 3858: 3852: 3849:BBC (2001-08-07) 3846: 3840: 3834: 3825: 3819: 3813: 3807: 3801: 3795: 3789: 3783: 3777: 3771: 3765: 3759: 3753: 3747: 3741: 3735: 3729: 3723: 3717: 3711: 3705: 3704: 3702: 3700: 3681: 3675: 3674: 3672: 3670: 3651: 3645: 3639: 3633: 3627: 3621: 3615: 3609: 3603: 3597: 3591: 3585: 3579: 3573: 3567: 3556: 3550: 3544: 3538: 3525: 3519: 3510: 3504: 3495: 3489: 3480: 3474: 3465: 3459: 3453: 3447: 3441: 3432: 3426: 3417: 3411: 3405: 3399: 3393: 3387: 3381: 3375: 3365: 3359: 3353: 3347: 3341: 3335: 3329: 3323: 3317: 3308: 3302: 3296: 3290: 3281: 3275: 3269: 3263: 3257: 3251: 3242: 3236: 3230: 3221: 3215: 3209: 3200: 3194: 3188: 3182: 3176: 3170: 3155: 3149: 3140: 3131: 3120: 3114: 3108: 3102: 3096: 3088: 3082: 3076: 3070: 3064: 3055: 3049: 3040: 3034: 3028: 3022: 3016: 3010: 3004: 2998: 2992: 2986: 2980: 2974: 2968: 2962: 2956: 2950: 2944: 2938: 2932: 2926: 2920: 2913: 2907: 2901: 2895: 2889: 2883: 2877: 2871: 2865: 2859: 2856:Faringdon (1986) 2853: 2847: 2841: 2832: 2826: 2820: 2811: 2805: 2799: 2793: 2790:McDougall (2004) 2787: 2781: 2778:Faringdon (1986) 2775: 2766: 2763:Faringdon (1986) 2760: 2718:Bund Naturschutz 2657: 2645: 2478: 2466: 2440:Tiananmen Square 2319: 2307: 2203: 2191: 2121:Grenzdurchbrüche 2053:Helsinki Accords 1987:Bundesautobahn 4 1982: 1970: 1872: 1860: 1782: 1766: 1725:West German Army 1621:) of the Soviet 1603: 1587: 1517: 1502: 1466:Transportpolizei 1447:off the port of 1385: 1366: 1307: 1291: 1279: 1229:Betonsperrmauern 1214:Metallgitterzaun 1184: 1172: 1160: 1136:Stacheldrahtzaun 1107:chevaux-de-frise 1092:Kontrollstreifen 1046: 1026: 1006: 990: 974: 954:Suchscheinwerfer 944:Protective strip 932:), a continuous 829: 817: 645: 622: 610: 518:capitalist state 319: 301: 299: 298: 289: 288: 278: 276: 275: 266: 265: 255: 254: 244: 243: 231: 230: 220: 219: 209: 208: 198: 197: 140: 138: 137: 125: 123: 94: 92: 91: 82: 80: 79: 67:Site information 40: 31: 21: 20: 10113: 10112: 10108: 10107: 10106: 10104: 10103: 10102: 10083:1990 in Germany 10043: 10042: 10041: 10036: 10013: 10004:Second Cold War 9962: 9890: 9884: 9860:Odd Arne Westad 9850:Patrick Vaughan 9835:Athan Theoharis 9815:Ellen Schrecker 9800:Yakov M. Rabkin 9775:Timothy Naftali 9720:Tvrtko Jakovina 9705:Jussi Hanhimäki 9588: 9566: 9556: 9534:Paix et Liberté 9509: 9453:Active measures 9434: 9364: 9345:White supremacy 9305:Totalitarianism 9233: 9158: 9081: 9067:Reagan Doctrine 9062:Carter Doctrine 9002:Truman Doctrine 8990: 8937: 8869: 8764:Soviet reaction 8675:Ndogboyosoi War 8582: 8553:Saur Revolution 8380:1973 oil crisis 8345:Munich massacre 8253:Alcora Exercise 8248:Black September 8226: 7972:Sino-Indian War 7866:Simba rebellion 7849: 7693:Capture of the 7601: 7540:Berlin Blockade 7473:May 1947 crises 7463:Truman Doctrine 7428:Greek Civil War 7417:Blacklist Forty 7384:Gouzenko Affair 7371:Cursed soldiers 7323:Morgenthau Plan 7311: 7249: 7244: 7214: 7209: 7181: 7163: 7140: 7117: 7099: 7081: 7063: 7045: 6992: 6959: 6950: 6916:Das Grünes Band 6875:Grenzinnerungen 6871: 6866: 6853:Museum Website: 6755: 6750: 6665: 6663: 6633: 6631: 6582: 6580: 6562: 6560: 6519: 6517: 6514:Gainesville Sun 6498: 6496: 6481: 6479: 6464: 6462: 6434: 6432: 6413: 6411: 6375: 6373: 6345: 6343: 6309: 6307: 6284: 6282: 6210:Guardian Weekly 6198: 6196: 6183: 6178: 6172: 6153: 6134: 6112: 6110: 6067: 6048: 6029: 6010: 5991: 5972: 5953: 5934: 5915: 5896: 5877: 5858: 5839: 5820: 5801: 5782: 5763: 5744: 5725: 5706: 5687: 5668: 5649: 5630: 5611: 5592: 5573: 5554: 5535: 5516: 5497: 5478: 5459: 5440: 5421: 5402: 5383: 5364: 5345: 5326: 5307: 5288: 5269: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5234: 5230: 5222: 5218: 5210: 5203: 5195: 5191: 5183: 5179: 5168: 5164: 5156: 5152: 5144: 5137: 5129: 5122: 5114: 5110: 5102: 5095: 5087: 5083: 5075: 5071: 5063: 5059: 5051: 5047: 5041:Fröhling (2007) 5039: 5035: 5027: 5023: 5015: 5011: 5003: 4999: 4991: 4987: 4978: 4974: 4966: 4962: 4954: 4950: 4942: 4938: 4930: 4926: 4918: 4911: 4903: 4899: 4891: 4887: 4879: 4875: 4867: 4863: 4855: 4851: 4843: 4839: 4831: 4827: 4819: 4815: 4807: 4803: 4795: 4791: 4783: 4779: 4771: 4767: 4760: 4756: 4750:(1989-08-13/14) 4745: 4741: 4733: 4729: 4721: 4717: 4706: 4702: 4691: 4687: 4679: 4675: 4667: 4663: 4655: 4651: 4643: 4639: 4630: 4623: 4615: 4611: 4603: 4599: 4588: 4584: 4576: 4572: 4561: 4557: 4549: 4545: 4537: 4533: 4525: 4521: 4510: 4506: 4495: 4491: 4483: 4479: 4471: 4467: 4459: 4455: 4447: 4443: 4435: 4431: 4422: 4415: 4407: 4403: 4395: 4391: 4383: 4379: 4371: 4364: 4356: 4352: 4344: 4340: 4332: 4328: 4320: 4316: 4308: 4304: 4296: 4292: 4284: 4280: 4272: 4265: 4257: 4253: 4245: 4241: 4232: 4228: 4220: 4216: 4208: 4204: 4195: 4191: 4182: 4178: 4167: 4163: 4155: 4151: 4143: 4139: 4131: 4127: 4119: 4115: 4107: 4103: 4095: 4091: 4083: 4079: 4075:(25 March 1982) 4070: 4063: 4055: 4048: 4036: 4027: 4019: 4015: 4007: 4003: 3995: 3991: 3983: 3979: 3971: 3967: 3958: 3954: 3946: 3942: 3934: 3930: 3922: 3918: 3910: 3906: 3898: 3894: 3886: 3879: 3871: 3867: 3859: 3855: 3847: 3843: 3835: 3828: 3820: 3816: 3808: 3804: 3796: 3792: 3784: 3780: 3772: 3768: 3760: 3756: 3748: 3744: 3736: 3732: 3724: 3720: 3712: 3708: 3698: 3696: 3695:on 2 March 2014 3683: 3682: 3678: 3668: 3666: 3665:on 23 July 2011 3653: 3652: 3648: 3640: 3636: 3628: 3624: 3616: 3612: 3604: 3600: 3592: 3588: 3580: 3576: 3568: 3559: 3551: 3547: 3539: 3528: 3520: 3513: 3505: 3498: 3490: 3483: 3477:Buchholz (1994) 3475: 3468: 3462:Allinson (2000) 3460: 3456: 3448: 3444: 3433: 3429: 3418: 3414: 3406: 3402: 3394: 3390: 3382: 3378: 3366: 3362: 3354: 3350: 3342: 3338: 3330: 3326: 3318: 3311: 3303: 3299: 3293:Buchholz (1994) 3291: 3284: 3276: 3272: 3264: 3260: 3254:Jarausch (1994) 3252: 3245: 3237: 3233: 3222: 3218: 3210: 3203: 3195: 3191: 3183: 3179: 3171: 3158: 3152:Maddrell (2006) 3150: 3143: 3132: 3123: 3115: 3111: 3103: 3099: 3089: 3085: 3077: 3073: 3065: 3058: 3050: 3043: 3035: 3031: 3023: 3019: 3011: 3007: 2999: 2995: 2987: 2983: 2975: 2971: 2963: 2959: 2951: 2947: 2939: 2935: 2927: 2923: 2914: 2910: 2902: 2898: 2890: 2886: 2878: 2874: 2868:Weinberg (1995) 2866: 2862: 2854: 2850: 2844:Buchholz (1994) 2842: 2835: 2827: 2823: 2812: 2808: 2800: 2796: 2788: 2784: 2776: 2769: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2726: 2665: 2664: 2663: 2662: 2661: 2658: 2650: 2649: 2646: 2635: 2629: 2596: 2486: 2485: 2484: 2483: 2482: 2479: 2471: 2470: 2467: 2456: 2395: 2389: 2327: 2326: 2325: 2324: 2323: 2320: 2312: 2311: 2308: 2297: 2261: 2255: 2217: 2216: 2215: 2214: 2213: 2204: 2196: 2195: 2192: 2181: 2166:Menschenhändler 2100: 2095: 2089: 2065: 2041: 2028: 2012:Mittellandkanal 1993: 1992: 1991: 1990: 1989: 1983: 1975: 1974: 1971: 1960: 1958:Crossing points 1930:Berlin Blockade 1913: 1907: 1883: 1882: 1881: 1880: 1879: 1877:Konrad Adenauer 1873: 1865: 1864: 1861: 1850: 1790: 1789: 1788: 1787: 1786: 1783: 1775: 1774: 1773:officers, 1979. 1767: 1756: 1697: 1615: 1614: 1613: 1612: 1611: 1610:) soldier, 1979 1604: 1596: 1595: 1588: 1577: 1568: 1562: 1525: 1524: 1523: 1522: 1521: 1518: 1510: 1509: 1503: 1492: 1393: 1392: 1391: 1390: 1389: 1386: 1378: 1377: 1376:, December 1955 1367: 1356: 1317: 1316: 1315: 1314: 1311: 1308: 1299: 1292: 1283: 1280: 1269: 1268: 1254: 1241:Splittermine-70 1194: 1193: 1192: 1191: 1188: 1185: 1176: 1173: 1164: 1161: 1150: 1149: 1140:concertina wire 1131: 1123:KFZ-Sperrgraben 1056: 1055: 1054: 1053: 1050: 1047: 1038: 1033:, preserved at 1027: 1018: 1007: 998: 991: 982: 975: 964: 963: 946: 915: 913:Restricted zone 886: 880: 837: 836: 835: 834: 833: 830: 822: 821: 818: 807: 756: 696: 660: 655: 654: 653: 652: 649: 646: 637: 623: 614: 611: 600: 599: 561: 526:communist state 459: 454: 444: 315: 296: 294: 293: 283: 282: 273: 271: 270: 260: 259: 249: 248: 238: 235: 225: 224: 214: 213: 203: 202: 192: 159:Steel, concrete 135: 133: 121: 119: 89: 87: 86: 77: 75: 46: 29: 17: 12: 11: 5: 10111: 10101: 10100: 10095: 10090: 10085: 10080: 10075: 10070: 10065: 10060: 10055: 10038: 10037: 10035: 10034: 10029: 10024: 10018: 10015: 10014: 10012: 10011: 10006: 10001: 9996: 9991: 9986: 9981: 9976: 9970: 9968: 9964: 9963: 9961: 9960: 9955: 9950: 9945: 9940: 9935: 9930: 9925: 9920: 9915: 9910: 9905: 9900: 9894: 9892: 9886: 9885: 9883: 9882: 9877: 9872: 9867: 9862: 9857: 9852: 9847: 9842: 9837: 9832: 9830:Timothy Snyder 9827: 9822: 9817: 9812: 9807: 9802: 9797: 9792: 9787: 9782: 9777: 9772: 9767: 9762: 9760:Vojtech Mastny 9757: 9755:Geir Lundestad 9752: 9747: 9745:Walter Laqueur 9742: 9740:Walter LaFeber 9737: 9732: 9727: 9722: 9717: 9712: 9707: 9702: 9697: 9692: 9687: 9682: 9677: 9672: 9670:André Fontaine 9667: 9662: 9657: 9652: 9647: 9642: 9637: 9632: 9627: 9622: 9617: 9612: 9607: 9602: 9600:Gar Alperovitz 9596: 9594: 9590: 9589: 9587: 9586: 9581: 9576: 9570: 9568: 9562: 9561: 9558: 9557: 9555: 9554: 9549: 9543: 9542: 9537: 9530: 9525: 9517: 9515: 9511: 9510: 9508: 9507: 9500: 9495: 9488: 9481: 9476: 9469: 9462: 9455: 9449: 9447: 9440: 9436: 9435: 9433: 9432: 9427: 9422: 9417: 9412: 9407: 9402: 9397: 9392: 9387: 9382: 9376: 9374: 9370: 9369: 9366: 9365: 9363: 9362: 9357: 9352: 9347: 9342: 9340:Third-Worldism 9337: 9332: 9327: 9322: 9317: 9312: 9307: 9302: 9297: 9292: 9287: 9282: 9277: 9272: 9267: 9262: 9257: 9252: 9247: 9241: 9239: 9235: 9234: 9232: 9231: 9226: 9221: 9216: 9211: 9206: 9199: 9194: 9189: 9184: 9179: 9174: 9168: 9166: 9160: 9159: 9157: 9156: 9151: 9146: 9141: 9136: 9131: 9129:Libertarianism 9126: 9121: 9120: 9119: 9109: 9107:Chicago school 9104: 9098: 9096: 9087: 9083: 9082: 9080: 9079: 9074: 9069: 9064: 9059: 9054: 9052:Nixon Doctrine 9049: 9044: 9039: 9034: 9029: 9024: 9019: 9014: 9009: 9004: 8998: 8996: 8995:Foreign policy 8992: 8991: 8989: 8988: 8983: 8978: 8973: 8968: 8963: 8958: 8953: 8947: 8945: 8939: 8938: 8936: 8935: 8930: 8929: 8928: 8918: 8913: 8908: 8903: 8898: 8893: 8888: 8883: 8877: 8875: 8871: 8870: 8868: 8867: 8862: 8857: 8852: 8847: 8842: 8837: 8832: 8827: 8822: 8817: 8812: 8807: 8802: 8797: 8792: 8787: 8782: 8780:Operation RYAN 8777: 8772: 8767: 8757: 8752: 8747: 8742: 8737: 8732: 8727: 8722: 8717: 8712: 8707: 8702: 8697: 8692: 8687: 8685:Able Archer 83 8682: 8677: 8672: 8667: 8662: 8657: 8652: 8647: 8642: 8637: 8632: 8631: 8630: 8620: 8615: 8610: 8601: 8596: 8590: 8588: 8584: 8583: 8581: 8580: 8575: 8570: 8565: 8560: 8555: 8550: 8545: 8540: 8535: 8530: 8525: 8520: 8515: 8510: 8505: 8500: 8495: 8490: 8482: 8477: 8472: 8467: 8462: 8457: 8452: 8447: 8442: 8437: 8435:Oromo conflict 8432: 8427: 8422: 8417: 8412: 8407: 8402: 8397: 8392: 8387: 8382: 8377: 8375:Yom Kippur War 8372: 8367: 8362: 8357: 8352: 8347: 8342: 8337: 8332: 8327: 8322: 8317: 8312: 8307: 8302: 8297: 8292: 8285: 8280: 8275: 8270: 8265: 8260: 8255: 8250: 8245: 8240: 8234: 8232: 8228: 8227: 8225: 8224: 8219: 8214: 8209: 8204: 8199: 8198: 8197: 8187: 8182: 8177: 8172: 8167: 8158: 8153: 8152: 8151: 8141: 8136: 8131: 8126: 8121: 8116: 8111: 8106: 8101: 8096: 8091: 8086: 8081: 8076: 8071: 8066: 8061: 8056: 8051: 8046: 8041: 8036: 8031: 8030: 8029: 8019: 8014: 8009: 8007:Aden Emergency 8004: 7999: 7994: 7989: 7984: 7979: 7974: 7969: 7964: 7959: 7958: 7957: 7952: 7947: 7937: 7932: 7927: 7925:Papua conflict 7922: 7917: 7912: 7907: 7906: 7905: 7895: 7894: 7893: 7883: 7878: 7873: 7868: 7863: 7857: 7855: 7851: 7850: 7848: 7847: 7842: 7841: 7840: 7830: 7828:Kitchen Debate 7825: 7820: 7815: 7810: 7805: 7800: 7795: 7790: 7788:Sputnik crisis 7785: 7780: 7772: 7765: 7760: 7758:Polish October 7755: 7750: 7745: 7738: 7733: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7708: 7703: 7698: 7690: 7685: 7680: 7675: 7670: 7665: 7660: 7658:Pact of Madrid 7655: 7650: 7645: 7640: 7635: 7630: 7625: 7620: 7615: 7613:Bamboo Curtain 7609: 7607: 7603: 7602: 7600: 7599: 7594: 7589: 7584: 7583: 7582: 7572: 7567: 7562: 7557: 7552: 7547: 7542: 7537: 7532: 7527: 7522: 7517: 7512: 7507: 7506: 7505: 7500: 7495: 7485: 7480: 7475: 7470: 7465: 7460: 7455: 7450: 7445: 7440: 7435: 7430: 7425: 7420: 7412: 7404: 7396: 7391: 7386: 7381: 7373: 7368: 7367: 7366: 7361: 7353: 7340: 7335: 7330: 7325: 7319: 7317: 7313: 7312: 7310: 7309: 7304: 7299: 7294: 7289: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7269: 7262: 7254: 7251: 7250: 7243: 7242: 7235: 7228: 7220: 7211: 7210: 7208: 7207: 7202: 7197: 7191: 7189: 7183: 7182: 7180: 7179: 7173: 7171: 7165: 7164: 7162: 7161: 7156: 7150: 7148: 7142: 7141: 7139: 7138: 7133: 7127: 7125: 7119: 7118: 7116: 7115: 7109: 7107: 7101: 7100: 7098: 7097: 7091: 7089: 7087:Czechoslovakia 7083: 7082: 7080: 7079: 7073: 7071: 7065: 7064: 7062: 7061: 7055: 7053: 7047: 7046: 7044: 7043: 7038: 7033: 7028: 7023: 7018: 7013: 7008: 7002: 7000: 6994: 6993: 6991: 6990: 6985: 6980: 6975: 6970: 6964: 6961: 6960: 6949: 6948: 6941: 6934: 6926: 6920: 6919: 6913: 6907: 6901: 6895: 6889: 6883: 6878: 6870: 6869:External links 6867: 6865: 6864: 6848: 6838: 6828: 6818: 6808: 6791: 6780:Film Synopsis: 6775: 6756: 6754: 6751: 6749: 6748: 6739: 6730: 6721: 6712: 6703: 6694: 6681: 6672: 6651: 6640: 6620: 6607: 6598: 6589: 6569: 6548: 6535: 6526: 6505: 6488: 6471: 6454: 6441: 6420: 6395: 6382: 6361: 6352: 6327: 6316: 6291: 6271: 6256: 6241: 6232: 6227: 6214: 6205: 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6176: 6170: 6157: 6151: 6138: 6132: 6119: 6088: 6071: 6065: 6052: 6046: 6033: 6027: 6014: 6008: 5995: 5989: 5976: 5970: 5957: 5951: 5938: 5932: 5919: 5913: 5900: 5894: 5881: 5875: 5862: 5856: 5843: 5837: 5824: 5818: 5805: 5799: 5786: 5780: 5767: 5761: 5748: 5742: 5729: 5723: 5710: 5704: 5691: 5685: 5672: 5666: 5653: 5647: 5634: 5628: 5615: 5609: 5596: 5590: 5577: 5571: 5558: 5552: 5539: 5533: 5520: 5514: 5501: 5495: 5489:. BWV Verlag. 5482: 5476: 5463: 5457: 5444: 5438: 5425: 5419: 5406: 5400: 5387: 5381: 5368: 5362: 5349: 5343: 5330: 5324: 5311: 5305: 5292: 5286: 5273: 5267: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5246: 5243: 5241: 5240: 5228: 5216: 5201: 5189: 5177: 5162: 5158:Freytag (1996) 5150: 5146:Rottman (2008) 5135: 5120: 5108: 5104:Rottman (2008) 5093: 5081: 5069: 5057: 5045: 5033: 5021: 5009: 4997: 4985: 4972: 4960: 4948: 4936: 4924: 4909: 4897: 4885: 4873: 4871:, pp. 329–331. 4861: 4849: 4837: 4825: 4813: 4801: 4789: 4777: 4765: 4754: 4739: 4727: 4715: 4700: 4685: 4673: 4661: 4649: 4647:, pp. 100–101. 4637: 4621: 4609: 4597: 4582: 4570: 4555: 4553:, pp. 122–123. 4543: 4531: 4519: 4504: 4489: 4477: 4465: 4453: 4441: 4429: 4413: 4411:, pp. 100–101. 4401: 4389: 4377: 4373:Buckley (2004) 4362: 4350: 4348:, pp. 123–124. 4338: 4326: 4314: 4302: 4290: 4286:McAdams (1985) 4278: 4263: 4251: 4239: 4226: 4214: 4202: 4189: 4176: 4161: 4149: 4137: 4133:Rottman (2008) 4125: 4113: 4101: 4089: 4077: 4061: 4046: 4025: 4013: 4001: 3989: 3977: 3965: 3952: 3950:, pp. 261–263. 3940: 3928: 3916: 3904: 3892: 3877: 3865: 3861:Rottman (2008) 3853: 3841: 3837:Rottman (2008) 3826: 3814: 3810:Rottman (2008) 3802: 3798:Rottman (2008) 3790: 3778: 3766: 3754: 3742: 3730: 3718: 3706: 3676: 3646: 3642:Rottman (2008) 3634: 3630:Rottman (2008) 3622: 3618:Rottman (2008) 3610: 3606:Rottman (2008) 3598: 3594:Rottman (2008) 3586: 3582:Rottman (2008) 3574: 3570:Rottman (2008) 3557: 3545: 3541:Rottman (2008) 3526: 3522:Rottman (2008) 3511: 3507:Rottman (2008) 3496: 3492:Rottman (2008) 3481: 3466: 3454: 3442: 3427: 3412: 3408:Berdahl (1999) 3400: 3388: 3376: 3360: 3348: 3336: 3324: 3320:Rottman (2008) 3309: 3297: 3282: 3270: 3258: 3243: 3231: 3216: 3201: 3189: 3177: 3173:Rottman (2008) 3156: 3141: 3121: 3117:Berdahl (1999) 3109: 3097: 3083: 3071: 3056: 3041: 3037:Berdahl (1999) 3029: 3017: 3005: 2993: 2981: 2969: 2957: 2945: 2933: 2921: 2908: 2896: 2884: 2872: 2860: 2848: 2833: 2821: 2806: 2794: 2782: 2767: 2754: 2752: 2749: 2748: 2747: 2742: 2737: 2732: 2725: 2722: 2659: 2652: 2651: 2647: 2640: 2639: 2638: 2637: 2636: 2628: 2625: 2595: 2592: 2480: 2473: 2472: 2468: 2461: 2460: 2459: 2458: 2457: 2455: 2452: 2444:Erich Honecker 2388: 2385: 2321: 2314: 2313: 2309: 2302: 2301: 2300: 2299: 2298: 2296: 2293: 2277:Erich Honecker 2273:Heinz Hoffmann 2257:Main article: 2254: 2251: 2205: 2198: 2197: 2193: 2186: 2185: 2184: 2183: 2182: 2180: 2179:Escape methods 2177: 2172:Republikflucht 2141:Republikflucht 2133:Schutzstreifen 2099: 2096: 2088: 2085: 2064: 2061: 2040: 2037: 2027: 2024: 1984: 1977: 1976: 1972: 1965: 1964: 1963: 1962: 1961: 1959: 1956: 1934:Berlin Airlift 1906: 1903: 1874: 1867: 1866: 1862: 1855: 1854: 1853: 1852: 1851: 1849: 1846: 1784: 1777: 1776: 1768: 1761: 1760: 1759: 1758: 1757: 1755: 1754:Western Allies 1752: 1696: 1693: 1605: 1598: 1597: 1589: 1582: 1581: 1580: 1579: 1578: 1576: 1573: 1561: 1558: 1519: 1512: 1511: 1504: 1497: 1496: 1495: 1494: 1493: 1491: 1488: 1387: 1380: 1379: 1368: 1361: 1360: 1359: 1358: 1357: 1355: 1352: 1313: 1312: 1309: 1302: 1300: 1293: 1286: 1284: 1281: 1274: 1271: 1270: 1266: 1265: 1264: 1263: 1253: 1250: 1225:Holzlattenzaun 1210:expanded metal 1190: 1189: 1186: 1179: 1177: 1174: 1167: 1165: 1162: 1155: 1152: 1151: 1147: 1146: 1145: 1144: 1130: 1127: 1072:Czech hedgehog 1052: 1051: 1048: 1041: 1039: 1028: 1021: 1019: 1011:Führungsstelle 1008: 1001: 999: 992: 985: 983: 976: 969: 966: 965: 961: 960: 959: 958: 950:Schutzstreifen 945: 942: 934:expanded metal 914: 911: 879: 876: 831: 824: 823: 819: 812: 811: 810: 809: 808: 806: 803: 785:Schutzstreifen 755: 752: 715:expanded metal 695: 692: 668:Schutzstreifen 659: 656: 651: 650: 647: 640: 638: 624: 617: 615: 612: 605: 602: 601: 597: 596: 595: 594: 560: 557: 468:Weimar Germany 458: 455: 443: 440: 409:Republikflucht 357:Czechoslovakia 306: 305: 188: 184: 183: 179: 178: 173: 169: 168: 165: 161: 160: 157: 153: 152: 149: 145: 144: 131: 127: 126: 116: 112: 111: 107: 106: 103: 99: 98: 73: 69: 68: 64: 63: 60: 56: 55: 52: 48: 47: 41: 33: 32: 26: 25: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10110: 10099: 10096: 10094: 10091: 10089: 10086: 10084: 10081: 10079: 10076: 10074: 10071: 10069: 10066: 10064: 10061: 10059: 10056: 10054: 10051: 10050: 10048: 10033: 10030: 10028: 10025: 10023: 10020: 10019: 10016: 10010: 10007: 10005: 10002: 10000: 9997: 9995: 9994:War on terror 9992: 9990: 9987: 9985: 9982: 9980: 9977: 9975: 9972: 9971: 9969: 9965: 9959: 9956: 9954: 9951: 9949: 9946: 9944: 9941: 9939: 9936: 9934: 9931: 9929: 9926: 9924: 9921: 9919: 9916: 9914: 9911: 9909: 9906: 9904: 9901: 9899: 9896: 9895: 9893: 9889:Espionage and 9887: 9881: 9878: 9876: 9873: 9871: 9868: 9866: 9863: 9861: 9858: 9856: 9853: 9851: 9848: 9846: 9843: 9841: 9840:Andrew Thorpe 9838: 9836: 9833: 9831: 9828: 9826: 9823: 9821: 9818: 9816: 9813: 9811: 9808: 9806: 9803: 9801: 9798: 9796: 9793: 9791: 9788: 9786: 9783: 9781: 9778: 9776: 9773: 9771: 9768: 9766: 9763: 9761: 9758: 9756: 9753: 9751: 9748: 9746: 9743: 9741: 9738: 9736: 9735:Gabriel Kolko 9733: 9731: 9728: 9726: 9723: 9721: 9718: 9716: 9713: 9711: 9708: 9706: 9703: 9701: 9700:Fred Halliday 9698: 9696: 9693: 9691: 9688: 9686: 9685:Lloyd Gardner 9683: 9681: 9678: 9676: 9673: 9671: 9668: 9666: 9663: 9661: 9658: 9656: 9653: 9651: 9648: 9646: 9645:Norman Davies 9643: 9641: 9638: 9636: 9633: 9631: 9630:John Costello 9628: 9626: 9623: 9621: 9618: 9616: 9613: 9611: 9608: 9606: 9603: 9601: 9598: 9597: 9595: 9591: 9585: 9582: 9580: 9577: 9575: 9572: 9571: 9569: 9565:Technological 9563: 9553: 9550: 9548: 9545: 9544: 9541: 9538: 9536: 9535: 9531: 9529: 9526: 9524: 9523: 9519: 9518: 9516: 9512: 9506: 9505: 9501: 9499: 9496: 9494: 9493: 9489: 9487: 9486: 9482: 9480: 9477: 9475: 9474: 9470: 9468: 9467: 9463: 9461: 9460: 9456: 9454: 9451: 9450: 9448: 9446:Pro-communist 9444: 9441: 9437: 9431: 9428: 9426: 9423: 9421: 9418: 9416: 9413: 9411: 9408: 9406: 9403: 9401: 9398: 9396: 9393: 9391: 9388: 9386: 9383: 9381: 9378: 9377: 9375: 9373:Organizations 9371: 9361: 9358: 9356: 9353: 9351: 9348: 9346: 9343: 9341: 9338: 9336: 9333: 9331: 9328: 9326: 9323: 9321: 9318: 9316: 9313: 9311: 9308: 9306: 9303: 9301: 9298: 9296: 9293: 9291: 9288: 9286: 9283: 9281: 9278: 9276: 9273: 9271: 9268: 9266: 9263: 9261: 9258: 9256: 9253: 9251: 9248: 9246: 9243: 9242: 9240: 9236: 9230: 9227: 9225: 9222: 9220: 9217: 9215: 9212: 9210: 9207: 9205: 9204: 9200: 9198: 9195: 9193: 9190: 9188: 9187:Eurocommunism 9185: 9183: 9180: 9178: 9175: 9173: 9170: 9169: 9167: 9165: 9161: 9155: 9152: 9150: 9147: 9145: 9142: 9140: 9137: 9135: 9132: 9130: 9127: 9125: 9122: 9118: 9115: 9114: 9113: 9110: 9108: 9105: 9103: 9100: 9099: 9097: 9095: 9091: 9088: 9084: 9078: 9075: 9073: 9070: 9068: 9065: 9063: 9060: 9058: 9055: 9053: 9050: 9048: 9045: 9043: 9040: 9038: 9035: 9033: 9030: 9028: 9025: 9023: 9020: 9018: 9017:Domino theory 9015: 9013: 9010: 9008: 9005: 9003: 9000: 8999: 8997: 8993: 8987: 8984: 8982: 8979: 8977: 8974: 8972: 8971:South Ossetia 8969: 8967: 8964: 8962: 8959: 8957: 8954: 8952: 8949: 8948: 8946: 8944: 8940: 8934: 8931: 8927: 8924: 8923: 8922: 8919: 8917: 8914: 8912: 8909: 8907: 8904: 8902: 8899: 8897: 8894: 8892: 8889: 8887: 8884: 8882: 8879: 8878: 8876: 8872: 8866: 8863: 8861: 8858: 8856: 8853: 8851: 8848: 8846: 8843: 8841: 8838: 8836: 8833: 8831: 8828: 8826: 8823: 8821: 8818: 8816: 8813: 8811: 8808: 8806: 8803: 8801: 8798: 8796: 8793: 8791: 8788: 8786: 8783: 8781: 8778: 8776: 8773: 8771: 8768: 8765: 8761: 8758: 8756: 8755:8888 Uprising 8753: 8751: 8748: 8746: 8743: 8741: 8738: 8736: 8733: 8731: 8728: 8726: 8723: 8721: 8718: 8716: 8713: 8711: 8708: 8706: 8703: 8701: 8700:Iran–Iraq War 8698: 8696: 8693: 8691: 8688: 8686: 8683: 8681: 8678: 8676: 8673: 8671: 8668: 8666: 8665:Falklands War 8663: 8661: 8658: 8656: 8653: 8651: 8648: 8646: 8643: 8641: 8638: 8636: 8633: 8629: 8626: 8625: 8624: 8621: 8619: 8616: 8614: 8611: 8609: 8605: 8602: 8600: 8597: 8595: 8592: 8591: 8589: 8585: 8579: 8576: 8574: 8571: 8569: 8566: 8564: 8561: 8559: 8556: 8554: 8551: 8549: 8546: 8544: 8541: 8539: 8536: 8534: 8531: 8529: 8528:NDF Rebellion 8526: 8524: 8521: 8519: 8516: 8514: 8511: 8509: 8508:German Autumn 8506: 8504: 8501: 8499: 8496: 8494: 8491: 8489: 8488: 8483: 8481: 8478: 8476: 8473: 8471: 8468: 8466: 8463: 8461: 8458: 8456: 8453: 8451: 8448: 8446: 8443: 8441: 8438: 8436: 8433: 8431: 8428: 8426: 8423: 8421: 8418: 8416: 8413: 8411: 8408: 8406: 8403: 8401: 8398: 8396: 8395:Metapolitefsi 8393: 8391: 8388: 8386: 8383: 8381: 8378: 8376: 8373: 8371: 8368: 8366: 8363: 8361: 8358: 8356: 8353: 8351: 8348: 8346: 8343: 8341: 8338: 8336: 8333: 8331: 8328: 8326: 8323: 8321: 8318: 8316: 8313: 8311: 8308: 8306: 8303: 8301: 8298: 8296: 8293: 8291: 8290: 8286: 8284: 8281: 8279: 8276: 8274: 8271: 8269: 8266: 8264: 8261: 8259: 8256: 8254: 8251: 8249: 8246: 8244: 8241: 8239: 8236: 8235: 8233: 8229: 8223: 8220: 8218: 8215: 8213: 8210: 8208: 8205: 8203: 8200: 8196: 8193: 8192: 8191: 8188: 8186: 8183: 8181: 8178: 8176: 8173: 8171: 8168: 8166: 8164: 8159: 8157: 8156:Prague Spring 8154: 8150: 8147: 8146: 8145: 8142: 8140: 8137: 8135: 8134:Al-Wadiah War 8132: 8130: 8127: 8125: 8122: 8120: 8117: 8115: 8112: 8110: 8107: 8105: 8102: 8100: 8099:12-3 incident 8097: 8095: 8092: 8090: 8087: 8085: 8082: 8080: 8077: 8075: 8072: 8070: 8067: 8065: 8062: 8060: 8057: 8055: 8052: 8050: 8047: 8045: 8042: 8040: 8037: 8035: 8032: 8028: 8025: 8024: 8023: 8020: 8018: 8015: 8013: 8010: 8008: 8005: 8003: 8000: 7998: 7995: 7993: 7990: 7988: 7985: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7956: 7953: 7951: 7948: 7946: 7943: 7942: 7941: 7938: 7936: 7933: 7931: 7928: 7926: 7923: 7921: 7918: 7916: 7913: 7911: 7908: 7904: 7901: 7900: 7899: 7896: 7892: 7889: 7888: 7887: 7884: 7882: 7879: 7877: 7874: 7872: 7869: 7867: 7864: 7862: 7859: 7858: 7856: 7852: 7846: 7843: 7839: 7836: 7835: 7834: 7831: 7829: 7826: 7824: 7821: 7819: 7816: 7814: 7811: 7809: 7806: 7804: 7801: 7799: 7796: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7784: 7781: 7779: 7778: 7773: 7770: 7766: 7764: 7761: 7759: 7756: 7754: 7751: 7749: 7746: 7743: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7699: 7697: 7696: 7691: 7689: 7686: 7684: 7681: 7679: 7678:Domino theory 7676: 7674: 7673:Petrov Affair 7671: 7669: 7666: 7664: 7661: 7659: 7656: 7654: 7651: 7649: 7646: 7644: 7641: 7639: 7636: 7634: 7631: 7629: 7626: 7624: 7621: 7619: 7616: 7614: 7611: 7610: 7608: 7604: 7598: 7595: 7593: 7590: 7588: 7585: 7581: 7578: 7577: 7576: 7573: 7571: 7568: 7566: 7563: 7561: 7558: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7550:Madiun Affair 7548: 7546: 7543: 7541: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7518: 7516: 7513: 7511: 7510:Marshall Plan 7508: 7504: 7501: 7499: 7496: 7494: 7491: 7490: 7489: 7486: 7484: 7481: 7479: 7476: 7474: 7471: 7469: 7466: 7464: 7461: 7459: 7456: 7454: 7451: 7449: 7446: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7426: 7424: 7421: 7419: 7418: 7413: 7411: 7410: 7405: 7403: 7402: 7397: 7395: 7392: 7390: 7387: 7385: 7382: 7380: 7379: 7374: 7372: 7369: 7365: 7362: 7360: 7359: 7354: 7352: 7351: 7346: 7345: 7344: 7341: 7339: 7336: 7334: 7331: 7329: 7326: 7324: 7321: 7320: 7318: 7314: 7308: 7305: 7303: 7300: 7298: 7295: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7267: 7263: 7261: 7260: 7259:United States 7256: 7255: 7252: 7248: 7241: 7236: 7234: 7229: 7227: 7222: 7221: 7218: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7196: 7193: 7192: 7190: 7188: 7184: 7178: 7175: 7174: 7172: 7170: 7166: 7160: 7157: 7155: 7152: 7151: 7149: 7147: 7143: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7129: 7128: 7126: 7124: 7120: 7114: 7111: 7110: 7108: 7106: 7102: 7096: 7093: 7092: 7090: 7088: 7084: 7078: 7075: 7074: 7072: 7070: 7066: 7060: 7057: 7056: 7054: 7052: 7048: 7042: 7039: 7037: 7034: 7032: 7029: 7027: 7024: 7022: 7019: 7017: 7014: 7012: 7009: 7007: 7004: 7003: 7001: 6999: 6995: 6989: 6986: 6984: 6981: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6965: 6962: 6958: 6954: 6953:Secret police 6947: 6942: 6940: 6935: 6933: 6928: 6927: 6924: 6917: 6914: 6911: 6908: 6905: 6902: 6899: 6896: 6893: 6890: 6887: 6884: 6882: 6879: 6876: 6873: 6872: 6862: 6859: 6854: 6849: 6844: 6839: 6834: 6829: 6824: 6819: 6814: 6809: 6805: 6801: 6797: 6792: 6788: 6787: 6781: 6776: 6772: 6768: 6763: 6758: 6757: 6753:Other sources 6745: 6740: 6736: 6731: 6727: 6722: 6718: 6713: 6709: 6704: 6700: 6695: 6691: 6687: 6682: 6678: 6673: 6661: 6657: 6652: 6648: 6647: 6641: 6630: 6626: 6621: 6617: 6613: 6608: 6604: 6599: 6595: 6590: 6579: 6575: 6570: 6558: 6554: 6549: 6545: 6541: 6536: 6532: 6527: 6515: 6511: 6506: 6494: 6489: 6477: 6472: 6460: 6455: 6451: 6447: 6442: 6430: 6426: 6421: 6409: 6405: 6401: 6396: 6392: 6388: 6383: 6371: 6367: 6362: 6358: 6353: 6341: 6337: 6333: 6328: 6324: 6323: 6317: 6305: 6301: 6297: 6292: 6281: 6277: 6272: 6268: 6267: 6262: 6257: 6253: 6252: 6247: 6242: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6224: 6220: 6215: 6211: 6206: 6195: 6191: 6186: 6185: 6173: 6167: 6163: 6158: 6154: 6152:9789639241701 6148: 6144: 6139: 6135: 6133:9780801863912 6129: 6125: 6120: 6108: 6104: 6100: 6096: 6095: 6089: 6085: 6081: 6077: 6072: 6068: 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9479:Radio Moscow 9471: 9464: 9457: 9285:Anti-Zionism 9201: 9124:Keynesianism 9112:Conservatism 8976:Transnistria 8956:China-Taiwan 8613:Gera Demands 8486: 8287: 8162: 7967:El Porteñazo 7861:Congo Crisis 7776: 7711:Algerian War 7694: 7570:Western Bloc 7565:Eastern Bloc 7560:Iron Curtain 7416: 7408: 7400: 7377: 7357: 7349: 7266:Soviet Union 7264: 7257: 7105:East Germany 6998:Soviet Union 6987: 6973:Iron Curtain 6957:Eastern Bloc 6852: 6842: 6832: 6822: 6812: 6803: 6795: 6785: 6784:Synopsis of 6779: 6770: 6761: 6743: 6734: 6725: 6716: 6707: 6698: 6689: 6676: 6664:. 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1946:Jan Morris 1675:uniforms. 1325:Grenzsäule 993:The BT-9 ( 930:Signalzaun 907:feindwärts 872:Travemünde 863:Bayernturm 858:Mödlareuth 732:Ostpolitik 631:Baltic Sea 353:Baltic Sea 164:Demolished 9880:Ken Young 9725:Tony Judt 9574:Arms race 9547:Red Scare 9415:NN States 9360:Apartheid 9315:Autocracy 9224:Stalinism 9192:Guevarism 9182:Castroism 9172:Communism 9164:Socialism 8690:Star Wars 8283:Koza riot 7409:Beleaguer 7401:Masterdom 6762:Ephemera: 6744:USA Today 6717:The Times 6708:The Times 6699:The Times 6679:. London. 6237:The Times 6113:4 October 5199:, p. 179. 5160:, p. 230. 5091:, p. 140. 5079:, p. 105. 5067:, p. 100. 5043:, p. 183. 5007:, p. 114. 4983:, p. 198. 4922:, p. 147. 4823:, p. 105. 4811:, p. 114. 4787:, p. 107. 4591:The Times 4564:The Times 4451:, p. 113. 4387:, p. 117. 4312:, p. 124. 4288:, p. 148. 3938:, p. 100. 3716:, p. 100. 3464:, p. 125. 3410:, p. 149. 3398:, p. 162. 3370:, Bonn. 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