998:
altering reproductive and behavioral strategies. These strategies are termed "r to K" and "soldier to diplomat." The "r to K" strategy involves directing insulin through the placenta to the fetus, resulting in weight gain in the fetus but not the mother, indicating an increase in parental investment (K strategy). In the "soldier to diplomat" strategy, the insensitivity of skeletal muscle to insulin could redirect glucose to the brain, which does not require insulin receptors. This has been shown to enhance cognitive development across various studies.
669:
sensitivity tuning (including sensitivity reduction) is a common practice for an organism to adapt to the changing environment or metabolic conditions. Pregnancy, for example, entails significant metabolic changes, during which the mother must decrease the insulin sensitivity of her muscles to conserve more glucose for both the maternal and fetal brains. This adaptation can occur by elevating the response threshold, thereby delaying the onset of sensitivity. This is achieved through the secretion of
839:(0.27 μg/m/min) to suppress endogenous insulin and glucose secretion. Next, insulin and 20% glucose are infused at rates of 32 and 267 mg/m/min, respectively. Blood glucose is checked at zero, 30, 60, 90, and 120 minutes, and thereafter, every 10 minutes for the last half-hour of the test. These last four values are averaged to determine the steady-state plasma glucose level (SSPG). Subjects with an SSPG greater than 150 mg/dL are considered to be insulin-resistant.
25:
917:
fasting insulin reduction; however, resistance and combined exercise are not. The authors caution against demeaning the importance of resistance and combined exercise, as this type of training is generally less researched than aerobic training. Overall, physical training can be used in both adolescents and adults to prevent the progression of insulin resistance and future possible metabolic and cardiovascular disease.
117:
617:-1 and −6, etc. In numerous experimental models, these proinflammatory cytokines disrupt normal insulin action in fat and muscle cells and may be a major factor in causing the whole-body insulin resistance observed in patients with visceral adiposity. Much of the attention on production of proinflammatory cytokines has focused on the IKK-beta/
815:
hyperinsulinemic phase, a 3-hour tracer infusion allows for the determination of the basal rate of glucose production. Throughout the clamp, the plasma tracer concentrations facilitate the computation of whole-body insulin-stimulated glucose metabolism, as well as the production of glucose by the body. (i.e., endogenous glucose production).
485:
Several genetic loci have been identified as associated with insulin insensitivity. These include variations in loci near the NAT2, GCKR, and IGFI genes, which are linked to insulin resistance. Further research has indicated that loci near these genes are correlated with insulin resistance. However,
997:
serves as a socio-ecological adaptation, with insulin serving as the mechanism for allocating energy to different body components and insulin sensitivity being an adaptation to regulate this energy allocation. The
Behavioral Switch Hypothesis suggests that insulin resistance leads to two methods of
974:
or disease, but rather as the normal, physiologic response to sustained caloric surplus... As a consequence of the high level of lipid accumulation in insulin target tissues including skeletal muscle and liver, it has been suggested that exclusion of glucose from lipid-laden cells is a compensatory
916:
Furthermore, physical training has also generally been seen to be an effective antagonist of insulin resistance in obese or overweight children and adolescents (under the age of 19). As per the 2016 systematic review and meta-analysis conducted by Marson et al., aerobic exercise is associated with
814:
This fundamental technique can be greatly enhanced through the utilization of glucose tracers. Glucose can be labeled with either stable or radioactive atoms. Commonly employed tracers include 3-3H glucose (radioactive), 6,6 2H-glucose (stable), and 1-13C glucose (stable). Prior to initiating the
221:. There are multiple ways to measure insulin resistance such as fasting insulin levels or glucose tolerance tests, but these are not often used in clinical practice. Insulin resistance can be improved or reversed with lifestyle approaches, such as weight reduction, exercise, and dietary changes.
912:
at reducing the risk of progressing to type 2 diabetes. However, the participants in the DPP trial regained about 40% of the weight that they had lost at the end of 2.8 years, resulting in a similar incidence of diabetes development in both the lifestyle intervention and the control arms of the
585:
is upregulated, insulin levels are higher, and blood glucose levels are still maintained. If compensatory insulin secretion fails, then either fasting (impaired fasting glucose) or postprandial (impaired glucose tolerance) glucose concentrations increase. Eventually, type 2 diabetes occurs when
810:
The insulin sensitivity is determined by the rate of glucose infusion during the last thirty minutes of the test. If high levels (7.5 mg/min or higher) are needed, the patient is considered insulin-sensitive. Conversely, very low levels (4.0 mg/min or lower) indicate insulin resistance. Levels
418:
of that initial portion of the small intestine that signals body cells to become insulin resistant. If the producing tissue is removed, the signal ceases and body cells revert to normal insulin sensitivity. No such substance has been found as yet, and the existence of such a substance remains
668:
switch under physiologic conditions for certain types of cells, and insulin response may well be a threshold phenomenon. The pathway's sensitivity to insulin may be blunted by many factors such as lipolysis of free fatty acids, causing insulin resistance. From a broader perspective, however,
982:. This hypothesis raises the point that if there is a genetic component to insulin resistance and Type 2 diabetes, these phenotypes should be selected against. Yet, there has been an increase in mean insulin resistance in both the normoglycemic population as well as the diabetic population.
301:(PUFAs) is inversely correlated with insulin resistance. It is hypothesized that increasing cell membrane fluidity by increasing PUFA concentration might result in an enhanced number of insulin receptors, an increased affinity of insulin to its receptors, and reduced insulin resistance.
748:(OGTT) may be normal or mildly abnormal in simple insulin resistance. Often, there are raised glucose levels in the early measurements, reflecting the loss of a postprandial peak (after the meal) in insulin production. Extension of the testing (for several more hours) may reveal a
461:, genetic factors, aging, and reduced mitochondrial biogenesis. Important questions remain unsolved to date, however. If confirmed by rigorous studies, a link between mitochondrial disorders and reduced insulin sensitivity might pave the way to new therapeutic approaches.
586:
glucose levels become higher as the resistance increases and compensatory insulin secretion fails. The inability of the β-cells to produce sufficient insulin in a condition of hyperglycemia is what characterizes the transition from insulin resistance to type 2 diabetes.
200:
consumed in the diet. In states of insulin resistance, the same amount of insulin does not have the same effect on glucose transport and blood sugar levels. There are many causes of insulin resistance and the underlying process is still not completely understood.
277:
Dietary factors are likely to contribute to insulin resistance. However, causative foods are difficult to determine given the limitations of nutrition research. Foods that have independently been linked to insulin resistance include those high in sugar with high
989:
Evidence contradicts Neel's hypothesis in studies of the Pima
Indians, which suggest that individuals with higher insulin sensitivity tended to have higher weights, whereas those with insulin resistance tended to weigh less on average within this demographic.
538:
normally helps regulate glucose levels by reducing its secretion of glucose in the presence of insulin. However, in insulin resistance, this normal reduction in the liver's glucose production may not occur, further contributing to elevated blood glucose.
3759:
Marson EC, Delevatti RS, Prado AK, Netto N, Kruel LF (December 2016). "Effects of aerobic, resistance, and combined exercise training on insulin resistance markers in overweight or obese children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis".
605:(HDL) cholesterol levels. With respect to visceral adiposity, a great deal of evidence suggests two strong links with insulin resistance. First, unlike subcutaneous adipose tissue, visceral adipose cells produce significant amounts of proinflammatory
688:
that acts as an antioxidant defense mechanism. This link seems to exist under diverse causes of insulin resistance. It also is based on the finding that insulin resistance may be reversed rapidly by exposing cells to mitochondrial uncouplers,
425:
is a hormone produced from the ob gene and adipocytes. Its physiological role is to regulate hunger by alerting the body when it is full. Studies show that lack of leptin causes severe obesity and is strongly linked with insulin resistance.
780:. The test is rarely performed in clinical care, but is used in medical research, for example, to assess the effects of different medications. The rate of glucose infusion commonly is referred to in diabetes literature as the GINF value.
938:) may moderate the progression of insulin resistance into type 2 diabetes, however, omega-3 fatty acids appear to have limited ability to reverse insulin resistance, and they cease to be efficacious once type 2 diabetes is established.
985:
J.V. Neel posits that in ancient human ancestors, during periods of heightened famine, genes facilitating increased glucose storage would have conferred an advantage. However, in today's modern environment, this is no longer the case.
1139:
Haugaard SB, Madsbad S, Høy CE, Vaag A (February 2006). "Dietary intervention increases n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in skeletal muscle membrane phospholipids of obese subjects. Implications for insulin sensitivity".
621:
pathway, a protein network that enhances transcription of inflammatory markers and mediators that may cause insulin resistance. Second, visceral adiposity is related to an accumulation of fat in the liver, a condition known as
518:
which provides energy as well as lowers blood glucose. The beta cells reduce insulin output as the blood glucose level falls, allowing blood glucose to settle at a constant of approximately 5 mmol/L (90 mg/dL). In an
3707:"Physical activity and risk of breast cancer, colon cancer, diabetes, ischemic heart disease, and ischemic stroke events: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013"
1304:"Physical activity and risk of breast cancer, colon cancer, diabetes, ischemic heart disease, and ischemic stroke events: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013"
827:
at
Stanford University. The test correlates well with the euglycemic clamp, with less operator-dependent error. This test has been used to advance the large body of research relating to the metabolic syndrome.
1955:
Garrido-Sanchez L, Murri M, Rivas-Becerra J, Ocaña-Wilhelmi L, Cohen RV, Garcia-Fuentes E, Tinahones FJ (2012). "Bypass of the duodenum improves insulin resistance much more rapidly than sleeve gastrectomy".
2149:"The effect of serum and intrafollicular insulin resistance parameters and homocysteine levels of nonobese, nonhyperandrogenemic polycystic ovary syndrome patients on in vitro fertilization outcome"
5097:
626:(NAFLD). The result of NAFLD is an excessive release of free fatty acids into the bloodstream (due to increased lipolysis), and an increase in hepatic breakdown of glycogen stores into glucose (
566:, which tend to retain their sensitivity in the face of hepatic and skeletal muscle resistance, insulin resistance stimulates the formation of new fatty tissue and accelerates weight gain.
2188:
Milner KL, van der
Poorten D, Trenell M, Jenkins AB, Xu A, Smythe G, et al. (March 2010). "Chronic hepatitis C is associated with peripheral rather than hepatic insulin resistance".
526:
When the body produces insulin under conditions of insulin resistance, the cells are unable to absorb or use it as effectively and it stays in the bloodstream. Certain cell types such as
722:(GTT), which may be used to diagnose diabetes mellitus, a fasting patient takes a 75 gram oral dose of glucose. Then blood glucose levels are measured over the following two hours.
3887:
Fukuchi S, Hamaguchi K, Seike M, Himeno K, Sakata T, Yoshimatsu H (June 2004). "Role of fatty acid composition in the development of metabolic disorders in sucrose-induced obese rats".
1488:
2752:
3342:
Muniyappa R, Lee S, Chen H, Quon MJ (January 2008). "Current approaches for assessing insulin sensitivity and resistance in vivo: advantages, limitations, and appropriate usage".
1081:
954:
of the
University College Hospital Medical Centre in London in 1936; however, type 2 diabetes does not occur unless there is concurrent failure of compensatory insulin secretion.
246:
835:(Sandostatin) in 5 mL of normal saline over 3 to 5 minutes via intravenous infusion (IV) as an initial bolus, and then, are infused continuously with an intravenous infusion of
1912:
Piroli GG, Grillo CA, Reznikov LR, Adams S, McEwen BS, Charron MJ, Reagan LP (2007). "Corticosterone impairs insulin-stimulated translocation of GLUT4 in the rat hippocampus".
1752:
901:
improve insulin sensitivity. Metformin is approved for prediabetes and type 2 diabetes and has become one of the more commonly prescribed medications for insulin resistance.
238:. Various genetic factors can increase risk, such as a family history of diabetes, and there are some specific medical conditions associated with insulin resistance, such as
5090:
3705:
Kyu HH, Bachman VF, Alexander LT, Mumford JE, Afshin A, Estep K, Veerman JL, Delwiche K, Iannarone ML, Moyer ML, Cercy K, Vos T, Murray CJ, Forouzanfar MH (August 2016).
1302:
Kyu HH, Bachman VF, Alexander LT, Mumford JE, Afshin A, Estep K, Veerman JL, Delwiche K, Iannarone ML, Moyer ML, Cercy K, Vos T, Murray CJ, Forouzanfar MH (August 2016).
593:
production rate in insulin-resistant subjects and type 2 diabetics. Insulin resistance often is found in people with visceral adiposity, hypertension, hyperglycemia, and
4078:"Failure of islet β-cell compensation for insulin resistance causes type 2 diabetes: what causes non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and non-alcoholic steatohepatitis?"
2654:
Koyama K, Chen G, Lee Y, Unger RH (October 1997). "Tissue triglycerides, insulin resistance, and insulin production: implications for hyperinsulinemia of obesity".
2571:
5083:
2281:
Giebelstein, J; Poschmann, G; Højlund, K; Schechinger, W; Dietrich, JW; Levin, K; Beck-Nielsen, H; Podwojski, K; Stühler, K; Meyer, HE; Klein, HH (April 2012).
2817:
Caprio S, Pierpont B, Kursawe R (March 2018). "The "adipose tissue expandability" hypothesis: a potential mechanism for insulin resistance in obese youth".
1992:
710:
A fasting serum insulin level greater than 29 microIU/mL or 174 pmol/L indicates insulin resistance. The same levels apply three hours after the last meal.
733:
less than 7.8 mmol/L (140 mg/dL) is considered normal, a glycemia of between 7.8 and 11.0 mmol/L (140 to 197 mg/dL) is considered as
1259:
Ivy JL (November 1997). "Role of exercise training in the prevention and treatment of insulin resistance and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus".
927:, has been shown to reduce insulin resistance in healthy individuals, in individuals with insulin resistance, and in individuals with type 2 diabetes.
660:
At the molecular level, a cell senses insulin through insulin receptors, with the signal propagating through a signaling cascade collectively known as
1557:
Singh, Trisha; Ahmed, Tarig H; Mohamed, Nusyba; Elhaj, Mohamed S; Mohammed, Zahir; Paulsingh, Christian N; Mohamed, Mohamed B; Khan, Safeera (2022).
286:
which increases risk of overeating. Overconsumption of fat- and sugar-rich meals and beverages have been proposed as a fundamental factor behind the
35:
811:
falling between 4.0 and 7.5 mg/min are not conclusive and suggest "impaired glucose tolerance," which is an early indication of insulin resistance.
4746:
1183:
Russo GL (March 2009). "Dietary n-6 and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids: from biochemistry to clinical implications in cardiovascular prevention".
2104:
Elmquist JK, Maratos-Flier E, Saper CB, Flier JS (October 1998). "Unraveling the central nervous system pathways underlying responses to leptin".
637:
The excessive expansion of adipose tissue that tends to occur under sustainedly positive energy balance (as in overeating) has been postulated by
1077:
256:
having
African American, Alaska Native, American Indian, Asian American, Hispanic/Latino, Native Hawaiian, or Pacific Islander American ethnicity
534:
cells require insulin to absorb glucose and when these cells fail to respond adequately to circulating insulin, blood glucose levels rise. The
4859:
764:
for investigating and quantifying insulin resistance is the "hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp," so-called because it measures the amount of
2756:
1508:
Sondrup, Nina; Termannsen, Anne-Ditte; Eriksen, Jane N.; Hjorth, Mads F.; Færch, Kristine; Klingenberg, Lars; Quist, Jonas S. (2022-04-01).
856:
3975:"N-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids: a nutritional tool to prevent insulin resistance associated to type 2 diabetes and obesity?"
913:
trial. In epidemiological studies, higher levels of physical activity (more than 90 minutes per day) reduce the risk of diabetes by 28%.
882:
Maintaining a healthy body weight and engaging in regular physical activity can help mitigate the risk of developing insulin resistance.
3288:
DeFronzo RA, Tobin JD, Andres R (September 1979). "Glucose clamp technique: a method for quantifying insulin secretion and resistance".
1510:"Effects of sleep manipulation on markers of insulin sensitivity: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials"
803:
20% is infused to maintain blood sugar levels between 5 and 5.5 mmol/L. The rate of glucose infusion is determined by checking the
3387:"Homeostasis model assessment: insulin resistance and beta-cell function from fasting plasma glucose and insulin concentrations in man"
2922:
Wang G (December 2010). "Singularity analysis of the AKT signaling pathway reveals connections between cancer and metabolic diseases".
4496:
3586:
Giannarelli R, Aragona M, Coppelli A, Del Prato S (September 2003). "Reducing insulin resistance with metformin: the evidence today".
4485:
4210:
Ioannou GN, Bryson CL, Boyko EJ (2007-11-01). "Prevalence and trends of insulin resistance, impaired fasting glucose, and diabetes".
2283:"The proteomic signature of insulin-resistant human skeletal muscle reveals increased glycolytic and decreased mitochondrial enzymes"
641:
to induce lipotoxic and inflammatory effects that may contribute to causing insulin resistance and its accompanying disease states.
332:
Insufficient sleep has been shown to cause insulin resistance, and also increases the risk of developing metabolic diseases such as
752:"dip," that is a result of an overshoot in insulin production after the failure of the physiologic postprandial insulin response.
96:
3670:
Kahn R (January 2012). "Reducing the impact of diabetes: is prevention feasible today, or should we aim for better treatment?".
457:
might play a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of insulin resistance. Mitochondrial dysfunction may result from the formation of
395:, reduced peripheral utilization of glucose, and increased insulin resistance. It does this by decreasing the translocation of
68:
3930:
Storlien LH, Baur LA, Kriketos AD, Pan DA, Cooney GJ, Jenkins AB, et al. (June 1996). "Dietary fats and insulin action".
1896:
5145:
4623:
4568:
950:
type 2 was first advanced by
Professor Wilhelm Falta and published in Vienna in 1931, and confirmed as contributory by Sir
3485:"SPINA Carb: a simple mathematical model supporting fast in-vivo estimation of insulin sensitivity and beta cell function"
75:
5064:
2430:"Mitochondrial (Dys)function and Insulin Resistance: From Pathophysiological Molecular Mechanisms to the Impact of Diet"
5170:
4538:
1409:
Reutrakul S, Van Cauter E (July 2018). "Sleep influences on obesity, insulin resistance, and risk of type 2 diabetes".
851:
in some patients), alternatives have been sought to simplify the measurement of insulin resistance. The first was the
5018:
4668:
3436:"Quantitative insulin sensitivity check index: a simple, accurate method for assessing insulin sensitivity in humans"
1821:
Newbern D, Freemark M (December 2011). "Placental hormones and the control of maternal metabolism and fetal growth".
623:
82:
54:
4894:
4049:
Himsworth H (1936). "Diabetes mellitus: its differentiation into insulin-sensitive and insulin insensitive types".
581:(hyperinsulinemia) to compensate for the high blood glucose. During this compensated phase of insulin resistance,
1043:
502:, to release insulin into the blood. The insulin makes insulin-sensitive tissues in the body (primarily skeletal
962:
Some scholars go as far as to claim that neither insulin resistance, nor obesity really are metabolic disorders
630:), both of which have the effect of exacerbating peripheral insulin resistance and increasing the likelihood of
562:
and can further worsen insulin resistance. Since insulin is the primary hormonal signal for energy storage into
5253:
2862:"Human resistin is a systemic immune-derived proinflammatory cytokine targeting both leukocytes and adipocytes"
314:
studies, higher levels of physical activity (more than 90 minutes per day) reduce the risk of diabetes by 28%.
64:
2428:
Sergi, D; Naumovski, N; Heilbronn, LK; Abeywardena, M; O'Callaghan, N; Lionetti, L; Luscombe-Marsh, N (2019).
5269:
4784:
2611:
Schinner S, Scherbaum WA, Bornstein SR, Barthel A (June 2005). "Molecular mechanisms of insulin resistance".
1379:
1008:
694:
582:
665:
4824:
4751:
3541:
3483:
Dietrich JW, Dasgupta R, Anoop S, Jebasingh F, Kurian ME, Inbakumari M, Boehm BO, Thomas N (October 2022).
874:
levels to calculate insulin resistance, and all correlate reasonably with the results of clamping studies.
852:
677:(IRS) and PI3K. This concept forms the basis of the adjustable threshold hypothesis of insulin resistance.
234:
There are a number of risk factors for insulin resistance, including being overweight or obese or having a
217:, various health conditions, and certain medications. Insulin resistance is considered a component of the
5111:
4736:
4661:
4656:
2238:
Turner, N; Heilbronn, LK (November 2008). "Is mitochondrial dysfunction a cause of insulin resistance?".
1766:"Cortisol dysregulation: the bidirectional link between stress, depression, and type 2 diabetes mellitus"
970:(unsafe levels of lipids in the bloodstream and tissues): "Obesity should therefore not be regarded as a
745:
470:
298:
1038:
486:
it is estimated that these loci only account for 25–44% of the genetic component of insulin resistance.
364:
Being exposed to light during sleep has been shown to cause insulin resistance and increase heart rate.
321:, with insulin sensitivity being higher in the morning and lower in the evening. A mismatch between the
5246:
4968:
4797:
4604:
734:
674:
202:
3076:"Mechanisms of insulin resistance after insulin-induced hypoglycemia in humans: the role of lipolysis"
2479:
Peraldi P, Spiegelman B (May 1998). "TNF-alpha and insulin resistance: summary and future prospects".
1706:"Atypical antipsychotics, insulin resistance and weight; a meta-analysis of healthy volunteer studies"
1509:
4871:
4819:
4716:
4357:
Reaven GM (2005). "The insulin resistance syndrome: definition and dietary approaches to treatment".
3621:
Knowler WC, Barrett-Connor E, Fowler SE, Hamman RF, Lachin JM, Walker EA, Nathan DM (February 2002).
3074:
Lucidi P, Rossetti P, Porcellati F, Pampanelli S, Candeloro P, Andreoli AM, et al. (June 2010).
1048:
966:, but simply adaptive responses to sustained caloric surplus, intended to protect bodily organs from
951:
445:
also makes people three to four times more likely to develop type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance.
326:
239:
43:
1033:
5054:
4792:
4599:
4442:
690:
602:
381:
737:(IGT), and a glycemia of greater than or equal to 11.1 mmol/L (200 mg/dL) is considered
523:
person, normal levels of insulin do not have the same effect in controlling blood glucose levels.
5075:
4946:
4911:
3180:
Hoehn KL, Salmon AB, Hohnen-Behrens C, Turner N, Hoy AJ, Maghzal GJ, et al. (October 2009).
2597:
2218:
1559:"Does Insufficient Sleep Increase the Risk of Developing Insulin Resistance: A Systematic Review"
1013:
979:
777:
670:
598:
458:
39:
978:
Other prevailing thoughts that insulin resistance can be an evolutionary adaptation include the
249:
states that specific risks that may predispose an individual to insulin resistance can include:
89:
4741:
4711:
4701:
4616:
4587:
4531:
2778:
Julve, Josep; Martín-Campos, Jesús M.; Escolà-Gil, Joan Carles; Blanco-Vaca, Francisco (2016).
1888:
1881:
1665:"Protease inhibitor-associated diabetes mellitus: a potential cause of morbidity and mortality"
719:
353:
3542:"Effects of Exercise Modality on Insulin Resistance and Functional Limitation in Older Adults"
4889:
4884:
4678:
661:
645:
2738:
823:
Another measure of insulin resistance is the modified insulin suppression test developed by
50:
5140:
5049:
5008:
4941:
4931:
4926:
4814:
4581:
4502:
4307:
3496:
3193:
3136:
2931:
2873:
2689:
Roden M, Price TB, Perseghin G, Petersen KF, Rothman DL, Cline GW, Shulman GI (June 1996).
1777:
761:
681:
495:
4370:
8:
5059:
5044:
4973:
4958:
4953:
4936:
4921:
4906:
4849:
4844:
4809:
4776:
4706:
1753:
Exposure to
Artificial Light During Sleep May Increase Risk of Heart Disease and Diabetes
1352:
931:
396:
349:
235:
210:
4311:
3623:"Reduction in the incidence of type 2 diabetes with lifestyle intervention or metformin"
3500:
3197:
3140:
2935:
2877:
1781:
5215:
5107:
5023:
4382:
4330:
4295:
4187:
4170:
4143:
4118:
4031:
3955:
3912:
3869:
3821:
3796:
3795:
Keenan MJ, Zhou J, Hegsted M, Pelkman C, Durham HA, Coulon DB, Martin RJ (March 2015).
3731:
3706:
3647:
3622:
3517:
3484:
3465:
3416:
3367:
3313:
3265:
3241:"Insulin Units and Conversion Factors: A Story of Truth, Boots, and Faster Half-Truths"
3240:
3216:
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3124:
3100:
3075:
3051:
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2842:
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1937:
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1445:
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1303:
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1165:
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1099:
638:
287:
218:
4271:
4246:
4245:
Swinburn BA, Nyomba BL, Saad MF, Zurlo F, Raz I, Knowler WC, et al. (July 1991).
4062:
3599:
2715:
2690:
1633:
310:
Sedentary lifestyle increases the likelihood of development of insulin resistance. In
5300:
5176:
5119:
4829:
4766:
4696:
4651:
4524:
4407:
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3904:
3861:
3826:
3797:"Role of resistant starch in improving gut health, adiposity, and insulin resistance"
3777:
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3687:
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3603:
3561:
3522:
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3408:
3359:
3305:
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2799:
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2720:
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2628:
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2553:
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2410:
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2205:
2170:
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2121:
2086:
2037:
1973:
1929:
1892:
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1803:
1735:
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1637:
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1200:
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947:
898:
738:
407:
137:
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4035:
3959:
3916:
3873:
3434:
Katz A, Nambi SS, Mather K, Baron AD, Follmann DA, Sullivan G, Quon MJ (July 2000).
3420:
3385:
Matthews DR, Hosker JP, Rudenski AS, Naylor BA, Treacher DF, Turner RC (July 1985).
3301:
2959:
2780:"Chylomicrons: Advances in biology, pathology, laboratory testing, and therapeutics"
2667:
2640:
2508:
2267:
1941:
1850:
1395:
1288:
1169:
847:
Given the complicated nature of the "clamp" technique (and the potential dangers of
469:
Acute or chronic inflammation, such as in infections, can cause insulin resistance.
317:
Studies have consistently shown that there is a link between insulin resistance and
259:
having health conditions such as high blood pressure and abnormal cholesterol levels
5203:
4804:
4471:
4366:
4325:
4315:
4266:
4258:
4223:
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4182:
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4023:
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3939:
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3816:
3808:
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3718:
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2197:
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2133:
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2027:
1965:
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1785:
1725:
1717:
1676:
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1588:
1570:
1521:
1465:
1457:
1418:
1375:
1367:
1323:
1315:
1268:
1231:
1220:"Hypovitaminosis D is associated with insulin resistance and beta cell dysfunction"
1192:
1149:
1111:
1018:
920:
590:
578:
453:
Multiple studies involving different methodology suggest that impaired function of
322:
318:
178:
174:
3371:
2347:
1422:
188:
that facilitates the transport of glucose from blood into cells, thereby reducing
5241:
5135:
5130:
5003:
4673:
4574:
4561:
4447:
3844:
Lovejoy JC (October 2002). "The influence of dietary fat on insulin resistance".
2886:
2201:
1834:
1704:
Burghardt KJ, Seyoum B, Mallisho A, Burghardt PR, Kowluru RA, Yi Z (April 2018).
784:
494:
In normal metabolism, the elevated blood glucose instructs beta (β) cells in the
392:
333:
165:
in insulin-sensitive tissues in the body fail to respond normally to the hormone
3773:
1969:
1721:
1617:
4963:
4836:
4395:
4247:"Insulin resistance associated with lower rates of weight gain in Pima Indians"
3900:
3508:
3355:
3186:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1954:
1526:
1028:
627:
543:
377:
345:
294:
283:
279:
170:
162:
4134:
3857:
3683:
2795:
2539:
2492:
2299:
2282:
2251:
2065:"Clinical review 94: What's in a name? In search of leptin's physiologic role"
1461:
1371:
1351:
Stenvers DJ, Scheer FA, Schrauwen P, la Fleur SE, Kalsbeek A (February 2019).
1196:
5294:
5198:
5189:
4980:
4901:
4879:
4171:"Diabetes mellitus: a "thrifty" genotype rendered detrimental by "progress"?"
3256:
2446:
1641:
1584:
1535:
824:
680:
Insulin resistance has been proposed to be a reaction to excess nutrition by
454:
269:
In addition some medications and other health conditions can raise the risk.
197:
189:
142:
4296:"Evolutionary origins of insulin resistance: a behavioral switch hypothesis"
3206:
2830:
1236:
1219:
863:, a measure for insulin sensitivity. All of these calculated markers employ
406:
Based on the significant improvement in insulin sensitivity in humans after
5210:
4985:
4726:
4721:
4411:
4378:
4339:
4320:
4231:
4196:
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4103:
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3011:
2993:
2951:
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2632:
2557:
2465:
2414:
2365:
2308:
2259:
2209:
2174:
2125:
2081:
2064:
2041:
1977:
1933:
1842:
1807:
1739:
1690:
1649:
1602:
1543:
1479:
1430:
1387:
1337:
1245:
1204:
1161:
1125:
967:
848:
836:
773:
749:
685:
649:
614:
594:
559:
551:
311:
158:
4280:
3991:
3974:
3951:
3812:
3412:
2978:"Raison d'être of insulin resistance: the adjustable threshold hypothesis"
2724:
2675:
2500:
2090:
1616:
Schmid, Sebastian M; Hallschmid, Manfred; Schultes, Bernd (January 2015).
1280:
5028:
4756:
4594:
3638:
3309:
3125:"Tunable ultrasensitivity: functional decoupling and biological insights"
1575:
890:
804:
796:
730:
442:
4434:
5274:
4688:
4119:"Gluttony, sloth and the metabolic syndrome: a roadmap to lipotoxicity"
4027:
4014:
3943:
3403:
3386:
2777:
2396:
1789:
1446:"Sleep disorders and the development of insulin resistance and obesity"
994:
924:
832:
618:
555:
547:
53:
if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and
4262:
3722:
3148:
3091:
2706:
2280:
2147:
Nafiye Y, Sevtap K, Muammer D, Emre O, Senol K, Leyla M (April 2010).
1925:
1319:
908:(DPP) showed that exercise and diet were nearly twice as effective as
477:, disrupting insulin signaling, and reducing the expression of GLUT4.
293:
Diet also has the potential to change the ratio of polyunsaturated to
5279:
4731:
4466:
2032:
2015:
1993:"Duodenal resurfacing achieves metabolic benefits in type 2 diabetes"
971:
909:
894:
606:
570:
563:
474:
304:
4761:
4547:
3585:
2691:"Mechanism of free fatty acid-induced insulin resistance in humans"
2187:
1100:"Fast food, central nervous system insulin resistance, and obesity"
1023:
946:
The concept that insulin resistance may be the underlying cause of
886:
860:
574:
499:
411:
373:
214:
193:
5105:
3073:
2427:
589:
Insulin resistance is strongly associated with intestinal-derived
344:
Some medications are associated with insulin resistance including
5227:
3620:
2610:
2117:
935:
871:
867:
864:
800:
788:
769:
765:
515:
507:
388:
206:
185:
166:
3182:"Insulin resistance is a cellular antioxidant defense mechanism"
1710:
Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology & Biological Psychiatry
1703:
1489:"3 Sleep disorders and their relationship to insulin resistance"
1082:
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases
247:
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases
5163:
5160:
5157:
5154:
5151:
5148:
4644:
4641:
4638:
4635:
4632:
4629:
4489:
3179:
2103:
1350:
792:
531:
503:
473:
is a cytokine that may promote insulin resistance by promoting
422:
415:
3482:
2219:"Surprising findings about Hepatitis C and insulin resistance"
1507:
975:
defense against further accumulation of lipogenic substrate."
546:
results in reduced uptake of circulating lipids and increased
414:, it has been proposed that some substance is produced in the
2381:"Mitochondrial dysfunction and insulin resistance: an update"
664:. Recent studies suggested that the pathway may operate as a
610:
535:
511:
438:
400:
307:
deficiency has also been associated with insulin resistance.
3384:
3344:
American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism
2860:
Nagaev I, Bokarewa M, Tarkowski A, Smith U (December 2006).
2859:
5013:
4516:
3972:
3886:
2688:
2524:"Genetics of Insulin Resistance and the Metabolic Syndrome"
631:
434:
3704:
1301:
3758:
2332:"Role of mitochondrial dysfunction in insulin resistance"
1911:
1444:
Mesarwi O, Polak J, Jun J, Polotsky VY (September 2013).
726:
527:
3794:
3539:
3238:
1615:
4244:
3929:
2146:
1887:(6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. p.
1443:
1823:
Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Obesity
1556:
1138:
372:
Many hormones can induce insulin resistance including
2816:
1450:
Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America
4424:
3433:
3341:
2069:
The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism
818:
755:
644:
Also, insulin resistance often is associated with a
16:
Failure of cells to respond appropriately to insulin
3287:
3027:"Optimal homeostasis necessitates bistable control"
1408:
297:phospholipids in cell membranes. The percentage of
4209:
3973:Delarue J, LeFoll C, Corporeau C, Lucas D (2004).
2653:
1880:
1104:Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, and Vascular Biology
577:increase their production of insulin. This causes
3754:
3752:
3750:
3239:Knopp JL, Holder-Pearson L, Chase JG (May 2019).
2478:
1380:20.500.11755/fdb8d77a-70e3-4ab7-a041-20b2303b418b
359:
5292:
4747:Metabolic Score for Insulin Resistance (METS-IR)
3540:Davidson LE, Hudson R, Kilpatrick K (Jan 2009).
2378:
2330:Kim, JA; Wei, Y; Sowers, JR (29 February 2008).
1097:
885:The primary treatment for insulin resistance is
673:, which interferes with the interaction between
2237:
1820:
783:The procedure takes about two hours. Through a
652:) and increased inflammatory cytokine levels.
4042:
3747:
597:involving elevated triglycerides, small dense
49:Please review the contents of the article and
5091:
4532:
3923:
1493:Advanced Cardiovascular Sleep Disorder Center
1217:
4116:
3880:
3837:
3614:
3476:
3427:
3337:
3335:
3333:
3331:
3329:
3327:
3232:
2810:
2731:
2604:
2329:
2181:
2007:
1763:
1656:
877:
857:Quantitative insulin sensitivity check index
855:(HOMA), and more recent methods include the
713:
448:
265:having a history of heart disease or stroke.
4293:
4013:
3378:
3281:
2521:
1295:
1218:Chiu KC, Chu A, Go VL, Saad MF (May 2004).
1093:
1091:
5098:
5084:
4539:
4525:
4082:Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology
4069:
4007:
1770:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
1224:The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition
282:, low in omega-3 and fiber, and which are
192:(blood sugar). Insulin is released by the
5263:Other pancreatic disorders and conditions
4329:
4319:
4270:
4212:Journal of Diabetes and Its Complications
4186:
4142:
4093:
4048:
3990:
3820:
3730:
3646:
3516:
3451:
3402:
3324:
3264:
3215:
3205:
3156:
3122:
3099:
3050:
3001:
2895:
2885:
2755:(Report). Diabetes Health. Archived from
2714:
2682:
2547:
2455:
2445:
2404:
2355:
2298:
2164:
2080:
2031:
1797:
1729:
1680:
1592:
1574:
1525:
1469:
1353:"Circadian clocks and insulin resistance"
1327:
1235:
1115:
1098:Isganaitis E, Lustig RH (December 2005).
795:. In order to compensate for the insulin
768:necessary to compensate for an increased
705:
439:non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)
2379:Montgomery, MK; Turner, N (March 2015).
2013:
1958:Surgery for Obesity and Related Diseases
1211:
1088:
957:
441:are associated with insulin resistance.
262:having a history of gestational diabetes
3843:
3698:
3031:Journal of the Royal Society, Interface
2982:Journal of the Royal Society, Interface
1990:
1622:The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology
993:Modern hypotheses propose that insulin
5293:
4356:
4123:Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism
2853:
2240:Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism
1662:
1078:"Insulin Resistance & Prediabetes"
655:
410:and rats with surgical removal of the
5079:
4520:
4371:10.1146/annurev.nutr.24.012003.132155
4251:The Journal of Clinical Investigation
4164:
4162:
4075:
2971:
2969:
2917:
2915:
2695:The Journal of Clinical Investigation
2062:
1863:
1857:
1182:
609:such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (
4789:Metabolic assessment and monitoring
4168:
3979:Reproduction, Nutrition, Development
3669:
3024:
2975:
2921:
1878:
1618:"The metabolic burden of sleep loss"
1072:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1064:
831:Patients initially receive 25 μg of
272:
18:
5065:Notable people with type 1 diabetes
4577:(SIDD, SIRD, MOD and MARD clusters)
4393:
3627:The New England Journal of Medicine
2481:Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry
1764:Joseph JJ, Golden SH (March 2017).
1258:
329:, may increase insulin resistance.
325:and the meals schedule, such as in
13:
4349:
4294:Watve MG, Yajnik CS (April 2007).
4175:American Journal of Human Genetics
4159:
4117:Unger RH, Scherer PE (June 2010).
3290:The American Journal of Physiology
2966:
2912:
2656:The American Journal of Physiology
2522:Brown AE, Walker M (August 2016).
2056:
1117:10.1161/01.ATV.0000186208.06964.91
807:levels every five to ten minutes.
791:is infused at 10–120 mU per m per
489:
391:and can lead to increased hepatic
14:
5312:
5019:International Diabetes Federation
4420:
3889:Experimental Biology and Medicine
3123:Wang G, Zhang M (February 2016).
1061:
819:Modified insulin suppression test
756:Hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp
624:non-alcoholic fatty liver disease
601:(sdLDL) particles, and decreased
569:In states of insulin resistance,
4895:Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state
4095:10.1111/j.1440-1746.2010.06473.x
2753:Insulin Resistance Leads to LADA
2625:10.1111/j.1464-5491.2005.01566.x
2225:(Press release). March 10, 2010.
2166:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.12.024
1682:10.1097/00126334-200303010-00001
1273:10.2165/00007256-199724050-00004
1154:10.1111/j.1365-2265.2006.02444.x
115:
23:
4287:
4238:
4203:
4110:
3966:
3788:
3663:
3579:
3533:
3302:10.1152/ajpendo.1979.237.3.e214
3173:
3116:
3067:
3018:
2771:
2745:
2668:10.1152/ajpendo.1997.273.4.E708
2647:
2590:
2564:
2515:
2472:
2421:
2372:
2323:
2274:
2231:
2140:
2097:
2016:"Obesity in the new millennium"
1984:
1948:
1905:
1872:
1814:
1757:
1746:
1697:
1609:
1550:
1501:
1437:
1044:Advanced glycation end-products
842:
662:PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway
464:
229:
205:for insulin resistance include
4224:10.1016/j.jdiacomp.2006.07.005
3558:10.1001/archinternmed.2008.558
1402:
1344:
1252:
1176:
1132:
729:guidelines. After two hours a
554:. This leads to elevated free
360:Exposure to light during sleep
352:(type of HIV medication), and
339:
51:add the appropriate references
1:
5270:Pancreatic beta cell function
4954:Diabetes-related skin disease
4396:"Insulin resistance syndrome"
4063:10.1016/S0140-6736(01)36134-2
3600:10.1016/s1262-3636(03)72785-2
3546:Archives of Internal Medicine
2348:10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.107.165472
1634:10.1016/s2213-8587(14)70012-9
1423:10.1016/j.metabol.2018.02.010
1360:Nature Reviews. Endocrinology
1055:
1009:Pancreatic beta cell function
695:superoxide dismutase mimetics
693:inhibitors, or mitochondrial
4752:Homeostatic model assessment
4546:
2944:10.1088/1478-3975/7/4/046015
2887:10.1371/journal.pone.0000031
2202:10.1053/j.gastro.2009.11.050
1835:10.1097/MED.0b013e32834c800d
853:Homeostatic Model Assessment
700:
7:
4737:Noninvasive glucose monitor
3774:10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.10.020
2819:Horm Mol Biol Clin Investig
1970:10.1016/j.soard.2011.03.010
1722:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2018.01.004
1669:J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr
1267:(5). Auckland, NZ: 321–36.
1039:Circadian rhythm disruption
1001:
932:polyunsaturated fatty acids
906:Diabetes Prevention Program
746:oral glucose tolerance test
725:Interpretation is based on
480:
429:
367:
299:polyunsaturated fatty acids
36:reliable medical references
10:
5317:
5254:Rabson–Mendenhall syndrome
5247:Congenital hyperinsulinism
4969:Diabetic cheiroarthropathy
4798:Ambulatory glucose profile
4605:Impaired glucose tolerance
4406:(6). US: 1159–63, 1165–6.
4359:Annual Review of Nutrition
3901:10.1177/153537020422900606
3509:10.1038/s41598-022-22531-3
3356:10.1152/ajpendo.00645.2007
2528:Current Cardiology Reports
2014:Friedman JM (April 2000).
1991:Goodman A (June 1, 2016).
1883:Lange Q&A USMLE Step 1
1527:10.1016/j.smrv.2022.101594
941:
735:impaired glucose tolerance
675:insulin receptor substrate
327:circadian rhythm disorders
5262:
5226:
5187:
5118:
5037:
4994:
4870:
4775:
4717:Postprandial glucose test
4687:
4554:
4501:. US: NIH. Archived from
4457:
4428:
4400:American Family Physician
4169:Neel JV (December 1962).
4135:10.1016/j.tem.2010.01.009
4076:Nolan CJ (October 2010).
3858:10.1007/s11892-002-0098-y
3684:10.1377/hlthaff.2011.1075
3588:Diabetes & Metabolism
2796:10.1016/j.cca.2016.02.004
2540:10.1007/s11886-016-0755-4
2300:10.1007/s00125-012-2456-x
2252:10.1016/j.tem.2008.08.001
1462:10.1016/j.ecl.2013.05.001
1372:10.1038/s41574-018-0122-1
1197:10.1016/j.bcp.2008.10.020
1049:Polycystic ovary syndrome
952:Harold Percival Himsworth
878:Prevention and management
714:Glucose tolerance testing
449:Mitochondrial dysfunction
435:Polycystic ovary syndrome
240:polycystic ovary syndrome
136:
131:
42:or relies too heavily on
5055:Epidemiology of diabetes
4793:Blood glucose monitoring
4669:Type 3c (pancreatogenic)
4600:Impaired fasting glucose
4300:BMC Evolutionary Biology
3846:Current Diabetes Reports
3257:10.1177/1932296818805074
2976:Wang G (December 2014).
2447:10.3389/fphys.2019.00532
1663:Fantry LE (March 2003).
1185:Biochemical Pharmacology
923:from high-amylose corn,
691:electron transport chain
632:Type 2 diabetes mellitus
603:high-density lipoprotein
403:) to the cell membrane.
382:human placental lactogen
224:
4912:Neuropathic arthropathy
4016:Klinische Wochenschrift
3440:J Clin Endocrinol Metab
3207:10.1073/pnas.0902380106
3025:Wang G (October 2012).
2831:10.1515/hmbci-2018-0005
2493:10.1023/A:1006865715292
2434:Frontiers in Physiology
2153:Fertility and Sterility
1014:Chronic Somogyi rebound
980:thrifty gene hypothesis
778:glucose clamp technique
671:placental growth factor
599:low-density lipoprotein
459:reactive oxygen species
354:atypical antipsychotics
4860:Gastric bypass surgery
4742:Insulin tolerance test
4712:Glucose tolerance test
4617:Ketosis-prone diabetes
4588:Diabetes and pregnancy
4495:"Insulin resistance".
4321:10.1186/1471-2148-7-61
3453:10.1210/jcem.85.7.6661
3245:J Diabetes Sci Technol
3043:10.1098/rsif.2012.0244
2994:10.1098/rsif.2014.0892
2082:10.1210/jcem.83.5.4779
1995:. Family Practice News
1514:Sleep Medicine Reviews
1142:Clinical Endocrinology
772:level without causing
720:glucose tolerance test
706:Fasting insulin levels
542:Insulin resistance in
253:being aged 45 or older
3813:10.3945/an.114.007419
3801:Advances in Nutrition
2385:Endocrine Connections
2063:Flier JS (May 1998).
1237:10.1093/ajcn/79.5.820
1034:Systemic inflammation
958:Adaptive explanations
646:hypercoagulable state
387:Cortisol counteracts
5050:Glossary of diabetes
5009:Open Insulin Project
4845:Embryonic stem cells
4582:Gestational diabetes
4394:Rao G (March 2001).
3639:10.1056/NEJMoa012512
3552:(2). JAMA: 122–131.
2784:Clinica Chimica Acta
2739:"Insulin resistance"
2336:Circulation Research
1866:USMLE Step 1 Secrets
1576:10.7759/cureus.23501
682:superoxide dismutase
496:Islets of Langerhans
397:glucose transporters
213:, family history of
65:"Insulin resistance"
5060:History of diabetes
5045:Outline of diabetes
4974:Diabetic foot ulcer
4959:Diabetic dermopathy
4918:Organs in diabetes
4850:Artificial pancreas
4810:Diabetes medication
4707:Glycated hemoglobin
4312:2007BMCEE...7...61W
3992:10.1051/rnd:2004033
3594:(4 Pt 2): 6S28–35.
3501:2022NatSR..1217659D
3198:2009PNAS..10617787H
3141:2016NatSR...620345W
2936:2010PhBio...7d6015W
2878:2006PLoSO...1...31N
2578:. December 15, 2012
2106:Nature Neuroscience
1782:2017NYASA1391...20J
656:Molecular mechanism
350:protease inhibitors
236:sedentary lifestyle
211:sedentary lifestyle
161:condition in which
5237:Insulin resistance
5112:glucose metabolism
5024:World Diabetes Day
4612:Insulin resistance
4486:Insulin resistance
4458:External resources
4028:10.1007/BF01736348
3944:10.1007/BF00418533
3404:10.1007/BF00280883
3129:Scientific Reports
2397:10.1530/EC-14-0092
2196:(3): 932–41.e1–3.
1914:Neuroendocrinology
1790:10.1111/nyas.13217
899:thiazolidinediones
776:. It is a type of
583:beta cell function
579:high blood insulin
288:metabolic syndrome
219:metabolic syndrome
151:Insulin resistance
132:Insulin resistance
5288:
5287:
5177:Template:Diabetes
5073:
5072:
4767:Disposition index
4697:Blood sugar level
4567:Type 1 diabetes (
4481:
4480:
4263:10.1172/JCI115274
3723:10.1136/bmj.i3857
3149:10.1038/srep20345
3092:10.2337/db09-0745
2988:(101): 20140892.
2759:on April 14, 2015
2707:10.1172/JCI118742
2613:Diabetic Medicine
1926:10.1159/000101694
1898:978-0-07-144578-8
1864:Brown DD (2003).
1495:. April 11, 2011.
1320:10.1136/bmj.i3857
948:diabetes mellitus
739:diabetes mellitus
521:insulin-resistant
498:, located in the
408:bariatric surgery
273:Lifestyle factors
148:
147:
126:Medical condition
124:
123:
100:
5308:
5204:Oxyhyperglycemia
5100:
5093:
5086:
5077:
5076:
4805:Diet in diabetes
4541:
4534:
4527:
4518:
4517:
4513:
4511:
4510:
4426:
4425:
4415:
4390:
4344:
4343:
4333:
4323:
4291:
4285:
4284:
4274:
4242:
4236:
4235:
4207:
4201:
4200:
4190:
4166:
4157:
4156:
4146:
4114:
4108:
4107:
4097:
4073:
4067:
4066:
4057:(5864): 127–30.
4046:
4040:
4039:
4011:
4005:
4004:
3994:
3970:
3964:
3963:
3927:
3921:
3920:
3884:
3878:
3877:
3841:
3835:
3834:
3824:
3792:
3786:
3785:
3756:
3745:
3744:
3734:
3702:
3696:
3695:
3667:
3661:
3660:
3650:
3618:
3612:
3611:
3583:
3577:
3576:
3574:
3572:
3537:
3531:
3530:
3520:
3480:
3474:
3473:
3455:
3431:
3425:
3424:
3406:
3382:
3376:
3375:
3339:
3322:
3321:
3285:
3279:
3278:
3268:
3236:
3230:
3229:
3219:
3209:
3192:(42): 17787–92.
3177:
3171:
3170:
3160:
3120:
3114:
3113:
3103:
3071:
3065:
3064:
3054:
3022:
3016:
3015:
3005:
2973:
2964:
2963:
2924:Physical Biology
2919:
2910:
2909:
2899:
2889:
2857:
2851:
2850:
2814:
2808:
2807:
2775:
2769:
2768:
2766:
2764:
2749:
2743:
2742:
2735:
2729:
2728:
2718:
2686:
2680:
2679:
2651:
2645:
2644:
2608:
2602:
2601:
2594:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2583:
2572:"A heavy burden"
2568:
2562:
2561:
2551:
2519:
2513:
2512:
2476:
2470:
2469:
2459:
2449:
2425:
2419:
2418:
2408:
2376:
2370:
2369:
2359:
2327:
2321:
2320:
2302:
2278:
2272:
2271:
2235:
2229:
2226:
2216:Lay summary in:
2213:
2190:Gastroenterology
2185:
2179:
2178:
2168:
2144:
2138:
2137:
2101:
2095:
2094:
2084:
2060:
2054:
2053:
2035:
2033:10.1038/35007504
2011:
2005:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1988:
1982:
1981:
1952:
1946:
1945:
1909:
1903:
1902:
1886:
1879:King MW (2005).
1876:
1870:
1869:
1861:
1855:
1854:
1818:
1812:
1811:
1801:
1761:
1755:
1750:
1744:
1743:
1733:
1701:
1695:
1694:
1684:
1660:
1654:
1653:
1613:
1607:
1606:
1596:
1578:
1554:
1548:
1547:
1529:
1505:
1499:
1496:
1486:Lay summary in:
1483:
1473:
1441:
1435:
1434:
1406:
1400:
1399:
1357:
1348:
1342:
1341:
1331:
1299:
1293:
1292:
1256:
1250:
1249:
1239:
1215:
1209:
1208:
1180:
1174:
1173:
1136:
1130:
1129:
1119:
1095:
1086:
1085:
1074:
1019:Hyperinsulinemia
921:Resistant starch
323:circadian rhythm
319:circadian rhythm
280:glycemic indices
179:hyperinsulinemia
129:
128:
119:
118:
110:
107:
101:
99:
58:
27:
26:
19:
5316:
5315:
5311:
5310:
5309:
5307:
5306:
5305:
5291:
5290:
5289:
5284:
5258:
5242:Hyperinsulinism
5222:
5216:Whipple's triad
5183:
5114:
5106:Disease of the
5104:
5074:
5069:
5033:
5004:T1International
4996:
4995:Advocacy &
4990:
4866:
4815:Insulin therapy
4771:
4683:
4550:
4545:
4508:
4506:
4494:
4482:
4477:
4476:
4453:
4452:
4437:
4423:
4418:
4352:
4350:Further reading
4347:
4292:
4288:
4243:
4239:
4208:
4204:
4167:
4160:
4115:
4111:
4074:
4070:
4047:
4043:
4012:
4008:
3971:
3967:
3928:
3924:
3885:
3881:
3842:
3838:
3793:
3789:
3757:
3748:
3703:
3699:
3668:
3664:
3619:
3615:
3584:
3580:
3570:
3568:
3538:
3534:
3481:
3477:
3432:
3428:
3383:
3379:
3340:
3325:
3286:
3282:
3237:
3233:
3178:
3174:
3121:
3117:
3072:
3068:
3037:(75): 2723–34.
3023:
3019:
2974:
2967:
2920:
2913:
2858:
2854:
2815:
2811:
2776:
2772:
2762:
2760:
2751:
2750:
2746:
2741:. Medicine net.
2737:
2736:
2732:
2701:(12): 2859–65.
2687:
2683:
2652:
2648:
2609:
2605:
2598:"Science daily"
2596:
2595:
2591:
2581:
2579:
2570:
2569:
2565:
2520:
2516:
2487:(1–2): 169–75.
2477:
2473:
2426:
2422:
2377:
2373:
2328:
2324:
2279:
2275:
2236:
2232:
2217:
2186:
2182:
2145:
2141:
2102:
2098:
2061:
2057:
2026:(6778): 632–4.
2012:
2008:
1998:
1996:
1989:
1985:
1953:
1949:
1910:
1906:
1899:
1877:
1873:
1862:
1858:
1819:
1815:
1762:
1758:
1751:
1747:
1702:
1698:
1661:
1657:
1614:
1610:
1555:
1551:
1506:
1502:
1487:
1442:
1438:
1407:
1403:
1355:
1349:
1345:
1300:
1296:
1261:Sports Medicine
1257:
1253:
1216:
1212:
1181:
1177:
1137:
1133:
1110:(12): 2451–62.
1096:
1089:
1076:
1075:
1062:
1058:
1053:
1004:
960:
944:
880:
845:
821:
785:peripheral vein
758:
716:
708:
703:
658:
492:
490:Pathophysiology
483:
467:
451:
432:
393:gluconeogenesis
370:
362:
346:corticosteroids
342:
334:type 2 diabetes
312:epidemiological
275:
232:
227:
196:in response to
177:in response to
127:
120:
116:
111:
105:
102:
59:
48:
44:primary sources
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5314:
5304:
5303:
5286:
5285:
5283:
5282:
5277:
5272:
5266:
5264:
5260:
5259:
5257:
5256:
5251:
5250:
5249:
5239:
5233:
5231:
5224:
5223:
5221:
5220:
5219:
5218:
5208:
5207:
5206:
5195:
5193:
5185:
5184:
5182:
5181:
5180:
5179:
5168:
5167:
5166:
5143:
5138:
5133:
5124:
5122:
5116:
5115:
5103:
5102:
5095:
5088:
5080:
5071:
5070:
5068:
5067:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5047:
5041:
5039:
5035:
5034:
5032:
5031:
5026:
5021:
5016:
5011:
5006:
5000:
4998:
4992:
4991:
4989:
4988:
4983:
4978:
4977:
4976:
4971:
4966:
4964:Diabetic bulla
4961:
4951:
4950:
4949:
4944:
4939:
4934:
4929:
4924:
4916:
4915:
4914:
4909:
4899:
4898:
4897:
4892:
4887:
4880:Diabetic comas
4876:
4874:
4868:
4867:
4865:
4864:
4863:
4862:
4854:
4853:
4852:
4847:
4839:
4837:Diabetic shoes
4834:
4833:
4832:
4827:
4822:
4812:
4807:
4802:
4801:
4800:
4795:
4787:
4781:
4779:
4773:
4772:
4770:
4769:
4764:
4759:
4754:
4749:
4744:
4739:
4734:
4729:
4724:
4719:
4714:
4709:
4704:
4699:
4693:
4691:
4685:
4684:
4682:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4666:
4665:
4664:
4659:
4649:
4648:
4647:
4620:
4614:
4609:
4608:
4607:
4602:
4592:
4591:
4590:
4578:
4572:
4565:
4564:(SAID cluster)
4558:
4556:
4552:
4551:
4544:
4543:
4536:
4529:
4521:
4515:
4514:
4492:
4479:
4478:
4475:
4474:
4462:
4461:
4459:
4455:
4454:
4451:
4450:
4438:
4433:
4432:
4430:
4429:Classification
4422:
4421:External links
4419:
4417:
4416:
4391:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4346:
4345:
4286:
4237:
4202:
4158:
4109:
4088:(10): 1594–7.
4068:
4041:
4022:(10): 438–43.
4006:
3965:
3922:
3879:
3836:
3807:(2): 198–205.
3787:
3746:
3697:
3672:Health Affairs
3662:
3633:(6): 393–403.
3613:
3578:
3532:
3475:
3446:(7): 2402–10.
3426:
3377:
3323:
3296:(3): E214-23.
3280:
3251:(3): 597–600.
3231:
3172:
3115:
3086:(6): 1349–57.
3066:
3017:
2965:
2911:
2852:
2809:
2770:
2744:
2730:
2681:
2662:(4): E708-13.
2646:
2603:
2589:
2563:
2514:
2471:
2420:
2371:
2322:
2293:(4): 1114–27.
2273:
2230:
2228:
2227:
2180:
2139:
2096:
2075:(5): 1407–13.
2055:
2006:
1983:
1947:
1904:
1897:
1871:
1856:
1813:
1756:
1745:
1696:
1655:
1608:
1549:
1500:
1498:
1497:
1436:
1401:
1343:
1294:
1251:
1210:
1175:
1131:
1087:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1052:
1051:
1046:
1041:
1036:
1031:
1029:Chronic stress
1026:
1021:
1016:
1011:
1005:
1003:
1000:
959:
956:
943:
940:
930:Some types of
879:
876:
844:
841:
820:
817:
757:
754:
715:
712:
707:
704:
702:
699:
657:
654:
628:glycogenolysis
491:
488:
482:
479:
466:
463:
450:
447:
431:
428:
378:growth hormone
369:
366:
361:
358:
341:
338:
284:hyperpalatable
274:
271:
267:
266:
263:
260:
257:
254:
231:
228:
226:
223:
146:
145:
140:
134:
133:
125:
122:
121:
114:
112:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5313:
5302:
5299:
5298:
5296:
5281:
5278:
5276:
5273:
5271:
5268:
5267:
5265:
5261:
5255:
5252:
5248:
5245:
5244:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:
5234:
5232:
5229:
5225:
5217:
5214:
5213:
5212:
5209:
5205:
5202:
5201:
5200:
5199:Hyperglycemia
5197:
5196:
5194:
5191:
5190:blood glucose
5186:
5178:
5174:
5173:
5172:
5171:Complications
5169:
5165:
5162:
5159:
5156:
5153:
5150:
5147:
5144:
5142:
5139:
5137:
5134:
5132:
5129:
5128:
5126:
5125:
5123:
5121:
5117:
5113:
5109:
5101:
5096:
5094:
5089:
5087:
5082:
5081:
5078:
5066:
5063:
5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5051:
5048:
5046:
5043:
5042:
5040:
5036:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5002:
5001:
4999:
4997:Organizations
4993:
4987:
4984:
4982:
4981:Hyperglycemia
4979:
4975:
4972:
4970:
4967:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4956:
4955:
4952:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4922:Blood vessels
4920:
4919:
4917:
4913:
4910:
4908:
4905:
4904:
4903:
4902:Diabetic foot
4900:
4896:
4893:
4891:
4888:
4886:
4883:
4882:
4881:
4878:
4877:
4875:
4873:
4872:Complications
4869:
4861:
4858:
4857:
4855:
4851:
4848:
4846:
4843:
4842:
4840:
4838:
4835:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4823:
4821:
4818:
4817:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4799:
4796:
4794:
4791:
4790:
4788:
4786:
4783:
4782:
4780:
4778:
4774:
4768:
4765:
4763:
4760:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4750:
4748:
4745:
4743:
4740:
4738:
4735:
4733:
4730:
4728:
4725:
4723:
4720:
4718:
4715:
4713:
4710:
4708:
4705:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4694:
4692:
4690:
4686:
4680:
4677:
4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4663:
4660:
4658:
4655:
4654:
4653:
4650:
4646:
4643:
4640:
4637:
4634:
4631:
4628:
4627:
4625:
4621:
4618:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4598:
4597:
4596:
4593:
4589:
4586:
4585:
4583:
4579:
4576:
4573:
4570:
4566:
4563:
4560:
4559:
4557:
4553:
4549:
4542:
4537:
4535:
4530:
4528:
4523:
4522:
4519:
4505:on 2015-05-13
4504:
4500:
4499:
4493:
4491:
4487:
4484:
4483:
4473:
4469:
4468:
4464:
4463:
4460:
4456:
4449:
4445:
4444:
4440:
4439:
4436:
4431:
4427:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4392:
4388:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4368:
4364:
4360:
4355:
4354:
4341:
4337:
4332:
4327:
4322:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4305:
4301:
4297:
4290:
4282:
4278:
4273:
4268:
4264:
4260:
4257:(1): 168–73.
4256:
4252:
4248:
4241:
4233:
4229:
4225:
4221:
4218:(6): 363–70.
4217:
4213:
4206:
4198:
4194:
4189:
4184:
4181:(4): 353–62.
4180:
4176:
4172:
4165:
4163:
4154:
4150:
4145:
4140:
4136:
4132:
4129:(6): 345–52.
4128:
4124:
4120:
4113:
4105:
4101:
4096:
4091:
4087:
4083:
4079:
4072:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4052:
4045:
4037:
4033:
4029:
4025:
4021:
4017:
4010:
4002:
3998:
3993:
3988:
3985:(3): 289–99.
3984:
3980:
3976:
3969:
3961:
3957:
3953:
3949:
3945:
3941:
3938:(6): 621–31.
3937:
3933:
3926:
3918:
3914:
3910:
3906:
3902:
3898:
3895:(6): 486–93.
3894:
3890:
3883:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3852:(5): 435–40.
3851:
3847:
3840:
3832:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3806:
3802:
3798:
3791:
3783:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3763:
3755:
3753:
3751:
3742:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3708:
3701:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3677:
3673:
3666:
3658:
3654:
3649:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3632:
3628:
3624:
3617:
3609:
3605:
3601:
3597:
3593:
3589:
3582:
3567:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3547:
3543:
3536:
3528:
3524:
3519:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3479:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3454:
3449:
3445:
3441:
3437:
3430:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3388:
3381:
3373:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3350:(1): E15-26.
3349:
3345:
3338:
3336:
3334:
3332:
3330:
3328:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3284:
3276:
3272:
3267:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3235:
3227:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3176:
3168:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3138:
3134:
3130:
3126:
3119:
3111:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3070:
3062:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3021:
3013:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2972:
2970:
2961:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2930:(4): 046015.
2929:
2925:
2918:
2916:
2907:
2903:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2856:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2813:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2781:
2774:
2758:
2754:
2748:
2740:
2734:
2726:
2722:
2717:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2692:
2685:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2650:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2619:(6): 674–82.
2618:
2614:
2607:
2599:
2593:
2577:
2576:The Economist
2573:
2567:
2559:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2541:
2537:
2533:
2529:
2525:
2518:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2475:
2467:
2463:
2458:
2453:
2448:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2431:
2424:
2416:
2412:
2407:
2402:
2398:
2394:
2391:(1): R1–R15.
2390:
2386:
2382:
2375:
2367:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2342:(4): 401–14.
2341:
2337:
2333:
2326:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2301:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2277:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2246:(9): 324–30.
2245:
2241:
2234:
2224:
2223:Science Daily
2220:
2215:
2214:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2184:
2176:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2159:(6): 1864–9.
2158:
2154:
2150:
2143:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2123:
2119:
2115:
2112:(6): 445–50.
2111:
2107:
2100:
2092:
2088:
2083:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2059:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2039:
2034:
2029:
2025:
2021:
2017:
2010:
1994:
1987:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1964:(2): 145–50.
1963:
1959:
1951:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1908:
1900:
1894:
1890:
1885:
1884:
1875:
1868:. p. 63.
1867:
1860:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1829:(6): 409–16.
1828:
1824:
1817:
1809:
1805:
1800:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1760:
1754:
1749:
1741:
1737:
1732:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1700:
1692:
1688:
1683:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1659:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1612:
1604:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1577:
1572:
1569:(3): e23501.
1568:
1564:
1560:
1553:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1504:
1494:
1490:
1485:
1484:
1481:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1456:(3): 617–34.
1455:
1451:
1447:
1440:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1405:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1354:
1347:
1339:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1298:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1255:
1247:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1214:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1191:(6): 937–46.
1190:
1186:
1179:
1171:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1148:(2): 169–78.
1147:
1143:
1135:
1127:
1123:
1118:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1094:
1092:
1083:
1079:
1073:
1071:
1069:
1067:
1065:
1060:
1050:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1040:
1037:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1020:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1006:
999:
996:
991:
987:
983:
981:
976:
973:
969:
965:
955:
953:
949:
939:
937:
933:
928:
926:
922:
918:
914:
911:
907:
902:
900:
896:
892:
888:
883:
875:
873:
869:
866:
862:
859:(QUICKI) and
858:
854:
850:
840:
838:
834:
829:
826:
825:Gerald Reaven
816:
812:
808:
806:
802:
798:
794:
790:
786:
781:
779:
775:
771:
767:
763:
762:gold standard
753:
751:
747:
742:
740:
736:
732:
728:
723:
721:
711:
698:
696:
692:
687:
683:
678:
676:
672:
667:
663:
653:
651:
647:
642:
640:
635:
633:
629:
625:
620:
616:
612:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
587:
584:
580:
576:
572:
567:
565:
561:
557:
553:
552:triglycerides
549:
545:
540:
537:
533:
529:
524:
522:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
487:
478:
476:
472:
462:
460:
456:
446:
444:
440:
436:
427:
424:
420:
419:speculative.
417:
413:
409:
404:
402:
398:
394:
390:
385:
383:
379:
375:
365:
357:
355:
351:
347:
337:
336:and obesity.
335:
330:
328:
324:
320:
315:
313:
308:
306:
302:
300:
296:
291:
289:
285:
281:
270:
264:
261:
258:
255:
252:
251:
250:
248:
243:
241:
237:
222:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
199:
198:carbohydrates
195:
191:
190:blood glucose
187:
184:Insulin is a
182:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
144:
143:Endocrinology
141:
139:
135:
130:
113:
109:
98:
95:
91:
88:
84:
81:
77:
74:
70:
67: –
66:
62:
61:Find sources:
56:
52:
46:
45:
41:
37:
32:This article
30:
21:
20:
5236:
5211:Hypoglycemia
4986:Hypoglycemia
4890:Ketoacidosis
4885:Hypoglycemia
4825:conventional
4727:Glucose test
4722:Fructosamine
4611:
4507:. Retrieved
4503:the original
4497:
4465:
4441:
4403:
4399:
4362:
4358:
4303:
4299:
4289:
4254:
4250:
4240:
4215:
4211:
4205:
4178:
4174:
4126:
4122:
4112:
4085:
4081:
4071:
4054:
4050:
4044:
4019:
4015:
4009:
3982:
3978:
3968:
3935:
3932:Diabetologia
3931:
3925:
3892:
3888:
3882:
3849:
3845:
3839:
3804:
3800:
3790:
3765:
3761:
3714:
3710:
3700:
3678:(1): 76–83.
3675:
3671:
3665:
3630:
3626:
3616:
3591:
3587:
3581:
3569:. Retrieved
3549:
3545:
3535:
3495:(1): 17659.
3492:
3488:
3478:
3443:
3439:
3429:
3397:(7): 412–9.
3394:
3391:Diabetologia
3390:
3380:
3347:
3343:
3293:
3289:
3283:
3248:
3244:
3234:
3189:
3185:
3175:
3132:
3128:
3118:
3083:
3079:
3069:
3034:
3030:
3020:
2985:
2981:
2927:
2923:
2869:
2865:
2855:
2822:
2818:
2812:
2787:
2783:
2773:
2761:. Retrieved
2757:the original
2747:
2733:
2698:
2694:
2684:
2659:
2655:
2649:
2616:
2612:
2606:
2592:
2580:. Retrieved
2575:
2566:
2531:
2527:
2517:
2484:
2480:
2474:
2437:
2433:
2423:
2388:
2384:
2374:
2339:
2335:
2325:
2290:
2287:Diabetologia
2286:
2276:
2243:
2239:
2233:
2222:
2193:
2189:
2183:
2156:
2152:
2142:
2118:10.1038/2164
2109:
2105:
2099:
2072:
2068:
2058:
2023:
2019:
2009:
1997:. Retrieved
1986:
1961:
1957:
1950:
1920:(2): 71–80.
1917:
1913:
1907:
1882:
1874:
1865:
1859:
1826:
1822:
1816:
1776:(1): 20–34.
1773:
1769:
1759:
1748:
1713:
1709:
1699:
1675:(3): 243–4.
1672:
1668:
1658:
1628:(1): 52–62.
1625:
1621:
1611:
1566:
1562:
1552:
1517:
1513:
1503:
1492:
1453:
1449:
1439:
1414:
1410:
1404:
1366:(2): 75–89.
1363:
1359:
1346:
1311:
1307:
1297:
1264:
1260:
1254:
1230:(5): 820–5.
1227:
1223:
1213:
1188:
1184:
1178:
1145:
1141:
1134:
1107:
1103:
992:
988:
984:
977:
968:lipotoxicity
963:
961:
945:
929:
919:
915:
905:
903:
884:
881:
849:hypoglycemia
846:
843:Alternatives
837:somatostatin
830:
822:
813:
809:
782:
774:hypoglycemia
759:
750:hypoglycemic
743:
724:
717:
709:
686:mitochondria
679:
659:
650:fibrinolysis
643:
636:
615:Interleukins
595:dyslipidemia
588:
568:
560:blood plasma
541:
525:
520:
510:tissue, and
493:
484:
468:
465:Inflammation
455:mitochondria
452:
433:
421:
405:
399:(especially
386:
371:
363:
343:
331:
316:
309:
303:
292:
276:
268:
244:
233:
230:Risk factors
203:Risk factors
183:
171:downregulate
159:pathological
154:
150:
149:
106:October 2015
103:
93:
86:
79:
72:
60:
40:verification
33:
5141:gestational
5029:Diabetes UK
4757:SPINA-GBeta
4689:Blood tests
4595:Prediabetes
4365:: 391–406.
3768:: 211–218.
2790:: 134–148.
2600:. Jun 2009.
1084:. May 2018.
891:weight loss
805:blood sugar
556:fatty acids
443:Hepatitis C
340:Medications
34:needs more
5275:Insulinoma
4785:Prevention
4777:Management
4702:Biomarkers
4509:2013-04-25
4402:(review).
4361:(review).
4051:The Lancet
2872:(1): e31.
2582:10 January
1520:: 101594.
1411:Metabolism
1056:References
995:metabolism
925:amylomaize
833:octreotide
648:(impaired
639:Vidal-Puig
619:NF-kappa-B
571:beta cells
550:of stored
548:hydrolysis
290:epidemic.
76:newspapers
5280:Insulitis
5230:disorders
5188:Abnormal
4830:pulsatile
4820:intensive
4732:C-peptide
4662:Permanent
4657:Transient
4622:Type 3a (
4467:eMedicine
4306:(1): 61.
3717:: i3857.
3135:: 20345.
2534:(8): 75.
1716:: 55–63.
1642:2213-8587
1585:2168-8184
1536:1087-0792
1417:: 56–66.
1314:: i3857.
972:pathology
910:metformin
895:metformin
718:During a
701:Diagnosis
607:cytokines
564:fat cells
544:fat cells
514:) absorb
475:lipolysis
305:Vitamin D
295:saturated
245:The U.S.
175:receptors
138:Specialty
5301:Diabetes
5295:Category
5120:Diabetes
5108:pancreas
4762:SPINA-GR
4652:Neonatal
4580:Type 4 (
4571:cluster)
4548:Diabetes
4498:Diabetes
4472:med/1173
4412:11277552
4387:24849146
4379:16011472
4340:17437648
4232:17967708
4197:13937884
4153:20223680
4104:20880166
4036:32359074
4001:15460168
3960:33171616
3917:20966659
3909:15169967
3874:31329463
3866:12643169
3831:25770258
3782:27773709
3762:Prev Med
3741:27510511
3692:22232097
3657:11832527
3608:14502098
3566:19171808
3527:36271244
3462:10902785
3421:24872571
3364:17957034
3275:30318910
3226:19805130
3167:26847155
3110:20299466
3080:Diabetes
3061:22535698
3012:25320065
2960:40064689
2952:21178243
2906:17183659
2866:PLOS ONE
2839:29596053
2804:26868089
2641:10680747
2633:15910615
2558:27312935
2509:32740002
2466:31130874
2415:25385852
2366:18309108
2309:22282162
2268:22469532
2260:18804383
2210:19962985
2175:19171332
2126:10196541
2042:10766249
1999:12 March
1978:21570362
1942:38081413
1934:17426391
1851:24095227
1843:21986512
1808:27750377
1740:29325867
1691:12626882
1650:24731536
1603:35494895
1544:35189549
1480:24011890
1431:29510179
1396:54449238
1388:30531917
1338:27510511
1289:29053249
1246:15113720
1205:19022225
1170:22878943
1162:16430716
1126:16166564
1024:Resistin
1002:See also
887:exercise
861:SPINA-GR
797:infusion
731:glycemia
684:in cell
666:bistable
575:pancreas
500:pancreas
481:Genetics
430:Diseases
412:duodenum
374:cortisol
368:Hormones
215:diabetes
194:pancreas
173:insulin
5228:Insulin
4448:D007333
4331:1868084
4308:Bibcode
4281:2056116
4188:1932342
4144:2880185
3952:8781757
3822:4352178
3732:4979358
3648:1370926
3518:9587026
3497:Bibcode
3489:Sci Rep
3470:7612943
3413:3899825
3318:7192984
3266:6501531
3217:2764908
3194:Bibcode
3158:4742884
3137:Bibcode
3101:2874695
3052:3427521
3003:4223910
2932:Bibcode
2897:1762367
2874:Bibcode
2847:4515780
2763:Feb 21,
2725:8675698
2676:9357799
2549:4911377
2501:9609126
2457:6510277
2440:: 532.
2406:4261703
2357:2963150
2317:5843657
2134:7474447
2091:9589630
2050:4406498
1799:5334212
1778:Bibcode
1731:5817633
1594:9036496
1471:3767932
1329:4979358
1281:9368278
942:History
936:omega-3
893:. Both
872:glucose
868:insulin
865:fasting
801:glucose
789:insulin
770:insulin
766:glucose
613:), and
591:apoB-48
573:in the
558:in the
516:glucose
508:adipose
506:cells,
389:insulin
207:obesity
186:hormone
167:insulin
157:) is a
90:scholar
55:removed
5192:levels
5136:type 2
5131:type 1
5127:Types
4942:Retina
4937:Nerves
4932:Kidney
4927:Muscle
4856:Other
4674:Type 3
4630:Type 1
4575:Type 2
4562:Type 1
4490:Curlie
4410:
4385:
4377:
4338:
4328:
4279:
4272:296017
4269:
4230:
4195:
4185:
4151:
4141:
4102:
4034:
3999:
3958:
3950:
3915:
3907:
3872:
3864:
3829:
3819:
3780:
3739:
3729:
3690:
3655:
3645:
3606:
3571:17 Sep
3564:
3525:
3515:
3468:
3460:
3419:
3411:
3372:848540
3370:
3362:
3316:
3310:382871
3308:
3273:
3263:
3224:
3214:
3165:
3155:
3108:
3098:
3059:
3049:
3010:
3000:
2958:
2950:
2904:
2894:
2845:
2837:
2802:
2723:
2716:507380
2713:
2674:
2639:
2631:
2556:
2546:
2507:
2499:
2464:
2454:
2413:
2403:
2364:
2354:
2315:
2307:
2266:
2258:
2208:
2173:
2132:
2124:
2089:
2048:
2040:
2020:Nature
1976:
1940:
1932:
1895:
1849:
1841:
1806:
1796:
1738:
1728:
1689:
1648:
1640:
1601:
1591:
1583:
1563:Cureus
1542:
1534:
1478:
1468:
1429:
1394:
1386:
1336:
1326:
1287:
1279:
1244:
1203:
1168:
1160:
1124:
964:per se
793:minute
532:muscle
504:muscle
423:Leptin
416:mucosa
380:, and
92:
85:
78:
71:
63:
5038:Other
4947:Heart
4907:ulcer
4841:Cure
4619:(KPD)
4555:Types
4383:S2CID
4032:S2CID
3956:S2CID
3913:S2CID
3870:S2CID
3466:S2CID
3417:S2CID
3368:S2CID
3314:S2CID
2956:S2CID
2843:S2CID
2825:(2).
2637:S2CID
2505:S2CID
2313:S2CID
2264:S2CID
2130:S2CID
2046:S2CID
1938:S2CID
1847:S2CID
1392:S2CID
1356:(PDF)
1285:S2CID
1166:S2CID
611:TNF-a
536:liver
512:liver
471:TNF-α
401:GLUT4
225:Cause
163:cells
97:JSTOR
83:books
5175:See
5146:MODY
5110:and
5014:JDRF
4679:MIDD
4624:MODY
4569:LADA
4443:MeSH
4408:PMID
4375:PMID
4336:PMID
4277:PMID
4228:PMID
4193:PMID
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