Intellectual disability

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family-oriented strategies. Psychosocial treatments are intended primarily for children before and during the preschool years as this is the optimum time for intervention. This early intervention should include encouragement of exploration, mentoring in basic skills, celebration of developmental advances, guided rehearsal and extension of newly acquired skills, protection from harmful displays of disapproval, teasing, or punishment, and exposure to a rich and responsive language environment. A great example of a successful intervention is the Carolina Abecedarian Project that was conducted with over 100 children from low socioeconomic status families beginning in infancy through pre-school years. Results indicated that by age 2, the children provided the intervention had higher test scores than control group children, and they remained approximately 5 points higher 10 years after the end of the program. By young adulthood, children from the intervention group had better educational attainment, employment opportunities, and fewer behavioral problems than their control-group counterparts.

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metastrategical by teaching them to discriminate among different tasks and determine which plan or strategy suits each task. Finally, family-oriented strategies delve into empowering the family with the skill set they need to support and encourage their child or children with an intellectual disability. In general, this includes teaching assertiveness skills or behavior management techniques as well as how to ask for help from neighbors, extended family, or day-care staff. As the child ages, parents are then taught how to approach topics such as housing/residential care, employment, and relationships. The ultimate goal for every intervention or technique is to give the child autonomy and a sense of independence using the acquired skills they have. In a 2019 Cochrane review on beginning reading interventions for children and adolescents with intellectual disability, small to moderate improvements in

294:(ASD) share clinical characteristics which can result in confusion while diagnosing. Overlapping these two disorders, while common, can be detrimental to a person's well-being. Those with ASD that hold symptoms of ID may be grouped into a co-diagnosis in which they are receiving treatment for a disorder they do not have. Likewise, those with ID that are mistaken to have ASD may be treated for symptoms of a disorder they do not have. Differentiating between these two disorders will allow clinicians to deliver or prescribe the appropriate treatments. Comorbidity between ID and ASD is very common; it was estimated that roughly 40% of those with ID also have ASD, and roughly 70% of those with ASD also have ID. More recently, research has indicated a prevalence of roughly 30% for ID in individuals with ASD. Both ASD and ID require shortfalls in communication and social awareness as defining criteria. 303:

mannerisms, and preoccupation with parts of objects". Those with ASD tend to show more deficits in non-verbal social behavior such as body language and understanding social cues. In a study done in 2008 of 336 individuals with varying levels of ID, it was found that those with ID display fewer instances of repetitive or ritualistic behaviors. It also recognized that those with ASD, when compared to those with ID, were more likely to isolate themselves and make less eye contact. When it comes to classification ID and ASD have very different guidelines. ID has a standardized assessment called the Supports Intensity Scale (SIS); this measures severity on a system built around how much support an individual will need. While ASD also classifies severity by support needed, there is no standard assessment; clinicians are free to diagnose severity at their own judgment.

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involving pictures and visual aids, therapists aim at improving speech capacity so that short sentences about important daily tasks (e.g. bathroom use, eating, etc.) can be effectively communicated by the child. In a similar fashion, older children benefit from this type of training as they learn to sharpen their social skills such as sharing, taking turns, following instruction, and smiling. At the same time, a movement known as social inclusion attempts to increase valuable interactions between children with an intellectual disability and their non-disabled peers. Cognitive-behavioral treatments, a combination of the previous two treatment types, involves a

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rehabilitation programs that approximate schools, workshops wherein people with disabilities can obtain jobs, programs that assist people with developmental disabilities in obtaining jobs in the community, programs that provide support for people with developmental disabilities who have their own apartments, programs that assist them with raising their children, and many more. There are also many agencies and programs for parents of children with developmental disabilities.

5496: 6213: 1054:, sub-human and burdens of charity, resulting in the adoption of that "deviant" role. Wolfensberger argued that this dehumanization, and the segregated institutions that result from it, ignored the potential productive contributions that all people can make to society. He pushed for a shift in policy and practice that recognized the human needs of those with intellectual disability and provided the same basic human rights as for the rest of the population. 1451: 171:, judgment, academic learning, and learning from experience. Deficits in these functions must be confirmed by clinical evaluation and individualized standard IQ testing. On the other hand, adaptive behaviors include the social, developmental, and practical skills people learn to perform tasks in their everyday lives. Deficits in adaptive functioning often compromises an individual's independence and ability to meet their social responsibility. 6223: 977:. People were placed by, or removed from, their families (usually in infancy) and housed in large professional institutions, many of which were self-sufficient through the labor of the residents. Some of these institutions provided a very basic level of education (such as differentiation between colors and basic word recognition and numeracy), but most continued to focus solely on the provision of 1395:, while "moderate learning difficulties", "severe learning difficulties" and "profound learning difficulties" refer to more significant impairments. The term "Profound and Multiple Learning Disability/ies" (PMLD) is used: the NHS describes PMLD as "when a person has a severe learning disability and other disabilities that significantly affect their ability to communicate and be independent". 750:

professionals use structured interviews, with which they systematically elicit information about persons' functioning in the community from people who know them well. There are many adaptive behavior scales, and accurate assessment of the quality of someone's adaptive behavior requires clinical judgment as well. Certain skills are important to adaptive behavior, such as:

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profound when individuals are unable to independently care for themselves without ongoing significant assistance from a caregiver throughout adulthood. Individuals with profound ID are completely dependent on others for all ADLs and to maintain their physical health and safety. They may be able to learn to participate in some of these activities to a limited degree.

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based on descriptions of known abilities provided by someone familiar with the person, and also the observations of the assessment examiner, who is able to find out directly from the person what they can understand, communicate, and such like. IQ assessment must be based on a current test. This enables a diagnosis to avoid the pitfall of the

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performance level by a test-taker two standard deviations below the median score for the test-takers age group defined as IQ 70. Until the most recent revision of diagnostic standards, an IQ of 70 or below was a primary factor for intellectual disability diagnosis, and IQ scores were used to categorize degrees of intellectual disability.

1307:, and other disorders that develop during the developmental period (birth to age 18). Because service provision is tied to the designation "developmental disability", it is used by many parents, direct support professionals, and physicians. In the United States, however, in school-based settings, the more specific term 749:

Adaptive behavior, or adaptive functioning, refers to the skills needed to live independently (or at the minimally acceptable level for age). To assess adaptive behavior, professionals compare the functional abilities of a child to those of other children of similar age. To measure adaptive behavior,

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adapted Binet's test and promoted it as a test measuring "general intelligence". Terman's test was the first widely used mental test to report scores in "intelligence quotient" form ("mental age" divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100). Current tests are scored in "deviation IQ" form, with a

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By the mid-1970s, most governments had committed to de-institutionalization and had started preparing for the wholesale movement of people into the general community, in line with the principles of normalization. In most countries, this was essentially complete by the late 1990s, although the debate

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Other specific skills can be critical to an individual's inclusion in the community and to develop appropriate social behaviors, as for example being aware of the different social expectations linked to the principal lifespan stages (i.e., childhood, adulthood, old age). The results of a Swiss study

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people with intellectual disability live on average 16 years less than the general population. Some of the barriers that exist for people with ID accessing quality healthcare include: communication challenges, service eligibility, lack of training for healthcare providers, diagnostic overshadowing,

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In the United States, the average lifetime cost of a person with an intellectual disability amounts to $ 223,000 per person, in 2003 US dollars, for direct costs such as medical and educational expenses. The indirect costs were estimated at $ 771,000, due to shorter lifespans and lower than average

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defined "mental impairment" and "severe mental impairment" as "a state of arrested or incomplete development of mind which includes significant/severe impairment of intelligence and social functioning and is associated with abnormally aggressive or seriously irresponsible conduct on the part of the

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are particularly common signs of moderate ID. People with moderate intellectual disabilities need considerable support in school, at home, and in the community in order to fully participate. While their academic potential is limited, they can learn simple health and safety skills and to participate

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or emotional/behavioral disorders. People with mild ID are capable of learning reading and mathematics skills to approximately the level of a typical child aged nine to twelve. They can learn self-care and practical skills, such as cooking or using the local mass transit system. As individuals with

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The American Association on Mental Retardation changed its name to the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD) in 2007, and soon thereafter changed the names of its scholarly journals to reflect the term "intellectual disability". In 2010, the AAIDD released its

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Among children, the cause of intellectual disability is unknown for one-third to one-half of cases. About 5% of cases are inherited. Genetic defects that cause intellectual disability, but are not inherited, can be caused by accidents or mutations in genetic development. Examples of such accidents

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In a study conducted in 2016 surveying 2816 cases, it was found that the top subsets that help differentiate between those with ID and ASD are, "impaired non-verbal social behavior and lack of social reciprocity, restricted interests, strict adherence to routines, stereotyped and repetitive motor

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Boat, Thomas F.; Wu, Joel T.; Disorders, Committee to Evaluate the Supplemental Security Income Disability Program for Children with Mental; Populations, Board on the Health of Select; Board on Children, Youth; Medicine, Institute of; Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and; The

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The law treats person with intellectual disabilities differently than those without intellectual disabilities. Their human rights and freedoms, including the right to vote, the right to conduct business, enter into a contract, enter into marriage, right to education, are often limited. The courts

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People with intellectual disabilities are often not seen as full citizens of society. Person-centered planning and approaches are seen as methods of addressing the continued labeling and exclusion of socially devalued people, such as people with disabilities, encouraging a focus on the person as

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shows the distribution between different facilities. Out of 2,046 persons surveyed, 1,281 were in private dwellings, 120 in jails, and 645 in asylums, with men representing nearly two-thirds of the number surveyed. In situations of scarcity of accommodation, preference was given to white men and

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Beyond that, there are specific programs that people with developmental disabilities can take part in wherein they learn basic life skills. These "goals" may take a much longer amount of time for them to accomplish, but the ultimate goal is independence. This may be anything from independence in

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Since the current diagnosis of intellectual disability is not based on IQ scores alone, but must also take into consideration a person's adaptive functioning, the diagnosis is not made rigidly. It encompasses intellectual scores, adaptive functioning scores from an adaptive behavior rating scale

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Along with the changes in terminology, and the downward drift in acceptability of the old terms, institutions of all kinds have had to repeatedly change their names. This affects the names of schools, hospitals, societies, government departments, and academic journals. For example, the Midlands

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of food, clothing, and shelter. Conditions in such institutions varied widely, but the support provided was generally non-individualized, with aberrant behavior and low levels of economic productivity regarded as a burden to society. Individuals of higher wealth were often able to afford higher

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Core components of behavioral treatments include language and social skills acquisition. Typically, one-to-one training is offered in which a therapist uses a shaping procedure in combination with positive reinforcements to help the child pronounce syllables until words are completed. Sometimes

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People with Severe ID (IQ 20–34), accounting for 3.5% of persons with ID, or Profound ID (IQ 19 or below), accounting for 1.5% of persons with ID, need more intensive support and supervision for their entire lives. They may learn some ADLs, but an intellectual disability is considered severe or

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adopted service to people with developmental disabilities as a major organizational emphasis in 1952. Their earliest efforts included workshops for special education teachers and daycamps for children with disabilities, all at a time when such training and programs were almost nonexistent. The

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There are four broad areas of intervention that allow for active participation from caregivers, community members, clinicians, and of course, the individual(s) with an intellectual disability. These include psychosocial treatments, behavioral treatments, cognitive-behavioral treatments, and

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is increasingly being used as a synonym for people with significantly below-average cognitive ability. These terms are sometimes used as a means of separating general intellectual limitations from specific, limited deficits as well as indicating that it is not an emotional or psychological

806:. Currently, there is no "cure" for an established disability, though with appropriate support and teaching, most individuals can learn to do many things. Causes, such as congenital hypothyroidism, if detected early may be treated to prevent the development of an intellectual disability. 830:

learning technique that teaches children math, language, and other basic skills pertaining to memory and learning. The first goal of the training is to teach the child to be a strategical thinker through making cognitive connections and plans. Then, the therapist teaches the child to be

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There are thousands of agencies around the world that provide assistance for people with developmental disabilities. They include state-run, for-profit, and non-profit, privately run agencies. Within one agency there could be departments that include fully staffed residential homes, day

929:(r. 705–715) built one of the first care homes for individuals with intellectual disabilities and built the first hospital which accommodated intellectually disabled individuals as part of its services. In addition, Al-Walid assigned each intellectually disabled individual a caregiver. 814:

tooth brushing to an independent residence. People with developmental disabilities learn throughout their lives and can obtain many new skills even late in life with the help of their families, caregivers, clinicians and the people who coordinate the efforts of all of these people.

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for improving the health status for people with intellectual disabilities include: improve access to health care, improve data collection, strengthen the workforce, include people with ID in public health programs, and prepare for emergencies with people with disabilities in mind.

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in Europe, care and asylum was provided by families and the church (in monasteries and other religious communities), focusing on the provision of basic physical needs such as food, shelter, and clothing. Negative stereotypes were prominent in social attitudes of the time.

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Intellectual disability has been documented under a variety of names throughout history. Throughout much of human history, society was unkind to those with any type of disability, and people with intellectual disability were commonly viewed as burdens on their families.

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Although there is no specific medication for intellectual disability, many people with developmental disabilities have further medical complications and may be prescribed several medications. For example, autistic children with developmental delay may be prescribed

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and social self-conception, but more ambitious plans for employment. As adults, they may live independently, with family members, or in different types of institutions organized to support people with disabilities. About 8% currently live in an institution or a

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The term intellectual disability covers the same population of individuals who were diagnosed previously with mental retardation in number, kind, level, type, duration of disability, and the need of people with this disability for individualized services and

566:), as intellectual disability caused by severe iodine deficiency is called, is mild impairment of intelligence. Residents of certain areas of the world, due to natural deficiency and governmental inaction, are severely affected by iodine deficiency. 496:

have an essential part in gene regulation, and sometimes these proteins become modified and are prevented from working properly. When the genes responsible for the development of neurons are affected, it affects the brain and behavior in the

1265:" is not currently defined, but the term may be used to apply to people with IQs in the 70s. People with IQs of 70 to 85 used to be eligible for special consideration in the US public education system on grounds of intellectual disability. 39: 5267: 4041: 251:

In early childhood, mild ID (IQ 50–69) may not be obvious or identified until children begin school. Even when poor academic performance is recognized, it may take expert assessment to distinguish mild intellectual disability from

2094:"Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013" 5526: 4514: 1477:

Until the middle of the 20th century, people with intellectual disabilities were routinely excluded from public education, or educated away from other typically developing children. Compared to peers who were segregated in

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The term general learning disability is now used in the UK instead of terms such as mental handicap or mental retardation. The degree of disability can vary significantly, being classified as mild, moderate, severe or

213:(ADLs) when compared to same-aged peers. There often are no physical signs of mild forms of ID, although there may be characteristic physical traits when it is associated with a genetic disorder (e.g., Down syndrome). 1441:

In the past, Australia has used British and American terms interchangeably, including "mental retardation" and "mental handicap". Today, "intellectual disability" is the preferred and more commonly used descriptor.

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It is formally diagnosed by an assessment of IQ and adaptive behavior. A third condition requiring onset during the developmental period is used to distinguish intellectual disability from other conditions, such as

1050:'s seminal work "The Origin and Nature of Our Institutional Models", drawing on some of the ideas proposed by S. G. Howe 100 years earlier. This study posited that society characterizes people with disabilities as 5564: 5549: 4786: 633:(DSM-IV), three criteria must be met for a diagnosis of intellectual disability: significant limitation in general mental abilities (intellectual functioning), significant limitations in one or more areas of 2264:

Siegel, Matthew (1 April 2020). "Practice Parameter for the Assessment and Treatment of Psychiatric Disorders in Children and Adolescents With Intellectual Disability (Intellectual Developmental Disorder)".

1020:. Eugenics was later abandoned as a violation of human rights, and the practice of forced sterilization and prohibition from marriage was discontinued by most of the developed world by the mid-20th century. 3038:

Sundaram SK, Sivaswamy L, Makki MI, Behen ME, Chugani HT (February 2008). "Absence of arcuate fasciculus in children with global developmental delay of unknown etiology: a diffusion tensor imaging study".

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Figure 8-3. Estimated full-scale IQ distributions for SCA and control children: 47,XXX (mean ~83), 45,X & Variant (mean ~85), 47,XXY (mean ~95), 47,XYY (mean ~100), Controls and SCA Mosaics (mean ~104)

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In general, people with intellectual disabilities have an IQ below 70, but clinical discretion may be necessary for individuals who have a somewhat higher IQ but severe impairment in adaptive functioning.

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Cooney G, Jahoda A, Gumley A, Knott F (June 2006). "Young people with intellectual disabilities attending mainstream and segregated schooling: perceived stigma, social comparison and future aspirations".

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Bilder, Deborah; Botts, Elizabeth L.; Smith, Ken R.; Pimentel, Richard; Farley, Megan; Viskochil, Joseph; McMahon, William M.; Block, Heidi; Ritvo, Edward; Ritvo, Riva-Ariella; Coon, Hilary (2012-09-25).

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did not uphold the complaint saying "it was not used in an offensive context and had been used light-heartedly". It was, however, noted that two previous similar complaints from other shows were upheld.

1515:. Of the costs, about 14% is due to increased medical expenses (not including what is normally incurred by the typical person), and 10% is due to direct non-medical expenses, such as the excess cost of 4062: 1621: 5279: 2375:

Pedersen AL, Pettygrove S, Lu Z, Andrews J, Meaney FJ, Kurzius-Spencer M, et al. (August 2017). "DSM Criteria that Best Differentiate Intellectual Disability from Autism Spectrum Disorder".

1684:"Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990-2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015" 5315: 1403:

person concerned." As behavior was involved, these were not necessarily permanent conditions: they were defined for the purpose of authorizing detention in hospital or guardianship. The term

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suggest that the performance of adults with ID in recognizing different lifespan stages is related to specific cognitive abilities and to the type of material used to test this performance.

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Hay I, Elias G, Fielding-Barnsley R, Homel R, Freiberg K (2007). "Language delays, reading delays, and learning difficulties: interactive elements requiring multidimensional programming".

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The new term is not yet widely understood, and is often taken to refer to problems affecting schoolwork (the American usage), which are known in the UK as "learning difficulties". British

4012: 620: 4510: 1576:, and behavioral and psychiatric problems compared to people without disabilities. Adults also have a higher prevalence of poor social determinants of health, behavioral risk factors, 5838: 1519:

compared to standard schooling. The largest amount, 76%, is indirect costs accounting for reduced productivity and shortened lifespans. Some expenses, such as ongoing costs to family

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has become preferred by most advocates and researchers in most English-speaking countries. In a 2012 survey of 101 Canadian healthcare professionals, 78% said they would use the term

2341: 1636: 955:. He believed that it was caused by structural problems in the brain. According to Willis, the anatomical problems could be either an inborn condition or acquired later in life. 882:, who valued reasoning abilities, disparaged people with intellectual disability as barely human. The oldest physiological view of intellectual disability is in the writings of 189:

Intellectual disability affects about 2–3% of the general population. Seventy-five to ninety percent of the affected people have mild intellectual disability. Non-syndromic, or

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Kalachnik JE, Hanzel TE, Sevenich R, Harder SR (September 2002). "Benzodiazepine behavioral side effects: review and implications for individuals with mental retardation".

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economic productivity. The total direct and indirect costs, which amount to a little more than a million dollars, are slightly more than the economic costs associated with

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poll conducted in the United Kingdom came to the conclusion that 'retard' was the most offensive disability-related word. On the reverse side of that, when a contestant on

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in people with intellectual disability requires monitoring and vigilance as side effects occur commonly and are often misdiagnosed as behavioral and psychiatric problems.

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Institute of Mental Sub-normality became the British Institute of Mental Handicap and is now the British Institute of Learning Disability. This phenomenon is shared with

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awareness, word reading, decoding, expressive and receptive language skills, and reading fluency were noted when these elements were part of the teaching intervention.

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van der Schuit M, Segers E, van Balkom H, Verhoeven L (2011). "Early language intervention for children with intellectual disabilities: a neurocognitive perspective".

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has 500 million people with a deficiency, 54 million with goiter, and 2 million with congenital iodine deficiency. Among other nations affected by iodine deficiency,

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intellectual disabilities reach adulthood, many learn to live independently and maintain gainful employment. About 85% of persons with ID are likely to have mild ID.

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Adkins, B.; Summerville, J.; Knox, M.; Brown, A. R.; Dillon, S. (2012). "Digital technologies and musical participation for people with intellectual disabilities".

1315:, is still typically used, and is one of 13 categories of disability under which children may be identified for special education services under Public Law 108–446. 6728: 3192:

Straccia C, Tessari Veyre A, Bernasconi F, Petitpierre G (2019-04-11). "Examining lifespan stage recognition abilities among adults with intellectual disability".

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Barros, Isabela; Leão, Vito; Santis, Jessica O.; Rosa, Reginaldo; Brotto, Danielle B.; Storti, Camila; Siena, Ádamo; Molfetta, Greice; Silva Jr, Wilson A. (2021).

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elsewhere in a less well-defined manner—e.g. to allow exemption from taxes—implying that intellectual disability without any behavioral problems is what is meant.

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Hodapp RM, Burack JA (2015). "Developmental Approaches to Children with Mental Retardation: A Second Generation". In Cicchetti, Dante, Cohen, Donald J. (eds.).

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Shenouda, Josephine; Barrett, Emily; Davidow, Amy L.; Sidwell, Kate; Lescott, Cara; Halperin, William; Silenzio, Vincent M. B.; Zahorodny, Walter (2023-02-01).

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against governments and increasing awareness of human rights and self-advocacy also contributed to this process, resulting in the passing in the U.S. of the

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Bagner DM, Eyberg SM (2007). "Parent-child interaction therapy for disruptive behavior in children with mental retardation: a randomized controlled trial".

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Intellectual disability is subdivided into syndromic intellectual disability, in which intellectual deficits associated with other medical and behavioral

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Vos T, Allen C, Arora M, Barber RM, Bhutta ZA, Brown A, et al. (GBD 2015 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence Collaborators) (October 2016).

1273: 713:, which is a broader concept and includes intellectual deficits that are too mild to properly qualify as intellectual disability, or too specific (as in 3343:

Campbell FA, Ramey CT, Pungello E, Sparling J, Miller-Johnson S (2002). "Early childhood education: Young adult outcomes from the Abecedarian Project".

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Intellectual disability affects about 2–3% of the general population. 75–90% of the affected people have mild intellectual disability. Non-syndromic or

5859: 3254: 5044:"Discrimination and other barriers to accessing health care: perspectives of patients with mild and moderate intellectual disability and their carers" 5319: 1820: 2092:

Vos T, Barber RM, Bell B, Bertozzi-Villa A, Biryukov S, Bolliger I, et al. (Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 Collaborators) (August 2015).

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prevailed. Services were provided based on the relative ease to the provider, not based on the needs of the individual. A survey taken in 1891 in

269:, or even semi-independently with significant supportive services to help them, for example, manage their finances. As adults, they may work in a 4221: 3017: 4884:(January 2004). "Economic costs associated with mental retardation, cerebral palsy, hearing loss, and vision impairment--United States, 2003". 4326:"Intellectual developmental disorders: towards a new name, definition and framework for "mental retardation/intellectual disability" in ICD-11" 4016: 827: 5385: 5252: 894:

people with intellectual disabilities had limited rights and were generally looked down upon. They were considered property and could be kept

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does not develop properly. For example, there may be a problem with the way the fetus's cells divide as it grows. A pregnant woman who drinks

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is not associated with significantly lowered IQ though affected individuals may have slightly lower IQs than non-affected siblings on average.

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segregation of people with developmental disabilities was not widely questioned by academics or policy-makers until the 1969 publication of

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In the 13th century, England declared people with intellectual disabilities to be incapable of making decisions or managing their affairs.

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A documentary about eight young people with IDD in California and their experiences with competitive integrated employment. Funded by the

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Siperstein GN, Glick GC, Parker RC (April 2009). "Social inclusion of children with intellectual disabilities in a recreational setting".

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in regard to these types of disabilities, and was the impetus for the development of government strategies for desegregation. Successful

970:, whose life and guardianship battles provide significant insight into the early legal and social treatment of people with disabilities. 2811: 2794: 1111:

were significant causes of intellectual disability. Some causes of intellectual disability are decreasing, as medical advances, such as

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degrees of care such as home care or private asylums. Heavy tranquilization and assembly-line methods of support were the norm, and the

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Matson JL, Matson ML, Rivet TT (September 2007). "Social-skills treatments for children with autism spectrum disorders: an overview".

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Black men (whose insanity threatened white society by disrupting employment relations and the taboo sexual contact with white women).

863:. Cases of unknown cause affect about 95 million people as of 2013. It is more common in males and in low to middle income countries. 4811: 1744: 7015: 6632: 6445: 4639: 4584: 1541: 1277: 1089: 1073: 80: 3845: 2456:"Excess Mortality and Causes of Death in Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Follow up of the 1980s Utah/UCLA Autism Epidemiologic Study" 542:, affecting approximately 2 billion people worldwide, is the leading preventable cause of intellectual disability in areas of the 209:

Intellectual disability (ID) becomes apparent during childhood and involves deficits in mental abilities, social skills, and core

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Badano JL, Mitsuma N, Beales PL, Katsanis N (September 2006). "The ciliopathies: an emerging class of human genetic disorders".

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Clinical and Educational Child Psychology an Ecological-Transactional Approach to Understanding Child Problems and Interventions

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that have no mental or intellectual components, although it, too, is sometimes used as a euphemism for intellectual disability.

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are sometimes used, but have been criticized for "reinforc the idea that people cannot deal honestly with their disabilities".

903: 674: 641:, and more), and evidence that the limitations became apparent in childhood or adolescence (onset during developmental phase). 2418:

Matson JL, Shoemaker M (November–December 2009). "Intellectual disability and its relationship to autism spectrum disorders".

1383:. In education, "learning difficulties" is applied to a wide range of conditions: "specific learning difficulty" may refer to 7532: 4756: 4720: 4476: 4271: 3951: 3875: 3812: 3791: 3770: 3749: 3728: 3300: 3248: 2218: 2153: 1917: 1864: 1666: 1540:, which sets minimum standards for the rights of persons with disabilities, has been ratified by more than 180 countries. In 559: 1833:

Decades-long quest by disabilities advocates finally persuades state, federal governments to end official use of 'retarded'.

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that was necessary for a person to commit a crime, during the 1920s, Western society believed they were morally degenerate.

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are present, and non-syndromic intellectual disability, in which intellectual deficits appear without other abnormalities.

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Matson JL, Dempsey T (2008). "Stereotypy in Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Relationship and Diagnostic Fidelity".

7522: 7212: 6360: 6133: 5448:"Effects of the changes in legislation governing offenders with intellectual disabilities in Norway: A descriptive study" 4496: 1611: 1392: 1262: 974: 424: 410: 3456:

Kemp C, Carter M (2002). "The social skills and social status of mainstreamed students with intellectual disabilities".

6462: 6437: 6272: 6027: 5926: 5880: 5510: 5423: 1206:(2013). The term "mental retardation" is still used in some professional settings such as governmental aid programs or 5152: 4528: 637:

across multiple environments (as measured by an adaptive behavior rating scale, i.e. communication, self-help skills,

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was removed from the Act in November 2008, but the grounds for detention remained. However, English statute law uses

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may use "learning difficulty" to refer to both people with intellectual disability and those with conditions such as

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People with intellectual disabilities are usually at a higher risk of living with complex health conditions such as

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Furthermore, lack of stimulation of sensory pathways in infants can also cause developmental and cognitive delays.

6582: 6377: 6302: 6128: 5664: 4617: 2721: 1420: 1213: 475: 339: 92: 5500: 4324:

Salvador-Carulla L, Reed GM, Vaez-Azizi LM, Cooper SA, Martinez-Leal R, Bertelli M, et al. (October 2011).

3690: 7527: 7235: 7020: 6991: 6252: 6042: 5986: 1549: 891: 2513:"Comorbidity of intellectual disability confounds ascertainment of autism: implications for genetic diagnosis" 144: 6761: 6479: 6455: 6093: 5854: 5730: 4384: 2907:"Neurocognitive outcomes of individuals with a sex chromosome trisomy: XXX, XYY, or XXY: a systematic review" 1846: 1789: 1474:

by people with intellectual disabilities, which means allowing them to make decisions about their own lives.

1361: 600:

and nations struggling with extended periods of warfare that disrupt agriculture production and distribution.

571: 220:

Delays in reaching, or failure to achieve milestones in motor skills development (sitting, crawling, walking)

3238: 7424: 6961: 6494: 6339: 6098: 5895: 5295:. Communications and Corporate Development, Research Branch. Correctional Service of Canada. Archived from 1810: 738: 714: 223:

Slowness learning to talk, or continued difficulties with speech and language skills after starting to talk

48: 1072:

From the 1960s to the present, most states have moved towards the elimination of segregated institutions.

6669: 6467: 5900: 5875: 5704: 5514: 3316:

Ramey SL, Ramey CT (1992). "Early educational intervention with disadvantaged children—To what effect?".

983: 734: 479: 128: 7482: 5229: 1004:

proposed selective breeding of humans to reduce intellectual disability. Early in the 20th century, the

694:, which is a consequence of changes in population IQ test performance changing IQ test norms over time. 7419: 6334: 6169: 5961: 5797: 5709: 5657: 5275:

People with Intellectual Disabilities: from Invisible to Visible Citizens of the EU Accession Countries

4562: 2243: 1228:

became popular in the middle of the 20th century to replace the previous set of terms, which included "

1058: 722: 226:

Difficulty with self-help and self-care skills (e.g., getting dressed, washing, and feeding themselves)

210: 3009: 2793:

Siderius LE, Hamel BC, van Bokhoven H, de Jager F, van den Helm B, Kremer H, et al. (July 1999).

2071: 1763:"Mental retardation (term that has been replaced by intellectual developmental disorder) – GPnotebook" 1257:

in some contexts covers the whole field, but it previously applied to people with milder impairments.

7429: 7398: 6776: 6659: 6245: 5885: 5740: 4232: 1573: 1483: 1183: 907: 398: 390: 378: 5289:

Persons with intellectual disability who are incarcerated for criminal offences: A literature review

5214:

On the Margins of Citizenship: Intellectual Disability and Civil Rights in Twentieth-Century America

4421:

A manual for the classification, training, and education of the feeble-minded, imbecile, and idiotic

4162:

Gernsbacher, Morton Ann; Raimond, Adam R.; Balinghasay, M. Theresa; Boston, Jilana S. (2016-12-19).

3287:. Vol. 3: Risk, disorder, and adaptation (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. pp. 235–267. 1892: 1210:

paperwork, where "mental retardation" is specifically covered but "intellectual disability" is not.

7477: 7393: 7388: 7085: 7048: 7040: 6858: 6827: 6568: 6553: 6062: 6037: 5583: 5482:

The Story of Intellectual Disability: An Evolution of Meaning, Understanding, and Public Perception

5397: 2834:

Laumonnier F, Holbert S, Ronce N, Faravelli F, Lenzner S, Schwartz CE, et al. (October 2005).

1631: 1291: 1085: 1034:

Although ancient Roman law had declared people with intellectual disability to be incapable of the

996: 899: 879: 875: 730: 650: 291: 139:

that is first apparent during childhood. Children with intellectual disabilities typically have an

5415:

Whatever Happened to Inclusion?: The Place of Students with Intellectual Disabilities in Education

4304:"ICD-11 for Mortality and Morbidity Statistics (2018): 6A00 Disorders of intellectual development" 1092:

created public outrage that led to change to a more community-based method of providing services.

7414: 6921: 6771: 6766: 6723: 6176: 6123: 6118: 6047: 2954: 2342:"Almost all students with disabilities are capable of graduating on time. Here's why they're not" 1815: 1424:

live used the phrase "walking like a retard", despite complaints from the public and the charity

1365: 987: 967: 895: 718: 394: 216:

The level of impairment ranges in severity for each person. Some of the early signs can include:

4807: 2194: 2186: 7292: 6931: 6822: 6781: 6756: 6664: 6159: 6052: 5458:(3). International Association for the Scientific Study of Intellectual Disabilities: 229–235. 4146: 3990: 1463: 1399: 1077: 658: 547: 71: 5623: 4995:"Health disparities of adults with intellectual disabilities: what do we know? What do we do?" 2836:"Mutations in PHF8 are associated with X linked mental retardation and cleft lip/cleft palate" 1656: 7487: 7220: 7100: 7007: 6986: 5750: 4511:"Intellectual Disability: Definition, Classification, and Systems of Supports (11th Edition)" 4467:

Cummings NA, Wright RH (2005). "Chapter 1, Psychology's surrender to political correctness".

4257:

Smith, J. D.; Wehmeyer, M. L. (1999). "TWENTIETH-CENTURY DEFINITIONS OF MENTAL RETARDATION".

1740: 1556:(2010) that Hungary cannot restrict voting rights only on the basis of guardianship due to a 1487: 1247: 1042: 670: 485:

Problems at birth. If a baby has problems during labor and birth, such as not getting enough

140: 5413: 4277: 2273:(4). Elsevier on behalf of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: 468–96. 914:

in order to avoid them burdening society. However, they were exempt from their crimes under

47:

Children with intellectual disabilities and other developmental conditions competing in the

7312: 7225: 6981: 6801: 6402: 6382: 6083: 6067: 6032: 5966: 5055: 4969: 3630:"Beginning reading interventions for children and adolescents with intellectual disability" 2512: 1296: 1170:, which stemmed from the understanding that such conditions arose as a result of delays or 1009: 933: 638: 366: 136: 2763: 1961:"Non-Syndromic Intellectual Disability and Its Pathways: A Long Noncoding RNA Perspective" 1057:

This publication may be regarded as the first move towards the widespread adoption of the

8: 7362: 7344: 7307: 7297: 7151: 7053: 7030: 6878: 6870: 6649: 6627: 6355: 6216: 5735: 5568: 5329:"Persons with intellectual disabilities in the criminal justice system: Review of issues" 4574:

Website of the UK's leading learning disability charity, which uses that term throughout.

1370: 1261:

used to mean mild impairments in the UK, and once applied in the US to the whole field. "

1242: 1217: 1108: 973:

In the 18th and 19th centuries, housing and care moved away from families and towards an

843:

or mood stabilizers to help with their behavior. Use of psychotropic medications such as

803: 754: 702: 253: 96: 5103:"Healthcare for persons with intellectual and developmental disability in the community" 5059: 4647: 4592: 1906:

Boat, TF; Wu, JT, eds. (2015). "Clinical Characteristics of Intellectual Disabilities".

1115:, increase. Other causes are increasing as a proportion of cases, perhaps due to rising 7025: 6622: 6474: 6149: 5971: 5699: 5372: 5348: 5129: 5102: 5078: 5043: 5019: 4994: 4893: 4669: 4350: 4341: 4325: 4198: 4163: 4124: 4091: 3919: 3839: 3654: 3629: 3610: 3567: 3508: 3473: 3403: 3360: 3217: 3108: 3075: 2931: 2906: 2888: 2860: 2835: 2775: 2685: 2650: 2615:"Prevalence and Disparities in the Detection of Autism Without Intellectual Disability" 2595: 2540: 2488: 2455: 2400: 2322: 2282: 2118: 2093: 1987: 1960: 1880: 1716: 1683: 1626: 1512: 1467: 1233: 1047: 604: 370: 270: 183: 175: 88: 3329: 3131: 2109: 1699: 886:

in the late fifth century BCE, who believed that it was caused by an imbalance in the

7271: 6796: 6786: 6718: 6644: 6528: 6103: 6006: 5956: 5767: 5594: 5469: 5464: 5447: 5435: 5427: 5419: 5364: 5356: 5242: 5234: 5202: 5134: 5083: 5024: 4901: 4850: 4846: 4472: 4449: 4439: 4402: 4355: 4267: 4203: 4185: 4129: 4111: 3947: 3911: 3890:"An exploration of health, family and economic experiences of leprosy patients, Iran" 3871: 3808: 3787: 3766: 3745: 3724: 3702: 3694: 3659: 3602: 3559: 3524: 3516: 3477: 3438: 3395: 3296: 3244: 3221: 3209: 3113: 3095: 3056: 2936: 2922: 2865: 2816: 2767: 2689: 2654: 2642: 2634: 2599: 2587: 2579: 2532: 2493: 2475: 2435: 2392: 2326: 2314: 2306: 2298: 2290: 2214: 2202: 2123: 2044: 1992: 1913: 1860: 1856: 1721: 1703: 1662: 1616: 1577: 1516: 1508: 1028: 1016:

as a rationale for the mass murder of people with intellectual disability during the

706: 634: 539: 533: 447:

syndrome affect a small number of girls worldwide, while boys may be affected by 49,

382: 374: 335: 148: 55: 6237: 5577: 5573: 5376: 5296: 3923: 3614: 3571: 3407: 3364: 2779: 1332:

11th edition of its terminology and classification manual, which also used the term

1253:

Usage has changed over the years and differed from country to country. For example,

7141: 7095: 7063: 6911: 6889: 6854: 6617: 6499: 6450: 6397: 6372: 6367: 6324: 6312: 6196: 6191: 6088: 6001: 5745: 5634: 5459: 5340: 5328: 5221:

Rights of People with Intellectual Disabilities: Access to Education and Employment

5192: 5184: 5124: 5114: 5073: 5063: 5014: 5006: 4842: 4379: 4345: 4337: 4193: 4175: 4119: 4103: 3901: 3686: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3594: 3551: 3500: 3465: 3430: 3387: 3352: 3325: 3288: 3201: 3103: 3087: 3048: 2926: 2918: 2855: 2847: 2806: 2795:"X-linked mental retardation associated with cleft lip/palate maps to Xp11.3-q21.3" 2759: 2677: 2626: 2571: 2544: 2524: 2483: 2467: 2427: 2404: 2384: 2274: 2206: 2198: 2113: 2105: 1982: 1972: 1852: 1711: 1695: 1236:", among others, and are now considered offensive. By the end of the 20th century, 1207: 860: 358: 354: 265:

in simple activities. As adults, they may live with their parents, in a supportive

194: 7270: 4945:"5 reasons why people with intellectual disabilities should get the right to vote" 4752: 4092:"What's in a name? Attitudes surrounding the use of the term 'mental retardation'" 3499:(2). American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities: 97–107. 3205: 2558:

Katusic, Maja Z.; Myers, Scott M.; Weaver, Amy L.; Voigt, Robert G. (2021-12-01).

2145: 193:

cases account for 30–50% of these cases. About a quarter of cases are caused by a

7317: 7275: 7146: 7133: 7080: 7075: 7058: 6938: 6733: 6705: 6506: 6329: 6268: 5905: 5588: 5068: 3941: 3906: 3889: 3555: 3180:

The resolution ... urges a change from the old term to "developmental disability"

1606: 1357: 1300: 1012:

and prohibition of marriage in most of the developed world and was later used by

919: 844: 386: 260:

Moderate ID (IQ 35–49) is nearly always apparent within the first years of life.

76: 7367: 5637: 5558: 3469: 3356: 3052: 2704: 2703:

Boat TF, Wu JT (2015). "Clinical Characteristics of Intellectual Disabilities".

2032: 1935: 1907: 1592:

and absence of targeted health promotion services. Key recommendations from the

342:

are the next most common causes. Some other frequently observed causes include:

7302: 7243: 7167: 6976: 6943: 6926: 6916: 6154: 5762: 5219: 4531:. American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD). 3784:

Disabilities and the Disabled in the Roman World: A Social and Cultural History

3434: 2431: 2278: 1588: 1545: 1504: 1479: 1471: 1304: 1119:, which is associated with several syndromic forms of intellectual disability. 1104: 1001: 795: 509: 452: 5599: 5522: 4180: 3598: 3504: 3292: 2681: 2471: 2388: 1584:, and poor or fair health status than adults without intellectual disability. 1536:

have upheld some of these limitations and found discrimination in others. The

7511: 7336: 7287: 6605: 5991: 5757: 5473: 5360: 5352: 5344: 5188: 5119: 4808:"Australian Psychological Society: Psychologists and intellectual disability" 4189: 4115: 3698: 3520: 3512: 3391: 3213: 3099: 2638: 2630: 2583: 2575: 2479: 2294: 2286: 1785: 1707: 1491: 1324: 1286: 1216:

eventually become perceived as an insult, in a process commonly known as the

1127:

and motor disabilities, and seen to a lesser degree in sensory disabilities.

1124: 1097: 1096:

over whether or not to close institutions persists in some states, including

1081: 948: 840: 799: 786:

By most definitions, intellectual disability is more accurately considered a

766: 760: 555: 362: 331: 179: 152: 84: 5446:

Søndenaa, Erik; Linaker, Olav Martin; Nøttestad, Jim Aage (September 2009).

5386:"Invisible Victims Violence against persons with developmental disabilities" 4880: 4453: 2851: 2310: 910:. Many of them were killed early in the childhood, and then dumped into the 592:

is a common cause of reduced intelligence in parts of the world affected by

7190: 6971: 6523: 6108: 5976: 5936: 5368: 5138: 5087: 5028: 4905: 4854: 4779:"Ofcom says TV channels have 'human right' to broadcast offensive material" 4614:"Special Educational Needs and Disability: A. Cognition and Learning Needs" 4359: 4207: 4133: 3915: 3706: 3663: 3606: 3563: 3528: 3442: 3399: 3117: 3091: 3060: 2940: 2869: 2820: 2812:

10.1002/(SICI)1096-8628(19990730)85:3<216::AID-AJMG6>3.0.CO;2-X

2771: 2646: 2591: 2536: 2497: 2439: 2396: 2318: 2127: 2048: 1996: 1725: 1622:

Intermediate Care Facilities for Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities

1557: 1116: 1088:, a number of scandalous revelations around the horrific conditions within 1024: 1013: 941: 832: 691: 682: 678: 589: 579: 456: 436: 432: 261: 5439: 5206: 4406: 4107: 4090:

Nash, Chris; Hawkins, Ann; Kawchuk, Janet; Shea, Sarah E (February 2012).

3191: 2210: 2193:(Fifth ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. p. 859:

ID accounts for 30–50% of cases. About a quarter of cases are caused by a

321:

Down syndrome is the most common genetic cause of intellectual disability.

7175: 6906: 6637: 6387: 6186: 5618: 5246: 4492: 4013:"The ARC Highlights — Beyond Affliction: Beyond Affliction Document" 2528: 1977: 1388: 1376: 1198:(codes 6A00–6A04; 6A00.Z for the "unspecified" diagnosis code). The term 1112: 978: 963: 959: 887: 883: 543: 521: 444: 440: 353:

inherited from parents, errors when genes combine, or other reasons like

317: 168: 5495: 4897: 1548:

states, persons with intellectual disabilities are disenfranchised. The

1080:

are dominant. Along with the work of Wolfensberger and others including

33:

Intellectual developmental disability (IDD), general learning disability

7492: 7185: 7090: 6791: 6516: 6511: 6307: 6181: 5996: 5694: 5680: 5197: 3420: 2560:"IQ in Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Population-Based Birth Cohort Study" 1524: 1496: 926: 856: 575: 517: 402: 327: 266: 190: 64: 60: 5541: 5431: 5042:

Ali A, Scior K, Ratti V, Strydom A, King M, Hassiotis A (2013-08-12).

5010: 4469:

Destructive trends in mental health: the well-intentioned path to harm

2517:

American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics

2511:

Polyak, Andrew; Kubina, Richard M.; Girirajan, Santhosh (2015-07-22).

238:

Failure to grow intellectually, or continued infant childlike behavior

7445: 7377: 7195: 6654: 6392: 6317: 5981: 5629: 5333:

International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology

5254:

The Definition and Prevalence of Intellectual Disability in Australia

1520: 1017: 915: 463: 357:

in genes associated with intellectual disability. The most prevalent

132: 4323: 3943:

The Confinement of the Insane: International Perspectives, 1800–1965

3868:

Theology and Down Syndrome: Reimagining Disability in Late Modernity

2905:

Leggett V, Jacobs P, Nation K, Scerif G, Bishop DV (February 2010).

201:. Cases of unknown cause affect about 95 million people as of 2013. 7180: 6850: 6817: 6743: 6113: 4161: 3995:

Changing Patterns in Residential Services for the Mentally Retarded

1581: 1569: 1450: 1384: 1380: 1229: 1035: 1005: 823: 763:

skills, such as understanding what is said and being able to answer

726: 677:, was adapted from a test battery designed for school placement by 654: 621:

American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities

597: 346: 198: 164: 5839:

International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health

5517:'s National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities 4374: 2267:

Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry

757:, such as getting dressed, using the bathroom, and feeding oneself 5792: 2792: 1637:

Intellectual disability and higher education in the United States

1062: 1051: 952: 794:. Intellectual disability can be distinguished in many ways from 513: 501: 493: 471: 3997:. President's Committee on Mental Retardation, Washington, D.C. 2302: 2184: 1844: 1462:

someone with capacities and gifts as well as support needs. The

428: 414: 6898: 6713: 5553: 5262:

Intellectual Disability: A Guide for Families and Professionals

3805:

The Encyclopedia of Schizophrenia and Other Psychotic Disorders

3721:

Preventing Intellectual Disability: Ethical and Clinical Issues

2833: 1455: 1425: 1323:

disability. It is not specific to congenital disorders such as

1200:"intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder)" 1191: 1187: 1179: 951:

provided the first description of intellectual disability as a

770: 593: 583: 551: 525: 505: 489:, they may have a developmental disability due to brain damage. 486: 273:. About 10% of persons with ID are likely to have moderate ID. 160: 4921:"Voting is every EU citizen's right, regardless of disability" 3541: 3272:(5th ed.). pp. 308–313). Wadsworth Cengage Learning. 7335: 6676: 5649: 4250: 3841:

Encyclopedia of Children and Childhood in History and Society

3676: 3342: 3010:"Malnutrition Is Cheating Its Survivors, and Africa's Future" 2612: 1429: 1203: 911: 567: 467: 448: 350: 156: 4558: 1289:, intellectual disability is subsumed into the broader term 6849: 5452:

Journal of Policy and Practice in Intellectual Disabilities

5316:"John F. Kennedy and people with intellectual disabilities" 3786:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 46–54, 65–66. 3691:

10.1352/0895-8017(2002)107<0376:BBSERA>2.0.CO;2

3037: 2749: 2706:

Mental Disorders and Disabilities Among Low-Income Children

2374: 2091: 1940:

Mental Disorders and Disabilities Among Low-Income Children

1909:

Mental disorders and disabilities among low-income children

529: 419: 5230:

Dementia, aging, and intellectual disabilities: a handbook

3740:

Albrecht, Gary; Seelman, Katherine; Bury, Michael (2001).

3628:

Reichow B, Lemons CJ, Maggin DM, Hill DR (December 2019).

3169:"Rosa's Law to remove stigmatized language from law books" 1934:

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering (2015-10-28),

1932: 1008:

movement became popular throughout the world. This led to

994:

In the late 19th century, in response to Charles Darwin's

5318:. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. Archived from 4301: 2955:"Loss of epigenetic regulators causes mental retardation" 2904: 1415: 5445: 4999:

Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities

2452: 1538:

UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

7122: 5100: 4831: 4529:"Frequently Asked Questions on Intellectual Disability" 3627: 2980:"In Raising the World's I.Q., the Secret's in the Salt" 2557: 1936:"Clinical Characteristics of Intellectual Disabilities" 349:

conditions. Sometimes disability is caused by abnormal

5527:

California State Council on Developmental Disabilities

4089: 3240:

IACAPAP Textbook of Child and Adolescent Mental Health

3194:

Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability

1364:

for the United Kingdom from 1995 to 1997, changed the

697: 6267: 5829:

Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities

5101:

Ervin DA, Hennen B, Merrick J, Morad M (2014-07-15).

3490: 2510: 2233: 2191:

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

2033:"Identification and evaluation of mental retardation" 1848:

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

630:

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

482:

may also have a baby with an intellectual disability.

285: 186:

are examples of syndromic intellectual disabilities.

5531: 5268:

2001 New Zealand Snapshot of Intellectual Disability

5227:

Dalton, A. J.; Janicki, Matthew P., editors (1999).

5041: 4696:"Profound and multiple learning disabilities (PMLD)" 1958: 744: 5396:(1). American Bar Association: 9–12. Archived from 5257:. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare paper. 3991:"The Origin and Nature of Our Institutional Models" 3935: 3933: 3587:

Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology

2709:. National Academies Press (US). pp. 169–176). 2030: 1912:. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press (US). 1681: 944:were created to take over their financial affairs. 247:

Difficulty understanding and following social rules

6285: 3074:Ardiel, Evan L; Rankin, Catharine H (March 2010). 2670:Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities 2031:Daily DK, Ardinger HH, Holmes GE (February 2000). 1174:of a child's natural development, was used in the 431:). In the rarest of cases, abnormalities with the 4460: 4157: 4155: 3377: 2719: 7509: 6694: 5153:"Unrecognized Health Disparity Population | CDC" 3930: 1530: 1398:In England and Wales between 1983 and 2008, the 4876: 4874: 4872: 4870: 4868: 4866: 4864: 4168:Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications 3887: 2417: 1523:or the extra costs associated with living in a 1490:in regular classrooms report similar levels of 733:is any disability that is due to problems with 7467: 4466: 4152: 3978:. Birmingham, AL: Ebsco Media. pp. 74–75. 2139: 2137: 1905: 1348:had become the common medical term, replacing 466:. Intellectual disability can result when the 6253: 5834:Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons 5665: 4418: 4256: 4164:""Special needs" is an ineffective euphemism" 3988: 3807:. Facts on File, Incorporated. pp. 179, 330. 2667: 2460:Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 2370: 2368: 2366: 1067:Civil Rights of Institutionalized Persons Act 1041:Ignoring the prevailing attitude, U.S.-based 898:by their father. These people could also not 711:disabilities affecting intellectual abilities 5224:, bilingual reports on 14 European countries 4882:Centers for Disease Control Prevention (CDC) 4861: 4825: 4591:. University of Bedfordshire. Archived from 4419:Duncan, P. Martin; Millard, William (1866). 4229:National Center on Disability and Journalism 3939: 3888:Abedi H, Javadi A, Naji S (September 2013). 3584: 3282: 3073: 2752:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 2187:"Highlights of Changes from DSM-IV to DSM-5" 1214:Historical terms for intellectual disability 729:. Cognitive deficits may appear at any age. 244:Failure to adapt or adjust to new situations 5233:. Philadelphia: Brunner/Mazel. p. 12. 4886:MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 4835:Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 4412: 3634:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 3493:Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities 2339: 2134: 326:are development of an extra chromosome 18 ( 131:characterized by significant impairment in 7157:Other specified feeding or eating disorder 6424: 6260: 6246: 6222: 6023:Augmentative and alternative communication 5672: 5658: 5383: 5157:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention 4427: 4038:"Christmas in Purgatory & Willowbrook" 3973: 3833: 3831: 3829: 3827: 3825: 3823: 3821: 3455: 3315: 3233: 3231: 2911:Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 2363: 2087: 2085: 1804: 1802: 1654: 1507:, and double that associated with serious 705:, intellectual disability is a subtype of 334:, which is the most common genetic cause. 229:Poor planning or problem-solving abilities 38: 5463: 5128: 5118: 5077: 5067: 5018: 4637: 4349: 4197: 4179: 4123: 3905: 3653: 3267: 3107: 2930: 2859: 2810: 2487: 2185:American Psychiatric Association (2013). 2143: 2117: 1986: 1976: 1845:American Psychiatric Association (2013). 1715: 1675: 127:(in the United States), is a generalized 7420:Disorganized (hebephrenic) schizophrenia 7016:Depersonalization-derealization disorder 5285: 4992: 4776: 4438:. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. 4266:. Austin, TX: Pro-ED. pp. 380–381. 4063:"Fernald School Closing and RICCI Class" 3076:"The importance of touch in development" 2180: 2178: 2176: 2174: 2172: 2170: 1811:"Erasing a Hurtful Label From the Books" 1808: 1449: 1272: 1031:for measuring intelligence in children. 664: 316: 232:Difficulty following verbal instructions 6058:Disproportionality in special education 4391: 3894:Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences 3818: 3228: 3132:"Definition of Intellectual Disability" 2234:Queensland Government (July 30, 2015), 2082: 2066: 2064: 2062: 2026: 1799: 1527:, were excluded from this calculation. 1196:"disorders of intellectual development" 1190:(codes F70–F79). In the next revision, 297: 16:Generalized neurodevelopmental disorder 7510: 4918: 4750: 4535:from the original on 14 September 2013 4433: 4387:from the original on 8 September 2011. 4260:Mental Retardation in the 21st Century 4015:. Disabilitymuseum.org. Archived from 3848:from the original on 28 September 2010 3679:American Journal on Mental Retardation 3423:Research in Developmental Disabilities 3171:. Ithaca, New York: The Ithaca Journal 3166: 2977: 2882: 2702: 2420:Research in Developmental Disabilities 2377:Child Psychiatry and Human Development 2263: 2024: 2022: 2020: 2018: 2016: 2014: 2012: 2010: 2008: 2006: 1445: 958:The first known person in the British 524:is delayed or inadequate. Exposure to 7466: 7334: 7269: 7121: 6848: 6693: 6603: 6423: 6284: 6241: 5653: 5511:Facts about intellectual disabilities 5326: 4721:"Draft Illustrative Code of Practice" 4399:The imbecile with criminal instincts. 4085: 4083: 3723:. Cambridge University Press. p. 33. 3007: 2764:10.1146/annurev.genom.7.080505.115610 2167: 2156:from the original on October 28, 2016 2152:, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 2144:Kaneshiro, Neil K. (April 21, 2015), 1563: 918:, and they were also used to perform 717:), or acquired later in life through 560:congenital iodine deficiency syndrome 520:can cause intellectual disability if 204: 123:(in the United Kingdom) and formerly 6604: 4753:"The path from cinema to playground" 4372: 3989:Wolfensberger W (January 10, 1969). 3940:Porter R, Wright D (7 August 2003). 2978:McNeil, Donald G. Jr. (2006-12-16). 2799:American Journal of Medical Genetics 2059: 1809:Ansberry, Clare (20 November 2010). 1738: 1311:or, more recently (and preferably), 1135:Over the past two decades, the term 962:with an intellectual disability was 773:members, spouses, adults, and others 7123:Physiological and physical behavior 6165:Disability in children's literature 5418:. New York: Peter Lang Publishing. 4993:Krahn GL, Fox MH (September 2014). 4585:"Learning Disabilities: Prevalence" 3837: 2227: 2003: 1779: 1747:from the original on 27 June 2015. 1732: 1612:History of psychiatric institutions 1393:developmental coordination disorder 1263:Borderline intellectual functioning 1246:become widely seen as disparaging, 698:Distinction from other disabilities 395:Phelan–McDermid syndrome (22q13del) 393:. Other genetic conditions include 13: 7069:Psychogenic non-epileptic seizures 6463:Emotional and behavioral disorders 6028:Emotional or behavioral disability 5173: 4342:10.1002/j.2051-5545.2011.tb00045.x 4302:World Health Organization (2018). 4080: 4001:from the original on May 12, 2006. 3870:. Baylor University Press. p. 28. 3150:"What Is Intellectual Disability?" 2885:Genetics and Learning Disabilities 2732:from the original on April 4, 2023 1232:", "idiot", "feeble-minded", and " 675:Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales 286:Autism and intellectual disability 14: 7544: 7249:Hypoactive sexual desire disorder 5488: 3763:Handbook of Child Psychopathology 3318:Applied and Preventive Psychology 2340:Butrymowicz, Sarah (2017-11-04). 2072:"Definition of mentally retarded" 1823:from the original on 27 June 2015 1339: 745:Limitations in more than one area 159:, intellectual functions include 6549:X-linked intellectual disability 6221: 6212: 6211: 5494: 5465:10.1111/j.1741-1130.2009.00206.x 5327:Jones, Jessica (December 2007). 5145: 5094: 5035: 4847:10.1111/j.1365-2788.2006.00789.x 4638:Vickerman, Philip (2009-07-08). 4589:Social Work, Alcohol & Drugs 4517:from the original on 2016-12-02. 4499:from the original on 2014-08-21. 4147:Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia 3974:Armbrester, Margaret E. (1992). 3544:Journal of Learning Disabilities 3257:from the original on 2015-08-13. 3138:from the original on 2017-01-23. 2923:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2009.03545.x 2722:"Many Low IQs Are Just Bad Luck" 2720:Natalie Wolchover (2012-10-01). 2203:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 2055:from the original on 2010-12-04. 1857:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596 1268: 1176:American Psychiatric Association 625:American Psychiatric Association 558:. More common than full-fledged 550:. Iodine deficiency also causes 417:) as caused by mutations in the 407:X-linked intellectual disability 340:fetal alcohol spectrum disorders 313:X-linked intellectual disability 6378:Intermittent explosive disorder 6303:Ego-dystonic sexual orientation 4986: 4962: 4937: 4912: 4814:from the original on 2012-09-08 4800: 4789:from the original on 2010-07-11 4777:Beckford, Martin (2010-03-11). 4770: 4759:from the original on 2008-09-25 4744: 4733:from the original on 2007-09-26 4713: 4688: 4662: 4631: 4606: 4577: 4565:from the original on 2010-12-15 4551: 4521: 4503: 4485: 4401:Fourth edition. Boston: Ellis. 4366: 4317: 4295: 4214: 4140: 4055: 4030: 4005: 3982: 3967: 3881: 3860: 3797: 3776: 3755: 3734: 3713: 3670: 3621: 3578: 3535: 3484: 3449: 3414: 3371: 3336: 3309: 3276: 3261: 3185: 3160: 3142: 3124: 3067: 3031: 3020:from the original on 2009-04-17 3001: 2990:from the original on 2010-07-12 2971: 2947: 2898: 2876: 2827: 2786: 2743: 2713: 2696: 2661: 2606: 2551: 2504: 2446: 2411: 2333: 2257: 1952: 1942:, National Academies Press (US) 1739:Tidy, Colin (25 January 2013). 1661:. Hoboken: Wiley. p. 168. 1428:, the communications regulator 850: 536:may also affect mental ability. 492:The group of proteins known as 476:fetal alcohol spectrum disorder 280: 93:Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder 7021:Dissociative identity disorder 6286:Adult personality and behavior 6043:Disability and LGBT identities 5679: 4644:Teacher Training Resource Bank 4640:"Severe Learning Difficulties" 4096:Paediatrics & Child Health 3946:. Cambridge University Press. 3742:Handbook of Disability Studies 3646:10.1002/14651858.CD011359.pub2 3080:Paediatrics & Child Health 1926: 1899: 1838: 1755: 1648: 1550:European Court of Human Rights 1250:, and in need of replacement. 1194:, it was replaced by the term 1130: 235:Behavioral and social problems 1: 5855:Services for mental disorders 5499:The dictionary definition of 5480:Wehmeyer, Michael L. (2013). 4659:Extensive further references. 4065:. Arcmass.org. Archived from 4040:. Arcmass.org. Archived from 3744:. SAGE Publications. p. 269. 3345:Applied Developmental Science 3330:10.1016/s0962-1849(05)80134-9 3285:Developmental Psychopathology 3206:10.3109/13668250.2019.1580116 3008:Wines, Michael (2006-12-28). 2110:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60692-4 2076:Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine 1741:"General Learning Disability" 1700:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6 1642: 1531:Human rights and legal status 1362:Secretary of State for Health 781: 739:congenital medical conditions 737:. This term encompasses many 500:Exposure to certain types of 241:Problems keeping up in school 147:and deficits in at least two 7533:Neurodevelopmental disorders 7425:Pseudoneurotic schizophrenia 6962:Generalized anxiety disorder 6695:Neurological and symptomatic 6340:Sexual relationship disorder 5860:Services for disabled people 5069:10.1371/journal.pone.0070855 4919:Toplak, Jurij (2020-09-07). 4751:Rohrer, Finlo (2008-09-22). 4616:. teachernet. Archived from 4434:Rafter, Nicole Hahn (1997). 3907:10.1080/02673843.2011.649565 3556:10.1177/00222194070400050301 3268:Mash, E.; Wolfe, D. (2013). 1572:and neurological disorders, 1436: 1356:in England and Wales, until 715:specific learning disability 614: 478:) or gets an infection like 290:Intellectual disability and 254:specific learning disability 197:, and about 5% of cases are 49:Special Olympics World Games 7: 7201:REM sleep behavior disorder 6670:Seasonal affective disorder 6468:Separation anxiety disorder 6143:Arts, media, culture, sport 5515:Centers for Disease Control 4397:Fernald, Walter E. (1912). 3470:10.1080/0144341022000003097 3357:10.1207/s1532480xads0601_05 3053:10.1016/j.jpeds.2007.06.037 2840:Journal of Medical Genetics 1600: 984:medical model of disability 669:The first English-language 582:programs. But, as of 2006, 578:have instituted widespread 546:where iodine deficiency is 439:may also cause disability. 129:neurodevelopmental disorder 121:general learning disability 10: 7549: 7523:Developmental disabilities 7468:Symptoms and uncategorized 6569:developmental disabilities 6335:Sexual maturation disorder 6170:Disability in horror films 5962:Activities of daily living 5286:Endicott, Orville (1991). 5264:. Oxford University Press. 5216:. Temple University Press. 5107:Frontiers in Public Health 4423:. Longmans, Green, and Co. 3435:10.1016/j.ridd.2010.11.010 3167:Lawyer, Liz (2010-11-26). 2432:10.1016/j.ridd.2009.06.003 2279:10.1016/j.jaac.2019.11.018 1655:Wilmshurst, Linda (2012). 1574:gastrointestinal disorders 1454:Severely disabled girl in 1059:social model of disability 866: 723:neurodegenerative diseases 310: 211:activities of daily living 7473: 7462: 7438: 7430:Simple-type schizophrenia 7407: 7399:Schizophreniform disorder 7376: 7355: 7351: 7330: 7283: 7265: 7234: 7211: 7165: 7132: 7128: 7117: 7039: 7006: 6954: 6897: 6888: 6869: 6865: 6844: 6810: 6777:Mild cognitive impairment 6762:Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease 6742: 6704: 6700: 6689: 6660:Major depressive disorder 6613: 6599: 6565:Psychological development 6564: 6539: 6436: 6432: 6419: 6348: 6295: 6291: 6280: 6207: 6142: 6076: 6015: 5949: 5914: 5868: 5847: 5811: 5785: 5778: 5718: 5687: 5609: 5535: 5384:Petersilia, Joan (2000). 5260:Harris, James C. (2010). 5212:Carey C. Allison (2010). 4181:10.1186/s41235-016-0025-4 3599:10.1080/15374410701448448 3505:10.1352/1934-9556-47.2.97 3293:10.1002/9780470939406.ch6 3270:Abnormal child psychology 3041:The Journal of Pediatrics 2883:Bender, Bruce G. (1986). 2682:10.1007/s10882-007-9086-0 2472:10.1007/s10803-012-1664-z 2389:10.1007/s10578-016-0681-0 2236:"Intellectual disability" 2146:"Intellectual disability" 2037:American Family Physician 1184:World Health Organization 1036:deliberate intent to harm 379:congenital hypothyroidism 306: 102: 70: 54: 46: 37: 29: 24: 7478:Impulse-control disorder 7394:Schizoaffective disorder 7389:Brief reactive psychosis 7086:Mass psychogenic illness 7049:Body dysmorphic disorder 6828:Post-concussion syndrome 6438:Emotional and behavioral 6063:Sexuality and disability 6038:Disability and disasters 5950:Structural and assistive 5345:10.1177/0306624X07299343 5189:10.1177/1461444812457338 5120:10.3389/fpubh.2014.00083 4222:"Disability Style Guide" 3782:Laes, Christian (2018). 3761:Hersen, Michael (2013). 3719:Louhiala, Pekka (2004). 3392:10.1177/0145445507301650 2631:10.1542/peds.2022-056594 2576:10.1542/peds.2020-049899 1632:Severe mental impairment 1292:developmental disability 1149:developmentally disabled 997:On the Origin of Species 731:Developmental disability 651:traumatic brain injuries 554:, an enlargement of the 480:rubella during pregnancy 292:autism spectrum disorder 7518:Intellectual disability 7415:Childhood schizophrenia 6767:Frontotemporal dementia 6724:High-functioning autism 6541:Intellectual disability 6177:Disability in the media 6048:Disability and religion 5987:Personal Care Assistant 5502:intellectual disability 5181:New Media & Society 4670:"Learning disabilities" 4471:. New York: Routledge. 4436:Creating born criminals 2852:10.1136/jmg.2004.029439 1816:The Wall Street Journal 1334:intellectual disability 1320:intellectual disability 1313:intellectual disability 1147:(8%). Expressions like 1145:intellectual disability 1137:intellectual disability 988:Cape Town, South Africa 719:acquired brain injuries 113:Intellectual disability 25:Intellectual disability 6932:Specific social phobia 6823:Organic brain syndrome 6665:Melancholic depression 6426:Childhood and learning 6160:Disability in the arts 6053:Disability and poverty 5992:Physical accessibility 5412:Smith, Philip (2010). 5272:Kovago, Emese (2003). 4373:Cook J (5 July 2001). 4231:. 2015. Archived from 3803:Noll, Richard (2009). 3458:Educational Psychology 1554:Alajos Kiss v. Hungary 1466:promotes the right of 1464:self-advocacy movement 1458: 1400:Mental Health Act 1983 1295:, which also includes 1281: 1078:deinstitutionalization 735:growth and development 619:According to both the 322: 72:Differential diagnosis 7528:Learning disabilities 7488:Psychomotor agitation 7278:and substance-related 7221:Postpartum depression 7101:Somatization disorder 6987:Acute stress reaction 6752:AIDS dementia complex 5751:driver rehabilitation 5484:. Brookes Publishing. 4810:. Psychology.org.au. 3765:. Springer US. p. 6. 3380:Behavior Modification 1453: 1421:Celebrity Big Brother 1280:USA team in July 2019 1276: 1248:politically incorrect 947:In the 17th century, 665:Intelligence quotient 399:Mowat–Wilson syndrome 391:Prader–Willi syndrome 373:(common among boys), 320: 311:Further information: 141:intelligence quotient 7483:Klüver–Bucy syndrome 7313:Substance dependence 7226:Postpartum psychosis 6772:Huntington's disease 6554:Lujan–Fryns syndrome 6403:Personality disorder 6084:Models of disability 6068:Youth and disability 6033:Invisible disability 5982:Orthotics and braces 5967:Assistive technology 5779:Rights, law, support 5339:(6). Sage: 723–733. 3092:10.1093/pch/15.3.153 2891:. pp. 175–201. 2529:10.1002/ajmg.b.32338 2346:The Hechinger Report 2043:(4): 1059–67, 1070. 1978:10.3390/ncrna7010022 1694:(10053): 1545–1602. 1010:forced sterilization 639:interpersonal skills 405:, and Siderius type 367:Klinefelter syndrome 298:Defining differences 137:adaptive functioning 7363:Delusional disorder 7308:Stimulant psychosis 7298:Physical dependence 7152:Rumination syndrome 7054:Conversion disorder 7031:Psychogenic amnesia 6881:with depressed mood 6879:Adjustment disorder 6782:Parkinson's disease 6757:Alzheimer's disease 6650:Atypical depression 6486:Social functioning 6361:Munchausen syndrome 6356:Factitious disorder 5736:Learning disability 5400:on 1 September 2000 5322:on 21 January 2022. 5183:. 15 (4): 501–518. 5060:2013PLoSO...870855A 4283:on 12 November 2020 4108:10.1093/pch/17.2.71 3866:Yong, Amos (2007). 2246:on October 28, 2016 1788:, Pub. L. 111-256, 1542:several U.S. states 1513:hearing impairments 1482:, students who are 1446:Society and culture 1371:learning disability 1350:mental subnormality 1218:euphemism treadmill 1141:developmental delay 1109:infectious diseases 1027:produced the first 755:Daily living skills 659:Alzheimer's disease 163:, problem solving, 155:. According to the 97:learning disability 7382:schizophrenia-like 7026:Dissociative fugue 6475:Movement disorders 6150:Disability culture 6077:Disability studies 5972:Independent living 5700:Disability studies 5610:External resources 4974:electionaccess.org 3154:www.psychiatry.org 3014:The New York Times 2984:The New York Times 2889:College Hill Press 2625:(2): e2022056594. 2570:(6): e2020049899. 1627:Secondary handicap 1564:Health disparities 1468:self-determination 1459: 1368:'s designation to 1309:mental retardation 1282: 1255:mental retardation 1222:mental retardation 1182:(1994) and in the 1168:mental retardation 1143:with parents over 1090:state institutions 1048:Wolf Wolfensberger 880:Roman philosophers 605:arcuate fasciculus 403:genetic ciliopathy 371:Fragile X syndrome 359:genetic conditions 323: 271:sheltered workshop 205:Signs and symptoms 184:fragile X syndrome 176:signs and symptoms 149:adaptive behaviors 125:mental retardation 106:153 million (2015) 7505: 7504: 7501: 7500: 7458: 7457: 7454: 7453: 7326: 7325: 7261: 7260: 7257: 7256: 7113: 7112: 7109: 7108: 7002: 7001: 6840: 6839: 6836: 6835: 6797:Vascular dementia 6719:Asperger syndrome 6685: 6684: 6595: 6594: 6591: 6590: 6529:Tourette syndrome 6415: 6414: 6411: 6410: 6235: 6234: 6104:Neuroqueer theory 6007:Web accessibility 5957:Accessible toilet 5945: 5944: 5798:Disability rights 5793:Ableism/disablism 5647: 5646: 5011:10.1111/jar.12067 4970:"Election Access" 4478:978-0-415-95086-2 4273:978-0-89079-819-5 3976:The Civitan Story 3953:978-0-521-80206-2 3876:978-1-60258-006-0 3813:978-0-8160-7508-9 3792:978-1-107-16290-7 3771:978-1-4615-7136-0 3750:978-0-7619-2874-4 3729:978-0-521-53371-3 3302:978-0-471-23738-9 3250:978-0-646-57440-0 2352:on April 20, 2023 2220:978-0-89042-555-8 2104:(9995): 743–800. 1919:978-0-309-37685-3 1866:978-0-89042-555-8 1668:978-1-118-43998-2 1617:IQ classification 1517:special education 1409:mental impairment 1405:mental impairment 1354:mental deficiency 1226:mentally retarded 1029:standardized test 890:in the brain. In 707:cognitive deficit 635:adaptive behavior 540:Iodine deficiency 383:Williams syndrome 375:neurofibromatosis 355:de novo mutations 336:DiGeorge syndrome 169:abstract thinking 119:), also known as 110: 109: 19:Medical condition 7540: 7464: 7463: 7353: 7352: 7332: 7331: 7267: 7266: 7142:Anorexia nervosa 7130: 7129: 7119: 7118: 7096:Psychogenic pain 7064:Globus pharyngis 6912:Childhood phobia 6895: 6894: 6867: 6866: 6846: 6845: 6702: 6701: 6691: 6690: 6601: 6600: 6500:Selective mutism 6451:Conduct disorder 6434: 6433: 6421: 6420: 6398:Trichotillomania 6373:Gender dysphoria 6368:Fear of intimacy 6325:Sexual anhedonia 6293: 6292: 6282: 6281: 6269:Mental disorders 6262: 6255: 6248: 6239: 6238: 6225: 6224: 6215: 6214: 6197:Special Olympics 6089:Inspiration porn 6002:Universal design 5803:Pejorative terms 5783: 5782: 5746:Physical therapy 5674: 5667: 5660: 5651: 5650: 5533: 5532: 5498: 5477: 5467: 5409: 5407: 5405: 5380: 5323: 5311: 5309: 5307: 5301: 5294: 5200: 5168: 5167: 5165: 5164: 5149: 5143: 5142: 5132: 5122: 5098: 5092: 5091: 5081: 5071: 5039: 5033: 5032: 5022: 4990: 4984: 4983: 4981: 4980: 4966: 4960: 4959: 4957: 4956: 4949:Inclusion Europe 4941: 4935: 4934: 4932: 4931: 4916: 4910: 4909: 4878: 4859: 4858: 4841:(Pt 6): 432–44. 4829: 4823: 4822: 4820: 4819: 4804: 4798: 4797: 4795: 4794: 4774: 4768: 4767: 4765: 4764: 4748: 4742: 4741: 4739: 4738: 4732: 4725: 4717: 4711: 4710: 4708: 4706: 4692: 4686: 4685: 4683: 4681: 4666: 4660: 4658: 4656: 4655: 4646:. 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Diseases like 462:Problems during 195:genetic disorder 42: 22: 21: 7548: 7547: 7543: 7542: 7541: 7539: 7538: 7537: 7508: 7507: 7506: 7497: 7469: 7450: 7434: 7403: 7381: 7372: 7347: 7322: 7279: 7276:substance abuse 7253: 7230: 7207: 7161: 7147:Bulimia nervosa 7124: 7105: 7081:Hypochondriasis 7076:False pregnancy 7059:Ganser syndrome 7041:Somatic symptom 7035: 6998: 6950: 6939:Specific phobia 6884: 6861: 6832: 6806: 6738: 6734:Savant syndrome 6706:Autism spectrum 6696: 6681: 6609: 6587: 6566: 6560: 6535: 6428: 6407: 6383:Dermatillomania 6344: 6330:Sexual anorexia 6287: 6276: 6266: 6236: 6231: 6203: 6138: 6072: 6011: 5941: 5915:Activist groups 5910: 5864: 5843: 5807: 5774: 5714: 5683: 5678: 5648: 5643: 5642: 5605: 5604: 5544: 5491: 5403: 5401: 5314: 5305: 5303: 5299: 5292: 5196: 5176: 5174:Further reading 5171: 5162: 5160: 5151: 5150: 5146: 5099: 5095: 5040: 5036: 4991: 4987: 4978: 4976: 4968: 4967: 4963: 4954: 4952: 4943: 4942: 4938: 4929: 4927: 4917: 4913: 4879: 4862: 4830: 4826: 4817: 4815: 4806: 4805: 4801: 4792: 4790: 4775: 4771: 4762: 4760: 4749: 4745: 4736: 4734: 4730: 4723: 4719: 4718: 4714: 4704: 4702: 4694: 4693: 4689: 4679: 4677: 4668: 4667: 4663: 4653: 4651: 4636: 4632: 4623: 4621: 4612: 4611: 4607: 4598: 4596: 4583: 4582: 4578: 4568: 4566: 4557: 4556: 4552: 4538: 4536: 4527: 4526: 4522: 4509: 4508: 4504: 4491: 4490: 4486: 4479: 4465: 4461: 4446: 4432: 4428: 4417: 4413: 4396: 4392: 4371: 4367: 4322: 4318: 4308: 4306: 4300: 4296: 4286: 4284: 4280: 4274: 4263: 4255: 4251: 4241: 4239: 4235: 4224: 4220: 4219: 4215: 4160: 4153: 4145: 4141: 4088: 4081: 4072: 4070: 4061: 4060: 4056: 4047: 4045: 4036: 4035: 4031: 4022: 4020: 4011: 4010: 4006: 3987: 3983: 3972: 3968: 3958: 3956: 3954: 3938: 3931: 3886: 3882: 3865: 3861: 3851: 3849: 3836: 3819: 3802: 3798: 3781: 3777: 3760: 3756: 3739: 3735: 3718: 3714: 3675: 3671: 3626: 3622: 3583: 3579: 3540: 3536: 3489: 3485: 3454: 3450: 3419: 3415: 3376: 3372: 3341: 3337: 3314: 3310: 3303: 3281: 3277: 3266: 3262: 3251: 3237: 3236: 3229: 3190: 3186: 3174: 3172: 3165: 3161: 3148: 3147: 3143: 3130: 3129: 3125: 3072: 3068: 3036: 3032: 3023: 3021: 3006: 3002: 2993: 2991: 2976: 2972: 2963: 2961: 2953: 2952: 2948: 2903: 2899: 2881: 2877: 2832: 2828: 2791: 2787: 2748: 2744: 2735: 2733: 2726:livescience.com 2718: 2714: 2701: 2697: 2666: 2662: 2611: 2607: 2556: 2552: 2509: 2505: 2451: 2447: 2416: 2412: 2373: 2364: 2355: 2353: 2338: 2334: 2262: 2258: 2249: 2247: 2232: 2228: 2221: 2183: 2168: 2159: 2157: 2142: 2135: 2090: 2083: 2070: 2069: 2060: 2029: 2004: 1957: 1953: 1945: 1943: 1931: 1927: 1920: 1904: 1900: 1888: 1887: 1878: 1877: 1871: 1869: 1867: 1843: 1839: 1826: 1824: 1807: 1800: 1784: 1780: 1771: 1769: 1761: 1760: 1756: 1737: 1733: 1680: 1676: 1669: 1653: 1649: 1645: 1607:Future planning 1603: 1566: 1533: 1480:special schools 1448: 1439: 1358:Stephen Dorrell 1346:mental handicap 1342: 1271: 1202:is used in the 1133: 1086:Rosemary Dybwad 869: 853: 845:benzodiazepines 828:metastrategical 784: 747: 700: 667: 617: 603:Absence of the 580:salt iodization 387:phenylketonuria 315: 309: 300: 288: 283: 207: 153:everyday living 20: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7546: 7536: 7535: 7530: 7525: 7520: 7503: 7502: 7499: 7498: 7496: 7495: 7490: 7485: 7480: 7474: 7471: 7470: 7460: 7459: 7456: 7455: 7452: 7451: 7449: 7448: 7442: 7440: 7436: 7435: 7433: 7432: 7427: 7422: 7417: 7411: 7409: 7405: 7404: 7402: 7401: 7396: 7391: 7385: 7383: 7374: 7373: 7371: 7370: 7365: 7359: 7357: 7349: 7348: 7328: 7327: 7324: 7323: 7321: 7320: 7315: 7310: 7305: 7303:Rebound effect 7300: 7295: 7290: 7284: 7281: 7280: 7263: 7262: 7259: 7258: 7255: 7254: 7252: 7251: 7246: 7244:Hypersexuality 7240: 7238: 7232: 7231: 7229: 7228: 7223: 7217: 7215: 7209: 7208: 7206: 7205: 7204: 7203: 7198: 7193: 7183: 7178: 7172: 7170: 7163: 7162: 7160: 7159: 7154: 7149: 7144: 7138: 7136: 7126: 7125: 7115: 7114: 7111: 7110: 7107: 7106: 7104: 7103: 7098: 7093: 7088: 7083: 7078: 7073: 7072: 7071: 7066: 7061: 7051: 7045: 7043: 7037: 7036: 7034: 7033: 7028: 7023: 7018: 7012: 7010: 7004: 7003: 7000: 6999: 6997: 6996: 6995: 6994: 6989: 6979: 6977:Panic disorder 6974: 6969: 6964: 6958: 6956: 6952: 6951: 6949: 6948: 6947: 6946: 6944:Claustrophobia 6936: 6935: 6934: 6929: 6927:Anthropophobia 6919: 6917:Social anxiety 6914: 6909: 6903: 6901: 6892: 6886: 6885: 6883: 6882: 6875: 6873: 6863: 6862: 6842: 6841: 6838: 6837: 6834: 6833: 6831: 6830: 6825: 6820: 6814: 6812: 6808: 6807: 6805: 6804: 6799: 6794: 6789: 6787:Pick's disease 6784: 6779: 6774: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6748: 6746: 6740: 6739: 6737: 6736: 6731: 6726: 6721: 6716: 6710: 6708: 6698: 6697: 6687: 6686: 6683: 6682: 6680: 6679: 6674: 6673: 6672: 6667: 6662: 6657: 6652: 6642: 6641: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6614: 6611: 6610: 6597: 6596: 6593: 6592: 6589: 6588: 6586: 6585: 6580: 6574: 6572: 6562: 6561: 6559: 6558: 6557: 6556: 6545: 6543: 6537: 6536: 6534: 6533: 6532: 6531: 6521: 6520: 6519: 6514: 6504: 6503: 6502: 6497: 6492: 6484: 6483: 6482: 6472: 6471: 6470: 6460: 6459: 6458: 6448: 6442: 6440: 6430: 6429: 6417: 6416: 6413: 6412: 6409: 6408: 6406: 6405: 6400: 6395: 6390: 6385: 6380: 6375: 6370: 6365: 6364: 6363: 6352: 6350: 6346: 6345: 6343: 6342: 6337: 6332: 6327: 6322: 6321: 6320: 6315: 6305: 6299: 6297: 6289: 6288: 6278: 6277: 6273:Classification 6265: 6264: 6257: 6250: 6242: 6233: 6232: 6230: 6229: 6219: 6208: 6205: 6204: 6202: 6201: 6200: 6199: 6194: 6189: 6179: 6174: 6173: 6172: 6167: 6157: 6155:Disability art 6152: 6146: 6144: 6140: 6139: 6137: 6136: 6131: 6126: 6121: 6116: 6111: 6106: 6101: 6096: 6091: 6086: 6080: 6078: 6074: 6073: 6071: 6070: 6065: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6035: 6030: 6025: 6019: 6017: 6013: 6012: 6010: 6009: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5979: 5974: 5969: 5964: 5959: 5953: 5951: 5947: 5946: 5943: 5942: 5940: 5939: 5934: 5929: 5924: 5918: 5916: 5912: 5911: 5909: 5908: 5903: 5898: 5893: 5888: 5883: 5878: 5872: 5870: 5866: 5865: 5863: 5862: 5857: 5851: 5849: 5845: 5844: 5842: 5841: 5836: 5831: 5826: 5821: 5815: 5813: 5809: 5808: 5806: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5789: 5787: 5780: 5776: 5775: 5773: 5772: 5771: 5770: 5765: 5755: 5754: 5753: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5728: 5722: 5720: 5716: 5715: 5713: 5712: 5707: 5702: 5697: 5691: 5689: 5685: 5684: 5677: 5676: 5669: 5662: 5654: 5645: 5644: 5641: 5640: 5626: 5614: 5613: 5611: 5607: 5606: 5603: 5602: 5591: 5580: 5561: 5545: 5540: 5539: 5537: 5536:Classification 5530: 5529: 5519: 5518: 5507: 5506: 5490: 5489:External links 5487: 5486: 5485: 5478: 5443: 5424:978-1433104343 5410: 5381: 5324: 5312: 5302:on 1 July 2013 5283: 5270: 5265: 5258: 5250: 5225: 5217: 5210: 5175: 5172: 5170: 5169: 5144: 5093: 5034: 4985: 4961: 4936: 4911: 4860: 4824: 4799: 4769: 4743: 4712: 4687: 4676:. 9 April 2018 4661: 4630: 4605: 4576: 4550: 4520: 4502: 4484: 4477: 4459: 4444: 4426: 4411: 4390: 4375:"The "R" Word" 4365: 4316: 4294: 4272: 4249: 4213: 4151: 4139: 4079: 4054: 4029: 4004: 3981: 3966: 3952: 3929: 3900:(18): 927–32. 3880: 3859: 3817: 3796: 3775: 3754: 3733: 3712: 3685:(5): 376–410. 3669: 3620: 3577: 3534: 3483: 3464:(4): 391–411. 3448: 3413: 3386:(5): 682–707. 3370: 3335: 3324:(3): 131–140. 3308: 3301: 3275: 3260: 3249: 3227: 3200:(2): 110–118. 3184: 3159: 3141: 3123: 3086:(3): 153–156. 3066: 3030: 3000: 2970: 2946: 2897: 2875: 2826: 2785: 2742: 2712: 2695: 2676:(2): 155–165. 2660: 2605: 2550: 2523:(7): 600–608. 2503: 2445: 2426:(6): 1107–14. 2410: 2383:(4): 537–545. 2362: 2332: 2256: 2226: 2219: 2211:2027.42/138395 2166: 2133: 2081: 2058: 2002: 1965:Non-Coding RNA 1951: 1925: 1918: 1898: 1889:|website= 1865: 1837: 1798: 1790:124 Stat. 2643 1778: 1767:gpnotebook.com 1754: 1731: 1674: 1667: 1646: 1644: 1641: 1640: 1639: 1634: 1629: 1624: 1619: 1614: 1609: 1602: 1599: 1589:United Kingdom 1565: 1562: 1546:European Union 1544:, and several 1532: 1529: 1505:cerebral palsy 1472:self-direction 1447: 1444: 1438: 1435: 1377:social workers 1341: 1340:United Kingdom 1338: 1329: 1328: 1316: 1305:cerebral palsy 1270: 1267: 1132: 1129: 1105:lead poisoning 1002:Francis Galton 908:raise children 868: 865: 852: 849: 841:antipsychotics 796:mental illness 790:rather than a 783: 780: 775: 774: 764: 758: 746: 743: 699: 696: 666: 663: 616: 613: 612: 611: 608: 601: 587: 537: 510:whooping cough 498: 490: 483: 460: 308: 305: 299: 296: 287: 284: 282: 279: 249: 248: 245: 242: 239: 236: 233: 230: 227: 224: 221: 206: 203: 108: 107: 104: 100: 99: 74: 68: 67: 58: 52: 51: 44: 43: 35: 34: 31: 27: 26: 18: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7545: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7526: 7524: 7521: 7519: 7516: 7515: 7513: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7486: 7484: 7481: 7479: 7476: 7475: 7472: 7465: 7461: 7447: 7444: 7443: 7441: 7437: 7431: 7428: 7426: 7423: 7421: 7418: 7416: 7413: 7412: 7410: 7408:Schizophrenia 7406: 7400: 7397: 7395: 7392: 7390: 7387: 7386: 7384: 7379: 7375: 7369: 7366: 7364: 7361: 7360: 7358: 7354: 7350: 7346: 7342: 7338: 7337:Schizophrenia 7333: 7329: 7319: 7316: 7314: 7311: 7309: 7306: 7304: 7301: 7299: 7296: 7294: 7291: 7289: 7288:Drug overdose 7286: 7285: 7282: 7277: 7273: 7268: 7264: 7250: 7247: 7245: 7242: 7241: 7239: 7237: 7236:Sexual desire 7233: 7227: 7224: 7222: 7219: 7218: 7216: 7214: 7210: 7202: 7199: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7189: 7188: 7187: 7184: 7182: 7179: 7177: 7174: 7173: 7171: 7169: 7164: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7148: 7145: 7143: 7140: 7139: 7137: 7135: 7131: 7127: 7120: 7116: 7102: 7099: 7097: 7094: 7092: 7089: 7087: 7084: 7082: 7079: 7077: 7074: 7070: 7067: 7065: 7062: 7060: 7057: 7056: 7055: 7052: 7050: 7047: 7046: 7044: 7042: 7038: 7032: 7029: 7027: 7024: 7022: 7019: 7017: 7014: 7013: 7011: 7009: 7005: 6993: 6990: 6988: 6985: 6984: 6983: 6980: 6978: 6975: 6973: 6970: 6968: 6965: 6963: 6960: 6959: 6957: 6953: 6945: 6942: 6941: 6940: 6937: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6924: 6923: 6922:Social phobia 6920: 6918: 6915: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6904: 6902: 6900: 6896: 6893: 6891: 6887: 6880: 6877: 6876: 6874: 6872: 6868: 6864: 6860: 6857:-related and 6856: 6852: 6847: 6843: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6821: 6819: 6816: 6815: 6813: 6809: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6788: 6785: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6749: 6747: 6745: 6741: 6735: 6732: 6730: 6727: 6725: 6722: 6720: 6717: 6715: 6712: 6711: 6709: 6707: 6703: 6699: 6692: 6688: 6678: 6675: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6661: 6658: 6656: 6653: 6651: 6648: 6647: 6646: 6643: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6626: 6624: 6621: 6620: 6619: 6616: 6615: 6612: 6607: 6602: 6598: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6575: 6573: 6570: 6563: 6555: 6552: 6551: 6550: 6547: 6546: 6544: 6542: 6538: 6530: 6527: 6526: 6525: 6522: 6518: 6515: 6513: 6510: 6509: 6508: 6505: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6487: 6485: 6481: 6478: 6477: 6476: 6473: 6469: 6466: 6465: 6464: 6461: 6457: 6454: 6453: 6452: 6449: 6447: 6444: 6443: 6441: 6439: 6435: 6431: 6427: 6422: 6418: 6404: 6401: 6399: 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6369: 6366: 6362: 6359: 6358: 6357: 6354: 6353: 6351: 6347: 6341: 6338: 6336: 6333: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6310: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6300: 6298: 6294: 6290: 6283: 6279: 6274: 6270: 6263: 6258: 6256: 6251: 6249: 6244: 6243: 6240: 6228: 6220: 6218: 6210: 6209: 6206: 6198: 6195: 6193: 6190: 6188: 6185: 6184: 6183: 6180: 6178: 6175: 6171: 6168: 6166: 6163: 6162: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6148: 6147: 6145: 6141: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6127: 6125: 6122: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6112: 6110: 6107: 6105: 6102: 6100: 6097: 6095: 6092: 6090: 6087: 6085: 6082: 6081: 6079: 6075: 6069: 6066: 6064: 6061: 6059: 6056: 6054: 6051: 6049: 6046: 6044: 6041: 6039: 6036: 6034: 6031: 6029: 6026: 6024: 6021: 6020: 6018: 6016:Social issues 6014: 6008: 6005: 6003: 6000: 5998: 5995: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5968: 5965: 5963: 5960: 5958: 5955: 5954: 5952: 5948: 5938: 5935: 5933: 5930: 5928: 5925: 5923: 5920: 5919: 5917: 5913: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5897: 5894: 5892: 5889: 5887: 5884: 5882: 5879: 5877: 5874: 5873: 5871: 5867: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5852: 5850: 5846: 5840: 5837: 5835: 5832: 5830: 5827: 5825: 5822: 5820: 5817: 5816: 5814: 5810: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5790: 5788: 5784: 5781: 5777: 5769: 5766: 5764: 5761: 5760: 5759: 5758:Special needs 5756: 5752: 5749: 5748: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5741:Mainstreaming 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5723: 5721: 5717: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5705:Medical model 5703: 5701: 5698: 5696: 5693: 5692: 5690: 5686: 5682: 5675: 5670: 5668: 5663: 5661: 5656: 5655: 5652: 5639: 5636: 5632: 5631: 5627: 5625: 5621: 5620: 5616: 5615: 5612: 5608: 5601: 5597: 5596: 5592: 5590: 5586: 5585: 5581: 5579: 5575: 5571: 5570: 5566: 5562: 5560: 5556: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5546: 5543: 5538: 5534: 5528: 5524: 5521: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5509: 5508: 5505:at Wiktionary 5504: 5503: 5497: 5493: 5492: 5483: 5479: 5475: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5449: 5444: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5416: 5411: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5382: 5378: 5374: 5370: 5366: 5362: 5358: 5354: 5350: 5346: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5325: 5321: 5317: 5313: 5298: 5291: 5290: 5284: 5281: 5280:archived copy 5277: 5276: 5271: 5269: 5266: 5263: 5259: 5256: 5255: 5251: 5248: 5244: 5240: 5239:0-87630-916-3 5236: 5232: 5231: 5226: 5223: 5222: 5218: 5215: 5211: 5208: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5190: 5186: 5182: 5178: 5177: 5158: 5154: 5148: 5140: 5136: 5131: 5126: 5121: 5116: 5112: 5108: 5104: 5097: 5089: 5085: 5080: 5075: 5070: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5054:(8): e70855. 5053: 5049: 5045: 5038: 5030: 5026: 5021: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5005:(5): 431–46. 5004: 5000: 4996: 4989: 4975: 4971: 4965: 4950: 4946: 4940: 4926: 4922: 4915: 4907: 4903: 4899: 4895: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4877: 4875: 4873: 4871: 4869: 4867: 4865: 4856: 4852: 4848: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4828: 4813: 4809: 4803: 4788: 4784: 4780: 4773: 4758: 4754: 4747: 4729: 4722: 4716: 4701: 4697: 4691: 4675: 4671: 4665: 4650:on 2014-10-26 4649: 4645: 4641: 4634: 4620:on 2010-05-01 4619: 4615: 4609: 4595:on 2014-10-26 4594: 4590: 4586: 4580: 4564: 4560: 4554: 4547: 4534: 4530: 4524: 4516: 4512: 4506: 4498: 4494: 4488: 4480: 4474: 4470: 4463: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4445:0-252-02237-8 4441: 4437: 4430: 4422: 4415: 4408: 4404: 4400: 4394: 4386: 4382: 4381: 4376: 4369: 4361: 4357: 4352: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4336:(3): 175–80. 4335: 4331: 4327: 4320: 4305: 4298: 4279: 4275: 4269: 4262: 4261: 4253: 4234: 4230: 4223: 4217: 4209: 4205: 4200: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4182: 4177: 4173: 4169: 4165: 4158: 4156: 4148: 4143: 4135: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4086: 4084: 4069:on 2010-05-30 4068: 4064: 4058: 4044:on 2010-07-11 4043: 4039: 4033: 4019:on 2010-07-11 4018: 4014: 4008: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3985: 3977: 3970: 3955: 3949: 3945: 3944: 3936: 3934: 3925: 3921: 3917: 3913: 3908: 3903: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3884: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3863: 3847: 3843: 3842: 3834: 3832: 3830: 3828: 3826: 3824: 3822: 3814: 3810: 3806: 3800: 3793: 3789: 3785: 3779: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3758: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3737: 3730: 3726: 3722: 3716: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3673: 3665: 3661: 3656: 3651: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3624: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3593:(3): 418–29. 3592: 3588: 3581: 3573: 3569: 3565: 3561: 3557: 3553: 3549: 3545: 3538: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3487: 3479: 3475: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3452: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3429:(2): 705–12. 3428: 3424: 3417: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3374: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3339: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3312: 3304: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3279: 3271: 3264: 3256: 3252: 3246: 3242: 3241: 3234: 3232: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3188: 3181: 3170: 3163: 3155: 3151: 3145: 3137: 3133: 3127: 3119: 3115: 3110: 3105: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3070: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3034: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3004: 2989: 2985: 2981: 2974: 2960: 2956: 2950: 2942: 2938: 2933: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2917:(2): 119–29. 2916: 2912: 2908: 2901: 2894: 2890: 2887:. 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