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never entirely consistent: a given person's intellectual performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are attempts to clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena. Although considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such conceptualization has yet answered all the important questions, and none commands universal assent. Indeed, when two dozen prominent theorists were recently asked to define intelligence, they gave two dozen, somewhat different, definitions.
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learning", but excludes those purely autonomic sense-reaction responses that can be observed in many plants. Plants are not limited to automated sensory-motor responses, however, they are capable of discriminating positive and negative experiences and of "learning" (registering memories) from their past experiences. They are also capable of communication, accurately computing their circumstances, using sophisticated
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3377:, historian of computing, writes (in what might be called "Dyson's Law") that "Any system simple enough to be understandable will not be complicated enough to behave intelligently, while any system complicated enough to behave intelligently will be too complicated to understand." (p. 197.) Computer scientist
1059:"Intelligence is a force, F, that acts so as to maximize future freedom of action. It acts to maximize future freedom of action, or keep options open, with some strength T, with the diversity of possible accessible futures, S, up to some future time horizon, τ. In short, intelligence doesn't like to get trapped".
1144:. Learning refers to the act of retaining facts and information or abilities and being able to recall them for future use. Intelligence, on the other hand, is the cognitive ability of someone to perform these and other processes. There have been various attempts to quantify intelligence via testing, such as the
2182:
Feuerstein, R., Feuerstein, S., Falik, L & Rand, Y. (1979; 2002). Dynamic assessments of cognitive modifiability. ICELP Press, Jerusalem: Israel; Feuerstein, R. (1990). The theory of structural modifiability. In B. Presseisen (Ed.), Learning and thinking styles: Classroom interaction. Washington,
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A counter argument is that intelligence is commonly understood to involve the creation and use of persistent memories as opposed to computation that does not involve learning. If this is accepted as definitive of intelligence, then it includes the artificial intelligence of robots capable of "machine
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and motivations of others and oneself in social situations. It is thought to be distinct to other types of intelligence, but has relations to emotional intelligence. Social intelligence has coincided with other studies that focus on how we make judgements of others, the accuracy with which we do so,
3320:' we mean realistic videos produced using artificial intelligence that actually deceive people, then they barely exist. The fakes aren't deep, and the deeps aren't fake. A.I.-generated videos are not, in general, operating in our media as counterfeited evidence. Their role better resembles that of
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Concepts of "book smarts" and "street smart" are contrasting views based on the premise that some people have knowledge gained through academic study, but may lack the experience to sensibly apply that knowledge, while others have knowledge gained through practical experience, but may lack accurate
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to others in an understandable way as well as to read the emotions of others accurately. Some theories imply that a heightened emotional intelligence could also lead to faster generating and processing of emotions in addition to the accuracy. In addition, higher emotional intelligence is thought to
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A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a
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Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although these individual differences can be substantial, they are
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Given the importance of learning through text in our own personal lives and in our culture, it is perhaps surprising how utterly dismissive we tend to be of it. It is sometimes derided as being merely "book knowledge", and having it is being "book smart". In contrast, knowledge acquired through
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factors. Hereditary intelligence is the theory that intelligence is fixed upon birth and does not grow. Environmental intelligence is the theory that intelligence is developed throughout life depending on the environment around the person. An environment that cultivates intelligence is one that
982:—enabling the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that he or she encounters and, when appropriate, to create an effective product—and must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems—and thereby laying the groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge.
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Scholars studying artificial intelligence have proposed definitions of intelligence that include the intelligence demonstrated by machines. Some of these definitions are meant to be general enough to encompass human and other animal intelligence as well. An
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Although humans have been the primary focus of intelligence researchers, scientists have also attempted to investigate animal intelligence, or more broadly, animal cognition. These researchers are interested in studying both mental ability in a particular
1543:, after surveying the literature, define intelligence as "an agent's ability to achieve goals in a wide range of environments". While cognitive ability is sometimes measured as a one-dimensional parameter, it could also be represented as a "
1279:, and comparing abilities between species. They study various measures of problem solving, as well as numerical and verbal reasoning abilities. Some challenges include defining intelligence so it has the same meaning across species, and
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Moral intelligence is the capacity to understand right from wrong and to behave based on the value that is believed to be right. It is considered a distinct form of intelligence, independent to both emotional and cognitive intelligence.
718:, and across numerous disciplines. It has also been observed in both non-human animals and plants despite controversy as to whether some of these forms of life exhibit intelligence. Intelligence in computers or other machines is called
1006:
The theory of
Structural Cognitive Modifiability describes intelligence as "the unique propensity of human beings to change or modify the structure of their cognitive functioning to adapt to the changing demands of a life situation".
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Cognitive ability and intelligence cannot be measured using the same, largely verbally dependent, scales developed for humans. Instead, intelligence is measured using a variety of interactive and observational tools focusing on
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fails at tasks that require real humanlike reasoning or an understanding of the physical and social world.... ChatGPT seemed unable to reason logically and tried to rely on its vast database of... facts derived from online
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and
Haenlein define artificial intelligence as "a system's ability to correctly interpret external data, to learn from such data, and to use those learnings to achieve specific goals and tasks through flexible adaptation".
1021:
A synthesis of 70+ definitions from psychology, philosophy, and AI researchers: "Intelligence measures an agent's ability to achieve goals in a wide range of environments", which has been mathematically formalized.
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in a multidimensional space" to compare systems that are good at different intellectual tasks. Some skeptics believe that there is no meaningful way to define intelligence, aside from "just pointing to ourselves".
3019:"Kaplan Andreas and Haelein Michael (2019) Siri, Siri, in my hand: Who's the fairest in the land? On the interpretations, illustrations, and implications of artificial intelligence, Business Horizons, 62(1)"
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and can easily make errors that a human never would... They are also liable to take our instructions too literally, giving us precisely what we asked for instead of what we actually wanted." (p. 93.)
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of the world according to the agent's preferences, or more simply the ability to "steer the future into regions of possibility ranked high in a preference ordering". In this optimization framework,
1206:. There is debate as to whether or not these studies and social intelligence come from the same theories or if there is a distinction between them, and they are generally thought to be of two different
832:. "Intelligence" has therefore become less common in English language philosophy, but it has later been taken up (with the scholastic theories that it now implies) in more contemporary
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Beheshtifar, M., Esmaeli, Z., & Moghadam, M. N. (2011). Effect of moral intelligence on leadership. European
Journal of Economics, Finance and Administrative Sciences, 43, 6-11.
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come from acting in the world and experiencing the consequences. Artificial intelligences – disembodied, strangers to blood, sweat, and tears – have no occasion for that." (p. 30.)
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and the
Unified Cattell-Horn-Carroll model, which contains abilities like fluid reasoning, perceptual speed, verbal abilities, and others. Intelligence enables humans to
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It has been argued that plants should also be classified as intelligent based on their ability to sense and model external and internal environments and adjust their
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968:"...the resultant of the process of acquiring, storing in memory, retrieving, combining, comparing, and using in new contexts information and conceptual skills".
1706:"Stress memory in plants: A negative regulation of stomatal response and transient induction of rd22 gene to light in abscisic acid-entrained Arabidopsis plants"
3420:, vol. 316, no. 3 (March 2017), pp. 61–63. Marcus points out a so far insuperable stumbling block to artificial intelligence: an incapacity for reliable
3716:. Publications of the Training School at Vineland New Jersey Department of Research No. 11. E. S. Kite (Trans.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. p.
1089:. Intelligence enables humans to remember descriptions of things and use those descriptions in future behaviors. It gives humans the cognitive abilities to
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that we do not usually notice." A prominent example is the "pronoun disambiguation problem" ("PDP"): a machine has no way of determining to whom or what a
1515:. Existing AI lags humans in terms of general intelligence, which is sometimes defined as the "capacity to learn how to carry out a huge range of tasks".
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889:. It was signed by fifty-two researchers, out of 131 total invited to sign, with 48 explicitly refusing to sign. The op-ed described intelligence thus:
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2305:"Taxonomies and Compendia of Cognitive Ability and Personality Constructs and Measures Relevant to Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology"
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Judgment, otherwise called "good sense", "practical sense", "initiative", the faculty of adapting one's self to circumstances ... auto-critique.
1955:; Boodoo, Gwyneth; Bouchard, Thomas J.; Boykin, A. Wade; Brody, Nathan; Ceci, Stephen J.; Halpern, Diane F.; Loehlin, John C.; Perloff, Robert;
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1935:
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The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.
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The Limits of
Intelligence: The laws of physics may well prevent the human brain from evolving into an ever more powerful thinking machine
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1991:
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broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—"catching on", "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do.
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originally published as Méthodes nouvelles pour le diagnostic du niveau intellectuel des anormaux. L'Année
Psychologique, 11, 191–244
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1148:(IQ) test. However, many people disagree with the validity of IQ tests; stating that they cannot accurately measure intelligence.
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has the power to "steer a chessboard's future into a subspace of possibility which it labels as 'winning', despite attempts by
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3310:, "Your Lying Eyes: People now use A.I. to generate fake videos indistinguishable from real ones. How much does it matter?",
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Evidence of a general factor of intelligence has been observed in non-human animals. The general factor of intelligence, or
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2017:
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1815:"Opera philosophica quæ latine scripsit omnia, in unum corpus nunc primum collecta studio et labore Gulielmi Molesworth ."
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help us manage emotions, which is beneficial for our problem-solving skills. Emotional intelligence is important to our
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3284:, vol. 329, no. 4 (November 2023), pp. 81–82. "This murder mystery competition has revealed that although NLP (
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Reader, S. M., Hager, Y., & Laland, K. N. (2011). "The evolution of primate general and cultural intelligence".
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can be defined as a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of success.
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The SAGE Handbook of
Industrial, Work and Organizational Psychology: Personnel Psychology and Employee Performance
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3138:
Legg, Shane; Hutter, Marcus (30 November 2007). "Universal
Intelligence: A Definition of Machine Intelligence".
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3330:, "In Front of Their Faces: Does facial-recognition technology lead police to ignore contradictory evidence?",
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Measuring intelligence: A guide to the administration of the new revised
Stanford-Binet tests of intelligence
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828:", translated in the English version as "the understanding understandeth", as a typical example of a logical
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3278:, which has stumped humans for decades, reveals the limitations of natural-language-processing algorithms",
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1289:'s research on the intelligence of apes is an example of research in this area, as is Stanley Coren's book,
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of intelligence is controversial, varying in what its abilities are and whether or not it is quantifiable.
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Emotional
Intelligence from 17th Century to 21st Century: Perspectives and Directions for Future Research.
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have shown a fairly high degree of intellect that varies according to each species. The same is true with
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3414:, "Am I Human?: Researchers need new ways to distinguish artificial intelligence from the natural kind",
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direct experience and apprenticeship is called "street knowledge", and having it is being "street smart".
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became the scholarly technical term for understanding and a translation for the Greek philosophical term
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794:(also known as the active intelligence). This approach to the study of nature was strongly rejected by
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3189:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. "Chapter 4: The Kinetics of an Intelligence Explosion", footnote 9.
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defines intelligence in terms of "optimization power", an agent's capacity for efficient cross-domain
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construct that summarizes the correlations observed between an individual's scores on a wide range of
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Volkov, A. G.; Carrell, H.; Baldwin, A.; Markin, V. S. (2009). "Electrical memory in Venus flytrap".
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3672:. consulting editors: Douglas K. Detterman, Alan S. Kaufman, Joseph D. Matarazzo. New York: Wiley.
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they receive. This could cause for researchers who hope to use them to do things such as analyze
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and taking tightly controlled actions to mitigate and control the diverse environmental stressors.
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3288:) models are capable of incredible feats, their abilities are very much limited by the amount of
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are, at their core, dead simple stupid. They work, but they work by brute force." (p. 198.)
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What exactly is intelligence? How could an external observer prove that an agent is intelligent?
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818:" or "intelligence") in their English philosophical works. Hobbes for example, in his Latin
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S. Legg; M. Hutter (2007). "Universal Intelligence: A Definition of Machine Intelligence".
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Handbook of Intelligence: Evolutionary Theory, Historical Perspective, and Current Concepts
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2311:, 1 Oliver's Yard, 55 City Road London EC1Y 1SP: SAGE Publications Ltd, pp. 366–407,
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2024:. E.S. Kite (Trans.). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. pp. 37–90. Archived from
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information usually gained through study by which to effectively apply that knowledge.
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Advances in Artificial General Intelligence: Concepts, Architectures and Algorithms
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is responsible for 47% of the individual variance in cognitive ability measures in
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Human intelligence is the intellectual power of humans, which is marked by complex
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researchers also have suggested definitions of intelligence such as the following:
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1295:. Non-human animals particularly noted and studied for their intelligence include
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can be demonstrated in benchmarks ranging from games to practical tasks such as
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a measure that accurately compares mental ability across species and contexts.
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believe that intelligence can be divided into various domains or competencies.
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Trewavas, Anthony (September 2005). "Green plants as intelligent organisms".
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Influences in Psychology: Points of View in the Modern History of Psychology.
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History of Influences in the Development of Intelligence Theory and Testing
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To my mind, a human intellectual competence must entail a set of skills of
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S. Legg; M. Hutter (2007). "A Collection of Definitions of Intelligence".
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1437:(Locurto, Locurto). These values are similar to the accepted variance in
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appear to exhibit characteristics of significant intelligence, yet their
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3623:. Novartis Foundation Symposium 233. Vol. 233. Chichester: Wiley.
3356:, vol. 329, no. 1 (July/August 2023), p. 7. "Despite its high IQ,
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2018:"New methods for the diagnosis of the intellectual level of subnormals"
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to be applied to adaptive behaviors within an environment or context.
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differ radically from those of backboned animals. Vertebrates such as
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Measuring Multiple Intelligences and Moral Sensitivities in Education
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904:(1995), a report published by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the
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which proposed policy changes based on purported connections between
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3394:, "Our Digital Doubles: AI will serve our species, not control it",
3114:"The Struggle To Define What Artificial Intelligence Actually Means"
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3694:. Riverside textbooks in education. Boston (MA): Houghton Mifflin.
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factor has since been identified in a number of non-human species.
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The development of intelligence in children: The Binet-Simon Scale
3400:, vol. 319, no. 3 (September 2018), pp. 88–93. "AIs are like
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is what distinguishes us from machines. For biological creatures,
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2247:"TED Speaker: Alex Wissner-Gross: A new equation for intelligence"
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Humphreys, L. G. (1979). "The construct of general intelligence".
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The development of intelligence in children: The Binet-Simon Scale
1833:
Goldstein, Sam; Princiotta, Dana; Naglieri, Jack A., eds. (2015).
1125:. These cognitive abilities can be organized into frameworks like
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Ability to perceive, infer, acquire, retain and apply information.
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What Intelligence Tests Miss: The Psychology of Rational Thought
3428:, often in multiple ways. Our brain is so good at comprehending
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aced a test but showed that intelligence cannot be measured by
1837:. New York, Heidelberg, Dordrecht, London: Springer. p. 3.
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3296:. In some cases, there are few historical records on long-gone
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Here be dragons: science, technology and the future of humanity
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2748:"Convergent evolution of complex brains and high intelligence"
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and why people would be viewed as having positive or negative
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Emotional intelligence is thought to be the ability to convey
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and will remain so for the foreseeable future.... AIs lack
3367:, "Ready for Robots? How to Think about the Future of AI",
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1350:
743:
731:
511:
1747:
1678:
Phi Delta Kappa International. Vol. 58, No. 4, pp. 210-216
1475:
accordingly to ensure self-preservation and reproduction.
696:. It can be described as the ability to perceive or infer
3748:
2278:. Moral Development and Citizenship Education. Springer.
707:
The term rose to prominence during the early 1900s. Most
30:
For the human faculty of thinking and understanding, see
2814:
Clinical assessment of child and adolescent intelligence
2635:
Common Sense, the Turing Test, and the Quest for Real AI
1813:
Hobbes, Thomas; Molesworth, William (15 February 1839).
1151:
There is debate about if human intelligence is based on
3347:
1438:
3619:
Bock, Gregory; Goode, Jamie; Webb, Kate, eds. (2000).
3373:, vol. 98, no. 4 (July/August 2019), pp. 192–98.
3254:, vol. LXXI, no. 1 (18 January 2024), pp. 27–28, 30. "
3091:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 103, 104.
814:, all of whom preferred "understanding" (in place of "
2558:
Walker, Ronald E.; Foley, Jeanne M. (December 1973).
1197:
Social intelligence is the ability to understand the
1038:
3485:(second ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
3211:"Superintelligence: The Idea That Eats Smart People"
2606:
The Step-By-Step Plan to Building Moral Intelligence
2146:
2115:
Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences
1555:
1455:
Plant perception (physiology) § Plant cognition
3589:
2560:"Social Intelligence: Its History and Measurement"
1050:
3436:in a sentence—such as "he", "she" or "it"—refers.
2925:
2519:Mayer, John D.; Salovey, Peter (1 October 1993).
2271:
1856:
1854:
1674:White, Margaret B. & Hall, Alfred E. (1980).
775:. This term, however, was strongly linked to the
4797:
3439:
3272:, "A Murder Mystery Puzzle: The literary puzzle
2192:
2085:
1905:"Mainstream Science on Intelligence (editorial)"
1860:
1821:on 5 November 2013 – via Internet Archive.
1812:
652:has been defined in many ways: the capacity for
3526:"What Is Intelligence? Beyond the Flynn Effect"
3499:
2801:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
2186:
1893:
3248:, Princeton University Press, 2023, 333 pp.),
2140:
2106:
1851:
1228:
845:
4137:
3822:
3808:
3686:
3618:
3502:What Is Intelligence: Beyond the Flynn Effect
3186:Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies
2803:B: Biological Sciences, 366(1567), 1017–1027.
2462:Salovey, Peter; Mayer, John D. (March 1990).
2154:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
1160:challenges the person's cognitive abilities.
879:, as a response to controversy over the book
630:
3316:, 20 November 2023, pp. 54–59. "If by '
3246:Free Agents: How Evolution Gave Us Free Will
2521:"The intelligence of emotional intelligence"
2518:
2461:
1867:. Vol. 157. IOS Press. pp. 17–24.
1704:Goh, C. H.; Nam, H. G.; Park, Y. S. (2003).
1601:, also referred to as Non-Human Intelligence
3788:A Collection of Definitions of Intelligence
2557:
1945:
1899:
1887:
1433:and between 55% and 60% of the variance in
4144:
4130:
3815:
3801:
3706:
3504:(expanded paperback ed.). Cambridge:
3477:
3137:
3060:"What is artificial general intelligence?"
2986:Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach
2983:Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003).
2926:Rensing, L.; Koch, M.; Becker, A. (2009).
2302:
1817:Londoni, apud Joannem Bohn. Archived from
1703:
637:
623:
3549:. New Haven (CT): Yale University Press.
3542:
3447:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3151:
3083:
2989:. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
2951:
2894:
2795:
2793:
2773:
2763:
2487:
2385:
2303:Stanek, Kevin C.; Ones, Deniz S. (2018),
2206:
2009:
1721:
1368:
1337:provides an important comparative study.
3647:William D. Casebeer (30 November 2001).
3324:, especially smutty ones." (p. 59.)
3111:
2868:
2825:
2816:. Springer Science & Business Media.
2414:"Review of The Intelligence Controversy"
2411:
2049:
1802:. Oxford University Press. p. xxii.
1261:
3182:
2976:
2646:
2598:
2362:"Human intelligence and brain networks"
1800:An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
908:, also in response to controversy over
14:
4798:
4151:
3665:
3445:The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence
2790:
2718:
2653:The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence
2468:Imagination, Cognition and Personality
1941:from the original on 22 December 2014.
855:(more unsolved problems in philosophy)
714:Intelligence has been long-studied in
4745:Philosophy of artificial intelligence
4125:
3796:
3443:; Kaufman, Scott Barry, eds. (2011).
3240:, "The Fate of Free Will" (review of
3057:
2683:
2457:
2455:
2407:
2405:
2359:
2253:from the original on 4 September 2016
2057:. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins.
2055:The measurement of adult intelligence
2015:
1782:
1183:and has ties to social intelligence.
2745:
1831:This paragraph almost verbatim from
1797:
1743:
1741:
1699:
1697:
1676:An overview of intelligence testing.
763:, to comprehend or perceive. In the
4006:Fluid and crystallized intelligence
3917:Fluid and crystallized intelligence
3336:, 20 November 2023, pp. 20–26.
2292:from the original on 2 August 2017.
2183:DC: National Education Associations
1961:"Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns"
1509:Progress in artificial intelligence
757:, which in turn stem from the verb
24:
3304:for such a purpose." (p. 82.)
3231:
2752:Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci
2746:Roth, Gerhard (19 December 2015).
2551:
2452:
2418:The American Journal of Psychology
2402:
1997:from the original on 28 March 2016
1251:
906:American Psychological Association
869:Mainstream Science on Intelligence
25:
4832:
3732:
3666:Wolman, Benjamin B., ed. (1985).
1738:
1694:
901:Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns
4101:
2360:Colom, Roberto (December 2010).
1762:10.1016/j.bioelechem.2009.03.005
1723:10.1046/j.1365-313X.2003.01872.x
1572:
1558:
1535:to steer the future elsewhere."
604:
62:
4102:
4042:Evolution of human intelligence
3424:. "irtually every sentence is
3203:
3176:
3131:
3105:
3077:
3051:
3025:
3011:
2919:
2862:
2819:
2806:
2739:
2712:
2677:
2640:
2624:
2615:
2512:
2353:
2296:
2265:
2239:
2176:
2118:. New York: Basic Books. 1993.
2079:
2043:
1140:Intelligence is different from
3567:"What Intelligence Tests Miss"
2719:Childs, Casper (27 May 2020).
2378:10.31887/DCNS.2010.12.4/rcolom
2152:Handbook of human intelligence
1825:
1806:
1791:
1776:
1681:
1668:
1655:
1105:, including the capacities to
846:Unsolved problem in philosophy
839:
34:. For human intelligence, see
13:
1:
4602:Hard problem of consciousness
4107:Outline of human intelligence
4011:Multiple-intelligences theory
2848:10.1016/j.tplants.2005.07.005
1924:10.1016/s0160-2896(97)90011-8
1798:Nidditch, Peter. "Foreword".
1649:
1628:Outline of human intelligence
1623:Neuroscience and intelligence
1599:Extraterrestrial intelligence
1486:
1155:factors or if it is based on
347:Industrial and organizational
40:Intelligence (disambiguation)
4057:Intelligence and environment
3690:; Merrill, Maude A. (1937).
3649:"The Nature of Intelligence"
3251:The New York Review of Books
2537:10.1016/0160-2896(93)90010-3
2412:Bouchard, Thomas J. (1982).
2249:. TED.com. 6 February 2014.
2100:10.1016/0160-2896(79)90009-6
1303:(notably the language-using
1163:
725:
502:Human factors and ergonomics
7:
4001:Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory
3524:C Shalizi (27 April 2009).
3286:natural-language processing
2647:Zentall, Thomas R. (2019).
2480:10.2190/DUGG-P24E-52WK-6CDG
1594:Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory
1551:
1229:Book smart and street smart
921:Besides those definitions,
10:
4837:
3621:The Nature of Intelligence
3506:Cambridge University Press
2272:Tirri, Nokelainen (2011).
1687:Buxton, Claude E. (1985).
1490:
1452:
1425:. Studies have shown that
1375:
1255:
1217:
1190:
1167:
1070:
729:
29:
4765:
4732:
4559:
4429:
4324:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
4314:David Lewis (philosopher)
4159:
4097:
4034:
3993:
3884:
3833:
3596:. New York: Times Books.
3543:Stanovich, Keith (2009).
3483:IQ and Human Intelligence
3270:Hughes-Castleberry, Kenna
3162:10.1007/s11023-007-9079-x
2953:10.1007/s00114-009-0591-0
2721:"Words With An Astronaut"
2661:10.1017/9781108770422.018
2576:10.2466/pr0.1973.33.3.839
2317:10.4135/9781473914940.n14
2225:10.1007/s11023-007-9079-x
1980:10.1037/0003-066x.51.2.77
1959:; Urbina, Susana (1996).
1787:. Blackwell. p. 305.
1661:Sharma, Radha R. (2008).
1186:
1081:feats and high levels of
796:early modern philosophers
277:Applied behavior analysis
4811:Developmental psychology
3760:11 November 2007 at the
3669:Handbook of Intelligence
3655:(Review). Archived from
3573:(Review). Archived from
3532:(Review). Archived from
3500:Flynn, James R. (2009).
2812:Kamphaus, R. W. (2005).
2687:The Intelligence of Dogs
2612:Retrieved 28 April 2016.
2464:"Emotional Intelligence"
2366:Dialogues Clin. Neurosci
2345:: CS1 maint: location (
1783:Maich, Aloysius (1995).
1448:
1292:The Intelligence of Dogs
1213:
1066:
1051:{\displaystyle _{\tau }}
4821:Differential psychology
4452:Eliminative materialism
2828:Trends in Plant Science
2684:Coren, Stanley (1995).
2016:Binet, Alfred (1916) .
1665:Sage Journals. Vol. 12.
1493:Artificial intelligence
1335:Cephalopod intelligence
1236:Artificial intelligence
1028:Alexander Wissner-Gross
871:" was published, as an
742:derives from the Latin
720:artificial intelligence
467:Behavioral neuroscience
124:Behavioral neuroscience
4704:Propositional attitude
4699:Problem of other minds
4607:Hypostatic abstraction
3530:University of Michigan
3183:Bostrom, Nick (2014).
2765:10.1098/rstb.2015.0049
1378:g Factor in Non-Humans
1271:
1249:
1170:Emotional intelligence
1127:fluid vs. crystallized
1052:
919:
896:
826:intellectus intelligit
700:; and to retain it as
517:Psychology of religion
457:Behavioral engineering
143:Cognitive neuroscience
109:Affective neuroscience
38:. For other uses, see
4816:Psychological testing
4775:Philosophers category
4679:Mental representation
4442:Biological naturalism
4329:Maurice Merleau-Ponty
4304:Frank Cameron Jackson
3935:Intelligence quotient
3710:; Simon, Th. (1916).
3688:Terman, Lewis Madison
3453:10.1017/9781108770422
2869:Trewavas, A. (2002).
2649:"Animal Intelligence"
2564:Psychological Reports
1968:American Psychologist
1901:Gottfredson, Linda S.
1481:cost–benefit analysis
1397:. First described in
1265:
1244:
1146:Intelligence Quotient
1053:
990:& William Salter
914:
891:
887:race and intelligence
611:Psychology portal
4457:Emergent materialism
4021:Three-stratum theory
3778:. By Douglas Fox in
3577:on 24 December 2013.
3441:Sternberg, Robert J.
3058:Heath, Nick (2018).
2655:. pp. 397–427.
1957:Sternberg, Robert J.
1445:in humans (40–50%).
1372:factor in non-humans
1036:
18:Intelligence (trait)
4654:Language of thought
4404:Ludwig Wittgenstein
4234:Patricia Churchland
3994:Models and theories
3781:Scientific American
3584:Blakeslee, Sandra;
3417:Scientific American
3397:Scientific American
3383:AI machine-learning
3353:Scientific American
3281:Scientific American
2944:2009NW.....96.1373R
2932:Naturwissenschaften
2887:2002Natur.415..841T
2840:2005TPS....10..413T
2217:2007arXiv0712.3329L
2150:; Salter W (1982).
1785:A Hobbes Dictionary
1750:Bioelectrochemistry
1421:, and responses to
1395:cognitive abilities
1319:and to some extent
1268:crab-eating macaque
1193:Social intelligence
996:adaptive behavior.
877:Wall Street Journal
674:emotional knowledge
462:Behavioral genetics
377:Occupational health
119:Behavioral genetics
50:Part of a series on
4482:Neurophenomenology
4153:Philosophy of mind
4047:Heritability of IQ
3824:Human intelligence
3770:Indiana University
3629:10.1002/0470870850
3140:Minds and Machines
2871:"Mindless mastery"
2758:(1684): 20150049.
2631:Hector J. Levesque
2195:Minds and Machines
1272:
1220:Moral intelligence
1208:schools of thought
1107:recognize patterns
1073:Human intelligence
1048:
579:Schools of thought
417:Sport and exercise
263:Applied psychology
36:Human intelligence
4793:
4792:
4689:Mind–body problem
4587:Cognitive closure
4551:Substance dualism
4169:G. E. M. Anscombe
4119:
4118:
4035:Areas of research
3985:Visual processing
3902:Cognitive liberty
3679:978-0-471-89738-5
3603:978-0-8050-7456-7
3556:978-0-300-12385-2
3515:978-0-521-74147-7
3492:978-0-19-958559-5
3479:Mackintosh, N. J.
3381:writes: "Current
3308:Immerwahr, Daniel
3294:ancient languages
3242:Kevin J. Mitchell
3196:978-0-19-967811-2
3112:Gary Lea (2015).
2996:978-0-13-790395-5
2938:(12): 1373–1384.
2697:978-0-553-37452-0
2670:978-1-108-75581-8
2326:978-1-4462-0721-5
2285:978-94-6091-758-5
2161:978-0-521-29687-8
2125:978-0-465-02510-7
2064:978-0-19-502296-4
1844:978-1-4939-1561-3
1710:The Plant Journal
1638:Superintelligence
1633:Passive intellect
1580:Psychology portal
1566:Philosophy portal
1500:intelligent agent
1064:
1063:
1002:Reuven Feuerstein
875:statement in the
690:critical thinking
647:
646:
544:Counseling topics
487:Consumer behavior
228:Psycholinguistics
114:Affective science
16:(Redirected from
4828:
4541:Representational
4536:Property dualism
4529:Type physicalism
4494:New mysterianism
4462:Epiphenomenalism
4284:Martin Heidegger
4146:
4139:
4132:
4123:
4122:
4105:
4104:
4026:Triarchic theory
3817:
3810:
3803:
3794:
3793:
3766:Jonathan Plucker
3728:
3726:
3724:
3703:
3683:
3660:
3645:Lay summary in:
3642:
3615:
3595:
3578:
3563:Lay summary in:
3560:
3537:
3536:on 14 June 2010.
3522:Lay summary in:
3519:
3496:
3474:
3402:autistic savants
3226:
3225:
3223:
3221:
3207:
3201:
3200:
3180:
3174:
3173:
3155:
3135:
3129:
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3126:
3124:
3109:
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3055:
3049:
3048:
3046:
3044:
3029:
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3015:
3009:
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2917:
2916:
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2823:
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2810:
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2797:
2788:
2787:
2777:
2767:
2743:
2737:
2736:
2734:
2732:
2716:
2710:
2709:
2690:. Bantam Books.
2681:
2675:
2674:
2644:
2638:
2628:
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2613:
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2596:
2595:
2555:
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2110:
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2083:
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2047:
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2040:
2035:
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2013:
2007:
2006:
2004:
2002:
1996:
1965:
1949:
1943:
1942:
1940:
1909:
1897:
1891:
1890:, pp. 17–20
1888:Gottfredson 1997
1885:
1879:
1878:
1858:
1849:
1848:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1810:
1804:
1803:
1795:
1789:
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1745:
1736:
1735:
1725:
1701:
1692:
1685:
1679:
1672:
1666:
1659:
1589:Active intellect
1582:
1577:
1576:
1575:
1568:
1563:
1562:
1561:
1281:operationalizing
1258:Animal cognition
1242:has noted that:
1204:social character
1057:
1055:
1054:
1049:
1047:
1046:
988:Robert Sternberg
932:
931:
847:
792:active intellect
639:
632:
625:
609:
608:
607:
574:Research methods
233:Psychophysiology
95:Basic psychology
66:
47:
46:
21:
4836:
4835:
4831:
4830:
4829:
4827:
4826:
4825:
4796:
4795:
4794:
4789:
4761:
4728:
4674:Mental property
4567:Abstract object
4555:
4425:
4379:Wilfrid Sellars
4254:Donald Davidson
4239:Paul Churchland
4199:George Berkeley
4155:
4150:
4120:
4115:
4093:
4030:
3989:
3955:Problem solving
3889:
3880:
3829:
3821:
3784:, 14 June 2011.
3764:. Developed by
3762:Wayback Machine
3735:
3722:
3720:
3680:
3659:on 26 May 2013.
3646:
3639:
3604:
3592:On intelligence
3564:
3557:
3523:
3516:
3493:
3463:
3392:Domingos, Pedro
3370:Foreign Affairs
3365:Cukier, Kenneth
3234:
3232:Further reading
3229:
3219:
3217:
3209:
3208:
3204:
3197:
3181:
3177:
3136:
3132:
3122:
3120:
3118:Popular Science
3110:
3106:
3099:
3085:Häggström, Olle
3082:
3078:
3068:
3066:
3056:
3052:
3042:
3040:
3031:
3030:
3026:
3017:
3016:
3012:
2997:
2981:
2977:
2924:
2920:
2896:10.1038/415841a
2867:
2863:
2824:
2820:
2811:
2807:
2798:
2791:
2744:
2740:
2730:
2728:
2717:
2713:
2698:
2682:
2678:
2671:
2645:
2641:
2629:
2625:
2620:
2616:
2603:
2599:
2556:
2552:
2517:
2513:
2460:
2453:
2430:10.2307/1422481
2410:
2403:
2358:
2354:
2338:
2337:
2331:
2329:
2327:
2301:
2297:
2286:
2270:
2266:
2256:
2254:
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2244:
2240:
2191:
2187:
2181:
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2145:
2141:
2126:
2112:
2111:
2107:
2084:
2080:
2065:
2048:
2044:
2031:
2029:
2028:on 19 June 2010
2014:
2010:
2000:
1998:
1994:
1963:
1953:Neisser, Ulrich
1950:
1946:
1938:
1907:
1898:
1894:
1886:
1882:
1875:
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1830:
1826:
1811:
1807:
1796:
1792:
1781:
1777:
1746:
1739:
1702:
1695:
1691:Academic Press.
1686:
1682:
1673:
1669:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1647:
1578:
1573:
1571:
1564:
1559:
1557:
1554:
1513:protein folding
1495:
1489:
1461:
1459:Plant cognition
1453:Main articles:
1451:
1419:social learning
1380:
1374:
1343:nervous systems
1287:Wolfgang Köhler
1260:
1254:
1252:Nonhuman animal
1240:Hector Levesque
1231:
1222:
1216:
1195:
1189:
1172:
1166:
1075:
1069:
1042:
1039:
1037:
1034:
1033:
980:problem solving
964:Lloyd Humphreys
858:
857:
852:
849:
842:
734:
728:
694:problem-solving
643:
605:
603:
596:
595:
594:
593:
569:Psychotherapies
537:
527:
526:
447:
439:
438:
437:
436:
265:
255:
254:
253:
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213:Neuropsychology
97:
43:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
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4730:
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4711:
4706:
4701:
4696:
4691:
4686:
4681:
4676:
4671:
4669:Mental process
4666:
4661:
4656:
4651:
4646:
4641:
4639:Intentionality
4636:
4635:
4634:
4629:
4619:
4614:
4609:
4604:
4599:
4594:
4589:
4584:
4579:
4574:
4569:
4563:
4561:
4557:
4556:
4554:
4553:
4548:
4543:
4538:
4533:
4532:
4531:
4521:
4516:
4511:
4506:
4501:
4496:
4491:
4489:Neutral monism
4486:
4485:
4484:
4474:
4472:Interactionism
4469:
4464:
4459:
4454:
4449:
4444:
4439:
4433:
4431:
4427:
4426:
4424:
4423:
4416:
4411:
4406:
4401:
4396:
4391:
4386:
4384:Baruch Spinoza
4381:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4311:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4294:Edmund Husserl
4291:
4286:
4281:
4276:
4271:
4266:
4264:René Descartes
4261:
4259:Daniel Dennett
4256:
4251:
4246:
4241:
4236:
4231:
4229:David Chalmers
4226:
4221:
4216:
4214:Franz Brentano
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4194:Alexander Bain
4191:
4186:
4184:Thomas Aquinas
4181:
4176:
4171:
4165:
4163:
4157:
4156:
4149:
4148:
4141:
4134:
4126:
4117:
4116:
4114:
4113:
4098:
4095:
4094:
4092:
4091:
4054:
4049:
4044:
4038:
4036:
4032:
4031:
4029:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4003:
3997:
3995:
3991:
3990:
3988:
3987:
3982:
3977:
3967:
3962:
3957:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3927:
3919:
3914:
3909:
3904:
3899:
3893:
3891:
3890:and constructs
3882:
3881:
3879:
3878:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3837:
3835:
3831:
3830:
3820:
3819:
3812:
3805:
3797:
3791:
3790:
3785:
3773:
3751:
3734:
3733:External links
3731:
3730:
3729:
3704:
3684:
3678:
3663:
3662:
3661:
3638:978-0471494348
3637:
3616:
3602:
3581:
3580:
3579:
3555:
3540:
3539:
3538:
3514:
3497:
3491:
3475:
3462:978-0521739115
3461:
3437:
3422:disambiguation
3409:
3389:
3362:
3340:Roivainen, Eka
3337:
3333:The New Yorker
3325:
3313:The New Yorker
3305:
3275:Cain's Jawbone
3267:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3227:
3202:
3195:
3175:
3146:(4): 391–444.
3130:
3104:
3098:978-0191035395
3097:
3076:
3050:
3024:
3010:
2995:
2975:
2918:
2861:
2834:(9): 413–419.
2818:
2805:
2789:
2738:
2711:
2696:
2676:
2669:
2639:
2637:(2017), p. 80.
2623:
2614:
2597:
2570:(3): 839–864.
2550:
2531:(4): 433–442.
2511:
2474:(3): 185–211.
2451:
2424:(2): 346–349.
2401:
2372:(4): 489–501.
2352:
2325:
2295:
2284:
2264:
2238:
2201:(4): 391–444.
2185:
2175:
2160:
2139:
2124:
2105:
2094:(2): 105–120.
2078:
2063:
2042:
2008:
1944:
1892:
1880:
1874:978-1586037581
1873:
1850:
1843:
1824:
1805:
1790:
1775:
1756:(2): 142–147.
1737:
1716:(2): 240–255.
1693:
1680:
1667:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
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1640:
1635:
1630:
1625:
1620:
1615:
1607:
1602:
1596:
1591:
1585:
1584:
1583:
1569:
1553:
1550:
1533:Garry Kasparov
1520:Olle Häggström
1518:Mathematician
1491:Main article:
1488:
1485:
1450:
1447:
1376:Main article:
1373:
1367:
1256:Main article:
1253:
1250:
1230:
1227:
1218:Main article:
1215:
1212:
1191:Main article:
1188:
1185:
1168:Main article:
1165:
1162:
1115:solve problems
1087:self-awareness
1071:Main article:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1061:
1045:
1041:
1030:
1024:
1023:
1019:
1009:
1008:
1004:
998:
997:
991:
984:
983:
976:
974:Howard Gardner
970:
969:
966:
960:
959:
956:
954:David Wechsler
950:
949:
946:
940:
939:
936:
910:The Bell Curve
882:The Bell Curve
853:
850:
844:
841:
838:
730:Main article:
727:
724:
666:self-awareness
645:
644:
642:
641:
634:
627:
619:
616:
615:
614:
613:
598:
597:
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591:
586:
581:
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529:
528:
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469:
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459:
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448:
445:
444:
441:
440:
435:
434:
429:
424:
419:
414:
409:
404:
399:
394:
389:
384:
379:
374:
369:
364:
359:
354:
349:
344:
339:
334:
329:
324:
319:
314:
309:
304:
299:
294:
289:
284:
279:
274:
268:
267:
266:
261:
260:
257:
256:
251:
250:
245:
240:
235:
230:
225:
220:
215:
210:
205:
200:
197:
192:
187:
182:
177:
172:
167:
162:
160:Cross-cultural
157:
152:
151:
150:
140:
131:
126:
121:
116:
111:
106:
100:
99:
98:
93:
92:
89:
88:
87:
86:
81:
76:
68:
67:
59:
58:
52:
51:
26:
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4750:
4746:
4743:
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4738:
4737:
4735:
4731:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4719:Understanding
4717:
4715:
4712:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4695:
4692:
4690:
4687:
4685:
4682:
4680:
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4675:
4672:
4670:
4667:
4665:
4662:
4660:
4657:
4655:
4652:
4650:
4647:
4645:
4644:Introspection
4642:
4640:
4637:
4633:
4630:
4628:
4625:
4624:
4623:
4620:
4618:
4615:
4613:
4610:
4608:
4605:
4603:
4600:
4598:
4597:Consciousness
4595:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4573:
4570:
4568:
4565:
4564:
4562:
4558:
4552:
4549:
4547:
4544:
4542:
4539:
4537:
4534:
4530:
4527:
4526:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4519:Phenomenology
4517:
4515:
4514:Phenomenalism
4512:
4510:
4507:
4505:
4504:Occasionalism
4502:
4500:
4497:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4483:
4480:
4479:
4478:
4477:Naïve realism
4475:
4473:
4470:
4468:
4467:Functionalism
4465:
4463:
4460:
4458:
4455:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4443:
4440:
4438:
4435:
4434:
4432:
4428:
4422:
4421:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4409:Stephen Yablo
4407:
4405:
4402:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4392:
4390:
4387:
4385:
4382:
4380:
4377:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4364:Richard Rorty
4362:
4360:
4359:Hilary Putnam
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4334:Marvin Minsky
4332:
4330:
4327:
4325:
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4310:
4309:Immanuel Kant
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4299:William James
4297:
4295:
4292:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4275:
4272:
4270:
4267:
4265:
4262:
4260:
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4255:
4252:
4250:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4240:
4237:
4235:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4204:Henri Bergson
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4166:
4164:
4162:
4158:
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4147:
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4140:
4135:
4133:
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4112:
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4099:
4096:
4090:
4086:
4082:
4078:
4074:
4070:
4066:
4062:
4058:
4055:
4053:
4052:Psychometrics
4050:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4040:
4039:
4037:
4033:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3998:
3996:
3992:
3986:
3983:
3981:
3980:Understanding
3978:
3975:
3971:
3968:
3966:
3963:
3961:
3958:
3956:
3953:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3924:
3920:
3918:
3915:
3913:
3910:
3908:
3907:Communication
3905:
3903:
3900:
3898:
3895:
3894:
3892:
3887:
3883:
3876:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
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3852:
3849:
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3842:
3839:
3838:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3825:
3818:
3813:
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3806:
3804:
3799:
3798:
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3786:
3783:
3782:
3777:
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3771:
3767:
3763:
3759:
3755:
3752:
3750:
3746:
3745:
3740:
3737:
3736:
3719:
3715:
3714:
3709:
3708:Binet, Alfred
3705:
3701:
3697:
3693:
3689:
3685:
3681:
3675:
3671:
3670:
3664:
3658:
3654:
3650:
3644:
3643:
3640:
3634:
3630:
3626:
3622:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3605:
3599:
3594:
3593:
3587:
3586:Hawkins, Jeff
3582:
3576:
3572:
3571:Psych Central
3568:
3562:
3561:
3558:
3552:
3548:
3547:
3541:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3521:
3520:
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3507:
3503:
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3418:
3413:
3410:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3398:
3393:
3390:
3387:
3384:
3380:
3379:Alex Pentland
3376:
3372:
3371:
3366:
3363:
3359:
3355:
3354:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3338:
3335:
3334:
3329:
3326:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3314:
3309:
3306:
3303:
3302:training data
3299:
3298:civilizations
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3282:
3277:
3276:
3271:
3268:
3265:
3261:
3257:
3253:
3252:
3247:
3243:
3239:
3238:Gleick, James
3236:
3235:
3216:
3215:idlewords.com
3212:
3206:
3198:
3192:
3188:
3187:
3179:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3154:
3149:
3145:
3141:
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3119:
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3108:
3100:
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3090:
3086:
3080:
3065:
3061:
3054:
3038:
3034:
3028:
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2998:
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2979:
2971:
2967:
2963:
2959:
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2937:
2933:
2929:
2922:
2914:
2910:
2906:
2902:
2897:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2881:(6874): 841.
2880:
2876:
2872:
2865:
2857:
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2089:
2082:
2074:
2070:
2066:
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2056:
2052:
2046:
2039:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2012:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1974:(2): 77–101.
1973:
1969:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1948:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1906:
1902:
1896:
1889:
1884:
1876:
1870:
1866:
1865:
1857:
1855:
1846:
1840:
1836:
1828:
1820:
1816:
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1786:
1779:
1771:
1767:
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1441:explained by
1440:
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1270:using a stone
1269:
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1211:
1209:
1205:
1200:
1194:
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1181:mental health
1177:
1171:
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1157:environmental
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1149:
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1120:
1117:, and employ
1116:
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1100:
1096:
1095:form concepts
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1088:
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1080:
1074:
1060:
1043:
1040:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1025:
1020:
1018:
1017:Marcus Hutter
1014:
1011:
1010:
1005:
1003:
1000:
999:
995:
994:Goal-directed
992:
989:
986:
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867:In 1994 the "
865:
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